Fuel injection

Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. It
has become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive petrol engines, having
almost completely replaced carburetors in the late 1980s.

A fuel injection system is designed and calibrated specifically for the type(s) of fuel it
will handle. Most fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel applications. With the
advent of electronic fuel injection (EFI), the diesel and gasoline hardware has become
similar. EFI's programmable firmware has permitted common hardware to be used with
different fuels.

Carburetors were the predominant method used to meter fuel on gasoline engines before
the widespread use of fuel injection. A variety of injection systems have existed since the
earliest usage of the internal combustion engine.

The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection
atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure,
while a carburetor relies on low pressure created by intake air rushing through it to add
the fuel to the airstream.

Objectives
The functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the central task of
supplying fuel to the combustion process, but it is a design decision how a particular
system will be optimized. There are several competing objectives such as:

• power output
• fuel efficiency
• emissions performance
• ability to accommodate alternative fuels
• reliability
• driveability and smooth operation
• initial cost
• maintenance cost
• diagnostic capability
• range of environmental operation

Certain combinations of these goals are conflicting, and it is impractical for a single
engine control system to fully optimize all criteria simultaneously. In practice,
automotive engineers strive to best satisfy a customer's needs competitively. The modern
digital electronic fuel injection system is far more capable at optimizing these competing
objectives consistently than a carburetor. Carburetors have the potential to atomize fuel
better (see Pogue and Allen Caggiano patents).
 Benefits
[edit] Engine operation

Operational benefits to the driver of a fuel-injected car include smoother and more
dependable engine response during quick throttle transitions, easier and more dependable
engine starting, better operation at extremely high or low ambient temperatures, increased
maintenance intervals, and increased fuel efficiency. On a more basic level, fuel injection
does away with the choke which on carburetor-equipped vehicles must be operated when
starting the engine from cold and then adjusted as the engine warms up.

An engine's air/fuel ratio must be precisely controlled under all operating conditions to
achieve the desired engine performance, emissions, driveability, and fuel economy.
Modern electronic fuel-injection systems meter fuel very accurately, and use closed loop
fuel-injection quantity-control based on a variety of feedback signals from an oxygen
sensor, a mass airflow (MAF) or manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor, a throttle
position (TPS), and at least one sensor on the crankshaft and/or camshaft(s) to monitor
the engine's rotational position. Fuel injection systems can react rapidly to changing
inputs such as sudden throttle movements, and control the amount of fuel injected to
match the engine's dynamic needs across a wide range of operating conditions such as
engine load, ambient air temperature, engine temperature, fuel octane level, and
atmospheric pressure.

A multipoint fuel injection system generally delivers a more accurate and equal mass of
fuel to each cylinder than can a carburetor, thus improving the cylinder-to-cylinder
distribution. Exhaust emissions are cleaner because the more precise and accurate fuel
metering reduces the concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine,
and because exhaust cleanup devices such as the catalytic converter can be optimized to
operate more efficiently since the exhaust is of consistent and predictable composition.

Fuel injection generally increases engine fuel efficiency. With the improved cylinder-to-
cylinder fuel distribution, less fuel is needed for the same power output. When cylinder-
to-cylinder distribution is less than ideal, as is always the case to some degree with a
carburetor or throttle body fuel injection, some cylinders receive excess fuel as a side
effect of ensuring that all cylinders receive sufficient fuel. Power output is asymmetrical
with respect to air/fuel ratio; burning extra fuel in the rich cylinders does not reduce
power nearly as quickly as burning too little fuel in the lean cylinders. However, rich-
running cylinders are undesirable from the standpoint of exhaust emissions, fuel
efficiency, engine wear, and engine oil contamination. Deviations from perfect air/fuel
distribution, however subtle, affect the emissions, by not letting the combustion events be
at the chemically ideal (stoichiometric) air/fuel ratio. Grosser distribution problems
eventually begin to reduce efficiency, and the grossest distribution issues finally affect
power. Increasingly poorer air/fuel distribution affects emissions, efficiency, and power,
in that order. By optimizing the homogeneity of cylinder-to-cylinder mixture distribution,
all the cylinders approach their maximum power potential and the engine's overall power
output improves.

A fuel-injected engine often produces more power than an equivalent carbureted engine.
Fuel injection alone does not necessarily increase an engine's maximum potential output.
Increased airflow is needed to burn more fuel, which in turn releases more energy and
produces more power. The combustion process converts the fuel's chemical energy into
heat energy, whether the fuel is supplied by fuel injectors or a carburetor. However,
airflow is often improved with fuel injection, the components of which allow more design
freedom to improve the air's path into the engine. In contrast, a carburetor's mounting
options are limited because it is larger, it must be carefully oriented with respect to
gravity, and it must be equidistant from each of the engine's cylinders to the maximum
practicable degree. These design constraints generally compromise airflow into the
engine. Furthermore, a carburetor relies on a restrictive venturi to create a local air
pressure difference, which forces the fuel into the air stream. The flow loss caused by the
venturi, however, is small compared to other flow losses in the induction system. In a
well-designed carburetor induction system, the venturi is not a significant airflow
restriction.

Fuel is saved while the car is coasting because the car's movement is helping to keep the
engine rotating, so less fuel is used for this purpose. Control units on modern cars react to
this and reduce or stop fuel flow to the engine reducing wear on the brakes.[citation needed]

Basic function

The process of determining the necessary amount of fuel, and its delivery into the engine,
are known as fuel metering. Early injection systems used mechanical methods to meter
fuel (non electronic, or mechanical fuel injection). Modern systems are nearly all
electronic, and use an electronic solenoid (the injector) to inject the fuel. An electronic
engine control unit calculates the mass of fuel to inject.

Modern fuel injection schemes follow much the same setup. There is a mass airflow
sensor or manifold absolute pressure sensor at the intake, typically mounted either in the
air tube feeding from the air filter box to the throttle body, or mounted directly to the
throttle body itself. The mass airflow sensor does exactly what its name implies; it senses
the mass of the air that flows past it, giving the computer an accurate idea of how much
air is entering the engine. The next component in line is the Throttle Body. The throttle
body has a throttle position sensor mounted onto it, typically on the butterfly valve of the
throttle body. The throttle position sensor (TPS) reports to the computer the position of
the throttle butterfly valve, which the ECM uses to calculate the load upon the engine.
The fuel system consists of a fuel pump (typically mounted in-tank), a fuel pressure
regulator, fuel lines (composed of either high strength plastic, metal, or reinforced
rubber), a fuel rail that the injectors connect to, and the fuel injector(s). There is a coolant
temperature sensor that reports the engine temperature to the ECM, which the engine uses
to calculate the proper fuel ratio required. In sequential fuel injection systems there is a
camshaft position sensor, which the ECM uses to determine which fuel injector to fire.
The last component is the oxygen sensor. After the vehicle has warmed up, it uses the
signal from the oxygen sensor to perform fine tuning of the fuel trim.

