World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 58 2009

Evaluation of Tension Capacity of Pile

(Case Study in Sandy Soil)
Shooshpasha1 I., Kiakojoori2 M., and Mirzagoltabar1 R. A.

b −c
⎛σ′ ⎞ ⎛ h ⎞
Abstract—High building constructions are increasing in south σ rc′ =αqc ⎜⎜ vo ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (2)
beaches of the Caspian Sea because of tourist attractions and ⎝ pa ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠
limitation of residential areas. According to saturated alluvial fields
transfer of load from high structures to the soil by piles is inevitable. Where σ vo' is the vertical effective stress, pa is a reference
In spite of most of these piles are under compression forces, tension stress =100 kPa, R is the outer radius of the pile (with
piles are used in special conditions. Few studies have been conducted
because of the limited use of these piles. Tension capacity of open-
diameter D), α, b and c are constant values and qc is CPT end
ended pipe piles in full scale was tested in this study. The length of resistance. Equation (2) is used both by the Imperial College
the bored piles was 420 up to 480 cm and all were in 120 cm (IC) design method [4] and the Fugro design method [5].
diameter. The results of testing 7 piles were compared with the
results of relations given by researches. II. PILE TENSION CAPACITY

Keywords—piles, tension capacity, sand, shaft friction A. Alawneh Method

On the basis of 34 pull out pile load tests collected from the
I. INTRODUCTION literature, Alawneh [7] proposed a method for estimating the

T HE most studies were conducted on the behaviors of

piles, are mainly related to piles subjected to axial
compression load, while in many cases due to uplift forces,
ultimate tensile shaft resistance of pile in sand. According to,
Alawneh method, the ultimate uplift shaft resistance is written
as follows:
piles will act in tension. Knowing behavior of piles under τ m ( z ) = σ rf′ tan δ f
(z )
(3-a)
tension as well as parameters effecting on tension bearing
capacity of piles is very significant. σ′rf (z ) = k (z )σ′v (z ) (3-b)
The ultimate shearing resistance that can develop on the ⎡ ⎛ L − Z ⎞⎤
shaft of a pile ( τf ) in sand has been confirmed by [1] to be a k ( z ) = k min + (k max − k min ) exp ⎢− 0.03⎜ ⎟⎥ (3-c)
⎣ ⎝ D ⎠⎦
function of the radial equalized stress after installation, ( σ 'rc ), ⎛ D + 0 . 45 ⎞
0 . 005 D
R
′ ⎞
⎛ σ vtip
− 0 . 84
(3-d)
K max = 0 . 35 exp (0 . 03 D )⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ P ⎟ ⎟
added radial stress due to loading ( Δσ 'rc ), and the interface
r
⎝ 2D ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠
friction angle ( δ f ): Where τ m (z) is the ultimate uplift shaft resistance; σ rf' (z)
τ f = (σ′rc + Δσ′rd ) tan δ f = σ′rf tan δ f (1)
is the radial effective stress at failure; δf is the pile-sand
Lehane & Jardine [2] show that in sands the value of
friction angle at failure; k(z) is the uplift earth pressure
Δσ rd' is relatively small for pile with diameters greater than
coefficient; σ v' ( z ) is the effective vertical stress; z is the depth
300mm and hence the radial effective stress at peak friction
σ rf' may be considered equivalent to σ rc for offshore piles. It
'
below ground surface, σ vtip
'
is the effective vertical stress at
has long been established that τf correlates well with the CPT location of pile tip; Pa is the atmospheric pressure (101.3
end resistance qc [3]. This observation used in conjunction kPa), Dr is the sand relative density, D is the pile diameter, L
with an observation made by the Imperial College (study on is the pile length, kmax is the maximum earth pressure
coefficient value at the pile tip obtained from Eq. (3-d) and
closed-ended instrumented pile) that σ rc' varies with depth up kmin is the minimum earth pressure coefficient value.
to pile tip, h. Different equation has been established in the The minimum earth pressure coefficient kmin can be linked
following form for σ rc' [2, 4, 5 and 6]: to Rankien’s active earth pressure coefficient ka. However,
Alawneh recommended to use kmin=0.23. The average
minimum k value calculated from data by Alawneh is 24%
1
Assist. Prof., Civil Eng. Faculty, Babol Noshirvani University of Technology,
less than the corresponding ka value.
P.O. Box 47144, Babol, Iran, Telfax: 981113231707, [email protected]
2
Post-graduate student in geotechnic, Babol Noshirvani University of
Technology, [email protected]

