2009 RJCMS - Math Revision Notes
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weewsMathematics Revision Notes 2009
RI(JC) Mathematics Society
Pure Mathematics Page
Functions 3
Graphing Techniques 8
Equations & Inequalities 16
Arithmetic & Geometric Progressions 20
Summation, Recurrence & Induction 25
Differentiation 32
Integration 43
Differential Equations 54
Power Series 61
Binomial Expansion 66
Vectors 72
Complex Numbers 84
Statistics Page
Permutations & Combinations 99
Probability 103
Distributions 109
Sampling & Testing 118
Correlation & Regression 124
Mathematics Revision Notes 2009
RI(JC) Mathematics Society
Acknowledgements
Members of RI(JC) Mathematics Society, batch of 2009, for their time and effort in
creating these notes;
o Bi Ran
o Hu Yi Jie
o Kan Wai Keong Desmond (Editor)
o Koo Cheng Wai (Editor)
o Kung Ying Xiang
o Liew Xiao Tian
o Ong Chin Hwee
o Samuel Lim Yong Peng
o Tan Chor Hiang
o Tan Jun Xian Gabriel
o Tan Wei Jie
Mr. Kok Chee Kean, teacher-in-charge, for his guidance and support;
Members of RJC Mathematics Society, batch of 2008, for pioneering this project;
and you, the reader, for supporting our work.
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Functions
A function f is a relation which maps each element in its domain D f to one and only one
element in its range R f , e.g. f : x x 2 1 , x , where x2 1 is the rule of f and is
the domain of f . Use the Vertical Line Test to determine if a given relation f is a function.
Replace D f and R f below with the actual domain and range of f in interval notation.
One-one Functions
Use the Horizontal Line Test to determine if a given function is one-one.
e.g. f : x x 2 1 , x and g : x x 2 1 , x 0 .
y y f ( x) y y g ( x)
any line y k ,
k R g [1, ) k
y2 2
1 x 1 x
0 0
Since the horizontal line y 2 , where Since any horizontal line y k , where
2 R f [1, ) , does not cut the graph of f k Rg 1, , cuts the graph of g at one
at one and only one point, f is not one-one. and only one point, g is one-one.
OR
Since f 1 f 1 2 ,
where 1,1 D f , f is not one-one.
g is a restriction of f if f and g have the same rule and D g D f , i.e. g is f with its
domain restricted. Even if f is not one-one, a restriction of f which is one-one can be
defined. Use turning points or points where f is undefined to show that f is not one-one
or restrict its domain.
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Inverse Functions
f 1 , the inverse function of f , is a function such that for all x D f and y R f ,
f 1 y x if and only if f x y .
f 1 exists if and only if f is one-one.
Domain of f 1 R f
Range of f 1 D f
To find the rule of f 1 given the rule of f :
1. Let y f x .
2. Express x in terms of y , such that x g y , where g y is a function of y .
3. Then f 1 x g x .
The rules of ff 1 and f 1 f are always x , but they usually have different domains.
D ff 1 D f 1 , but D f 1 f D f .
Composite Functions
gf is the composite function of f followed by g .
gf exists if and only if R f D g .
Domain of gf D f
Range of gf R g , with the domain of g restricted to R f .
FAQ
Q: Sketch the graph of f .
A: Substitute the rule of f , then sketch the graph using GC.
Q: What is the domain/range of f ?
A: Observe from the rule of f by substituting values, or from the graph using GC.
Q: What is the minimum value of k such that f , with its domain restricted to ( k , ) ,
is one-one?
A: Find the minimum value of k such that f , with its domain restricted, passes the
Horizontal Line Test. Usually, x k will be a turning point or point where f is
undefined on the graph of f .
Q: Solve f x f 1 x .
A: Solve f x x or f 1 x x instead, since the graphs of f and f 1 must intersect on
the line y x . (Example 2)
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Q: Solve ff 1 x f 1 f x .
A: The solution set is the intersection of the domains of f and f 1 , since both ff 1 and
f 1 f have rule x .
Q: Sketch the graph of ff 1 (or f 1 f ).
A: The graph of ff 1 is the section of the line y x , where x D 1 R f . Similarly, the
f
graph of f 1 f is the section of the line y x , where x D f .
Q: Sketch the graphs of f ( x ) and f 1 ( x ) (on a single diagram).
A: Show their geometrical relationship: the graphs of f and f 1 are reflections of each
other about the line y x .
Example 1 [NJC06/CT/Q9 (Modified)]
1
A mapping f is given by f : x 1, x .
( x 1) 2
State the largest possible domain of f in the form , b , where b , such that the
inverse function of f exists. Hence define f 1 in a similar form.
The functions g and h are defined as follows:
g : x ln( x 2), x 1,1
h : x x 2 2 x 1, x
Determine whether the composite function gh exists.
Give the rule and domain of the composite function hg and find its range.
Solution Comments
(a) Largest possible D f ( ,1) f 1 exists if and only if f is one-one.
Observe a discontinuity at x 1 by
sketching the graph of f on the GC or
1
from . Restrict D f based on the
( x 1) 2
discontinuity instead of looking for
turning points.
D f 1 R f 1, Use the GC to find R f .
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1
Let y f x 1 , x ,1 .
x 1
2
1
y 1
x 1
2
1
x 1
2
y 1
1
x 1
y 1
1
x 1
y 1
1 Use D f to decide which of the 2
x 1
y 1 expressions for x to accept and which
1 to reject. Here, D f ,1 , so x 1 ,
or 1 (rejected)
y 1 and
1
0 for all y .
y 1
1 Express f 1 in a similar form, and write
f 1 : x 1 , x 1,
x 1 down both its rule and domain.
(b)(i) h x x 2 2 x 1 x 1 2
2 h( x) has a minimum point at x 1 , and
its domain includes 1 .
Rh h 1 , 2,
Since 2, ( 1,1 ), Rh
Dg , hence gh exists if and only if Rh D g .
the composite function gh does not exist.
(b)(ii) Dhg Dg 1,1 You do not need to show hg exists,
hg x h g x h ln x 2
since the question already assumes it.
hg : x ln x 2 2 ln x 2 1
2
,
x (1,1)
Rg g 1 , g 1 (0, ln 3) g x is strictly increasing on ( 1,1) .
Rhg Rh with Dh restricted to R g In the restricted Dh R g (0, ln 3) ,
Rhg h 1 , h 0 2, 1 h( x) decreases from 0 to 1 , reaches its
minimum at h 1 2 , then increases
from 1 to ln 3 . Since h 0 h(ln 3) ,
h(0) is the larger endpoint of Rhg .
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Example 2 [HCI06/Promo/Q11 (Modified)]
The function f is defined by
1
f :x ,x 0
1 ex
By considering the domains of ff 1 and f 1 f , solve ff 1 x f 1 f x .
Show the graphs of f ( x) , f 1 x and ff 1 x on a single sketch.
Solution Comments
(i) 1 The rules of ff 1 and f 1 f are always x , but
D ff 1 D f 1 R f 0,
2 they may have different domains.
D f 1 f D f [0, )
Hence, ff 1 x f 1 f x if and only if x is
For ff 1 x f 1 f ( x ) ,
in the domain of both ff 1 and f 1 f , i.e.:
1 1
x 0, 0, 0, x D ff 1 D f 1 f R f D f
2 2
1
0 x
2
(ii) Sketch the graphs on the GC first. When the
y y f 1 ( x)
yx rule of f 1 ( x) is unknown, key in
DrawInv( Y1 ) to draw the inverse of the graph
of Y1 .
1 1 1
,
2 2 2 GC syntax:
y f ( x)
Set Y1 1 / (1 e ^ ( X )) , then:
0
[2ND][PRGM] 8:DrawInv
1 x
[VARS] Y-VARS Function… Y1
2
[ENTER]
y ff 1 ( x)
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Graphing Techniques
Graphs of Conic Sections
The dotted lines represent lines of symmetry or asymptotes, not the axes.
( x h)2 ( y k )2
1
a2 b2
b
yk
Ellipse a (h, k )
xh
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2 r 2
r
yk
Circle (h, k )
xh
x h b( y k )2 xh y k b( x h)2
Parabola yk
(h, k )
(h, k )
Hyperbola
( x h)2 ( y k )2 ( y k )2 ( x h)2
1 1
a2 b2 b2 a2
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Properties of Hyperbolas
For both forms of hyperbolas above,
Centre: h, k
Horizontal line of symmetry: x h
Vertical line of symmetry: y k
b
Oblique asymptote (sloping upwards): y k x h
a
b
Oblique asymptote (sloping downwards): y k x h
a
( x h)2 ( y k )2
If the x term comes first in the equation of a hyperbola, i.e. 1 , then the
a2 b2
graph looks like a handwritten x (with left/right parts) and always intersects the x axis.
Sketching Graphs of Conic Sections
There is a special case for each conic where its centre or vertex is at the origin (i.e. h 0 ,
k 0 ). To draw a conic with centre/vertex (h, k ) , translate this special case by replacing
x with x h and y with y k .
If the equation of a conic is given in the general form Ax 2 By 2 Cx Dy E 0 ,
complete the square to convert it into the standard forms given in the table above.
When the equation of a conic is given in general form, to identify the conic:
Is there both x 2 term and y 2 term?
Yes No
Are the coefficients of x 2 term Is there either x 2 term or y 2 term?
and y 2 term of same sign? Yes
Yes No
Are the coefficients the same value?
Yes No
Circle Ellipse Hyperbola Parabola
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Graphs of Rational Functions
ax b
y , where c 0 , numerator and denominator have no common factor.
cx d
q
Using long division, express y as p , where p and q are constants.
cx d
d
Vertical asymptote: x
c
q
o When cx d 0 , is undefined, hence y is undefined.
cx d
a
Horizontal asymptote: y p
c
q
o As x , 0 , hence y p .
cx d
ax 2 bx c
y , where a, d 0 , numerator and denominator have no common factor.
dx e
r
Using long division, express y as px q , where p , q , and r are constants.
dx e
e
Vertical asymptote: x
d
r
o When dx e 0 , is undefined, hence y is undefined.
dx e
Oblique asymptote: y px q
r
o As x , 0 , hence y px q .
dx e
Let the initial graph be of y f ( x ) , and let a be a positive constant.
Translating Graphs
Translate by a units in the: In the equation Equation after transformation
y a f ( x)
positive y -direction Replace y by y a
i.e. y f x a
y a f ( x)
negative y -direction Replace y by y a
i.e. y f x a
positive x -direction Replace x by x a y f ( x a)
negative x -direction Replace x by x a y f ( x a)
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Stretching & Reflecting Graphs
y
Stretch parallel to the y -axis by y f ( x)
Replace y by a
factor a , with x -axis invariant a
i.e. y af ( x)
Stretch parallel to the x -axis by x x
Replace x by y f
factor a , with y -axis invariant a a
y f x
Reflect in the x -axis ( y 0 ) Replace y by y
i.e. y f ( x)
Reflect in the y -axis ( x 0 ) Replace x by x y f ( x)
Transformations Involving Modulus
y f ( x) y y f ( x) y y fx y
0 x 0 x 0 x
x
Reflect the part of the graph Delete the part of the graph
of = ( ) where ( ) < 0 of = ( ) where < 0.
in the -axis.
Reflect the part of the graph
of = ( ) where > 0 in
the -axis.
Other Transformations
Assume the same graph of y f x as above, which is drawn with a dashed line below.