The fuel injector acts as the fuel-dispensing nozzle. It injects liquid fuel directly into the
engine's air stream. In almost all cases this requires an external pump. The pump and
injector are only two of several components in a complete fuel injection system.

In contrast to an EFI system, a carburetor directs the induction air through a venturi,
which generates a minute difference in air pressure. The minute air pressure differences
both emulsify (premix fuel with air) the fuel, and then acts as the force to push the
mixture from the carburetor nozzle into the induction air stream. As more air enters the
engine, a greater pressure difference is generated, and more fuel is metered into the
engine. A carburetor is a self-contained fuel metering system, and is cost competitive
when compared to a complete EFI system.

An EFI system requires several peripheral components in addition to the injector(s), in

order to duplicate all the functions of a carburetor. A point worth noting during times of
fuel metering repair is that early EFI systems are prone to diagnostic ambiguity. A single
carburetor replacement can accomplish what might require numerous repair attempts to
identify which one of the several EFI system components is malfunctioning. Newer EFI
systems since the advent of OBD II diagnostic systems, can be very easy to diagnose due
to the increased ability to monitor the realtime data streams from the individual sensors.
This gives the diagnosing technician realtime feedback as to the cause of the drivability
concern, and can dramatically shorten the number of diagnostic steps required to
ascertain the cause of failure, something which isn't as simple to do with a carburetor. On
the other hand, EFI systems require little regular maintenance; a carburetor typically
requires seasonal and/or altitude adjustments.

Typical EFI components

• Injectors
• Fuel Pump
• Fuel Pressure Regulator
• ECM - Engine Control Module; includes a digital computer and circuitry to
communicate with sensors and control outputs.
• Wiring Harness
• Various Sensors (Some of the sensors required are listed here.)

• Crank/Cam Position: Hall effect sensor

• Airflow: MAF sensor, sometimes this is inferred with a MAP
sensor
 • Exhaust Gas Oxygen: Oxygen sensor, EGO sensor, UEGO sensor

Functional description
Central to an EFI system is a computer called the Engine Control Unit (ECU), which
monitors engine operating parameters via various sensors. The ECU interprets these
parameters in order to calculate the appropriate amount of fuel to be injected, among
other tasks, and controls engine operation by manipulating fuel and/or air flow as well as
other variables. The optimum amount of injected fuel depends on conditions such as
engine and ambient temperatures, engine speed and workload, and exhaust gas
composition.

The electronic fuel injector is normally closed, and opens to inject pressurized fuel as
long as electricity is applied to the injector's solenoid coil. The duration of this operation,
called the pulse width, is proportional to the amount of fuel desired. The electric pulse
may be applied in closely-controlled sequence with the valve events on each individual
cylinder (in a sequential fuel injection system), or in groups of less than the total number
of injectors (in a batch fire system).

Since the nature of fuel injection dispenses fuel in discrete amounts, and since the nature
of the 4-stroke-cycle engine has discrete induction (air-intake) events, the ECU calculates
fuel in discrete amounts. In a sequential system, the injected fuel mass is tailored for each
individual induction event. Every induction event, of every cylinder, of the entire engine,
is a separate fuel mass calculation, and each injector receives a unique pulse width based
on that cylinder's fuel requirements.

It is necessary to know the mass of air the engine "breathes" during each induction event.
This is proportional to the intake manifold's air pressure/temperature, which is
proportional to throttle position. The amount of air inducted in each intake event is
known as "air-charge", and this can be determined using several methods. (See MAF
sensor, and MAP sensor.)

The three elemental ingredients for combustion are fuel, air and ignition. However,
complete combustion can only occur if the air and fuel is present in the exact
stoichiometric ratio, which allows all the carbon and hydrogen from the fuel to combine
with all the oxygen in the air, with no undesirable polluting leftovers. Oxygen sensors
monitor the amount of oxygen in the exhaust, and the ECU uses this information to adjust
the air-to-fuel ratio in real-time.

To achieve stoichiometry, the air mass flow into the engine is measured and multiplied
by the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio 14.64:1 (by weight) for gasoline. The required fuel
mass that must be injected into the engine is then translated to the required pulse width
for the fuel injector. The stoichiometric ratio changes as a function of the fuel; diesel,
gasoline, ethanol, methanol, propane, methane (natural gas), or hydrogen.
Deviations from stoichiometry are required during non-standard operating conditions
such as heavy load, or cold operation, in which case, the mixture ratio can range from
10:1 to 18:1 (for gasoline). In early fuel injection systems this was accomplished with a
thermotime switch.

Pulse width is inversely related to pressure difference across the injector inlet and outlet.
For example, if the fuel line pressure increases (injector inlet), or the manifold pressure
decreases (injector outlet), a smaller pulse width will admit the same fuel. Fuel injectors
are available in various sizes and spray characteristics as well. Compensation for these
and many other factors are programmed into the ECU's software.

Multi-point fuel injection

Multi-point fuel injection injects fuel into the intake port just upstream of the cylinder's
intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake manifold. MPFI (or just MPI)
systems can be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's
intake stroke, batched, in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without
precise synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke, or Simultaneous, in
which fuel is injected at the same time to all the cylinders.

Many modern EFI systems utilize sequential MPFI; however, it is beginning to be

replaced by direct injection systems in newer gasoline engines.

‘Mpfi’ stands for 'multi point (electronic) fuel injection'. This system injects fuel into
individual cylinders, based on commands from the ‘on board engine management
system computer’ – popularly known as the Engine Control Unit/ECU.

Mpfi Systems can either be : a) ‘Sequential’ i.e direct injection into individual
cylinders against their suction strokes, or b) ‘Simultaneous’ i.e together

for all the four or whatever the number of cylinders, or c) ‘Group’ i.e into Cylinder-
Pairs.

These techniques result not only in better ‘power balance’ amongst the cylinders but
also in higher output from each one of them, along with faster throttle response.

Of these variants of Mpfi, 'Sequential' is the best from the above considerations of
power balance/output.

‘Sefi’’, as advertised by Ford Ikon, stands for 'Sequential Electronic Fuel Injection',
which technically is the best of the above variants of Mpfi. Hyundai/Maruti Mpfi
systems are in fact Sefi too. Daewoo India had the (b) or (c) variants of above Mpfi
systems on its Cielo/Matiz.

On the other hand, older Opel-Astra’s had a 'single point' fuel injection system,
which is in between an Mpfi and the now obsolete Single-Carburettor systems.
The ‘Fuel Injectors’ are precision built ‘Solenoid Valves’, something like Washing
Machine Water inlet Valves. These have either single or multiple ‘Orifices’ which
‘spray’ fuel into the Fuel inlet manifold of a Cylinder upon actuation, from a common
Rail/Header pressurised to around 3 bar, fed by a high pressure electrically drive fuel
pump inside the Petrol tank of the Car.