1012
 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 58 2009

0.05 −0.90
B. American Petroleum Institute (API) Method
τf ⎛σ′ ⎞ ⎛ h ⎞
Field experiments performed by Imperial College London = 0.144⎜⎜ vo ⎟⎟ ⎜ ∗⎟ tan δ f (8-a)
reported by [1, 8, 9 and 4] on instrumented closed-ended qc ⎝ pa ⎠ ⎝R ⎠
displacement piles, show that the peak local shaft friction qs 0.05
τf ⎛σ′ ⎞ ⎛ h ⎞
can be related to the radial effective stress at failure σ
'
rf by = 0.144⎜⎜ vo ⎟⎟ ⎜ ∗ ⎟ tan δ f (8-b)
the simple Coulomb failure criterion; qc ⎝ pa ⎠ ⎝ 4R ⎠
q s = σ rf′ . tan δ f (4) τf ⎛σ′ ⎞
0.15
⎛ h ⎞
−0.85

= 0.081⎜⎜ vo ⎟⎟ max⎜ ∗ ,4 ⎟ tan δ f (8-c)

Where the interface friction angle at failure δ f is measured qc ⎝ pa ⎠ ⎝R ⎠
in appropriate laboratory interface tests [10]. After pile Where equation 8-a applies to piles in compression with
installation and prior to static loading, the radial effective h/R*>4, equation 8-b applies to piles in compression with
stress would be equal to pore pressure σ 'rc acting at any h/R*<4, and Equation 8c applies to piles in tension. The
point on the pile shaft which was found to be almost equal to constant volume interface friction angle δ f is assumed to be
qc which is in directly proportional to the depth of the point, 29o, which is the interface friction angles used to calibrate the
h. Based on measured σ 'rc from the medium dense and dense model.
sand the following relationship is proposed [4]:
0.12 −0.38
⎛σ′ ⎞ ⎛h⎞ E. The German Code of Practice – DIN 4014
σ '
rc = 0.029qc ⎜⎜ v ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (5)
⎝ pa ⎠ ⎝R⎠ This code does not distinguish between the shaft resistance in
Where Pa is atmospheric pressure (equal to 100 kPa), σ '
v is tension and compression. The relation is based on a large number
effective overburden pressure and R is the pile external of tests for both cased and uncased borings. The shaft friction can
radius. The Imperial College experiments also indicated that be obtained based on SPT as:
radial effective stress during static loading test, increases to a FS = 2.86 N (9)
maximum value σ rf of about 1.4 ± 0.2 σ rc .
' ' In which Fs is the shaft resistance in kN/m2 and N is the SPT
value.
C. ICP-05 Method for Shaft Capacity
F. British/American Methods

