The following article was published in ASHRAE Journal, January 2009.

©Copyright 2009 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-

Conditioning Engineers, Inc. It is presented for educational purposes only. This article may not be copied and/or distributed electronically or in
paper form without permission of ASHRAE.

Energy Audits
In Large Commercial Office Buildings
By Ian Shapiro, P.E., Member ASHRAE of these challenges, led by a concern that
building owners might not be willing to

O
ffice buildings have more floor area (12.2 billion ft2 [1.1 billion m2]) than any pay for comprehensive energy audits, can
lead engineering firms to tend towards
other building type in the U.S. and have the highest total energy consump- simpler walkthrough audits.
A consensus increasingly has grown
tion (1.1 quadrillion Btu [1.2 EJ]) of any building type. Furthermore, the largest that defines three levels of energy audits:
walkthrough, general, and investment
buildings have a higher energy use intensity (energy consumption per square foot) grade.2 However, requirements for each
of these levels can still lack detail, leaving
than any other size of building.1 This scale creates many opportunities for energy decisions to the energy auditor as to what
data to gather and which improvements
savings. A good place to begin is with an energy audit of the building. to evaluate. It has been acknowledged
that the three levels do not have distinct
The challenges of energy audits in large the office, unable to remember details boundaries.3 Common mistakes can com-
office buildings are many. For example, about individual HVAC components, pound the problems. Simple walkthrough
large HVAC plants and controls can be details on spaces, and potential improve- audits can result in a limited set of rec-
complex for new energy auditors, and even ments. The sheer size of the audit can lead ommended improvements. Absence of
for experienced engineers. High-rise build- to “audit exhaustion,” ending in a limited detail in energy audits can lead to unclear
ings have unpredictable and uncontrolled set of improvements. recommendations and reports that cannot
airflows, driven by interactions among Sometimes, the exciting technical chal- be easily translated into a work scope or
stack effect, exhaust fans, and higher- lenges of advanced improvements, such as into designs to achieve the energy sav-
pressure air-distribution systems. The demand-controlled ventilation or chiller ings outlined in the audit. A review of
clients are often seasoned businesspeople, plant improvements, or solar energy, will 10 comprehensive energy audits identi-
accustomed to hard negotiations who seek draw the attention of enthusiastic energy fied many common mistakes, including
to save costs on energy audit fees. auditors, leaving other improvements
The buildings are large, so energy audi- such as envelope (air sealing, windows, About the Author
tors can be swamped with field data. They and insulation), lighting, and operation/ Ian Shapiro, P.E., is president of Taitem Engineer-
often find themselves confused back at maintenance inadequately addressed. All ing, Ithaca, N.Y.