The ‘on-board’ ECU primarily controls the Ignition Timing and quantity of fuel to be
injected. The latter is achieved by means of controlling the ‘duration’ for which the
Injector solenoid valve coil is kept energized – popularly known as the ‘pulse-width’.

In general, an ECU in turn is controlled by the ‘data input’ from a set of ‘SENSORS’
located all over the Engine and its Auxiliaries. These detect the various ‘operating
states’ of the Engine and the performance desired out of it. Such Sensors constantly
monitor : 1) Ambient Temperature, 2) Engine Coolant Temp., 3) Exhaust/manifold
temp., 4) Exhaust ‘O2’ content, 5) Inlet manifold vacuum, 6) Throttle position, 7)
Engine rpm, 8) Vehicle road speed, 9) Crankshaft position, 10) Camshaft position,
etc.

Based on a ‘programmed’ interpretation of all this input data, the ECU gives the
various ‘commands’ to the Engine’s fuel intake and spark ignition timing systems, to
deliver an overall satisfactory performance of the Engine from start to shut down,
including ‘emission control’.

To get the best out of an Mpfi System, one should use – a) The OE recommended
Petrol Additives or the new generation ‘Premium’ Petrol’s REGULARLY and b) NEVER
Tamper with the OE Wiring Harness of the Car – EVEN to install the ubiquitous Music
System OR any other Electrical Accessory - other than those ‘approved’ OE/Dealer
and designed to suit the Car’s Wiring Harness/CWH ‘Couplers’.

Common rail direct fuel injection

Common rail direct fuel injection is a modern variant of direct fuel injection system for
petrol and diesel engines.
Common rail fuel injector

On diesel engines, it features a high-pressure (over 1,000 bar/15,000 psi) fuel rail feeding
individual solenoid valves, as opposed to low-pressure fuel pump feeding unit injectors
(Pumpe Düse or pump nozzles). Third-generation common rail diesels now feature
piezoelectric injectors for increased precision, with fuel pressures up to
1,800 bar/26,000 psi.

[edit] Principles

Solenoid or piezoelectric valves make possible fine electronic control over the fuel
injection time and quantity, and the higher pressure that the common rail technology
makes available provides better fuel atomisation. In order to lower engine noise the
engine's electronic control unit can inject a small amount of diesel just before the main
injection event ("pilot" injection), thus reducing its explosiveness and vibration, as well
as optimising injection timing and quantity for variations in fuel quality, cold starting,
and so on. Some advanced common rail fuel systems perform as many as five injections
per stroke.[7]
Common rail engines require no heating up time[citation needed] and produce lower engine
noise and emissions than older systems.

Diesel engines have historically used various forms of fuel injection. Two common types
include the unit injection system and the distributor/inline pump systems (See diesel
engine and unit injector for more information). While these older systems provided
accurate fuel quantity and injection timing control they were limited by several factors:

• They were cam driven and injection pressure was proportional to engine speed.
This typically meant that the highest injection pressure could only be achieved at
the highest engine speed and the maximum achievable injection pressure
decreased as engine speed decreased. This relationship is true with all pumps,
even those used on common rail systems; with the unit or distributor systems,
however, the injection pressure is tied to the instantaneous pressure of a single
pumping event with no accumulator and thus the relationship is more prominent
and troublesome.
• They were limited on the number of and timing of injection events that could be
commanded during a single combustion event. While multiple injection events are
possible with these older systems, it is much more difficult and costly to achieve.
• For the typical distributor/inline system the start of injection occurred at a pre-
determined pressure (often referred to as: pop pressure) and ended at a pre-
determined pressure. This characteristic results from "dummy" injectors in the
cylinder head which opened and closed at pressures determined by the spring
preload applied to the plunger in the injector. Once the pressure in the injector
reached a pre-determined level, the plunger would lift and injection would start.

In common rail systems a high pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel at high pressure
— up to and above 2,000 bars (29,000 psi). The term "common rail" refers to the fact that
all of the fuel injectors are supplied by a common fuel rail which is nothing more than a
pressure accumulator where the fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator supplies
multiple fuel injectors with high pressure fuel. This simplifies the purpose of the high
pressure pump in that it only has to maintain a commanded pressure at a target (either
mechanically or electronically controlled). The fuel injectors are typically ECU-
controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically activated a hydraulic valve (consisting
of a nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into
the cylinders at the desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and
the injectors are electrically actuated the injection pressure at the start and end of
injection is very near the pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square
injection rate. If the accumulator, pump, and plumbing are sized properly, the injection
pressure and rate will be the same for each of the multiple injection events.
 Emission standard
Emissions standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of pollutants
that can be released into the environment. Many emissions standards focus on regulating
pollutants released by automobiles (motor cars) and other powered vehicles but they can
also regulate emissions from industry, power plants, small equipment such as lawn
mowers and diesel generators. Frequent policy alternatives to emissions standards are
technology standards (which mandate the use of a specific technology) and emission
trading.

Standards generally regulate the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides,
particulate matter (PM) or soot, carbon monoxide (CO), or volatile hydrocarbons (see
carbon dioxide equivalent).

[edit] Motor vehicles

[edit] Background

The first Indian emission regulations were idle emission limits which became effective in
1989. These idle emission regulations were soon replaced by mass emission limits for
both petrol (1991) and diesel (1992) vehicles, which were gradually tightened during the
1990’s. Since the year 2000, India started adopting European emission and fuel
regulations for four-wheeled light-duty and for heavy-dc. Indian own emission
regulations still apply to two- and three-wheeled vehicles.

Current requirement is that all transport vehicles carry a fitness certificate that is renewed
each year after the first two years of new vehicle registration.

On October 6, 2003, the National Auto Fuel Policy has been announced, which envisages
a phased program for introducing Euro 2 - 4 emission and fuel regulations by 2010. The
implementation schedule of EU emission standards in India is summarized in Table 1.[1]

Table 1: Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicles)

Standard Reference Date Region

India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide

Bharat Stage II Euro 2 2001 NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai

 2003.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†

2005.04 Nationwide

2005.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†

Bharat Stage III Euro 3
2010.04 Nationwide

Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 2010.04 NCR*, 10 Cities†

* National Capital Region (Delhi)

† Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur

and Agra

The above standards apply to all new 4-wheel vehicles sold and registered in the
respective regions. In addition, the National Auto Fuel Policy introduces certain emission
requirements for interstate buses with routes originating or terminating in Delhi or the
other 10 cities.