The ICP-05 design method is based on results from load

It is suggested to calculate the unit side friction from the
tests on jacked closed-ended instrumented piles [1 and 9] and
following equation [12]:
was calibrated for open-ended piles primarily using tests on
driven piles at Dunkirk [11]. Neglecting increases in radial τS = σ′r ⋅ tan δ = k ⋅ σ′v ⋅ tan δ (10)
stress due to interface dilation, equations (1) and (2) were Where k = 0.90 for all sands and 0.6 for silt, σ v is the vertical
'
combined to deduce the following expression for local
ultimate shaft friction τ f : effective stress and δ is the angle of friction in the interface
0.13
between the pile and the soil which can be taken between
−0.38
τf ⎛σ′ ⎞
tan (δ f ) (6)
f ⎡h ⎤ ϕ peak to ϕcv . No distinction is made between the values in
= 0.029⎜⎜ vo ⎟⎟ max ⎢ ∗ ,8⎥
qc ⎝ Pα ⎠ fc ⎣R ⎦ tension and compression.
Where f/fc is capacity ratio (f/fc =1 for compression and 0.72 Based on 41 piles test, the following equation is proposed for
for tension loading on a pipe pile) and R* is the equivalent the unit side friction [13]:
pile radius (Req) defined as: τS = β ⋅ σ′Z (11)
2
R eq = R ∗ = R 2 − R i (7) Where β =1.5 − 0.245Z
0.5
, z is the depth below ground level
Where R is the outside radius of the pile and Ri is the internal
and, σ′Z is the vertical effective stress at depth z. It is assumed
radius of the pipe pile (which is zero for a closed-ended pile).
that 0.25 < β <1.20 and τs < 200 kPa. For SPT values lower
D. Fugro-04 Method for Shaft Capacity than 15 it is recommended to scale down the side resistance
by the reduction factor N/15 [14]. Kraft and Lyons [15] also
The Fugro-04 method for shaft friction is based primarily suggest using β = Ftg (φ ′ − 5°) which F = 0.5 and 0.7 for
on the results of loading on instrumented large diameter open-
piles in tension and compression, respectively.
ended piles cast in place in dense sands. Separate equations
are provided for tension and compression:
G. UWA-05 Methods for Shaft Capacity
The UWA database of static loads, as discussed by [16], was

1013
 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 58 2009

employed to assess the predictive performance of the TABLE II SOIL PARAMETERS OF BH2
proposed UWA-05 method. Depth
The UWA-05 method simplifies to the following form for full (m)
SPT C φ e Gs Cc Cu Soil

scale offshore piles, as IFR=1 and ignoring dilation term 1.0 22 -- -- 0.67 2.81 1.05 1.94 sp
Δσ 'rd one has; 2.5 21 0 25.1 0.68 2.80 1.08 2.01 sp
− 0 .5
⎡ ⎛ h ⎞⎤ 4.0 32 -- -- 0.49 2.66 0.49 7.73 sp
τ f = 0 . 03 × q c × Ar 0 .3 ⎢ Max ⎜ ,2 ⎟ ⎥ tan δ (12)
⎣ ⎝D ⎠⎦ 5.5 37 - 29.8 0.43 2.66 0.51 7.19 sp
⎛D 2 ⎞ 7.0 57 -- -- 0.49 2.67 0.95 2.61 sp
Ar = 1 − ⎜ i ⎟ (13)
⎜ D2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ 9.0 40 -- -- 0.59 2.67 1.11 2.02 sp
Q s = 0.75 × π × D × τ f .dz ∫ (14) 11.0
13.0
38
27
0
--
30.2
--
0.58
0.64
2.70
2.78
1.12
1.12
2.03
1.99
sp
sp
Where τ f is local shaft friction, D is diameter, Ar is effective
15.0 46 -- -- 0.61 2.72 1.11 2.02 sp
area ratio, qc is cone tip resistance, h is pile length, Di is inner
diameter of pile and Qs is ultimate tension capacity of pile. 17.5 60 - 31.8 0.50 2.65 1.03 2.16 sp
22.5 50 -- -- 0.42 2.64 0.98 2.11 sp
H. Geological Conditions and Geotechnical Factors of 25.0 61 0 32.1 0.53 2.63 0.97 2.08 sp
Soil in the Studied Area
The area of study is located in city of Mahmoodabad, Iran
The following diagram of SPT changes with depth shows
(South Caspian Sea the central of Alborz mountain). The area
that the soil in the site is made of a layer of coarse soil in
has sediments from Paleozoic era and the quaternary which
depth that is considered poor sand (SP) based on Unified soil
has turned into what it is now through years of weather
classification.
changes and tides of the sea. Based on the evaluations made
on samples from bored holes, one could say that sediments 1 2.5 4 5.5 7 9 11 13 15 17.5 22.5 25
existing in the project area belong to the fourth geological era. 0
BH1
The field study started boring two 25m boreholes in 400 10
BH2
square meter site. Layer changes were recorded while boring 20
holes and samples were taken for testing from various depths.
30
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) was carried out
SPT