Other transformations include:
y f '( x)
1
y
f ( x)
y2 f ( x)
o Related to y f ( x ) or y f ( x )
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Graph Graph of y f x Transformed graph
y f '( x ) y Stationary point x -intercept
Increasing Positive
Decreasing Negative
x Concave upwards Increasing
0
Concave downwards Decreasing
Maximum gradient Maximum point
Minimum gradient Minimum point
1 Positive Positive
y
f ( x) y
Negative Negative
Increasing Decreasing
Decreasing Increasing
0 Approaches or Approaches 0
x
Approaches 0 Approaches or
Maximum point Minimum point
Minimum point Maximum point
1. Discard the part of y f x where f x 0 .
y f ( x) y
2. Look at x -intercepts of y f x to decide the
2
kind of tangent on the transformed graph.
1 distinct real root: vertical tangent
2 equal real roots: sharp tangent
2 equal real roots: horizontal tangent
0 x 3. This is the graph of y f x .
4. Find the graph of y f x by reflecting the
graph of y f x in the x -axis.
5. Combine the graphs of y f x and
y f x to get the graph of y 2 f x .
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Sketching a Transformed Graph
1. Work from the left of the graph ( x ) to the right ( x ).
2. Identify critical features on the original graph.
3. On the new graph, label all corresponding coordinates of points, equations of asymptotes,
stationary points etc. which are given on the original graph.
For points, write ' , e.g. use A ' to denote point A after transformation.
4. Check your answer.
1
Use substitutions, e.g. when f ( x) 10 , y 0.1.
f ( x)
Use GC to graph normally or use its Conics application.
Sequences of Transformations Involving Modulus
Example: Transform the graph of y f ( x ) to that of y f 2 3 x
Solution: f ( x) f (2 x) f (2 x) f (2 3x) f 2 3 x
When x is involved, replace x by x last, to get a graph symmetric about the y -axis.
Example: Transform the graph of y f ( x ) to that of y f 2 3x
Solution: f ( x) f x f 2 x f 2 x f 2 3x
Here 2 3x is inside the modulus, hence replace x by x first, then transform x to 2 x 3 .
General Tips
Generally, perform transformations from the innermost to outermost brackets.
Write the exact phrasing of the transformations when the question asks you to “describe”
them, e.g. write “translate by 3 units…”, not “translate for 3 units…”.
Example [YJC/I/Q8]
The curve C has equation
x2 kx 1
y , k .
2x 3
(i) Obtain the equations of the asymptotes of C .
(ii) Find the value of k for which the x -axis is tangent to C .
(iii) Sketch the case for k 3 . Hence, using a graphical method, find the range of values
of x that satisfy the inequality x 2 3x 1 4 x 6 .
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Solution Comments
(i) x2 kx 1 x k 3
y Use long division to get a quotient of
2x 3 2 2 4
x k 3 13 6k 13 6k
and a remainder of .
2 2 4 4(2 x 3) 4
Equations of asymptotes: ax 2 bx c
3 x k 3 Graphs of y usually have 2
x and y . dx e
2 2 2 4 asymptotes:
1. To find the vertical asymptote, set the x -
term in the denominator 0 , i.e. 2 x 3 0 .
2. To find the oblique asymptote, take y
13 6k x k 3
such that 0 and y .
4(2 x 3) 2 2 4
(ii) Where x -axis is tangent to C , For a quadratic equation ax 2 bx c 0 , a 0 ,
y 0 x 2 kx 1 0 discriminant D b2 4ac .
Since there can only be D 0 : 2 distinct real roots.
1 value of x where y 0 , D 0 : 1 (repeated) real root.
D k 2 4 11 0 D 0 : No real roots.
k2 4 Always try using the discriminant with quadratic
k 2 or 2 (rejected k ) equations in Graphing Techniques questions.
k 2
Differentiation is tedious and will result in a
complicated expression. Furthermore, if the
question states “algebraically”, differentiation
cannot be used.
Use the GC to plot the graph for k 2 to check
your answer.
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(iii) y x 2 3x 1
x 2 3x 1 When k 3 , y .
y 2x 3
2x 3 x 3
y x2 3x 1 4 x 6
2 4
x 2 3x 1 2 2 x 3
x2 3x 1 x2 3x 1
y2 2
2x 3 2x 3
2.62 0
0.333
y 2
0.382 x
y 2 or y 2
From the graph,
y 2
3
3 x 5.79 or 1.79 x
x 2
2
3
or x 1.21 or x 2.79
2
Substitute k 3 into the equations of the graph and its asymptotes, and sketch it using
the GC. Label all axis intercepts (to 3 s.f.) and asymptotes.
“Graphical method” suggests:
1. Manipulate given inequality until 1 side, say LHS, resembles equation of graph.
2. Sketch graph of RHS on GC and your diagram.
3. The solution usually involves points of intersection of the 2 graphs.
e.g. the blue marks on the x -axis in the diagram above.
3
Exclude the values of x for which the function is undefined, e.g. x above.
2
We can divide both sides of the inequality by 2 x 3 because it is always positive.
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Equations & Inequalities
General Approach
1. Zero the inequality (bring all the terms to one side, such that the other side is 0).
2. Combine the terms to form a single fraction.
3. Factorize the terms as far as possible.
f x
Use 0 f x g x 0 to convert the inequality to a product of factors.
g x
Since g x is always positive, multiplying it on both sides preserves the
2
inequality sign.
4. Eliminate factors which are either always positive or always negative.
Complete the square, e.g. for all x , x 2 4 x 5 x 2 1 1 0 .
2
5. Draw number line and graph and shade the regions where the inequality holds.
6. Write the range of values of x (e.g. 1 x 2 ).
To write the set of values, use set-builder notation, NOT interval notation.
o e.g. {x :1 x 2} , NOT (1, 2]
Check for any values (especially endpoints) to be excluded
1
o e.g. x 2 when the inequality contains
x2
o e.g. whether the inequality is strict ( ) or not ( ).
Using the GC
Find intersection between 2 graphs: [2ND][TRACE] 5:intersect
o Find roots of a graph: [2ND][TRACE] 2:zero
Find stationary points of a graph: [2ND][TRACE] 3:minimum (or 4:maximum)
Solve system of linear equations: [APPS] 5:PlySmlt2
FAQ
Solve a given inequality, using algebraic or graphical approaches.
Using the solution to an original inequality, solve a new inequality.
1
o Substitute x with some function of x , f ( x) (usually x , , ln x , e x , etc.) in
x
the original inequality, such that it becomes the new inequality. Then, substitute
x with the same function f ( x) in the original solution set to obtain the new
solution set.
Model a problem with a system of linear equations and solve the system.
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General Tips
In general, do not cross-multiply inequalities! Cross-multiplying only works if the
denominators on both sides of the inequality are either both positive or both negative.
Use the GC if the question does not specify “exact” values. But be careful when using the
GC directly: some solution intervals are not visible at certain zoom levels! (Example 1)
Given an inequality involving modulus, e.g. f x a where a is a positive constant,
o Divide it into cases, where f x 0 and f x 0 .
f x a a f x a
f x a f ( x ) a or f ( x) a
o OR Square both sides to get f x a 2 , removing the modulus.
2
Remember to flip the sign of the inequality when you:
o Multiply or divide both sides by a negative number
e.g. a b 2a 2b
o Take the reciprocal of both sides, if they are either both positive or both negative
1 1
e.g. a b , where a, b 0 (or a, b 0 )
a b
Apply your numerical answer to the context of the question, if appropriate.
Example [N2006/II/Q1]
x9
Solve the inequality 1.
x2 9
Solution Comments
x9 Use the General Approach outlined above.
1
x2 9
x9 1. Zero the inequality.
1 0
x2 9
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x 9 x2 9 0 2. Combine the terms to form a single fraction.
x2 9
x x2
0
x2 9
x x x
2 2
9 0 3. Factorize the terms as far as possible.
x 1 x x 3 x 3 0
x x 1 x 3 x 3 0 Make the coefficient of the highest power of x ,
here x 4 , positive, so that the graph in Step 5
will start as positive from the right.
Remember to flip the sign of the inequality
when multiplying both sides by 1 .
Skip Step 4, since the terms are already linear.
5. Draw number line and graph and shade the
3 0 1 3 regions where inequality holds.
x
Mark the roots 3 , 0 , 1, 3 of the equation
y x x 1 x 3 x 3 .
The graph has x -intercepts at the roots.
If f ( x) is a polynomial with the coefficient
of the highest power of x being positive,
the graph of f ( x) will start as positive
from the right.
The graph has a “wavy” shape.
x 3 or 0 x 1 or x 3 Write the range of values of x , checking for
any values (especially endpoints) to be
excluded.
Since the original inequality has denominator
x2 9 x 3 x 3 , exclude x 3 and
x 3 where the inequality is undefined.
Do NOT use commas: e.g. x 3 , 0 x 1 ,
x 3 . Write out “or” between every 2 adjacent
inequalities.
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Alternative method from this step Alternative method
x9 Since the question doesn’t ask for exact values,
(Sketch the graph of y 1)
x2 9 zero the inequality, then use the GC directly.
From the GC,
x 3 , 0 x 1 , or x 3 Always zoom in to check places where the
graph is near the x -axis, where the inequality
is near equality.
e.g. the solution interval 0 x 1 is not clearly
visible at some zoom levels, e.g. ZStandard and
ZDecimal.
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Arithmetic & Geometric Progressions
Below, AP denotes arithmetic progression and GP denotes geometric progression.
For an AP u1 , u 2 , u3 , with first term a u1 and common difference d :
n th term, u n a n 1 d
n n
Sum of first n terms, S n 2a n 1 d a un
2 2
If a, b, c form an AP, then b a c b 2b a c
For a GP u1 , u 2 , u3 , with first term a u1 and common ratio r :
n th term, un ar n 1
Sum of first n terms, S n
n
a (1 r n ) a r 1
1 r r 1
a
Sum to infinity, S ( S exists only if r 1 )
1 r
b c
If a, b, c form a GP, then b 2 ac
a b
For any sequence u1 , u 2 , u3 ,
u k S k S k 1 , where k 0 .
u k u k 1 u m S m S k 1 , where m k 0 .
FAQ
Q: Find various properties of an AP or GP, given other properties of it.
A: 1. Write down a , d (or r ), n , any k th term u k , any sum of first k terms S k which is
given in the question.
2. Use the various AP & GP formulae to solve.
Q: Show that a sequence is an AP.
A: Show that the difference is common, i.e. u k u k 1 is constant for all k .
Q: Show that a sequence is a GP.
A: u
Show that the ratio is common, i.e. k is constant for all k .
uk 1
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Q: Model and solve a problem using an AP or GP.
A: 1. Identify if the sequence given is an AP or GP.
2. Write down a , d (or r ), n , any k th term u k , any sum of first k terms S k which is
given in the question.
3. Use the various AP & GP formulae to solve.
Q: Find the least/most n such that some condition holds.
A: 1. Form an inequality in terms of n .
2. Solve manually OR use GC’s table of values/graph.
Example 1 [JJC/II/Q1]
An arithmetic progression of positive terms is such that twice the sum of the first nine terms
is equal to the sum of the next nine terms. Let Tn denote the n th term of the arithmetic
progression. Given that T1 , 20 , T16 forms a geometric progression, find the first term and the
common difference of the arithmetic progression.
Solution Comments
Let the arithmetic progression have first Define all variables that will be used. Interpret
term a , common difference d , and sum of the question in the context of the defined
first n terms S n . variables: find a and d .