For 2-and 3-wheelers, Bharat Stage II (Euro 2) will be applicable from April 1, 2005 and
Stage III (Euro 3) standards would come in force from April 1, 2010.[2]

[edit] Trucks and buses

Exhaust gases from vehicles form a significant portion of air pollution which is harmful
to human health and the environment

Emission standards for new heavy-duty diesel engines—applicable to vehicles of GVW >
3,500 kg—are listed in Table 2.
 Table 2 Emission Standards for Diesel Truck and Bus Engines, g/kWh

Year Reference Test CO HC NOx PM

1992 - ECE R49 17.3-32.6 2.7-3.7 - -

1996 - ECE R49 11.20 2.40 14.4 -

2000 Euro I ECE R49 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36*

2005† Euro II ECE R49 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15

ESC 2.1 0.66 5.0 0.10

2010† Euro III
ETC 5.45 0.78 5.0 0.16

ESC 1.5 0.46 3.5 0.02

2010‡ Euro IV
ETC 4.0 0.55 3.5 0.03

* 0.612 for engines below 85 kW

† earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1 ‡ only in selected regions, see Table
1

More details on Euro I-III regulations can be found in the EU heavy-duty engine
standards page.

[edit] Light duty diesel vehicles

Emission standards for light-duty diesel vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg) are summarized in
Table 3. Ranges of emission limits refer to different classes (by reference mass) of light
commercial vehicles; compare the EU light-duty vehicle emission standards page for
details on the Euro 1 and later standards. The lowest limit in each range applies to
passenger cars (GVW ≤ 2,500 kg; up to 6 seats).

Table 3 Emission Standards for Light-Duty Diesel Vehicles, g/km

Year Reference CO HC HC+NOx NOx PM

1992 - 17.3-32.6 2.7-3.7 - - -

1996 - 5.0-9.0 - 2.0-4.0 - -

2000 Euro 1 2.72-6.90 - 0.97-1.70 0.14-0.25 -

2005† Euro 2 1.0-1.5 - 0.7-1.2 0.08-0.17 -

0.64 0.56 0.50 0.05

2010† Euro 3 0.80 - 0.72 0.65 0.07
0.95 0.86 0.78 0.10

0.50 0.30 0.25 0.025

2010‡ Euro 4 0.63 - 0.39 0.33 0.04
0.74 0.46 0.39 0.06

† earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1

‡ only in selected regions, see Table 1

The test cycle has been the ECE + EUDC for low power vehicles (with maximum speed
limited to 90 km/h). Before 2000, emissions were measured over an Indian test cycle.

Engines for use in light-duty vehicles can be also emission tested using an engine
dynamometer. The respective emission standards are listed in Table 4.

Table 4 Emission Standards for Light-Duty Diesel Engines, g/kWh

 Year Reference CO HC NOx PM

1992 - 14.0 3.5 18.0 -

1996 - 11.20 2.40 14.4 -

2000 Euro I 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36*

2005† Euro II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15

* 0.612 for engines below 85 kW

† earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1

[edit] Light duty gasoline vehicles

[edit] 4-wheel vehicles

Emissions standards for gasoline vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg) are summarized in Table 5.
Ranges of emission limits refer to different classes of light commercial vehicles (compare
the EU light-duty vehicle emission standards page). The lowest limit in each range
applies to passenger cars (GVW ≤ 2,500 kg; up to 6 seats).

Table 5 Emission Standards for Gasoline Vehicles (GVW ≤ 3,500 kg), g/km

Year Reference CO HC HC+NOx NOx

1991 - 14.3-27.1 2.0-2.9 -

1996 - 8.68-12.4 - 3.00-4.36

1998* - 4.34-6.20 - 1.50-2.18

2000 Euro 1 2.72-6.90 - 0.97-1.70

2005† Euro 2 2.2-5.0 - 0.5-0.7

2.3 0.20 0.15

2010† Euro 3 4.17 0.25 - 0.18
5.22 0.29 0.21

1.0 0.1 0.08

2010‡ Euro 4 1.81 0.13 - 0.10
2.27 0.16 0.11

* for catalytic converter fitted vehicles

† earlier introduction in selected regions, see Table 1 ‡ only in selected regions, see Table
1

Gasoline vehicles must also meet an evaporative (SHED) limit of 2 g/test (effective
2000).

[edit] 3- and 2-wheel vehicles

Emission standards for 3- and 2-wheel gasoline vehicles are listed in the following tables.
[3]

Table 6 Emission Standards for 3-Wheel Gasoline Vehicles, g/km

Year CO HC HC+NOx

1991 12-30 8-12 -

1996 6.75 - 5.40

2000 4.00 - 2.00

2005 (BS II) 2.25 - 2.00

2010.04 (BS III) 1.25 - 1.25

Table 7 Emission Standards for 2-Wheel Gasoline Vehicles, g/km

Year CO HC HC+NOx

1991 12-30 8-12 -

1996 5.50 - 3.60

2000 2.00 - 2.00

2005 (BS II) 1.5 - 1.5

2010.04 (BS III) 1.0 - 1.0

Table 8 Emission Standards for 2- And 3-Wheel Diesel Vehicles, g/km

Year CO HC+NOx PM

2005.04 1.00 0.85 0.10

2010.04 0.50 0.50 0.05

[edit] Overview of the emission norms in India

• 1991 - Idle CO Limits for Gasoline Vehicles and Free Acceleration Smoke for
Diesel Vehicles, Mass Emission Norms for Gasoline Vehicles.
• 1992 - Mass Emission Norms for Diesel Vehicles.
 • 1996 - Revision of Mass Emission Norms for Gasoline and Diesel Vehicles,
mandatory fitment of Catalytic Converter for Cars in Metros on Unleaded
Gasoline.
• 1998 - Cold Start Norms Introduced.
• 2000 - India 2000 (Eq. to Euro I) Norms, Modified IDC (Indian Driving Cycle),
Bharat Stage II Norms for Delhi.
• 2001 - Bharat Stage II (Eq. to Euro II) Norms for All Metros, Emission Norms for
CNG & LPG Vehicles.
• 2003 - Bharat Stage II (Eq. to Euro II) Norms for 11 major cities.
• 2005 - From 1 April Bharat Stage III (Eq. to Euro III) Norms for 11 major cities.
• 2010 - Bharat Stage III Emission Norms for 4-wheelers for entire country whereas
Bharat Stage - IV (Eq. to Euro IV) for 11 major cities. Bharat Stage IV also has
norms on OBD (similar to Euro III but diluted)

[edit] CO2 emission

India’s auto sector accounts for about 18 per cent of the total CO2 emissions in the
country. Relative CO2 emissions from transport have risen rapidly in recent years, but
like the EU, currently there are no standards for CO2 emission limits for pollution from
vehicles.

[edit] Obligatory labeling

There is also no provision to make the CO2 emissions labeling mandatory on cars in the
country. A system exists in the EU to ensure that information relating to the fuel
economy and CO2 emissions of new passenger cars offered for sale or lease in the
Community is made available to consumers in order to enable consumers to make an
informed choice.

[edit] Non road diesel engines

[edit] Construction machinery

Emission standards for diesel construction machinery were adopted on 21 September

2006. The standards are structured into two tiers:

• Bharat (CEV) Stage II—These standards are based on the EU Stage I

requirements, but also cover smaller engines that were not regulated under the EU
Stage I.
• Bharat (CEV) Stage III—These standards are based on US Tier 2/3 requirements.