18 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g January 2009

Advertisement formerly in this space.
overestimation of energy savings and lack of consideration of footcandles (592 to 1238 lux). Some offices are highly overlit
the latest retrofit technologies.4 and so offer opportunities for reducing lamps or fixtures. As
data is taken while still in the building and before leaving each
Opportunities room, the energy auditor formulates a variety of recommenda-
Although large office buildings present a broad set of chal- tions. The end result is a customized energy audit with specific
lenges, they also bring unusual opportunities. The size of the recommendations and multiple improvements possible for each
buildings allows for economies of scale in energy audits and room and with a report that provides sufficient detail for the
implementation, and energy savings can be large. A single owner to proceed with implementation.
owner, frequently a private entity or individual, can allow for An example of a specific office further illustrates the potential
easier decision-making. Repeating space types, from area-to- approaches and savings. A 120 ft2 (11 m2) executive office was
area and floor-to-floor and building-to-building, can simplify found with two light fixtures, each with four lamps. A simpler
the energy audit: offices, corridors, stairwells, kitchenettes, walkthrough energy audit might have noted that the existing
toilets, first floor/lobby, and conference rooms. A few large lamps are T8, and the ballasts are electronic, and so would not
loads can offer large energy savings opportunities: ventilation, have made any recommendations. A comprehensive energy
HVAC plant, HVAC distribution components such as large mo- audit measured light levels at 150 footcandles (1615 lux), far
tors for air handlers and pumps, and adjustments to incorrectly above the IES-recommended range of 30 to 70 footcandles (323
operating HVAC systems. Repeating (often identical) loads to 753 lux) for offices. The audit recommended removing four
also make things easier: computers and peripherals, kitchenette of the eight lamps and replacing the single toggle switch with
appliances, lighting, and windows. Lighting, in particular, has a dual switch (one switch for each of the two fixtures) and an
long hours of use, unlike in many other building types for which occupancy sensor and photocell integrated into the switch. A
occupancy is more sporadic, and so offers greater opportunity tenant education program helped the office occupants learn how
for energy savings. to use the new double switch and switch-integrated photocell
and occupancy sensor effectively. The results are savings of
A Comprehensive Approach more than 70%, since only two lamps are used most of the time
A comprehensive approach can be used to leverage the op- (instead of the original eight); savings accrue when the occu-
portunities offered in large commercial office buildings and to pancy sensor or photocell turns off the lights. Note the multiple
minimize the risks presented by their challenges. improvements (delamping, controls, tenant education) made
This approach, looking at all loads and all equipment, offers possible by a comprehensive and room-specific approach.
the most savings and the biggest selection of improvements What is meant by “comprehensive energy audit”? A compre-
from which the owner can choose. Methodical data collec- hensive energy audit includes evaluating all energy loads and
tion further maximizes savings, makes analysis easier, and equipment in a building: the HVAC plant (in a commercial office
documents recommendations in a way that greatly simplifies building, typically chillers and boilers); the HVAC distribution
implementation. systems; envelope improvements (walls, windows, roof, founda-
Solid energy modeling and billing analysis can further help tions, insulation); lighting; plug loads such as appliances and
and can identify unusual energy losses and opportunities. Cal- computers; operation and maintenance improvements; tenant
culation procedures should place an emphasis on calibrating education; and more. The energy audit should capture room-
the building’s energy use with weather-corrected billing data specific opportunities and document recommendations in the
before beginning evaluation of potential improvements. The audit report to allow for clear implementation of improvements.
interaction among improvements should be accounted for to Improvements should focus not only on equipment efficiency,
avoid double-accounting for savings between two improvements but also ensuring that the equipment meets the required load. For
that affect each other, for example, HVAC plant replacement example, do not just replace T12 lamps with T8; also measure
and space temperature control improvements. light levels to make sure that each space is not overlit. Another
In addition to the routine analysis of repeating loads and equip- example: Do not merely change the boilers to high-efficiency;
ment, the energy auditor should treat each building as unique, not also make sure that the new boilers are not oversized.
as a commodity, and should look for anomalies in use, wearing The trend towards comprehensiveness in energy audits likely
the hat of a building scientist or diagnostician to identify building- started in residential buildings more than 10 years ago. On-site
specific energy efficiency opportunities. Gathering actual HVAC measurement of HVAC plant efficiency, such as combustion
operational data, such as temperature trends, equipment use, and testing for furnaces and boilers and even advanced testing of
flow rates, can augment the understanding of building-specific air conditioners and heat pumps, are becoming increasingly
problems and energy savings opportunities. common. Analysis of distribution systems, for example through
Lighting offers an example of the methods that can be used. duct leakage testing, has arrived. Evaluating the replacement
Tables 1 and 2 show an example of a data sheet from an actual of plug loads, such as appliances, has become commonplace.
commercial office energy audit.5 Lighting measurements are Diagnostic tools, such as blower doors and infrared thermogra-
taken in every room. Note the dramatic variations in light phy, have allowed advanced analysis of the building envelope.
levels in the small sample of offices, ranging from 55 to 115 Advanced techniques for retrofit insulation, such as spray foam

20 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g January 2009

Advertisement formerly in this space.
 Replace Bulbs
Existing Condition De-Lamp Recommended Controls
or Fixtures

Hours/Day (Average)

Average Light Level

Fixtures to Remove

Fixtures Controlled
Fixture to Remove

Fixtures to Modify

Number of Timers
Number of Bulbs

Bi-Level Fixtures
Existing Fixtures

Motion Sensors
New Number of
Number Bulbs/

Day (Average)
New Ballasts?