2S9 S18 S9 Always write sums of consecutive terms in
3S 9 S18 terms of differences of sums of first k terms:
T10 T11 T18 S18 S 9
9 18 Simplify the first sentence in the question to
3 2a 8d (2a 17 d ) an equation in terms of a and d , which we
2 2
27a 108d 18a 153d want to find.
a 5d
20 T16 Simplify the other statement in the question to
T1T16 400
T1 20 another equation in terms of a and d .
a a 15d 400
a Now substitute the first equation, a 5d , into
d
5 the second equation. Simultaneous equations
a a 3a 4 a 2 400 are a common feature in AP & GP questions.
a 2 100
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a 10 or 10 (rejected a 0 as the Look for conditions given in the question
arithmetic progression is of positive terms) whenever you must choose a correct value.
a 10 , d 2
Example 2 [N97/I/Q15 (Part)]
A bank has an account for investors. Interest is added to the account at the end of each year at
a fixed rate of 5% of the amount in the account at the beginning of that year. A man decides
to invest $x at the beginning of one year and then a further $x at the beginning of the
second and each subsequent year. He also decides that he will not draw any money out of the
account, but just leave it, and any interest, to build up.
(i) Show that, at the end of n years, when the interest for the last year has been added, he
will have a total of $21 1.05 n 1 x in his account.
(ii) After how many complete years will he have, for the first time, at least $12x in his
account?
Solution Comments
(i) Let u n be the amount of money in $ in the Define u n as this to avoid writing the
man’s account at the end of n years. same phrase repeatedly. Remember to
specify the units (in $).
u1 1.05 x Evaluate successive values of u k , i.e.
u2 1.05 1.05 x x 1.05 1.05 x
2
u1 , u 2 , u 3 , and observe a pattern for
1.05 1.05 1.05 x x
2 u n . Here, “replace” 3 with n .
u3
1.05 1.05 1.05 x
3 2
Do not simplify 1.052 , 1.053 etc., or
the pattern will be difficult to observe.
un 1.05n 1.05n 1 1.05 x
1.05 1.05n1 1 x Apply the formula for the sum of the
first n terms of a GP to simplify u n .
1.05 1
21 1.05n 1 1 x (shown)
(ii) u n 12 x “At least” means use instead of .
21 1.05 n 1 1 x 12 x
Manipulate the inequality to solve for
21 1.05 n1
1 12 ( x 0 ) n.
12 11
1.05n1 1
21 7
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n 1 ln1.05 ln
11 When n is in the exponent, take ln on
both sides. Here, the sign of the
7
inequality of preserved when dividing
11
ln both sides by ln1.05 0 .
n 9.26 (3 s.f.)
7
ln1.05 Switch the sign when dividing both
least integer value of n 10 sides by ln x , where 0 x 1 .
Example 3 [VJC06/J1CT/Q9b (Modified)]
At the beginning of the year, Xin Fu deposited $100,000 with a bank that pays 10% interest
per annum at the end of each year. After the interest is credited, he immediately withdraws
$12,000. Likewise, Xin Fu will again withdraw $12,000 at the end of each subsequent year,
immediately after the bank’s interest has been credited.
Express Xin Fu’s bank account balance in $ after his n th withdrawal in terms of n .
Solution Comments
Let u n be Xin Fu’s bank account balance in Define u n clearly, and specify the units ($).
$ after his n th withdrawal.
u1 1.1 100000 12000 Evaluate successive values of u k , i.e. u1 ,
u2 1.1u1 12000 u 2 , u 3 , and observe a pattern for u n . Here,
1.12 100000 12000 1.1 1 “replace” 3 with n , 2 with n 1 , etc.
u3 1.1u2 12000 Do not simplify 1.12 , 1.13 etc., or the
1.13 100000 12000 1.12 1.1 1 pattern will be difficult to observe.
u n 1.1n 100000
12000 1.1n 1 1.1n 2 1
1.1 100000 12000
n
1 1.1n 1 Apply the formula for the sum of the first
n terms of a GP to simplify u n .
1.1 1
1.1n 100000 120000(1.1n 1) Count the number of terms carefully. Here,
(1.1n 1 1.1n 2 1) is a sum of powers
120000 20000 1.1n of 1.1 ranging from 0 to n 1 , so it has n
20000 6 1.1n terms (not n 1 ).
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Alternative methods
Write the recurrence relation:
u n 1.1u n 1 12000
Now,
Use repeated substitution.
OR Use induction, especially if the result
to be proven: un 20000 6 1.1n is
already given.
Refer to Example 2 in Summation, Recurrence
& Induction.
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Summation, Recurrence & Induction
Summation
n
Definition: f r f m f m 1 f (n) , where m n .
r m
For constants a and b , functions of r f (r ) and g (r ) and m n ,
n n
o af r a f r
r m r m
n n n
o af r bg (r ) a f r b g r
r m r m r m
o Sum of AP: general term has the form a br .
o Sum of GP: general term has the form abr .
n
1
o r n n 1
r 1 2
n
1
o r 2 n n 1 2n 1
r 1 6
2
n
2
n
1 1
o r n 2 n 1 n n 1 r
3 2
r 1 4 2 r 1
Convert sums with r 1 to use those formulas above showing r starting from 1.
n n m 1
o f r f r f r
r m r 1 r 1
Use method of difference to find u r when consecutive terms cancel out. (Example 1)
Recurrence
For a sequence u1 , u 2
, ,a recurrence relation defines it recursively. Each term u n is
defined as a function of the preceding terms u1 , u 2 , , u n 1 .
AP can be expressed as u n u n 1 d , where the common difference d is a constant.
GP can be expressed as un run 1 , where the common difference r is a constant.
Mathematical Induction
Step 1: Base case. Aim: Show that P1 is true.
Let Pn be the statement
“…”
When n 1 ,
L.H.S. …
R.H.S. …
L.H.S. R.H.S.
P1 is true.
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Step 2: Inductive step. Aim: Show that Pk 1 is true whenever Pk is true.
Assume Pk is true for some k ,
i.e. …
To prove Pk 1 is true,
i.e. …
Now, L.H.S. … R.H.S.
i.e. Pk 1 is true whenever Pk is true.
Since P1 is true, by Mathematical Induction, Pn is true for all n .
The assumption that Pk is true for some k is the induction hypothesis.
Make the necessary changes if the question specifies a base value of n other than 1.
Know where you’re going when performing the inductive step:
1. Convert L.H.S. of Pk 1 to involve L.H.S. of Pk .
2. Since we assume Pk is true, substitute L.H.S. of Pk with R.H.S. of Pk .
o The induction hypothesis must be used somewhere in the induction.
3. Convert the expression to R.H.S. of Pk 1 (proven).
Example 1 [RJC08/Assignment 7/Q4 (Modified)]
2r
Express in partial fractions.
r 1 r 2 (r 3)
Hence, find the sum of the first n terms of the series
2 4 6
2 3 4 3 4 5 4 5 6
Find the sum to infinity of this series.
Solution Comments
Let Recall the partial fractions decomposition for
2r A B C linear factors in the denominator (in MF15).
r 1 r 2 r 3 r 1 r 2 r 3 Substitute appropriate values of r to find
A, B, C .
for some constants A, B, C .
Check that the solution allows for cancelling
2 r A r 2 r 3 B r 1 r 3 out terms using method of difference in the
C r 1 ( r 2) later part: 1 4 3 0 .
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When r 1 , 2 2 A A 1
When r 2 , 4 B B 4
When r 3 , 6 2C C 3
2r
r 1 r 2 r 3
1 4 3
r 1 r 2 r 3
n
2r Observe that the terms of the given series are
Required sum
r 1 r 1 r 2 ( r 3)
2r
of the form , where
r 1 r 2 (r 3)
r 1, 2, .
n
1 4 3 If a sum cannot be found directly or you have
decomposed the term into partial fractions,
r 1 r 1 r 2 r 3
think of the method of difference.
1 4 3
2 3 4 Write out the lines where r 1, 2, 3at the top,
1 4 3
and r n 2, n 1, n at the bottom. Always
3 4 5
do this for the first 3 values and last 3 values
1 4 3
of r .
4 5 6
The terms should be in terms of n , not r .
Show the cancelling out of terms clearly,
1 4 3 leaving the fractions in their original form
n 1 n n 1 (do not simplify them).
1 4 3
n n 1 n 2
1 4 3
n 1 n 2 n 3
1 4 1 3 4 3 Write out the remaining terms and simplify.
2 3 3 n2 n2 n3
1 1 3
2 n2 n3
1 4 3 The sum to infinity is the limit as n of
Sum to infinity 1
r 1 r 1 r 2 r 3 the sum to n terms. As n , 0
n 1 4 3 n2
lim 3
n
r 1 r 1 r 2 r 3 and 0 . Hence, the sum to infinity is
n3
1 1 3
lim
1
.
n 2 n2 n3 2
1
2
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Example 2 (Refer to first paragraph of Example 3 in Arithmetic & Geometric Progressions.)
Let un be Xin Fu’s bank account balance in $ after his n th withdrawal.
(i) State an expression for un in terms of un 1 .
(ii) Hence, find un in terms of n .
(iii) Prove your result in part (ii) for all n 1 by mathematical induction.
Solution Comments
(i) u n 1.1u n 1 12000
(ii) u1 1.1 100000 12000 98000 Use repeated substitution. The recurrence
relation expresses un in terms of u n 1 . Use
un 1.1un 1 12000 the relation repeatedly to express un in
1.11.1un 2 12000 12000 terms of un 2 , un 3 etc.
1.12 un 2 12000 1.1 1
Observe a pattern and express un in terms
1.12 1.1un 3 12000 12000 1.1 1 of u1 (which can be evaluated). Here, the
1.13 un 3 12000 1.12 1.1 1 general form for un is:
1.1k un k 12000(1.1k 1 1)
1.1n1 u1 12000 1.1n 2 1.1n 3 1 u n k u1 n k 1 k n 1 .
To express un in terms of u1 , substitute
k n 1 into the general form.
1.1 98000 12000
n 1
1 1.1n 1 1 (1.1n 2 1.1n 3 1) is a sum of powers
of 1.1 ranging from 0 to n 2 , so it has
1.1 1 n 1 terms (not n 2 ).
1.1n 1 98000 120000 1.1n 1 1
120000 22000 1.1n1
120000 20000 1.1 n
20000 6 1.1
n
(iii) Let Pn be the statement
“ u n 20000 6 1.1n ”.
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When n 1 ,
L.H.S. u1 98000 Show how the value 98000 is calculated.
R.H.S. 20000 6 1.11 98000
L.H.S. R.H.S.
P1 is true.
Assume Pk is true for some k , Assume the induction hypothesis.
i.e. u k 20000 6 1.1k . Replace n by k in the statement of Pn .
To prove Pk 1 is true,
i.e. uk 1 20000 6 1.1k 1 , Replace n by k 1 in the statement of Pn .
Now, L.H.S. u k 1 1.1u k 12000 Use the given recurrence relation,
u k 1 1.1u k 12000 , to convert L.H.S. of
Pk 1 to involve L.H.S. of Pk .
1.1 20000 6 1.1k 12000 Use the induction hypothesis that Pk is
(by induction hypothesis) true, i.e. u k 20000 6 1.1k , to substitute
132000 12000 20000 1.1k 1 L.H.S. of Pk with R.H.S. of Pk .
120000 20000 1.1k 1 Convert the expression to the R.H.S. of
20000 6 1.1k 1 Pk 1 . Manipulate the expression to be more
R.H.S. (proven) and more similar to R.H.S. of Pk 1 .
i.e. Pk 1 is true whenever Pk is true.
Since P1 is true, by Mathematical
Induction, Pn is true for all n .