The standards are summarized in the following table:

Table 9 Bharat (CEV) Emission Standards for Diesel Construction Machinery

 Engine Power CO HC HC+NOx NOx PM
Date
kW g/kWh

Bharat (CEV) Stage II

P<8 2008.10 8.0 1.3 - 9.2 1.00

8 ≤ P < 19 2008.10 6.6 1.3 - 9.2 0.85

19 ≤ P < 37 2007.10 6.5 1.3 - 9.2 0.85

37 ≤ P < 75 2007.10 6.5 1.3 - 9.2 0.85

75 ≤ P < 130 2007.10 5.0 1.3 - 9.2 0.70

130 ≤ P < 560 2007.10 5.0 1.3 - 9.2 0.54

Bharat (CEV) Stage III

P<8 2011.04 8.0 - 7.5 - 0.80

8 ≤ P < 19 2011.04 6.6 - 7.5 - 0.80

19 ≤ P < 37 2011.04 5.5 - 7.5 - 0.60

37 ≤ P < 75 2011.04 5.0 - 4.7 - 0.40

75 ≤ P < 130 2011.04 5.0 - 4.0 - 0.30

130 ≤ P < 560 2011.04 3.5 - 4.0 - 0.20

The limit values apply for both type approval (TA) and conformity of production (COP)
testing. Testing is performed on an engine dynamometer over the ISO 8178 C1 (8-mode)
and D2 (5-mode) test cycles. The Bharat Stage III standards must be met over the useful
life periods shown in Table 10. Alternatively, manufacturers may use fixed emission
deterioration factors of 1.1 for CO, 1.05 for HC, 1.05 for NOx, and 1.1 for PM.

Table 10 Bharat (CEV) Stage III Useful Life Periods

Useful Life Period

Power Rating
hours

< 19 kW 3000

constant speed 3000

19-37 kW
variable speed 5000

> 37 kW 8000

[edit] Agricultural tractors

Emission standards for diesel agricultural tractors are summarized in Table 11.

Table 11 Indian Emission Standards (4-Wheel Vehicles)

Standard Reference Date Region

India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide

 2001 NCR*, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai

Bharat Stage II Euro 2 2003.04 NCR*, 11 Cities†

2005.04 Nationwide

2005.04 NCR*, 11 Cities†

Bharat Stage III Euro 3
2010.04 Nationwide

Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 2010.04 NCR*, 11 Cities†

* National Capital Region (Delhi)

† Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune,

Surat, Kanpur and Agra

Emissions are tested over the ISO 8178 C1 (8-mode) cycle. For Bharat (Trem) Stage III
A, the useful life periods and deterioration factors are the same as for Bharat (CEV) Stage
III, Table 10.

[edit] Electricity generation

[edit] Generator sets

Emissions from new diesel engines used in generator sets have been regulated by the
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India [G.S.R. 371 (E), 17 May
2002]. The regulations impose type approval certification, production conformity testing
and labeling requirements. Certification agencies include the Automotive Research
Association of India and the Vehicle Research and Development Establishment. The
emission standards are listed below.

Table 12 Emission Standards for Diesel Engines ≤ 800 kW for Generator Sets

Engine Power (P) Date CO HC NOx PM Smoke

 g/kWh 1/m

2004.01 5.0 1.3 9.2 0.6 0.7

P ≤ 19 kW
2005.07 3.5 1.3 9.2 0.3 0.7

2004.01 5.0 1.3 9.2 0.5 0.7

19 kW < P ≤ 50 kW
2004.07 3.5 1.3 9.2 0.3 0.7

50 kW < P ≤ 176 kW 2004.01 3.5 1.3 9.2 0.3 0.7

176 kW < P ≤ 800 kW 2004.11 3.5 1.3 9.2 0.3 0.7

Engines are tested over the 5-mode ISO 8178 D2 test cycle. Smoke opacity is measured
at full load.

Table 13 Emission Limits for Diesel Engines > 800 kW for Generator Sets

CO NMHC NOx PM
Date
mg/Nm3 mg/Nm3 ppm(v) mg/Nm3

Until 2003.06 150 150 1100 75

2003.07 - 2005.06 150 100 970 75

2005.07 150 100 710 75

Concentrations are corrected to dry exhaust conditions with 15% residual O2.
[edit] Power plants

The emission standards for thermal power plants in India are being enforced based on
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 of Government of India and it’s amendments from
time to time.[4] A summary of emission norms for coal and gas based thermal power
plants is given in Tables 14 and 15

Table 14 Environmental standards for coal & gas based power plants

Capacity Pollutant Emission limit

Coal based thermal plants
Below 210 MW Particulate matter (PM) 350 mg/Nm3
210 MW & above 150 mg/Nm3
500 MW & above 50 mg/Nm3
Gas based thermal plants
50 PPM for natural gas; 100
NOX(V/V at 15% PPM for
400 MW & above
excess oxygen)
naphtha
75 PPM for natural gas; 100
Below 400 MW & up to 100 PPM for
MW
naphtha
Below 100 MW 100 PPM for naphtha/natural gas
For conventional boilers 100 PPM

Table 15 Stack height requirement for SO2 control

Power Generation Capacity Stock Height (Metre)

H = 14 (Q)0.3 where Q is emission

rate of SO 2 in kg/hr,
Less than 200/210 MWe H = Stack height in metres
200/210 MWe

or less than 500 MWe 200 200

500 MWe and 275 (+ Space provision for FGD

above systems in future)

The norms for 500 MW and above coal based power plant being practised is 40 to
50 mg/Nm and space is provided in the plant layout for super thermal power stations for
installation of flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) system. But FGD is not installed, as it is
not required for low sulphur Indian coals while considering SO X emission from
individual chimney.
In addition to the above emission standards, the selection of a site for a new power plant
has to maintain the local ambient air quality as given in Table 16.

Table 16 Ambient air quality standard

Conc. g/m3
Category
SPM SO2 CO NOX

Industrial and mixed-

use 500 120 5000 120
Residential and rural 200 80 2000 80
Sensitive 100 30 1000 30

Table 17 World bank norms for new projects

Existing Air Quality Recommendation

SOX > 100 ?

g/m3 No project
SOX = 100 ? Polluted area, max. from a project

g/m3 100 t/day

SOX < 50 ? Unpolluted area, max. from a project

g/m3 500 t/day

However the norms for SOX are even stricter for selection of sites for World Bank
funded projects (refe r Table 2.4). For example, if SOX level is higher than 100 ? g/m 3,
no project with further SOX emission can be set up; if SO X level is 100 ? g/m 3, it is
called polluted area and maximum emission from a project should not exceed 100 t/day;
and if SOX is less than 50 ? g/m 3, it is called unpolluted area, but the SOX emission
from a project should not exceed 500 t/day. The stipulation for NOX emission is that it’s
emission should not exceed 260 gram s of NOX per giga joule of heat input.