40
according to AST-DIS86. Table 1 and 2 respectively
summarize soil parameters of boreholes BH1 and BH2. the 50
necessary laboratory tests were performed on samples 60
obtained in filed in order to find out the physical and 70
mechanical properties of soils. 80
depth(m)
TABLE I SOIL PARAMETERS OF BH1 Fig. 1 Standard penetration with depth in BH1 and BH2.
Depth
SPT C φ e Gs Cc Cu Soil The under ground water level is 4.5 m deep based on the
(m)
evaluations from different holes. Besides SPT values the
1.0 22 0 27.7 0.75 2.69 0.94 2.43 sp
direct shear test in drain condition was done on samples
2.5 20 -- -- 0.51 2.68 0.51 6.55 sp prepared in various depths based on ASTM-D3080 for
4.0 47 -- -- 0.41 2.67 0.49 2.93 sp evaluating the mechanical properties of soil which the results
5.5 68 -- -- 0.52 2.68 1.19 6.15 sp are presented in table 1 and 2.
7.0 47 0 25.1 0.59 2.73 1.13 2.21 sp
9.0 45 -- -- 0.55 2.70 1.06 2.23 sp
III. TENSION CAPACITY OF PILES
11.0 51 -- -- 0.56 2.68 1.14 1.99 sp
In the experimental part, a test apparatus was designed and
13.0 44 -- -- 0.57 2.71 1.12 2.16 sp fabricate for measuring the tension capacity of piles. In the
15.0 57 0 29.2 0.60 2.71 1.14 2.13 sp following section the test apparatus and setup is explained.
17.5 53 -- -- 0.56 2.71 1.12 2.17 sp
22.5 53 -- -- 0.48 2.65 1.00 2.15 Sp A. Test Apparatus and Procedures
25.0 61 0 32.1 0.51 2.67 0.98 2.68 sp A metal frame was fabricated and used with a hydraulic
jack with a reading gauge to measure pile tension capacity.
This frame was put in the direction of tension force imposed

1014
 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 58 2009

by a 40 ton crane. The mechanism of this frame is to transfer friction between the pile and soil.
force from the crane to the piles is like a chain, so that the first The second step was taken after casting. The measured
ring takes force from the crane by its top part and transfers it force included both outer shaft friction with soil and inner
from the bottom part to the top part of the second ring. The shaft friction with concrete. Figure 3 and 5 shows the process
second ring also transfers this force from its lower part into of measurements.
the pile with a cable to pull out the pile. Hence from the gage,
B. Results and discussion
the amount of applied force to pull out the pile is recorded.
Figures 2 to 3 show the test setup and how tension force is Tests were carried out on 7 open-ended pipe piles with
transferred from crane to pile. 420 cm to 480 cm long and a diameter of 120 cm.

Fig. 2 Hydraulic Jack installation in the frame. Fig. 4 Reading imposed force.

Fig .5 Displaying the amount of force required to pull out the pile.

The following tables summarize the results of reading the

tension capacity of piles neglecting pile weight.
Fig. 3 Imposing tension force to pile

To install the pile, at first a 120 cm deep hole is bored then

the pile is aliened. Digging inside the pile, casing is moved
downward to the desired depths by its weight and additional
weight. Measuring tension force needed to pull out casing
which was done in two steps; the first step was after
installation of casing i.e. before concrete casting. In this step
the casing is pulled out about 10 cm to measure the force
required to come over the side resistance resulted due to