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Example 3 [N01/I/13b]
Use induction to prove that
3 1! 7 2! 13 3! n 2 n 1 n ! n 1 n ! 1
2
Solution Comments
3 1! 7 2! 13 3! n 2 n 1 n ! Rewrite the L.H.S. of the given equation as a
sum, for easier manipulation.
n
r 2 r 1 r !
r 1 n 2
n 1 n ! shows the general form.
Check that it works for the first 3 terms
given.
Let Pn be the statement
n
“ r 2 r 1 r ! n 1 n ! 1 ”.
2
r 1
When n 1 ,
L.H.S. 12 1 1 1! 3 Show how the value 3 is calculated.
R.H.S. 1 1 1! 1 3
2
L.H.S. R.H.S.
P1 is true.
Assume Pk is true for some k , Assume the induction hypothesis.
k
Replace n by k in the statement of Pn .
i.e. r 2 r 1 r ! k 1 k ! 1.
2
r 1
To prove Pk 1 is true,
k 1
Replace n by k 1 in the statement of Pn .
r
r 1 r ! k 2 k 1! 1 ,
2 2
i.e.
r 1
k 1
Convert L.H.S. of Pk 1 to involve L.H.S. of
Now, L.H.S. r 2 r 1 r !
r 1 Pk .
k
r 2 r 1 r ! When L.H.S. of Pn involves a sum of n
r 1
terms, extract the ( k 1 )th term from the
k 1 k 1 1 k 1 !
2
sum of ( k 1 ) terms in L.H.S. of Pk 1 to
k
r 2 r 1 r ! k 2 3k 3 k 1! obtain the sum of k terms in L.H.S. of Pk .
r 1
k 1 k ! 1 k 2 3k 3 k 1 !
2
Use the induction hypothesis that Pk is true
to substitute L.H.S. of Pk with R.H.S. of Pk .
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k 1 k 1 ! 1 Convert the expression to the R.H.S. of Pk 1 .
k 2 3k 3 [ k 1 !]
Manipulate the expression to be more and
more similar to R.H.S. of Pk 1 .
k 2
4 k 4 k 1 ! 1
k 2 k 1! 1
2
k 1 ! is the product of all positive integers
R.H.S. (proven) up to ( k 1 ), and k ! is the product up to k .
Hence:
i.e. Pk 1 is true whenever Pk is true. k 1! k 1 k !
k 1! k 1
Since P1 is true, by Mathematical Induction, k!
Pn is true for all n .
In general:
m ! m m 1 m 2 k 1 ( k !)
m!
m m 1 m 2 k 1
k!
where m k 0 .
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Differentiation
Basic Formulae
Let u and v be functions of x . Let y be a function of u .
d du dv
u v
dx dx dx
d du dv
uv v u (Product Rule)
dx dx dx
du dv
u
v
d u dx dx (Quotient Rule)
dx v v 2
dy dy du
(Chain Rule)
dx du dx
Derivatives of Standard Functions
Let n be an integer and a be a constant.
Unless otherwise stated, the derivatives are valid for all x .
NOT in MF15:
dy
y f x f ' x Range of validity/Comments
dx
d 1 1 d 1
xn nx n 1 Memorize 2 and dx x .
dx x x 2 x
ex ex
ax a x ln a
1
ln x x0
x
sin x cos x
cos x sin x
tan x sec 2 x
cosec x cosec x cot x
cot x cosec 2 x
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In MF15:
dy
y f x f ' x Range of validity/Comments
dx
secx sec x tan x
1
sin 1 x x 1
1 x2
1
cos 1 x x 1
1 x2
1
tan 1 x
1 x2
1 1
sin 1 x , while cosec x .
sin x sin x
1 1
cos 1 x , while sec x .
cos x cos x
1 1
tan 1 x , while cot x .
tan x tan x
Techniques of Differentiation
Let f x be any function and f ' x be its derivative given in the table above. To find
the derivative of f g x , use the Chain Rule with u g x and y f g x f (u ) :
(Example 1)
dy dy du
dx du dx
f g x f ' g x g ' x
d
dx
Implicit differentiation: If an equation involving x and y can be expressed as
dy d
y f x , differentiating explicitly gives f x . However, if the equation cannot
dx dx
dy
be easily expressed as y f ( x ) , we can find by differentiating the equation term-by-
dx
term, with respect to x . (Example 2)
Use the Chain Rule to differentiate a function of y , say g y , with respect to x .
d d dy
g y g ( y)
dx dy dx
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Parametric differentiation: When a curve involving and is described by equations
of the form x f (t ) and y g (t ) , with t in some given range of values, each value of
the parameter t gives a point with coordinates ( x, y ) f (t ), g (t ) on the curve.
(Example 3)
dy dx dy
o Use the Chain Rule to find , after calculating and .
dx dt dt
dy dy dt dy dx
dx dt dx dt dt
Applications of Differentiation
Properties of f x from its Derivatives
For a range of values dy
a x b , f x is: Only if for all a x b : i.e. Gradient ( ) is:
dx
dy
Strictly increasing 0 Positive
dx
dy
Strictly decreasing 0 Negative
dx
d2y
Concave upwards 0 Increasing
dx2
d2y
Concave downwards 0 Decreasing
dx2
o If for a range of values a x b , the graph of f x looks like a U ( ) or a part
of it, then f x is concave Upwards. If it looks like an n ( ) or a part of it, then
f x is concave downwards.
First Derivative Test: To determine the nature of a stationary point at x , evaluate
dy
at a x value slightly less than and a x value slightly more than , and observe
dx
dy
whether these values of are positive or negative.
dx
d2 y dy d2y
o Use it when is difficult to find ( is difficult to differentiate) or 0.
dx2 dx dx2
dy
o In the following table, write the actual values of , , and at these
dx
values of x .
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x
dy
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
dx
Graph
Nature of
Maximum Minimum
stationary Stationary point of inflexion
turning point turning point
point
Second Derivative Test: To determine the nature of a stationary point at x , evaluate
d2 y
at x and observe whether it is positive or negative.
dx2
d2 y
o In the following table, write the actual values of and at x .
dx2
d2 y
dx2 0 0 0
at x
Nature of
Maximum Minimum No conclusion
stationary
turning point turning point possible
point
Tangents & Normals
Q: Find the equation of a straight line.
A: Given the gradient m and a point on the line with coordinates x1 , y1 ,
y y1 m ( x x1 )
Q: Find the gradient, m , of a straight line.
A: Given 2 points on the line with coordinates x1 , y1 and x2 , y2 ,
y2 y1
m
x2 x1
Given that the line is the tangent to a curve y f x at x ,
dy
m , where x
dx
Given that the line is the normal to a curve y f x at x ,
dy
m 1 , where x
dx
since m1m2 1 , where m1 and m2 are the gradients of 2 perpendicular lines.
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Q: Find the axis intercepts of a curve.
A: x -intercepts: Let y 0 in the equation of the curve and solve for x .
y -intercepts: Let x 0 in the equation of the curve and solve for y .
Q: Find the value of x at which the tangent is horizontal (parallel to the x -axis).
A: dy
Let 0 and solve for x .
dx
Q: Find the value of x at which the tangent is vertical (parallel to the y -axis).
A: dx dy
Let 1 0 and solve for x .
dy dx
Q: Find the distance, d , between 2 points with coordinates x1 , y1 and x 2 , y2 .
A:
d x2 x1 y2 y1
2 2
Maximization, Minimization & Rates of Change
o Always show that a stationary point you have found is indeed a maximum point
(or minimum point), using either Derivative Test to determine its nature.
o Remember to include units in your final answer.
o Make sure that there is only 1 variable in the expression before differentiating the
expression with respect to that same variable.
o Use the Chain Rule to connect rates of change.
o Similar triangles and trigonometric ratios are useful in forming expressions.
Example 1
Differentiate a x with respect to x .
Solution Comments
a x e ln a (since k e ln k for all k )
x
e x ln a (since log a b r r log a b )
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Let u x ln a , y e u . The details are unnecessary for actual working. Only write:
d x d x ln a dy
a e d x d x ln a
dx dx dx a e
dx dx
By the Chain Rule, e x ln a ln a
dy dy du a x ln a
dx du dx
d u d
e x ln a
du dx
e ln a
u
e x ln a ln a Substitute u back with x ln a .
a x ln a
Example 2 [NJC06/Midyear]
The equation of a curve C is given by y 3 yx 2 2 x 3 k , where k is a constant.
dy
Find in terms of x and y .
dx
Solution Comments
y 3 yx 2 2 x 3 k Whenever an equation involving x and y
cannot be easily expressed as y f x , use
Differentiating with respect to x , implicit differentiation.
dy dy Using the Chain Rule,
3y2 x2 2 xy 6 x 2 0
dx dx d 3 d 3 dy dy
y y 3y2
dx dy dx dx
Using the Product Rule,
d d d
yx 2 x 2 y y x2
dx dx dx
dy
x2 2 xy
dx
3 y 2
x2 dy
dx
2 xy 6 x 2
0 Group the terms containing
dy
dx
by factoring
3 y 2
x2 dy
dx
2 xy 6 x 2
it out, then shift
dy
dx
to one side and factorize
dy 2 xy 6 x 2 2 x y 3x further.
dx 3y x
2 2
3 y2 x2
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Example 3 [SRJC08/Prelim/I/9i]
The parametric equations of a curve are given by
x e 2 t 2t and y e t , where 0 t 1 .
1
4
2
dy d y
Find and show that 0 for 0 t 1 .
dx dx2
Solution Comments
dy Whenever equations for x and y are given
et
dt in terms of a parameter t , use parametric
dx 1 2t 1 1 differentiation.
e 2 (e 2t 1)
dt 4 2 2
dy dx
Find and first.
dt dt
dy dy dx Use the Chain Rule.
dx dt dt
2et
2t
e 1
d 2 y d 2e t d 2 y d dy
dx 2 dx e 2t 1 dx 2 dx dx
d 2et dt Use the Chain Rule to differentiate the
2t expression involving t with respect to t .
dt e 1 dx
d et 1 dt
1
2 2t dx dx
dt e 1 dx
dt
dt
2
e2t 1 et et 2e2t 2
e 1
2 2t
e 2t
1
4
e 2 t 1 et
e 1
3
2 t
4et e 2t 1
e
3
2t
1
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For all t , 0 t 1 , Try to find an inequality satisfied by terms in
et 1 and e2t 1 . d2y d2y
to prove that 0 for 0 t 1 . Use
dx 2 dx2
the given range of values of t .
Since et 1 0 , For all x , x 0 , ex 1 .
e2t 1 2 0 and
e2t 1 0 , Show that the factors in the numerator and
denominator of
et e 2 t 1
are all positive,
et e 2 t 1 0 (shown)
3
d2y e 2t 1
4
dx 2
e 2t 1 3
hence the whole fraction must be positive.
Example 4 [N1998/I/7]
A spherical balloon is being inflated and, at the instant when its radius is 3 m, its surface
area is increasing at the rate of 2 m2 s-1. Find the rate of increase, at the same instant, of
(i) the radius,
(ii) the volume.
4
[The formulae for the surface area and volume of a sphere are A 4 r 2 and V r 3 .]
3
Solution Comments
(i) Let A be the surface area of the balloon in Define all variables that will be used, with
m2 . their units.
Let r be the radius of the balloon in m.
dA Write down all given rates of change, and
2 any relations between the variables.
dt
A 4 r 2
When r 3 , dA
Substitute r 3 only in , and not in
dA dx
8 r 24
dr A 4 r 2 , since r is a variable which
takes a specific value of 3 in the question,
not a constant.
dr
Alternatively, find the expression for
dt
dr 1
first, , then substitute r 3 .
dt 4 r
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dr dr dA Identify what you need to find and what is
dr dA dA
dt dA dt given: given and . Connect
dA dA dt dt dr
1 them using the Chain Rule. You can think
dr dt
of the dA as being “cancelled out”.