Photosensors
(Footcandles)

Bulbs/Fixture
Replacement

New Hours/
Bulb Model
Per Fixture
Number of

Number of

Number of

Number of

Number of

Number of

Number of
Location Model
Bulb

SIR
106 Hallway EXITINC20 1 1 24 0 EXITLED2 1 1 5.6

133 Boiler Room F32T8 4 8 8 18 1 2 8 3 1.7

134 Transformer
F40T12 2 8 8 25 F32T8 8 2 X 1 1 8 3 1.7
Room
204 Office F32T8 4 2 7 55 1 2 3 2.2

205 Office F32T8 4 2 7 65 1 2 3 2.2

206 Office F32T8 3 4 7 115 1 4 3 3.3

207 Hallway EXIT INC20 1 1 24 0 EXITLED2 1 1 5.6

211 Office F32T8 2 3 7 55 1 3 3 1.6

213 Main Lobby FLOOD65 1 2 8 58 1 2 3 3.2

213 Main Lobby F32T8 2 6 8 58 1 6 3 3.8

213 Main Lobby F32T8 4 4 8 58 1 4 3 5.1

213 Main Lobby FLOOD65 1 3 8 58 2 22.2

Table 1: Existing conditions and recommendations (from an actual commercial office energy audit).

and dense-pack cellulose, have largely been developed in the particular room. Although measurements in all spaces might
residential field, but are not yet common in commercial building appear to be time-consuming, they can be completed quickly,
retrofits. In addition to these technologies, advances in model- even in large buildings, if data input is well-organized. There
ing have made common the use of hourly energy models and are time-savings during analysis, because much of the analysis
interactive calculations among energy improvements. Techni- can be automated.
cian accreditation is widespread, as are energy auditor train- Room-specific data collection allows more accurate calcula-
ing programs. There is broad dissemination of best practices tions to be performed, and, more significantly, the recommen-
and extensive ongoing applied energy conservation research. dations can be made in a fashion that guides implementation.
A national energy audit standard has recently been adopted.6 Rather than providing general recommendations that are
Evaluating “the building as a whole” has become a mantra in the difficult to implement (“Replace all lighting, delamp to meet
residential energy field, but is not at all common in commercial IES standards, and install photosensors on fixtures close to
buildings. Comprehensiveness has been almost universally windows.”), room-specific recommendations allow a work
recognized and adopted in residential energy audits. Anything scope to be given by the owner to maintenance staff or to a
short of comprehensiveness is often frowned upon. contractor. Tables are provided such as the ones in the previous
How is the room-by-room aspect of a comprehensive audit example, which give sufficient information that might translate
conducted in commercial office buildings? At a minimum, light as: “Office 201: Replace two four-lamp fixtures with two two-
levels and lighting inventories should be taken on a room-by- lamp T8 fixtures with high-efficiency electronic ballasts, and
room basis, along with occupancy levels and schedules for oc- add a second light switch to allow the fixtures to be controlled
cupancy and lighting use. Room-specific HVAC issues, such as independently, with a photosensor for the fixture close to the
distribution problems or mistaken temperature control setpoints, window, and an occupancy sensor to turn lights off if no oc-
also can be noted. In addition, information on plug loads, such as cupants are detected.”
computers and office kitchen appliances, can also be inventoried Detailed reports reduce duplication of effort, as the energy
on a room-specific basis. Field data sheets should be structured auditor’s descriptions of improvements are conveyed in detail to
to allow energy auditors, as they are standing in each room, to those responsible for implementation, whether design engineers,
check off exactly what improvements will be evaluated for each architects, contractors, or construction managers.