1015
 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 58 2009

TABLE III THE SUMMARY OF RESULTS FROM READING TENSION In order to compare the results, variation of measured and
CAPACITY
calculated tension bearing capacity of piles with L/D ration
Buried for each method were shown in figures 8 to 14. These figures
Maximum pile Maximum Tension
Pile length of
L/D displacement pullout Load
show that results obtained from the methods of ICP-05,
No. Pile L FUGRO-04, Rees & O'Neill and UWA-05 has a good correlation
(cm) loading (ton) (ton)
(cm)
with experimental results.
P1 480 4.00 12.0 10.25 8.00
12
Test Result
P2 420 3.50 8.0 8.50 6.25
Imperial college
P3 450 3.75 10.0 9.75 7.50 10

P4 420 3.50 8.0 8.50 7.25

8
P5 480 4.00 10.0 10.50 8.25

Qt(ton)
P6 450 3.75 10.0 9.50 7.25 6

P7 465 3.875 12.0 10.0 7.75 4

Pile Diameter D = 120 (cm) Weight of pile = 2.25 (ton)
2
The experimental results for each pile are shown in figure
7. As one can see, tension bearing capacity of piles increases 0
3.5 3.75 3,875 4
with increasing L/D ratio. L/D

Fig. 8 Comparison of results obtained from Imperial College

8.5
method with field measurements.
Tention bearing capacity (ton)

8 9
Test Result
8 ICP-05

7.5 7

6
Qt(ton)

7 5

6.5 3

6 1

3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.1 0

3.5 3.75 3.875 4
L/D Rratio
L/D

Fig. 7 Bearing capacity variation with L/D ratio Fig. 9 Comparison of results obtained from ICP-05 method with
field measurements.
Based on aforementioned eight methods, the tension 9
bearing capacity of piles was calculated using parameters 8
Test Result
FUGRO-04
obtained from the field. The results were presented in table IV
7
in accompany with field measurement results for piles with
6
different L/D ratio.
Q t(to n )

5
TABLE IV CALCULATION RESULTS FOR PILES WITH DIFFERENT L/D 4
RATIO.
3
Pile length (cm) 420 450 465 480
2
L/D 3.50 3.75 3.875 4
Field measurement 1
6.75 7.37 7.75 8.12
results 0
Imperial College 10.63 10.79 11.12 11.28 3.5 3.75 3.875 4
ICP-05 7.61 7.73 7.96 8.07 L/D
Fugro-04 6.72 6.81 6.99 7.07
Fig. 10 Comparison of results obtained from FUGRO-04 method
DIN-4014 11.36 11.55 11.94 12.13
with field measurements.
Fleming et. al. 4.73 4.80 4.94 5.01
'
Rees & O Neill 7.85 8.00 8.28 8.43
UWA-05 7.31 7.42 7.62 7.72

1016
 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 58 2009

14 9
Test Result Test Result
12 DIN-4014 8 UWA-05
7
10
6
Q t(to n )

Q t( to n )
5
6 4
3
4
2
2 1
0 0
3.5 3.75 3.875 4 3.5 3.75 3.875 4
L/D
L/D
Fig.14 Comparison of results obtained from UWA-05 method with
Fig. 11 Comparison of results obtained from DIN-4014 method with
field measurements.
field measurements.

Calculated pile tension capacity based on different methods

9 and field measurements for different L/D ratio are shown in
8
Test Result figures 15 to 18.
Fleming et. Al.
7
6 12
Q t(to n )

5
10
4
3 8

D IN - 4 0 1 4
Im p e r ia l c o lle g e
Q t(to n )

2
6

R e e s & O 'N e ill

1
T e s t R e s u lt

F U G R O -0 4
U W A -0 5

IC P - 0 5
4

F le m in g e t. A l.
0
3.5 3.75 3.875 4
2
L/D
0
Fig. 12 Comparison of results obtained from Fleming et al. method (L/D)=3.5
with field measurements.
Fig. 15 Comparison of results obtained from different method with
9
Test Result field measurements for L/D=3.5.
8 Rees & O'Neill

7
14

6 12
Qt(ton)

5
10
4
Im p e r ia l c o lle g e

8
Q t(to n )

3
D IN - 4 0 1 4

R e e s & O 'N e ill

2 6
T e s t R e s u lt

F U G R O -0 4

1
U W A -0 5

F le m in g e t. A l.
IC P - 0 5

4
0
3.5 3.75 3.875 4 2
L/D

Fig. 13 Comparison of results obtained from Rees & O'Neill 0

method with field measurements. (L/D)=3.75

Fig. 16 Comparison of results obtained from different method with

field measurements for L/D=3.75.