1
2
24
1
12
Hence, the radius is Remember to include units in your final
1 dr
increasing at m s-1. answer. Do not write units in , since r
12 dt
and t are already in terms of m and s
respectively.
(ii) Let V be the volume of the balloon in m3.
4
V r3
3
When r 3 ,
dV
4 r 2 36
dr
dV dV dr
36 2 72
dt dr dt
Hence, the volume is
increasing at 72 m3 s-1.
Example 5 [SRJC08/Prelim/I/6]
The diagram below shows the cross-section of a cylinder of
radius x that is inscribed in a sphere of fixed internal radius R .
Show that A2 16 2 x 2 R 2 x 2 , where A is the curved surface
area of the cylinder.
Prove that, as x varies, the maximum value of A is obtained
when the height of the cylinder is equal to its diameter.
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Solution Comments
Draw a line across the rectangular cross-
section of the cylinder. Introducing right-
angled triangles is useful because it allows
R the use of Pythagoras’ Theorem and
trigonometric ratios.
2R h
R
2x
Let h be the height of the cylinder. Define all variables that will be used, and
are not already defined in the question.
By Pythagoras’ Theorem, The curved surface area of a cylinder is its
2R h2 2 x
2 2
circumference height 2 rh 2 xh .
h 2 R2 x2 Since the expression to be proven is in
terms of R and x only, express h in terms
of R and x first.
A 2 xh
2 x 2 R 2 x 2
4 x R 2 x 2
A 2 16 2 x 2 R 2 x 2 (shown)
dA d Use the Product Rule. The question states
4 x R2 x2
dx dx A is to be maximized as x varies, so find
dA
2 x the appropriate derivative .
4 R 2 x 2 x dx
2 R x
2 2
x2 d 2
R 0.
4 R 2 x 2
Since R is a constant,
dx
R2 x2
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4
R 2
2 x2 Factorize
dA
by removing terms which
R2 x2 dx
dA you know are non-zero, such as constants
When 0,
and f x , f x , where f x 0 for
2
dx
R 2x 0
2 2
all x . e.g. x R here ( x R h 0 ),
so R 2 x 2 0 .
This allows cancelling out of terms when
dA
is equated to 0 .
dx
R2 To prove A is maximum when h 2 x ,
x
2
dA
2 first let 0 , then solve for x .
R R dx
x or (rejected x 0 )
2 2
R
x
2
Always verify the nature of the stationary
R R R dA
x point. Here, is difficult to differentiate,
2 2 2 dx
dA so use the First Derivative Test instead.
0 0 0
dx
Since there is only 1 value of x which
gives a stationary point, it must be the
R
Hence, x maximizes A . “maximum value” to be proven.
2
To carry out the test, choose some R 0 ,
e.g. R 1 .
R Express R in terms of x , then substitute
When x , R 2x ,
2 for R in the equation h 2 R 2 x 2 .
h 2 R2 x2
2
2 2x x 2
2 x2
2x or 2x (rejected x 0 and h 0 )
h 2x diameter of cylinder (proven)
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Integration
Basic Formulae
Let u and v be functions of x .
u v dx udx vdx
d
dx f x dx f x c Integration reverses differentiation.
d
f x dx f x
dx
Differentiation reverses integration.
If f x is a function which is defined and continuous for all a x b and
f x dx F x c
then the definite integral of f x from a to b with respect to x is:
f x dx F x F b F a
b b
a a
Integration of Standard Functions
Let n be an integer and a be a constant.
Unless otherwise stated, the derivatives below hold for all x .
Remember to include the arbitrary constant c for indefinite integrals.
NOT in MF15:
f x f x dx f x f x dx
Range of
validity
xn1
xn n 1 cosx sin x
n 1
1
ln x sin x cos x
x
ex ex sec2 x tan x
x ax
a
ln a
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In MF15:
f x f x dx f x f x dx
Range of Range of
validity validity
1 1 x 1
tan 1 tan x ln sec x x
x a2
2
a a 2
1 x
sin 1 x a cot x ln sin x 0 x
a2 x2 a
1 1 xa
ln xa cosec x ln cosec x cotx 0 x
x a2
2
2a x a
1 1 ax 1
ln x a tan x ln sec x tan x x
a x2
2
2a a x 2
If f ( x)dx involves a logarithm ( ln g ( x ) , where g ( x ) is a function of x ), place a
modulus around the expression within the logarithm, i.e. write ln g ( x) . This removes the
need to specify the range of validity.
e.g. cot x ln sin x c
Techniques of Integration
Let f x be any function and F x be its integral given in the table above. To find the
integral of f g x g ' x , where g x is a function of x , use the fact that by the
F g x f g x g ' x .
d
Chain Rule from differentiation,
dx
Hence,
f g x g ' x dx F g x c
Trigonometric Formulae: Used to integrate expressions with trigonometric functions.
NOT in MF15: In MF15:
sin2 x cos2 x 1 sin 2 x 2sin x cos x
tan2 x 1 sec2 x cos 2x cos2 x sin2 x
cot 2 x 1 cosec2 x 2cos2 x 1
1 2sin2 x
(and others)
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Partial Fractions: Used to integrate expressions with an algebraic fraction, which has a
denominator that can be factorized (or is already factorized). Splitting the fraction into
f ' x
partial fractions can help integrate it, since the partial fractions will be of the form .
f x
Partial fraction decomposition formulae are given in MF15.
Integration by Parts: Used to integrate expressions with a product of 2 distinct functions.
dv du
u dx dx uv v dx dx
dv
Generally, choose u in the following order such that is easier to integrate:
dx
LIATE: Logarithmic, Inverse trigonometric, Algebraic, Trigonometric, Exponential.
dv
o To find f ( x ) dx when you can find xf '( x ) dx , let u 1 and f ( x) .
dx
o Use algebraic manipulation if f ( x ) dx becomes the only integral on both sides.
Integration by Substitution: If a substitution is required, it will be given in the question.
To find f ( x ) dx with the substitution x g u :
f x dx f g u du du
dx
For definite integrals,
f g u
x2 u2 dx
x1
f ( x ) dx
u1 du
du
where x 1 g u 1 and x 2 g u 2 .
o For indefinite integrals, express your final answer in terms of x , not u .
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Applications of Integration
y
If f x 0 for all a x b , and R is the
y f ( x)
area between the curve and the x -axis from
x a to x b ,
The area of R can be approximated by the
sum of areas of n rectangles, as shown.
The exact area of R is the limit of this sum
a 0 b x
of areas as n , i.e. the definite integral:
f x dx
b
If f x g x 0 for all a x b ,
y R y f ( x)
Area of R :
y g ( x)
f x g x dx
b
a
Volume of solid formed when R is revolved
completely about the x -axis:
a 0 b x
f x g x dx
b 2 2
a
y If f y g y 0 for all a x b ,
a
Area of R :
0 x
f y g y dx
b
a
R
Volume of solid formed when R is revolved
b completely about the y -axis:
f y g y dy
b 2 2
a
x g ( y) x f ( y)
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If a function is defined in parametric form
y x f t , y g t as x f t , y g t , and y g t 0 for
R all a x b ,
Area of R :
dx
g t dt dt
q
a 0 b x where f p a and f q b .
If y f x has both positive and negative
y y f x
R components within the limits of integration,
split the area between the curve and the x -
axis into its positive and negative parts.
a x
0 c b If f x 0 for all a x c and
f x 0 for all c x b ,
Area of R :
f x dx f x dx
c b
a c
Or:
f x dx
b
y f x If y f x and y g x intersect each
y
R other within the limits of integration, split the
area between the 2 curves into where
f x g x and where g x f x .
y g x If g x f x 0 for all a x c and
f x g x 0 for all c x b ,
a 0 c b x
Area of R :
a g x f x dx c f x g x dx
c b
Or:
f x g ( x) dx
b
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y If y k for some k , k 0 , and a b ,
R
yk Area of R : k b a
The solid formed when R is revolved
completely about the x -axis is a cylinder
with radius k , height b a , and volume:
a 0 b x
k 2 b a
Use the GC to check your answer, or find an integral if an exact answer is not required.
o [MATH] [9], then key in fnInt(<expression>, X , <lower limit>, <upper limit>)
x 2 dx , key in fnInt X 2 , X , 0,1 .
1
e.g. to find
0
Use the GC to sketch graphs of functions first before finding the areas or volumes
Θ,
required. For parametric functions, use [MODE] PAR and key in T using [ X , T , n ].
Example 1 [N08/I/5]
1
1
(i) Find the exact value of 0
3
1 9 x2
dx .
e
(ii) Find, in terms of n and e , 1
x n ln xdx , where n 1 .
Solution Comments
(i) 1
1 1 13 1 Recognize when the integral is of a form given
0
3
1 9 x2
dx
9 0 1
2
dx
in MF15, here 2
1 1
. Either extract to get
x2 x a 2
9
3
1
1 1 the x 2 term, as shown, or extract (since
3tan 3x 3
1
3
9 0
d
3x 3) to get:
1
tan 1 3 tan 1 0
3
dx
1 13 3
1
3 0 12 3x 2
dx
3 3
Then, apply the formula in MF15.
9
Check your answer using GC.
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(ii) dv Here, ln x is Logarithmic and x n is Algebraic,
Let u lnx , xn .
dx so by LIATE, choose u ln x . Write out u ,
du 1 x n1 dv du
Then , v . , , and v .
dx x n 1 dx dx
e
e x n 1 ln x e x
n
1
n
x ln xdx dx n is a constant, so treat it as a constant when
n 1 1 1 n 1 integrating.
e
x n 1 ln x 1 e n
n 1 1 n 1 1
x dx For definite integrals, remember to keep the
limits on every term (integrals and results of
e
x n 1 ln x x n 1
integrals).
n 1 n 1 1
2
Check your answer using GC by choosing some
e n 1 n , n 1 , e.g. n 2 .
e n 1 1
0
n 1 n 1 n 1
2 2
e n 1 e n 1 1
n 1 n 1 n 1 2
2
e n 1 n 1 e n 1 1
n 1
2
ne n 1 1
n 1
2
Example 2 [HCI08/Prelim/I/10]
x2
The diagram below shows the graphs of y and y x 4 , for x 0 . R is the region
2x2 1
bounded by the y -axis, both curves and y 1 .
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1
(i) By substituting y sin 2 , find the exact value of
2
1
y
04 1 2 y dy
1 1
(ii) Verify that the two curves intersect at the point , . Hence or otherwise find the
2 4
exact area of region R .
(iii) Find the volume of the solid generated when R is rotated through 2 radians about
the y -axis, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution Comments
(i) dy 1
2sin cos To find f ( y)dx with the substitution
d 2
y g , recall the general formula:
sin cos
When y 0 , sin 0 0 y2
f y dy
2 dy
f
y1 1 d
d
1 2
When y , sin where y1 g 1 and y2 g 2 .
4 2
2
or (rejected) For a definite integral, change 4 things from
2 4 the original integral:
1. Limits of integration.
2. The function to be integrated.
dy
3. Multiply by .
d
4. Integrate with respect to , not y .
Find 1. and 3. first in your working.
1 2 Write out the original integral, and make all 4
sin
dy changes above at the same time. Simplify the
1
y
0
4
1 2 y
dy 4
0
2
1 sin 2
d
d
substituted integral.