22 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g January 2009

Advertisement formerly in this space.
 Recommended Change Savings Analysis

Location Annual Energy

Lighting Annual Cost Cost of Simple
De-Lamping Control Savings, SIR
Changes Savings, $/yr Retrofit Payback, Years
kWh/Yr
106 Hallway Replace EXIT 166 $28 $115 4.1 5.6
Occupancy
133 Boiler Room Sensor 1,754 $167 $1,166 7.0 1.7
Plus Timer
Occupancy
Replace Bulbs,
134 Transformer Room Sensor 1,635 $178 $1,225 6.9 1.7
Ballasts
Plus Timer
204 Office Light Sensor 376 $36 $194 5.4 2.2

205 Office Light Sensor 376 $36 $194 5.4 2.2

206 Office Light Sensor 564 $54 $194 3.6 3.3

207 Hallway Replace EXIT 166 $28 $115 4.1 5.6

211 Office Light Sensor 282 $27 $194 7.2 1.6

213 Main Lobby Light Sensor 279 $17 $194 11.3 3.2

213 Main Lobby Light Sensor 658 $62 $194 3.1 3.8

213 Main Lobby Light Sensor 877 $83 $194 2.3 5.1
213 Main Lobby Remove Fixtures 431 $36 $91 2.3 9.2
Table 2: Lighting results (from an actual commercial office energy audit).

The Improvement Mix and photo controls for lights near windows. Low-level lighting
What improvements are best suited to commercial office can be maintained for safety and security.
buildings? The occupancy-driven nature of office spaces make Plug loads, such as computers and kitchenette refrigerators,
occupancy-based controls attractive, such as demand-controlled contribute substantially to electricity use and can be replaced
ventilation, programmable temperature controls, and variable with high-efficiency substitutes through purchasing policies,
capacity distribution systems (VAV air handlers, variable speed or used more efficiently, such as by setting display screens to
pump drives, etc.). Large office spaces often result in interior/ turn off, or implementing policies regarding turning off screens
core spaces with an associated high cooling demand, so econo- and computers. Plug loads require engaging tenants in energy
mizers make sense in many climate zones, as do systems that efficiency, which is a good thing.
recover core heat for use on the perimeter, such as water loop For engineers, who often feel most at home in the boiler room
heat pumps. High-efficiency replacement HVAC is also always or looking at the chiller and air handler, envelope improvements
an option. Significant savings often can be achieved through often seem foreign. What can we do with the envelope in a
operational adjustments to HVAC controls. high-rise office building? Stack effect and associated infiltration
Reducing overlighting is a frequently missed improvement, losses can be reduced through weather stripping of windows
so a light meter in the toolkit is essential. While energy codes and caulking window frames, and by compartmentalization
typically require a maximum of 1.0 to 1.1 W/ft2 (0.09 to 0.10 of the building interior (such as weather stripping of stairwell
W/m2) for office lighting power density,7 and existing buildings doors) and other air-sealing (plumbing chases, roof penetra-
often consume much higher than even these levels, 0.75 W/ft2 tions, and more). Such improvements will also dramatically
(0.07 W/m2) or lower are easily obtainable and should be used reduce discomfort caused by airflow induced at the entrance
as a goal; these levels can be further reduced on a time-average to the building and on lower levels. Window replacements and
basis through task lighting, daylighting, and occupancy-based storm windows can reduce heat loss in winter by half or more
lighting. These lighting savings are amplified by a reduction in and similarly reduce heat gain in summer. Creative improve-
air conditioning use in such typically core-dominated buildings. ments, such as interior or exterior shades, can further reduce
Installing pendant lighting fixtures in spaces with tall ceilings loads and reduce glare in offices. Even wall and roof insulation
will also reduce lighting power densities. Energy savings are should not be ruled out.
often accompanied by improvements in visual quality as well. In
corridors and stairwells, 5 to 10 footcandles (54 to 108 lux) are Two Examples
adequate, and typical existing 24-hour use merits both reducing Comparing two actual energy audits, a walkthrough audit and a
lighting to this level, in addition to occupancy sensors to turn comprehensive energy audit, provides insight into the difference
off lights when the corridors and stairwells are not occupied, between these approaches. Table 3 summarizes these two audits.