In view of the above, it may be seen that improved environment norms are linked to
financing and are being enforced by international financial institutions and not by the
policies/laws of land.

[edit] Fuels

Fuel Quality plays a very important role in meeting the stringent emission regulation.
The fuel specifications of Gasoline and Diesel have been aligned with the Corresponding
European Fuel Specifications for meeting the Euro II, Euro III and Euro IV emission
norms.

The use of alternative fuels has been promoted in India both for energy security and
emission reduction Delhi and Mumbai have more than 100,000 commercial vehicles
running on CNG fuel. Delhi has the largest number of CNG commercial vehicles running
any where in the World. India is planning to introduce Biodiesel, Ethanol Gasoline
blends in a phased manner and has drawn up a road map for the same. The Indian auto
Industry is working with the authorities to facilitate for introduction of the alternative
fuels. India has also setup a task force for preparing the Hydrogen road map. The use of
LPG has also been introduced as an auto fuel and the oil industry has drawn up plans for
setting up of Auto LPG dispensing station in major cities.

Indian Gasoline specifications:

Table 18

Bharat Bharat Bharat

Sl.
Characteristics Unit
No
Stage II Stage III Stage IV
1 Density 15 0 C Kg/m3 710-770 720-775 720-775
2 Distillation
a) Recovery up to 70 0 C(E70) %Volume 10-45 10-45 10-45

b) Recovery up to 100 0 C (E100) %Volume 40-70 40-70 40-70

c) Recovery up to 180 0 C (E180) %Volume 90 - -

3
d) Recovery up to 150 0 C (E150) %Volume - 75min 75min
0
e) Final Boiling Point (FBP), Max C 210 210 210

f) Residue Max % Volume 2 2 2

Research Octane Number
4 88 91 91
(RON), Min
Anti Knock Index (AKI)/ MON,
5 84 (AKI) 81 (MON) 81 (MON)
Min
150
6 Sulphur, Total , Max % mass 0.05 50mg/Kg
mg/Kg
7 Lead Content(as Pb), Max g/l 0.013 0.005 0.005
8 Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP), Kpa 35-60 60 60
 Max
Benzene, Content, Max -

9 a) For Metros % Volume 3 1 1

b) For the rest 5

10 Olefin content, Max % Volume - 21 21
11 Aromatic Content, Max % Volume - 42 35

Indian diesel specifications:

Table 19

S. No Characteristic BSII BSIII BSIV

1 Density Kg/m3 15 0 C 820-800 820-845 820-845

2 Sulphur Content mg/kg max 500 350 50

3(a) Cetane Number minimum and / or 48 51 51

3(b) Cetane Index or 46 and 46 and 46

4 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon - 11 11
5 Distillation

(a) Reco. Min. At 350 0 C 85 - -

(b) Reco. Min. At 370 0C 95 - -

(c) 95%Vol Reco at 0o C max - 360 360

Table 20 Diesel Fuel Quality in India

Date Particulars
199
Cetane number: 45; Sulfur: 1%
5

199
Sulfur: 0.5% (Delhi + selected cities)
6

199
Sulfur: 0.25% (Delhi)
8

199
Sulfur: 0.05% (Delhi, limited supply)
9

200
Cetane number: 48; Sulfur: 0.25% (Nationwide)
0

200
Sulfur: 0.05% (Delhi + selected cities)
1

200
Sulfur: 350 ppm (Euro 3; selected areas)
5

201
Sulfur: 350 ppm (Euro 3; nationwide)
0

201
Sulfur: 50 ppm (Euro 4; selected areas)
0

Indian bio-diesel specifications:

Table 21

S.No. Characteristics Requirement Method of Test ,

 ref to

[P:] of IS
Other Methods
1448

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

i. Density at 15°C, kg/m3 860-900 ISO 3675 P:16/

ISO 12185 P:32

ASTM

ii. Kinematic Viscosity at 40°C, cSt 2.5-6.0 ISO 3104 P:25

iii. Flash point (PMCC) °C, min 120 P:21

iv. Sulphur, mg/kg max. 50.0 ASTM D 5453 P:83

Carbon residue (Ramsbottom) *,% ASTM D 4530ISO

v 0.05 -
by mass, max 10370

vi. Sulfated ash, % by mass, max 0.02 ISO 6245 P:4

vii. Water content, mg/kg, max 500 ASTM D 2709 P:40

ISO 3733

ISO 6296
viii Total contamination, mg/kg, max 24 EN 12662 -

ix Cu corrosion, 3 hrs at 50°C, max 1 ISO 2160 P:15

x Cetane No., min 51 ISO 5156 P:9

xi Acid value, mg KOH/g, max 0.50 - P:1 / Sec 1

xii Methanol @, % by mass, max 0.20 EN 14110 -

xiii Ethanol, @@ % by mass, max 0.20 -

xiv Ester content, % by mass, min 96.5 EN 14103 -

xv Free Glycerol, % by mass, max 0.02 ASTM D 6584 -

xvi Total Glycerol, % by mass, max 0.25 ASTM D 6584 -

xvii Phosphorous, mg/kg, max 10.0 ASTMD 4951 -

xviii Sodium & Potassium, mg/kg, max To report EN 14108 & -

EN 14109 -

Calcium and Magnesium, mg/kg,

xix To report ÷ -
max

xx Iodine value To report EN 14104 -

 Oxidation stability, at 110°C hrs,
xxi 6 EN 14112 -
min

* Carbon residue shall be run on 100% sample

** European method is under development

@ Applicable for Fatty Acid Methyl Ester

@@ Applicable for Fatty Acid Ethyl Ester

Gear cutting

[edit] Processes
[edit] Broaching
Main article: Broaching

For very large gears or splines, a vertical broach is used. It consists of a vertical rail that
carries a single tooth cutter formed to create the tooth shape. A rotary table and a Y axis
are the customary axes available. Some machines will cut to a depth on the Y axis and
index the rotary table automatically. The largest gears are produced on these machines.

Other operations such as broaching work particularly well for cutting teeth on the inside.
The downside to this is that it is expensive and different broaches are required to make
different sized gears. Therefore it is mostly used in very high production runs.

[edit] Hobbing
Main article: Hobbing

Hobbing is a method by which a hob is used to cut teeth into a blank. The cutter and gear
blank are rotated at the same time to transfer the profile of the hob onto the gear blank.
The hob must make one revolution to create each tooth of the gear. Used very often for
all sizes of production runs, but works best for medium to high.

[edit] Machining
Main article: Machining
Spur may be cut or ground on a milling machine or jig grinder utilizing a numbered gear
cutter, and any indexing head or rotary table. The number of the gear cutter is determined
by the tooth count of the gear to be cut.