1 2
sin
4 2 2 sin cos d
0 cos
1 4 sin
2 0 cos
sin cos d
1 4 2
2 0
sin d
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1 To integrate sin 2 x or cos 2 x , use the double-
2 2
1 cos 2 d
0
4
angle formula for cos 2x to convert them.
1 1 4 cos 2 x 1 2sin 2 x 2cos 2 x 1
sin 2
2 2 2 0 1
sin 2 x (1 cos 2 x)
2 1 2
0 0 1
4 4 2 cos2 x 1 cos 2 x
2
2( 2)
units2
16
(ii) 1 The question only requires you to verify
When x ,
2 1 1
(NOT show) that at , , the curves
1 1
4
2 4
x
4
intersect. Hence, just show that the point lies
2 4
on both curves.
1
x2 2 1
If the question requires us to find all
2x 1
2
1 4 intersection points, you must use the equation
2 1
2 x2
Hence, the curves intersect x4 2 and solve for x .
2x 1
1 1
at the point , . (verified)
2 4
1
yx x y 4 4
x2
y
2 x2 1 R
2 yx 2 y x 2 0
1
2 y 1 x2 y
A
y 1
x
1 2 y 4
y 1 1
or (rejected x 0 )
1 2 y 2
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1
y 1
1 Look at the graph above to decide what to
Area of R 4 dy 1 y 4 dy 1
0 1 2 y 4 integrate. From y 0 to y , R is
4
y
bounded by the y -axis and x .
1 2 y
1
From y to y 1 , R is bounded by the y
4
1
-axis and x y . Hence, split the integral
4
into these 2 regions.
The method shown here integrates with
respect to y , For each curve, express x in
terms of y , then integrate with the limits
from the y -axis.
2 2 We know the value of the first integral,
1
4 5
y4 1
y
16 5 1
4
04 1 2 y dy , from part (i).
5
2 2 4 4 1 4
Alternative method
16 5 54
1
2 2 4 4 1 1 4 Let A be the region bounded by the axes,
x 1 and y 1 , as shown by the dotted
16 5 5 4 4
rectangle in the graph above. A is a rectangle
2 2 4 1 1
with area 1 .
16 5 5 14
4 Area of region R
2 2 4 1 Area of region A
Area of region outside R and inside A
16 5 5 2
1 x2 1
4 2 2 2 1 2 2 dx 1 x 4 dx
0 2x 1 2
5 16 8 10
4 2 9 2
2
units x2
5 16 40 Use long division on
2 x2 1
to get an
1
integral of the form 2 2 , then use MF15.
a x
The alternative method integrates with respect
to x . Each curve is already expressed as y in
terms of x , hence integrate with the limits
from the x -axis.
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(iii) Volume required Volume of revolution about y -axis is given
1 y 1
1
by x 2 dy . Again, split the integral into 2
4 dy 1 y 2 dy
1 2 y
0
4 regions, then express x 2 in terms of y for
1.984 units (3 d.p.)
3
each region.
The question states “3 decimal places” but not
“exact”, suggesting that you find the volume
directly using GC.
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Differential Equations
Below, DE denotes Differential Equation.
Forms of DEs and General Solutions
Convert any given DE into one of these 3 forms.
Form General Solution
dy
f x
Integrate both sides with respect to x . y f x dx
dx
dy
f y Divide both sides by f y . 1 dy
1
dx
f y dx
Integrate both sides with respect to x . 1
f y dy x
You can imagine the dx ’s cancelling out:
1 dy 1
f y dx dx f y dy
d2y Integrate both sides with respect to x . dy
dx
f x f ( x)dx
dx2
Say f ( x ) dx g x A , dy
g x A
where A is an arbitrary constant. dx
Integrate both sides again with respect to x . y g x A dx
g ( x ) dx Ax
Say g ( x ) dx h x B , y h x B Ax
where B is an arbitrary constant.
There are 2 arbitrary constants in the y h x Ax B
general solution of this form.
Particular Solutions
To find a “particular solution” to a DE, given some initial conditions,
1. Substitute the initial conditions into the general solution.
2. Find the value of the arbitrary constants.
3. Rewrite the general solution with the known values for the arbitrary constants.
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To draw a family of solution curves,
1. Substitute at least 3 distinct values for the arbitrary constant c .
Generally, ensure you include these 3 cases: c 0 , c 0 , and c 0 .
2. Draw the graphs using GC, indicating intercepts, asymptotes, turning points, etc.
Solving DEs by Substitution
dy
If a DE is given as f x, y and a substitution v g x, y is given to solve this DE,
dx
where f ( x, y ) and g x, y are functions of x and y , aim to express the DE in terms of v
and x only (without y ).
dy dv
1. Differentiate the given substitution with respect to x to get in terms of , v and x .
dx dx
dy dv
2. In the original DE, express y and in terms of , v and x .
dx dx
3. Convert the substituted DE into the form required or one of the 3 standard forms above.
4. Solve the DE.
5. Express v in terms of x and y , such that your final answer is in terms of y and x only.
Modelling
In modelling questions, focus on forming the DE correctly as a basis for your answer.
1. Define all variables that will be used, and are not already defined in the question.
dx dx
2. Identify the rate of change, say . Then the L.H.S. of the DE will be .
dt dt
3. Rate of change Rate of increase Rate of decrease,
where Rate of increase and Rate of decrease are both positive.
dx dx
If is proportional to something, e.g. x2t , then x2t . Write:
dt dt
dx
kx2t , where k is a positive constant.
dt
dx dx 1
If is inversely proportional to something, e.g. x2t , then 2 . Write:
dt dt x t
dx k
, where k is a positive constant.
dt x 2t
Look out for key phrases in the question such as “water flows out at a rate of …”, which
indicates a rate of decrease, or “is proportional to”, which indicates proportionality.
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Example 1 [N08/I/4]
(i) Find the general solution of the differential equation
dy 3x
2
dx x 1
(ii) Find the particular solution of the differential equation for which y 2 when x 0 .
(iii) What can you say about the gradient of every solution curve as x ?
(iv) Sketch, on a single diagram, the graph of the solution found in part (ii), together with
2 other members of the family of solution curves.
Solution Comments
(i) 3 2x dy
f x , so just
dy 3x
2 2 The DE is of the form
dx x 1 2 x 1 dx
3 2x integrate both sides. Remember the arbitrary
y 2 dx constant c .
2 x 1
3
ln( x2 1) c,
2
where c is an arbitrary constant. Write this line for proper presentation.
(ii) When y 2 , x 0 , 1. Substitute the initial conditions into the
3 general solution.
c y ln( x2 1) 2. Find the value of the arbitrary constants.
2
3
2 ln1
2
2
3 3. Rewrite the general solution with the
y ln( x2 1) 2 known values for the arbitrary constants.
2
(iii) As x , the gradient of every The gradient of every solution curve is
solution curve tends to 0 . dy 3x
2 , from the DE. As x ,
dx x 1
because the denominator x2 1 will “grow
dy
faster” than the numerator 3 x , 0.
dx
OR
3x
Use the GC to plot the graph of y .
x 1 2
Observe the asymptote y 0 as x .
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(iv) Choose 2 other solution curves which are
y ln x 2 1 2 , c 2
3
2 representative of all values of c . Since
y c 2 is a required curve, choose c 0 and
some c 0 , here c 2 .
Use the GC to draw the graphs of the
2 solution curves.
0 When the general solution is of the form
y f x c , the solution curves are
x
2 translations of each other along the y -axis.
3
y ln( x 2 1) , c 0
2 The gradient is 0 at x 0 , since
3
y ln( x 2 1) 2 , c 2 dy 3x 0 . At some zoom levels on
2 dx x 2 1
the GC, e.g. ZStandard, the curve looks like
a “V” with sharp tangents at x 0 .
The graph has no horizontal asymptote,
even though from part (iii), the gradient of
every solution curve tends to 0 as x .
Example 2 [NYJC08/Prelim/II/1 (Part)]
Show that the differential equation
dy
x2 2 xy 3 0
dx
may be reduced by means of the substitution y ux 2 to
du 3
4
dx x
Hence, or otherwise, find the general solution for y in terms of x .
Solution Comments
y ux 2 1. Differentiate the given substitution with
dy du
dy
dx
u 2x
dx
du 2
x respect to x to get
dx
in terms of
dx
, u
du and x .
2ux x 2
dx
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du
dy
x 2 2ux x 2 2 x ux 3 0
2
2. In the original DE, express y and in
dx dx
du du
x4 2ux3 2ux3 3 terms of , u and x .
dx dx
du 3 3. Convert the substituted DE into the form
4 (shown) required.
dx x
du 3 4. Solve the DE.
4
dx x
dy
3
u 4 dx 3x 4 dx The DE is of the form f x , so just
x dx
integrate both sides. Remember the arbitrary
x 3
3 c, constant c .
3
where c is an arbitrary constant. Write this line for proper presentation.
1 Express u in terms of x and y , such that your
u c
x3 final answer is in terms of y and x only.
y
y ux 2 u
x2
y 1
2
3 c
x x
1
y cx 2
x
Example 3 [HCI08/Prelim/I/7]
A hospital patient is receiving a certain drug through a drip at a constant rate of 50 mg per
hour. The rate of loss of the drug from the patient’s body is proportional to x , where x (in
mg) is the amount of drug in the patient at time t (in hours). Form a differential equation
connecting x and t and show that
x
1
k
50 Ae kt ,
where A and k are constants.
1
Given that k ,
20
(i) Find the time needed for the amount of drug in the patient to reach 200 mg, if initially
there is no trace of this drug in the patient’s body.
(ii) When there is 80 mg of the drug in the patient’s body, the drip is disconnected.
Assuming that the rate of loss remains the same, find the time taken for the amount of
drug in the patient to fall from 80 mg to 20 mg.
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Solution Comments
dx Rate of increase is constant at 50 . Rate of
50 kx, decrease is proportional to x , so write it as
dt
where k is a positive constant. kx , where k is a positive constant.
Now, Rate of change
Rate of increase Rate of decrease
1 dx dy
1 The DE is of the form f y , so divide
50 kx dt dx
1 both sides by f ( y) , then integrate both
50 kx dx 1dt sides. Remember the arbitrary constant c .
1 k
dx 1dt
k 50 kx
1 Evaluate both integrals and introduce the
ln 50 kx t c, arbitrary constant in 1 step.
k
where c is an arbitrary constant.
ln 50 kx kt kc
50 kx ekt kc
50 kx e kc e kt Ae kt , The modulus is eliminated by transferring it
to the arbitrary constant A e kc .
where A e kc is an arbitrary constant.
kx 50 Ae kt
1
x 50 Ae kt (shown)
k
(i)
t
1
x 20 50 Ae 20 Use the information given: k . Interpret
20
the question: “Initially” means t 0 , “no
When t 0 , x 0 ,
trace” means x 0 .
0 20 50 Ae 0
1. Substitute the initial conditions into the
general solution.
A 50 2. Find the value of the arbitrary constant.
t
3. Rewrite the general solution with the
x 20 50 50e 20 known value for the arbitrary constant.
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When x 200 , Interpret the question: Find t when x 200 .
t
200 1000 1 e 20
t
1
1 e 20
5
t
4
e 20
5
t 4
ln
20 5
4
t 20 ln 4.46 hours (3 s.f.)
5
(ii) dx 1 “Rate of loss remains the same”, but the drip
x is disconnected, hence the rate of increase is
dt 20
20 dx 0.
1
x dt
With the given value of k , rewrite the DE
1
20 dx 1dt and solve it.
x
20ln x t B , Evaluate both integrals and introduce the
arbitrary constant in 1 step.
where B is an arbitrary constant.
Remember the arbitrary constant, but since c
is already used, use another letter, say B .