24 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g January 2009

Advertisement formerly in this space.
 The comprehensive energy audit iden-
Walkthrough Comprehensive
tified savings of 46%. Interestingly, the Audit Audit
predicted energy savings appear to have
Percent Savings 7% 46%
been exceeded by those improvements,
which were implemented by the owner. Room-by-Room No Yes
Natural gas savings were measured at Number of Improvements 8 12
53%, following replacement of the boil- Lighting Improvements No Yes
ers, window replacement, installation of HVAC Plant Improvements No Yes
summer boilers for service hot water, HVAC Consolidation/Reduction No Yes
and separation of the heating plant into
Controls Improvements Yes Yes
multiple zones.5
Meanwhile, the walkthrough audit in a Health/Safety/Comfort Improvements No Yes
different large commercial office building HVAC Distribution Improvements No Yes
identified savings of only 7%. Sometimes Demand/Purchasing Recommendations Yes Yes
presented as a preliminary audit, or a Motor Improvements No Yes
precursor to an in-depth audit, the walk-
O&M Recommendations No Yes
through audit runs the risks of delivering
Service Hot Water Improvements Yes Yes
small savings, satisfying the owner’s need
to make energy improvements, allowing Tenant Education Recommendations No Yes
“greenwashing” claims, giving the false Envelope (Insulation, Air Sealing) Improvements Yes Yes
impression that significant savings are Plug Load Improvements No No
not possible, preventing the owner from
Table 3: Comparison of two example commercial office energy audits.
considering comprehensive work, and
deferring in-depth improvements for years into the future.
Missed Energy
Further risks derive from the possibility that energy savings Measures
estimated in an energy audit can easily be eroded between the Reduced
energy audit and final implementation. These risks are illustrat- Project Scope Installation
Deficiencies
ed in Figure 1. Beyond the risk of energy savings not material- Operation and
izing because the audit itself is not clear or because the auditor Maintenance
missed energy measures, there is the risk of the owner choosing
not to implement all the savings, the risk of contractors mak-
Potential Savings
ing mistakes or substituting less efficient products, the risk of
inadequate commissioning of energy conservation installations, Delivered
and the risks of poor operation and maintenance. All of these can Savings
erode the originally recommended savings. Comprehensiveness
is the best hedge against the erosion of these savings between
energy audit and closeout of implementation. Figure 1: Erosion of energy savings.
Finally, projected savings as small as 7% present a high risk
of actual savings not being measurable, as real savings are lost appliances (replace an oversized ice-maker, intelligent power
in the “noise” of fluctuating energy use in a building. control on vending machines).
Projected annual savings are $125,000 per year, or 37%.
Case Study The cost of the audit was approximately $27,000. The ratio of
A different example points to audit costs and projected estimated audit cost to annual energy costs savings is 0.22. In
savings of a comprehensive audit.8 A 77,000 ft2 (7154 m2) other words, the energy savings will pay for the audit in 0.22
office building in upstate New York has annual electricity years, or approximately 2.6 months.
costs of $130,000, and annual gas costs of $210,000, for The final report provides a variety of detail that may be helpful
total annual fuel costs of $340,000. A comprehensive energy for the owner in proceeding with implementation, including infor-
audit identified 14 improvements, all of which meet a posi- mation on all 32 motors to be replaced (location, load description,
tive life-cycle cost test (savings-to-investment ratio greater horsepower, quantity, existing efficiency, recommended minimum
than one). The recommended improvements include HVAC replacement efficiency, etc.), 20 pages of lighting data with room-
plant (new high-efficiency boilers), HVAC distribution (new specific recommendations, and more. Much of the scope of work
VAV system, premium efficiency motors, pipe insulation), for implementation is already defined in the energy audit.
HVAC controls, ventilation (new energy recovery ventilation We estimate that the cost of a walkthrough audit might be
system), envelope (door weather stripping, storm windows), $5,000 and provide 7% annual savings, as shown in the prior
lighting (extensive delamping, relamping, and controls), and example, or approximately $24,000 energy cost savings per