To machine a helical gear on a manual machine, a true indexing fixture must be used.
Indexing fixtures can disengage the drive worm, and be attached via an external gear
train to the machine table's handle (like a power feed). It then operates similarly to a
carriage on a lathe. As the table moves on the X axis, the fixture will rotate in a fixed
ratio with the table. The indexing fixture itself receives its name from the original
purpose of the tool: moving the table in precise, fixed increments. If the indexing worm is
not disengaged from the table, one can move the table in a highly controlled fashion via
the indexing plate to produce linear movement of great precision (such as a vernier
scale).

There are a few different types of cutters used when creating gears. One is a rack shaper.
These are straight and move in a direction tangent to the gear, while the gear is fixed.
They have six to twelve teeth and eventually have to be moved back to the starting point
to begin another cut.

A popular way to build gears is by form cutting. This is done by taking a blank gear and
rotating a cutter, with the desired tooth pattern, around its periphery. This ensures that the
gear will fit when the operation is finished.

[edit] Shaping
Main article: Gear shaper

The old method of gear cutting is mounting a gear blank in a shaper and using a tool
shaped in the profile of the tooth to be cut. This method also works for cutting internal
splines.

Another is a pinion-shaped cutter that is used in a gear shaper machine. It is basically

when a cutter that looks similar to a gear cuts a gear blank. The cutter and the blank must
have a rotating axis parallel to each other. This process works well for low and high
production runs.

[edit] Finishing

After being cut the gear can be finished by shaving, burnishing, grinding, honing or
lapping.[1]

Pistons and Rings

Piston rings are not difficult to make IF you have the necessary formulae. There is a fine
line between a piston ring which works, and another which is too weak (compressive wall
force), too stiff (impossible to install without breakage), or otherwise unsuitable. The
finest treatise on making custom piston rings can be found in the magazine Strictly IC,
issues 7, 8, and 9. Editor Bob Washburn has all of the back issues. The author of the
series on piston ring construction is Mr. George Trimble, and he approached the subject
scientifically, deriving a method which will make great rings for any IC engine. The
method makes use of a mandrel which holds the rings spread for heat treatment, and is
based on ratios of ring thickness to bore.

The first step in preparing rings is to

rough out (and then polish) the
outside diameter of the rings from a
fine-grained cast-iron bar. Tolerance
is +.0006, -.0000. UNDERSIZED
RINGS are a no-no, and will not
work. The bore size of all my
cylinders is 1.0003", +.0002, -.0002.
Hence I needed this bar to measure
1.0005" minimum. I shot for
1.0005". The bar is turned to
1.0015", and the taper carefully
measured. In my case it tapered .
0004". I used silicon carbide wet-dry
paper in grits 320, 600, 1200, 1500,
and 2000 to SLOWLY remove the
taper and polish the bar to a mirror
finish. The paper is backed with a
hardened steel parallel. Final
dimension was within .0001
throughout the length.
The bore of the ring stock is cut. The
grooves already cut in the piston
measure .904" diameter. I elected to
bore the ring stock to .914 to provide
plenty of clearance. Final cuts were
taken with a very minimal feed to
remove spring from the tool, maybe
3 passes for the final .005". Internal
taper was negligible.

Note the high finish on the OD of the

ring stock compared to the turned
finish in the above photo.
A mini-thin parting tool of width .
027" was used to part the individual
rings. Before parting, the outer rim is
deburred with a hard arkansas stone,
and partway through the stock, the
tool is withdrawn and the inner OD
rim is deburred as well. The ID rims
are deburred after parting with a
Cratex rubberized abrasive mounted
in a Foredom hand tool. My engine
uses 2 rings per piston... I planned on
36 rings, as many will be scrapped
for one reson or another. The white
stuff inside the bore is a paper towel
shoved in to control ringing and
chatter during parting.

After parting, the faces of the rings

are lapped on a surface plate with
progressively finer wet-dry, with
2000 grit producing a mirror finish.
The mandrel is shown here,
constructed of 1018 steel with the
formula derived from the SIC
articles. Basically, the formulas give
you the large mandrel size, the small
dowel size (the small dowel opens
the ring) and the distance between
centers of the two.

The rings, after polishing, are split

with ordinary wire cutters. This will
usually cleave them cleanly, but
perhaps one in ten will be discarded
due to a jagged, uneven break. The
survivors are slowly spread and
mounted on the mandrel. The whole
assy is then heated to 1475 deg. f. for
1/2 hour. Scale prevention is
important... I used a double-
wrapping of SS foil, with Nitrogen
gas injected before sealing. I have
used keepbryte in the past which
works, but the SS foil is neater and
easier to use.
 After heat treatment, the rings retain
their expanded set. The dark color is
not scale... I was a bit anxious to
open the SS envelope, and the whole
assy was hot enough to darken the
rings a bit. If you look closely, you
can still see some rings mounted at
the base of the mandrel. Note the gap
in the loose rings... this is the set of
the rings, not the traditional ring gap
which must be cut after the rings are
inserted into a bore.
Two pistons with ring grooves cut
but without rings. The top groove is
purely compression... the bottom
groove is a combination compression
and oil-control setup. Note the holes
drilled axially. These holes are
drilled after a band perhaps .005"
deep is turned in the piston, and
drain to the wrist pin cavity seen in
the right hand piston. The lower ring
scrapes the oil into this shallow
groove, where it is forced back
inside the piston.

A piston ring is an open-ended ring that fits into a groove on the outer diameter of a
piston in a reciprocating engine such as an internal combustion engine or steam engine.

The three main functions of piston rings in reciprocating engines are:

1. Sealing the combustion/expansion chamber.

2. Supporting heat transfer from the piston to the cylinder wall.
3. Regulating engine oil consumption.[4][1]

The gap in the piston ring compresses to a few thousandths of an inch when inside the
cylinder bore.

[edit] Automotive

Most automotive pistons have three rings: The top two while also controlling oil are
primarily for compression sealing (compression rings); the lower ring is for controlling
the supply of oil to the liner which lubricates the piston skirt and the compression rings
(oil control rings). Typical compression ring designs will have an essentially rectangular
cross section or a keystone cross section. The periphery will then have either a barrel
profile (top compression rings) or a taper napier form (second compression rings). There
are some taper faced top rings and on some old engines simple plain faced rings were
used.

Oil control rings typically are of three types: (1) single piece cast iron, (2) helical spring
backed cast iron or steel, or (3) multipiece steel. The spring backed oil rings and the cast
iron oil rings have essentially the same range of peripheral forms which consist of two
scraping lands of various detailed form. The multipiece oil control rings usually consist
of two rails or segments (these are thin steel rings) with a spacer expander spring which
keeps the two rails apart and provides the radial load.