1017
 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 58 2009

measurements. This method has a low accurate to estimate

14 shaft tension capacity because it doesn't consider difference
12 between side friction in tension and compression for piles.
Moreover, this code tries to estimate tension capacity only by
10 SPT numbers. So choosing value N to estimate tension
capacity needs a high accuracy while SPT is carried out in
Q t(to n )

8
Im p e r ia l c o lle g e

deep points. In order to use SPT results estimating tension

D IN - 4 0 1 4

R e e s & O 'N e ill

6
capacity suggested by German code, number of impactions
T e s t R e s u lt

F U G R O -0 4
U W A-0 5

can be considered for layers, unless layers are very deep. For a
IC P - 0 5

F le m in g e t. A l.
4
deep layer it is better to divide the layer into several sub-layers
2
in order to get the average N value for the method. The N
0 value can be corrected based on information of soil layers.
(L/D)=3.875 Correction factor of CN related to depth equal to

Fig. 17 Comparison of results obtained from different method with

σ v = 99.76 kPa and diminishes significant depth effect. So
field measurements for L/D=3.875. to calculate the shaft friction by N value with the relationship
proposed by this method one needs a lot of patient. That is
14 why there is difference between results obtained with this
12 method with field measurements.
Figure 12 shows that Fleming et al. method is a
10 conservative method in estimating tension capacity. In
compare to other methods, since no distinction is made
Imperial college

8
Qt(ton)

between the values in tension and compression and also

DIN-4014

6 estimates shaft friction by a fixed value of k=0.9 for all sandy

R ees & O'Neill
Test Result

soil without considering parameters such as relative density,

FUGR O-04
U WA-05

ICP-05

Fleming et. Al.

4
moisture etc.
2 Rees and O,neill method estimated shaft friction by
imposing a coefficient (which is a function of depth) to
0
vertical effective stress. Since this method was obtained from
(L/D)=4
41 piles testing and considers a limitation of 0.25-1.2 for β as
Fig. 18 Comparison of results obtained from different method with a coefficient for vertical effective stress, the results obtained
field measurements for L/D=4.0. from this method has no significant difference with field
measurements (as shown in figure 13).
As one can see from figure 8, results obtained from In UWA-05 method shaft friction appearing on piles is
Imperial College method are higher than measured one. This related to displacement of surrounding soil during installing
could be due to assumption is used by this method that the piles. Displacement is determined by effective area parameter
peak local shaft friction on the pile can be related to the radial both for closed-ended piles and open-ended one. Results
effective stress at failure by mean of simple Coulomb failure obtained from this method as shown in figure 14 is in good
criterion. Based on this criterion soil is homogenous with agreement with field measurement.
inner friction and cohesion as well as the friction capacity is
constantly distributed along the failure plain. This theory IV. CONCLUSION
suggests that failure wedge is a rigid body and the friction In the present study, different theoretical and empirical
force is produced due to displacement of failure wedge methods were used to evaluate shaft friction capacity of piles.
between soil and shaft. These methods show differences in tension capacity value of
The formula provided by ICP-05 for estimating tension piles buried in sand. Field measurement results provided in
capacity is based on results from load tests on jacked closed- full scale are in the range of results obtained from some
ended instrumented piles and was calibrated for open-ended methods.
piles too. As shown in figure 9 the results obtained from this Differences observed in results of these methods are made
method is too closed to the measured one. because of different parameters influential in shaft tension
As one can see from figure10, the method FUGRO-04 as capacity in sandy soils and lack of enough suitable
ICP-05 method also gives acceptable tension capacity in information from tests conducted in full scale especially on
compare to field measured one. A good correlation between open-ended pipe pile and each method considered a few
parameters to estimate shaft friction capacity.
calculated and measured could be due to that this method is
However, assessment on pile tests show that two methods
based on field results and especial equation is presented for
of ICP-05 and UWA-05 gives the shaft friction capacity
tension capacity of piles.
closed to field measurements in full scale.
Results obtained from DIN 4014 method as presented in
figure 11 is far away from actual results i.e. field