When t 0 , x 80 , Interpret the question: Initially, there is 80
B 20ln 80 mg of drug, so t 0 and x 80 . Find t
20ln x t 20ln80 when x 20 .
When x 20 ,
t 20ln80 20ln 20
20ln 4
27.7 hours (3 s.f.)
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Power Series
If a function f x can be expanded as a power series:
x2 x n ( n)
f ( x ) f (0) xf '(0) f ''(0) f (0) (In MF15)
2! n!
d n f ( x)
where f (n)
(0) is the n th derivative of f ( x) , i.e. , evaluated at x 0 .
dxn
The expression on the RHS is known as the Maclaurin’s series, a type of power series.
In the formula above, x may be replaced with any function of x .
The Maclaurin’s series of the following functions are also in MF15:
o 1 x for x 1 (This is the binomial expansion for rational index)
n
o e x , sin x and cos x for all x
o ln(1 x ) for 1 x 1 (Note the range of valid x values)
Maclaurin’s series are infinite series.
The n th term in the Maclaurin’s series is
xn n
f 0
n!
FAQ
Q: Find the Maclaurin’s series for f x , up to the term in x k .
A: 1. Differentiate the expression repeatedly. Implicit differentiation may be helpful (or
necessary if the question states “By further differentiation of this result”).
d k f x
Find equations connecting all derivatives up to the k th derivative .
dx k
2. Evaluate f x and its derivatives at x 0 using the equations found. When x 0 ,
f ( x) f (0)
dy
f '(0)
dx
d2y d k f x
2
f '' 0 , etc. up to k
f k 0 .
dx dx
3. Substitute f (0) , f '(0) , f ''(0) etc. into the formula for Maclaurin’s series.
Write out each term in ascending powers of x , up to x k .
4. Check your answer by substitute a small value of x , e.g. x 0.01 into both the
original expression and the Maclaurin’s series.
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Small Angle Approximations
Using the Maclaurin’s series of sin x , cos x and tan x up to the term in x 2 ,
sin kx kx
(kx) 2
cos kx 1
2
tan kx kx
where k is a constant. The approximation is accurate when x is small, i.e. x is close to 0 .
To approximate e.g. sin x where x is small, do NOT write sin x x ,
4 4 4
since x is not small. Instead, use the addition formula for sin . Since x is small, the
4
approximations for sin x and cos x are valid.
sin x sin x cos cos x sin
4 4 4
2 x2 2
x 1
2 2 2
2 x2
1 x
2 2
Example 1 [HCI08/Promo/12]
Given that y x tan 1 x , prove that
d2y
1 x2 dx 2
dy
2x 2 y 2 0
dx
By repeated differentiation, show that the first two non-zero terms of the Maclaurin’s series
1
for y are x2 x4 .
3
x tan 1 x
Hence evaluate lim .
x 0
x3
Solution Comments
y x tan 1 x dy
Differentiate y to get .
dy x dx
tan 1 x
dx 1 x2
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1 x dy 1 x tan 1 Since the expression to be proven contains
2 2
x x
d2y
dx
d2y
1 x2
dx 2
, manipulate the equation to
1 x 2
dy
2 x 1 2 x tan 1 x 1
dy
2
dx dx contain 1 x 2 , then use implicit
2 dx
1 x2
dx
d y
2
dy
2 x 2 y 2 0 (proven)
dx
differentiation.
d3y d2y d2y Use the Product Rule and Chain Rule, and
1 x2 dx 3
2 x
dx 2
2 x
dx 2
dy
dx
dy
2 2 0
dx
remember:
d dy
3 2
y
1 x
2 d y
dx 3
d y
4x 2 0
dx
dx dx
d dy d 2 y
dx dx dx 2
d4y d3y d3y d2y
1 x2 dx 4
2 x
dx3
4 x
dx3
4
dx 2
0 d d2y d3y
, etc.
d4y d3y d2y dx dx 2 dx3
1 x
2
dx 4
6 x
dx3
4
dx 2
0
Since the question requires the series up to
x 4 , find equations connecting all
d4y
derivatives up to .
dx4
When x 0 , Evaluate y and its derivatives at x 0 ,
dy d2y d3y d4y using the equations found above.
y 0, 0, 2 2, 3 0, 4 8
dx dx dx dx
Substitute the resulting values into the
x
2
x4
y 0 0 x 2 0 x3 8 formula for Maclaurin’s series.
2! 4!
1
y x2 x4 (shown)
3
x tan 1 x x 2 x tan 1 x Convert the expression to contain
x tan 1 x . Substitute the series for
x3 x4
1 x tan 1 x which has been found into the
x 2 x 2 x 4 expression.
3
4
x
1 4
x
3
x4
1 4 As x tends to 0 , the x5 , x6 etc. terms get
x tan x 1
3 x 1 1
lim lim smaller faster than the x 4 term, thus the
x0
x3 x0 x4 3 3
1 4
x term dominates the numerator.
3
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Example 2 [NYJC08/Prelim/II/3 (Part)]
dy
A curve C is defined by the equation 2 y y 2 1 and (0, 2) is a point on C .
dx
d 3 y 57
(i) Show that at x 0 , .
dx3 256
Find the Maclaurin’s series of y up to and including the term in x 3 .
(ii) Hence find the series expansion of e y , up to and including the term in x 2 .
Solution Comments
(i) dy Differentiate the equation of C
2y y2 1
dx repeatedly. Since the question requires
d2y dy dy
2 the series up to x 3 , find equations
2y 2 2 2y d3 y
dx dx dx connecting all derivatives up to .
2 dx3
d 2 y dy dy
y 2 y
dx dx dx Since differentiation here is with respect
d y dy d y
3 2
dy d y
2
to x , by the Product Rule and Chain
y 2 2 2 Rule:
dx dx dx
3
dx dx
d 2 y dy
2
d dy
y y 2
2
d 2 y dy
y 2 dx dx dx dx
dx dx
dy d y
2
d3y 2
d 2 y dy Evaluate y and its derivatives at x 0 ,
y 3 3 2 y 2
dx dx dx dx dx using the equations found above.
When x 0 ,
dy 3
y 2,
dx 4
2
d2y 3 3 d 2 y 15
4 2 4
dx 2 4 4 dx 2 32
2
d3y 3 15 15 3
2 3 3 2
dx 4 32 32 4
d 3 y 57
(shown)
dx3 256
3 15 x 2 57 x 3 Substitute the resulting values into the
y 2 x formula for Maclaurin’s series.
4 32 2! 256 3!
3 15 19 3
y 2 x x2 x
4 64 512
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(ii) 3 15
2 x x 2 3 x 15 x2 Substitute the series for y which has
ey e 4 64
e 2 e 4 64
been found into the expression. e 2 must
be extracted. Otherwise,
3 15 2 1 3 15 2
2
e 1 x
2
x x x
4 64 2! 4 64 1 2 1 3
ey 1 y y y
3 2! 3!
15 2 1 3 2
2
e 2 1 x x x
4 64 24 will have infinitely many constant terms,
3 15 since each y contains a 2 . Hence, this
e2 e2 x e2 x2 series cannot be simplified.
4 64
Example 3 [YJC08/Prelim/I/4iii]
It is given that y tan e x 1 .
d 2 y dy
(i) Prove that 2
1 2ex y .
dx dx
(ii) Find Maclaurin’s series for y in ascending powers of x , up to and including the term
in x 3 .
sec2 e x 1
(iii) Deduce the first three terms of the Maclaurin’s series for .
ex
We will focus on part (iii) only.
From part (i):
dy
dx
e x sec2 e x 1
1 1
From part (ii): y x x 2 x 3
2 2
Solution Comments
sec2 (e x 1)
(iii) dy dy
e x sec2 e x 1 looks similar to . To obtain the series
dx dx ex
d 1 1 dy
x x 2 x3 of , differentiate both sides of
dx 2 2 dx
3 2 1 1
1 x x y x x2 x3
2 2 2
sec2 e x 1 sec2 (e x 1)
x
e sec e 1
2
x
ex
Since
e x
has an e x term, substitute x with
3 –x .
1 x x
2
2
Questions on binomial expansion or power series
3
1 x x 2 commonly include differentiation and integration
2 concepts.
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Binomial Expansion
Binomial Expansion for Rational Index
n n 1 2 n n 1 n r 1 r
1 x
n
1 nx x x (In MF15)
2! r!
where is either a non-integer rational number or a negative integer, and x 1 .
The expansion is an infinite series.
For the expansion to be valid, x 1 .
Use the GC to check your answer by substituting some within the range of validity. The
actual value and the value given by the expansion should be approximately equal.
Knowing “shortcut” expansions (NOT in MF15) can be convenient. For x 1 ,
1 x 1 x x 2 x 3 x r
1
1 x 1 x x 2 x 3 1 x r
1 r
1 x 1 2 x 3 x 2 4 x 3 r 1 x r
2
FAQ
Q1: Expand a bx c n in ascending powers of x up to the term in x k ,
where a and b are constants and x c is a positive power of x .
A1: 1. Extract a n to convert the expression such that it contains 1 as a term.
n
bx c
a bx
c n
a 1
n
a
2. Use the binomial expansion for rational index, including only terms up to x k .
Use the above “shortcut” expansions if possible to save time.
Write out the entire expression before simplifying to reduce careless mistakes.
3. Simplify the coefficients.
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Q2: State the range of values of x for which the expansion of a bx c n is valid.
A2: 1. Look at the expression immediately before the binomial expansion was used.
It should be of the form [1 f ( x )]n .
2. For the expansion of [1 f ( x )]n ,
the range of validity is f ( x ) 1 , i.e.
1 f ( x ) 1
3. Simplify the inequality to give a range of values of x.
Q3: Expand an expression in ascending powers of x up to the term in x k .
A3: 1. Express the expression as a product (or sum) of terms of the form a bx c ,
n
using partial fractions if required.
2. For each factor, follow the 3 steps in Answer (1) above.
3. Multiply (or add) the expansions for each term together.
4. Discard any terms which have a power of x greater than k.
Q4: State the range of values of x for which the expansion of an expression is valid.
A4: 1. Using Answer (2) above, find the range of values of x for which the expansion of
each term of the form a bx c is valid.
n
2. The set of values of x for which the entire expression is valid is then the
intersection of the sets of values of x for each term.
Q5: Expand a bx c n in descending powers of x up to the term in x k .
A5: Same as Answer (1) above, but for Step 1:
Extract bx c instead of a n to convert each factor such that it contains 1 as a term.
n
n
a
a bx bx
c n c n
1 bx c
Q6: Find the r th term (or its coefficient) in the expansion of an expression.
A6: Use the fact that the r 1 term in the expansion is
th
n n 1 n r 1 r
x
r!
Q7: By putting x a , find an approximation for b ,
where a and b are constants.
A7: 1. Ensure a is within the range of values of x such that the expansion is valid.
2. Substitute x a into both the original expression and the expansion.
3. Manipulate the equation to obtain an approximation for b .
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Example 1 [N2006/I/12 (Modified)]
(i) Express
1 x 2x2
f ( x)
2 x 1 x 2
in partial fractions.
(ii) Expand f ( x) in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x 2 .
(iii) Find the set of values of x for which the expansion is valid.
(iv) Deduce the equation of the tangent to the curve y f ( x) at the point where x 0 .
Solution Comments
(i) (working omitted) Use the partial fractions decomposition
1 x 1 for a non-repeated quadratic factor in the
f ( x)
1 x 2
2 x denominator (in MF15).
f ( x ) 1 x 1 x 2 2 x
1 1
(ii) Express f ( x) as a sum of terms of the
form a bx c .
n
1 For each term,
x
1 x 1 x 2 21 1
1
1. Extract a n to convert the expression
2
1
such that it contains as a term.