[edit] Wear due to ring load on the bore

Piston rings are subject to wear as they move up and down the cylinder bore due to their
own inherent load and due to the gas load acting on the ring. To minimize this, they are
made of wear-resistant materials, such as cast iron and steel, and are coated or treated to
enhance the wear resistance. Two-stroke port design is critical to ring life. Newer modern
motorcycle manufacturers have many single function but serrated ports to retain the ring.
Typically, top ring and oil control rings will be coated with Chromium[2], or Nitrided[5],
possibly plasma sprayed[6] or have a PVD (physical vapour deposit)[3]ceramic coating.
For enhanced scuff resistance and further improved wear, most modern diesel engines
have top rings coated with a modified chromium coating known as CKS[4] or GDC[7], a
patent coating from Goetze which has aluminium oxide or diamond particles respectively
included in the chrome surface. The lower oil control ring is designed to leave a
lubricating oil film, a few micrometres thick on the bore, as the piston descends. Three
piece oil rings, i.e. with two rails and one spacer, are used for four-stroke gasoline
engines.

[edit] Fitting new piston rings

When fitting new piston rings, or breaking them in within an engine, the end gap is a
crucial measurement. In order that a ring may be fitted into the "grooves" of the piston, it
is not continuous but is broken at one point on its circumference. The ring gap may be
checked by putting the ring into the bore/liner (squared to bore) and measuring with a
feeler gauge. End gap should be within recommended limits for size of bore and intended
"load" of engine. Metals expand with a rise in temperature, so too small a gap may result
in overlapping or bending when used under hot running conditions (racing, heavy loads,
towing), and even at normal temperatures, a small ring gap may lead to ring gap closure,
ring breakage, bore damage and possible seizure of the piston. Too large a gap may give
unacceptable compression and levels of blow-by gasses or oil consumption. When being
measured in a used bore it may indicate excessive bore wear or ring wear.(Radial wear on
ring face reduces thickness of used/worn ring (face wear in bore) essentially decreasing
face circumference of ring and thereby increasing size of ring end gap.)

When fitting new rings to a used engine, special "ridge dodger" rings are sometimes used
for the top compression ring, to improve compression and oil consumption without
reboring the cylinder. These have a small step of iron removed from the top section to
avoid making contact with any wear ridge at the top of the cylinder, which could break a
conventional ring. Generally, these are not recommended as they are probably not
required and may give inferior oil consumption. A more acceptable method is to remove
the wear ridge with a "ridge reamer" tool before lightly honing the bore to accept new
rings. In fact if the "ridge " is measured it will generally be apparent it is not really a
ridge but a relatively local hollow caused by the top ring near the ring reversal point. The
upper edge of this hollow will take the form or a "ramp" about 2mm long from the point
of maximum wear to the point of zero wear. In this case there is not actually any ridge to
hit, so light honing may be all that is required.

Piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, pumps and gas compressors. It is
located in a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to
transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or
connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the
crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the
cylinder. In some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering
ports in the cylinder wall.

[edit] Piston engines

Main article: Reciprocating engine

[edit] Internal combustion engines

There are two ways that an internal combustion piston engine can transform combustion
into motive power: the two-stroke cycle and the four-stroke cycle. A single-cylinder two-
stroke engine produces power every crankshaft revolution, while a single-cylinder four-
stroke engine produces power once every two revolutions. Older designs of small two-
stroke engines produced more pollution than four-stroke engines. However, modern two-
stroke designs, like the Vespa ET2 Injection utilise fuel-injection and are as clean as four-
strokes. Large diesel two-stroke engines, as used in ships and locomotives, have always
used fuel-injection and produce low emissions. One of the biggest internal combustion
engines in the world, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C is a two-stroke; it is bigger than most
two-storey houses, has pistons nearly 1 metre in diameter and is one of the most efficient
mobile engines in existence. In theory, a four-stroke engine has to be larger than a two-
stroke engine to produce an equivalent amount of power. Two-stroke engines are
becoming less common in developed countries these days, mainly due to manufacturer
reluctance to invest in reducing two-stroke emissions. Traditionally, two-stroke engines
were reputed to need more maintenance (despite exceptions like the Ricardo Dolphin
engine, and the Twingle engines of the Trojan car and the Puch 250 motorcycle). Even
though the simplest two-stroke engines have fewer moving parts, they could wear out
faster than four-stroke engines. However fuel-injected two-strokes achieve better engine
lubrication, also cooling and reliability should improve considerably.
Gallery

CAD drawing of Large pistons (over

A piston and its Simplified piston
crankshaft and pistons. 0.5 m incl. animation.
connecting rod.
connecting rod).

Two-stroke engine with

a tuned expansion pipe

[edit] Steam engines

Steam engines are usually double-acting (i.e. steam pressure acts alternately on each side
of the piston) and the admission and release of steam is controlled by slide valves, piston
valves or poppet valves.

[edit] Air cannons

The lists in this article may contain items that are not notable, encyclopedic, or
helpful. Please help out by removing such elements and incorporating
appropriate items into the main body of the article. (November 2008)

There are two special type of pistons used in air cannons: close tolerance piston and
double piston. While in close tolerance piston, O-rings are used as valve but in double
piston, O-rings are not used.

There are some features of close tolerance piston mentioned below:

1. Piston can swell and stick.

2. Fits tightly in the cylinder.
3. Tight tolerance fit.
4. Properties alter due to atmospheric change.
5. Backlash may such,some of the bin material into the valve which also can cause
the piston to stick.

Common features of double piston:

1. Cannot swell and stick.

 2. Fits loosely in the cylinder.
3. No tight tolerance fit.
4. Properties are not altered due to atmospheric change.
5. Two depression on the top of the piston so make enough clearance.
6. Even if foreign material enters the valve,the double piston does not stick.

[edit] Drawbacks
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.
Please improve this section if you can. (March 2009)

Since the piston is the main reciprocating part of an engine, its movement creates an
imbalance. This imbalance generally manifests itself as a vibration, which causes the
engine to be perceivably harsh. The friction between the walls of the cylinder and the
piston rings eventually results in wear, reducing the effective life of the mechanism.

The sound generated by a reciprocating engine can be intolerable and as a result, many
reciprocating engines rely on heavy noise suppression equipment to diminish droning and
loudness. To transmit the energy of the piston to the crank, the piston is connected to a
connecting rod which is in turn connected to the crank. Because the linear movement of
the piston must be converted to a rotational movement of the crank, mechanical loss is
experienced as a consequence. Overall, this leads to a decrease in the overall efficiency of
the combustion process. The motion of the crank shaft is not smooth, since energy
supplied by the piston is not continuous and it is impulsive in nature. To address this,
manufacturers fit heavy flywheels which supply constant inertia to the crank. Balance
shafts are also fitted to some engines, and diminish the instability generated by the
pistons movement. To supply the fuel and remove the exhaust fumes from the cylinder
there is a need for valves and camshafts. During opening and closing of the valves,
mechanical noise and vibrations may be encountered. A two-stroke engine does not
require valves, meaning it doesn't need a camshaft, making these engines faster and more
powerful.