1018
 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 58 2009

REFERENCES
[1] Lehane BM. Jardine RJ. Bond AJ, Frank R. 1993. Mechanisms of shaft
friction in sand from instrumented pile tests. J Geotechnical Eng., 119
(1):19-35.
[2] Lehane, B.M., and Jardine, R.J. 1994. Shaft capacity of driven piles in
sand: a new design approach. In proceedings of a Conference on the
Behavior of Offshore Structures, Boston, Mass., Vol. 1, pp. 23-36.
[3] Bustamante, M., and Gianeselli, L. 1982. Pile bearing capacity by means
of static penetrometer CPT: In Proceedings of the 2nd European
Symposium on Penetration Testing. Amsterdam, pp. 493-500.
[4] Jardine, R.J., Overy, R.F., and Chow, F.C. 1998. Axial capacity of
offshore piles in dense North Sea sand. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 124(2): 171-178.
[5] Fugro Engineers B.V. (Fugro) 2004. Axial pile design method for
offshore driven piles in sand. Fugro Report No.P1003, Issue 3 to API, 5
August 2004: 122 pp.
[6] Lehane, B.M., White, D.J. 2005. Lateral stress changes and shaft friction
for model displacement piles in sand. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 42
(4): 1039-1052 August 2005.
[7] Alawneh AS. 1999. Tension piles in sand: a method including
degradation of shaft friction during driving. Transportation Research
Record No. 1663. National Research Council. Washington, DC, Paper
No.990092; p.41-9.
[8] Lehane, B.M. 1992. Experimental investigations of pile behavior using
instrumented field piles. Ph.D. thesis, University of London (Imperial
College), London, U.K.
[9] Chow, F. 1997. Investigations into the behavior of displacement piles for
offshore structures. PhD thesis, University of London (Imperial
College), London, U.K.
[10] Ramsey, N., Jardine, R.J., Lehane, B.M., and Ridly, A. 1998. A review
of soil-steel interface testing with the ring shear apparatus. In
proceedings of the 6th Conference on Offshore Site Investigation and
Foundation Behavior. Society for underwater technology, London, U.K.,
pp. 237-258.
[11] Brucy, F., Meunier, J., & Nauroy, J.-F. 1991. Behavior of pile plug in
sandy soils during and after driving. OTC 6514, proc., 23rd Annual
OTC, Houston: 145-154.
[12] Fleming W.G.K., Weltman A.J., Randolph M.F., Elson W.K. 1992
Piling Engineering. Taylor & Francis Group, London and New York.
[13] O'Neill, M.W., Hassan, K.M. 1994. Drilled Shafts: Effects of
construction on performance and design criteria. Proc., Int. Conf. Des.
Constr. Deep Founds. Orlando, FHWA, 1,137-187.
[14] O'Neill, M.W. 1994. Drilled Shafts. Proc., International Conf. on Design
and Construction of Deep Foundations, Fed. Highway Admin.,
Washington, D.C., Vol. 1, 185-206.
[15] Kraft, L.M., Lyons, C.G. 1974. State of the art- ultimate axial capacity of
grouted piles. Proceedings of the 6th Annual OTC, Houston, Texas,
pp.485-504.
[16] Lehanc, B.M., Schnider, J.A., and Xu, X. 2005. Evaluation of design
methods for displacement piles in sand. UWA Report, GEO: 05341.1.

1019