26 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g January 2009

year if applied to the same building. But a hidden cost is that description and list the improvements planned for evalu-
a walkthrough audit rarely provides sufficient data to describe ation. This essentially jump-starts the final report; more
the scope of work for implementation. Assuming that this work important, it allows a supervisor or peer to identify possible
scope development, whether done by an engineer or by a design- missed opportunities early on. By identifying all opportuni-
build contractor, might cost an additional $5,000, the ratio of ties that need analysis up front, the analysis will not need
audit-plus-work scope costs to annual cost savings is 0.42, or to be repeated after the report is finished, which is much
almost one half as cost effective as the comprehensive audit. harder than if missed improvements are identified early.
Significantly, the comprehensive audit report also presents •• Calibrate energy models against utility bills before mod-
six improvements that were evaluated and could provide further eling improvements.
savings, but that do not meet the positive life-cycle cost test. •• In modeling, account for interactions among improve-
These include chiller replacement, roof insulation, replacing ments.
electric heat in the core of the building with a gas furnace (due •• Describe non-cost trade-offs of each improvement, such as
to the high cost of electricity relative to gas), and service hot health and safety issues, comfort impacts, operation and
water improvements. While helping to prioritize recommended maintenance, anticipated persistence of savings, etc.
improvements (on the basis of estimated installation cost, •• Use life-cycle costing, such as savings-to-investment
estimated annual savings, estimated useful life, non-cost trade- ratio on a net present value basis, accounting for the time
offs, and more), the comprehensive audit significantly assists value of money, as well as the projected inflation of fuel
the owner in not making poor economic decisions by explic- costs. These all account for costs and benefits in a more
itly showing the results for nonrecommended improvements. complete manner than simple payback.
Meanwhile, the owner is provided with useful information
that might tip the scales to proceed with a nonrecommended Summary
improvement, if the complete picture that portrays non-cost Large commercial office buildings present a variety of chal-
issues (health and safety, comfort, equipment nearing end-of- lenges that are specific to the sector. An incremental approach
life, etc.) along with energy savings for a particular improve- (walkthrough audit first) runs a significant risk of not leading
ment, add up to justification for implementation. to significant or measurable energy savings. The higher cost of
comprehensive audits is well justified by the greater energy sav-
Structured Techniques ings opportunities identified and by avoiding duplication of effort,
A variety of structured techniques can help make energy as many improvement descriptions, which guide implementation
audits in large commercial office buildings easier. can be provided in the audit. A comprehensive approach using
•• Analyze utility bills before doing the field visit. Disag- structured techniques can make the work easier and provide a
gregate use by season, fuel, building, and meter. Look for framework for substantial and measurable energy savings.
anomalies in energy use patterns to guide the search for
unusual energy loads and savings opportunities. References
•• Assign two people for the site visit, each with a walkie- 1. Energy Information Administration, Office of Energy Markets
talkie or cell phone. An effective combination of staff can and End Use. Forms EIA-871A, C, and E of the 2003 Commercial
be an engineer familiar with HVAC plant and controls Buildings Energy Consumption Survey.
2. Mazzucchi, R.P. 1992. “A guide for analyzing and reporting build-
and an energy technician familiar with lighting, envelope, ing characteristics and energy use in commercial buildings.” ASHRAE
and plug loads. Transactions 98(1):1067 – 80.
•• Look for incorrectly operating HVAC systems, such as 3. Ganji, A.R. 2002. “Investment grade energy audit.” 25th World
programmable setpoints that have not been correctly set Energy Engineering Congress.
(reset controls for hot and cold water temperatures, space 4. 2003 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications, Chapter 35,
temperatures, ventilation schedules, etc.). Energy Use and Management, p. 35.14.
5. Office Energy Audit and Follow-up Analysis, Ithaca, N.Y.
•• Come prepared with a data collection plan, including
2008.
data sheets. 6. Residential Energy Services Network. 2008. National Standard
•• Schedule adequate time for fieldwork. One day is inad- for Home Energy Audits.
equate for an effective site visit for a large commercial 7. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004, Energy Standard
office building, even for a two-person team. for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, Tables 9.5.1
•• Bring a small set of useful tools, most of which fit in a and 9.5.2.
small tool bag or even on a belt: infrared thermometer, 8. Office Energy Audit, Lansing, N.Y. 2006.
CO2 meter, tape measure, reduced scale plans, light meter,
lighting ballast checker. Acknowledgments
•• Involve building staff; ask probing questions about This work was supported by the Taitem Engineering C-NEW
schedules, controls, and suspected energy inefficiencies Applied Energy Research Initiative. Susan Galbraith and Dan
and savings opportunities. Clark contributed to development of many of the lighting energy
•• After the site visit, immediately write a detailed build­ing audit techniques described in the article.

January 2009 ASHRAE Journal 27