1 x
1 x 1 x
2 1
1
2 2
1 x 1 x 2 2. Use the binomial expansion for
rational index, including only terms
1 1
2
1 up to x 2 .
1 x x
2 2 2
Use the “shortcut” expansions of
1 x and 1 x to save time.
1 1
1 x 1 x 2 3. Simplify the coefficients.
1 1 1
x x 2 ...
2 4 8
1 1 1
1 x 2 x x x 2 Ignore x x 2 x 3 when simplifying,
2 4 8 since the expansion should be up to x 2 .
1 3 9 Write “ ” after the first few terms of an
x x2 expansion (after any expansion in any
2 4 8
step).
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(iii) 1 Immediately before the binomial
x 1 and x 2 1 expansion was used, the expressions were
2
1
1
x 2 and x 1 and 1 x 2 .
1
1 x
2 x 2 and 1 x 1 2
For the expansion to be valid, For the entire expansion to be valid, both
binomial expansions involved must be
Set of values of x {x : 1 x 1}
1
valid, i.e. x 1 and x 2 1 .
2
Find the intersection of the 2 sets of
values, and give the final answer in set
notation, since the question specified “set
of values”.
Use set-builder notation, NOT interval
notation i.e. 1,1 .
(iv) 1 3 9 To find the gradient of the tangent, find
y x x 2 dy
2 4 8 when x 0 . To find the point of
dy 3 9 dx
x tangency, find y when x 0 .
dx 4 4
1 dy 3
When x 0 , y and . A straight line with gradient m and
2 dx 4
Equation of required tangent: passing through a point with coordinates
1 3 x1 , y1 has equation:
y x 0 y y1 m ( x x1 )
2 4
3 1
y x Questions on binomial expansion or
4 2
power series commonly include
differentiation and integration concepts.
Example 2 [HCI08/Prelim/I/6]
1 x
n
2
Expand in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x .
1 x
State the set of values of x for which the series expansion is valid.
19 p
Hence find an approximation to the fourth root of , in the form , where p and q are
21 q
positive integers.
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Solution Comments
1 x
n
Express f x as a product of terms of
1 x 1 x
n n
1 x the form a bx c .
n
n n 1 Use the binomial expansion for rational
1 n x x
2
index, including only terms up to x 2 .
2!
1 n x
n n 1 x 2 Write out the entire expression before
2! simplifying to reduce careless mistakes.
n n 1 2
1 nx x
2
n n 1 2
1 nx x
2
n n 1 n n 1 Choose 1 from the first bracket and
1 nx x2 nx n2 x2 x2 n n 1 2
2 2 multiply it with 1, nx , and x
1 2nx 2n2 x 2 2
in the second bracket in turn. Do the
same with the other 2 terms in the first
bracket.
While doing so, discard any terms which
have a power more than 2, since the
expansion should be up to x 2 .
For the expansion to be valid, x 1 . Immediately before the binomial
expansion was used, the expressions
Set of values of x {x : 1 x 1}
were 1 x and 1 x .
n n
For the entire expansion to be valid, both
binomial expansions involved must be
valid, i.e. – x 1 and x 1 , but both
inequalities are equivalent to x 1 .
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1 1 1 19 1
Let x and n . n , since raised to the power
20 4 4 21 4
1 19
Since x 1 , the expansion is valid. is the fourth root of . It remains to
20 21
1 make
1 4 19 1 x
1
1 x 20
n
,
21 1 x
1 x 1 1 with x 1 for the expansion to be valid.
20
1
20 1 4 1
Solve for x directly to get x .
20 1 20
19
4 OR
21
19
Try to write in a similar form as
21
1 x 20 1
. You may come up with ,
1 x 20 1
which suggests dividing both top and
bottom by 20 to get
1
1
20
1
1
20
1
Hence, x .
20
2
1 1 1 1
2 1
1 2 2 Substitute x back into the
4 20 4 20 20
expansion. Since only the first few terms
3121
, where p 3121 and q 3200 . are taken, write “ ” instead of “ ”
3200 where the approximation occurs.
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Vectors
When representing vectors as single letters, write a squiggle underneath: a .
Basic Formulae
Distance between a1 b1
2 points
If 2 points have position vectors a a2 and b b2 , then:
a b
3 3
AB a1 b1 a2 b2 a3 b3
2 2 2
Unit vector A unit vector is a vector with modulus 1, usually used to specify
direction. The unit vector â of a vector a is given by:
a
aˆ
a
Ratio theorem If the point P divides AB such that AP : PB : , then:
OA OB
OP
OA OB
In particular, if P is the midpoint of AB , then OP .
2
Angle, , between: a b
2 vectors a and b : cos 1
a b
2 lines
b1 b 2
l1 : r a 1 b 1 , cos 1
l2 : r a 2 b 2 : b1 b 2
2 planes
n1 n 2
1 : r n 1 p1 , cos 1
2 : r n 2 p2 : n1 n 2
a line l : r a b and b n
sin 1
a plane : r n p : b n
Between 2 lines, 2 planes, or a line and a plane, there are generally 2
angles, 1 acute and 1 obtuse. The modulus around the dot product in
finds the acute angle.
Between 2 vectors, there is only 1 unique angle, thus there is no
modulus around the dot product.
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Equations of Lines & Planes
Line Vector Cartesian
r a b , x a1 y a2 z a3
b1 b2 b3
Make the subject for each
of the 3 equations, then
combine them to get the a1 b1
Cartesian form. Use a a2 and b b2 to get vector form.
a b
3 3
Plane Vector Cartesian Scalar Product
r a b c , , n1 x n2 y n3 z p r n an p
Use b c n to find a normal Set special conditions, e.g. Expand the dot product
to the plane, then a n p to x y 0 to find 3 points to get the Cartesian
get the scalar product form. equation.
A , P , Q on the plane.
The vector form is then
r OA AP AQ .
Dot Product VS Cross Product
Dot Product ( a b ) Cross Product ( a b )
Output Scalar Vector perpendicular to both a and
b
Formula a b a b cos , where is the Magnitude: a b sin
angle between a and b . Direction: Right-Hand Grip Rule
Calculation a1 b1 a1 b1 a2b3 a3b2
a2 b2 a1b1 a2b2 a3b3 a2 b2 a3b1 a1b3
a b a b a b a b
3 3 3 3 1 2 2 1
a a a
2
Lengths & Areas
Say the vectors a , b , c form a right-angled triangle, as shown, and
A you know the vectors a and b . You can then find the lengths AC
and BC .
Let A .
b a
Length AC Length BC
Length of projection Perpendicular distance
of AB onto b from B to b
c B
C AB cos AB sin
a bˆ a bˆ
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Let the points A and B have position vectors a
A C and b respectively. Let C be the point such that
OACB is a parallelogram.
a
1
Area of triangle OAB ab
2
O b B
Area of parallelogram OACB a b
Foot of Perpendicular & Perpendicular Distance
P From P to l :
Foot of perpendicular, F , with position vector f :
Since F lies on l , f a b for some .
Since PF and l are perpendicular, f p b 0 .
a b p b 0
Solve for to find f .
F A l : r a b
Perpendicular distance, PF PF :
Say a point P has position vector
p , and a line l has equation Use any of these 3 methods.
r a b , as shown. Say point A 1. Find f as above.
lies on l . PF f p
2. Find AP and AF .
By Pythagoras’ Theorem, PF AP2 AF 2 .
3. PF AP b
P From P to :
n Foot of perpendicular, F , with position vector f :
Since PF is perpendicular to , PF is parallel
to n . Also, since P lies on PF :
l PF : r p n , .
Since F lies on l PF , f p n for some .
F A Since F lies on , f n p
: r n p p n n p
Solve for to find f .
Say a point P has position vector p , Perpendicular distance, PF PF :
and a plane has equation r n p ,
as shown. Say point A lies on . PF AP n
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SLE denotes system of linear equations. Use PlySmlt2 on the GC to solve SLEs.
2 Vectors, a and b
Parallel: The SLE given by a b has a non-zero real solution for .
Perpendicular: ab 0
2 Lines in 3 dimensions, l1 : r a 1 b 1 and l2 : r a 2 b 2
Parallel: b 1 and b 2 are parallel (see above).
Intersecting at a point: b 1 and b 2 are NOT parallel (see above), AND
The SLE given by a1 b 1 a 2 b 2 has a unique real
solution for and .
Point of intersection, P : If the solutions are 0 and 0 ,
OP a1 0b1 (or a 2 0b 2 ).
Skew: b 1 and b 2 are NOT parallel (see above), AND
The SLE given by a1 b 1 a 2 b 2 has no real solution
for and .
3 Points, A , B , C
Collinear AB , AC , BC are all parallel.
(on the same line): You may pick any 2 and show that they are parallel (see above).
q1
Point, Q , with position vector q q2
q
3
Lies on a line l : r a b : The SLE given by q a b has a real solution
for .
Lies on a plane : r n p : qn p
Lies on a plane : r a b c : The SLE given by q a b c has a real
solution for and .
Lies on a plane : n1 x n2 y n3 z p : n1q1 n2 q2 n3 q3 p
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Line & Plane, l : r a b and : r n p
l lies on : b n 0 AND a n p
l is parallel to , b n 0 AND a n p
but does not lie on :
l intersects at one point: b n 0
l is perpendicular to if b and n are parallel (see above).
Point of intersection, P : Solve a b n p for . If
the solution is 0 ,
OP a 0b
n1 m1
2 Planes, 1 : r n p and 2 :r m q , where n n2 and m m2
n m
3 3
Parallel: n and m are parallel (see above).
Intersecting along a line: n and m are NOT parallel (see above)
Line of intersection, l : Expand the dot products into
Cartesian equations to obtain the SLE:
n1 x n2 y n3 z p
m1 x m2 y m3 z q
If PlySmlt2 on the GC solves the SLE to give:
x1 a1 b1 x3
x2 a2 b2 x3
x3 x3
where x1 , x 2 , x3 represent x , y , z respectively and a1 ,
a 2 , b1 , b2 are constants,
a1 b1
l a2 b2 ,
0 1
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3 Planes
Use their Cartesian equations to obtain a SLE with 3 equations in 3 variables: x , y , z .
Do not intersect No real solution for x , y , z .
at any common point or line:
Intersect at one common point: Unique solution for x , y , z .
Point of intersection, P : If the solution to the SLE is
x0 , y 0 , z 0 ,
x
0
OP y0
z
0
Intersect along one common line: x and y can be solved in terms of z .
Line of intersection, l : See above, where 2 planes
intersect along a line.
Example 1 [TJC06/Prelim/I/14]
6
x8 5 y
The lines l1 and l 2 have equations z 1 and r 4 respectively, where
2 2 1
.
Find
(i) the acute angle between l1 and the z -axis.
(ii) the position vector of the foot of the perpendicular, N , from the origin to l1 .
(iii) the point of intersection of l1 and l 2 .
Hence, find a vector equation of the reflection of line l 2 in the line l1 .
Solution Comments
(i) x8 5 y Convert Cartesian equations of lines to
Let z 1. vector equations, which are usually much
2 2
more useful.
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x 8 2 Express x , y , z in terms of .
Then: y 5 2
z 1
8 2
l1 : r 5 2 ,
1 1
0 z varies along the z -axis, while x and y
z -axis: r 0 , do not, and the z -axis passes through the
1 origin, explaining its vector equation.
Let be the acute angle between l1 and For the acute angle between 2 lines, use:
the z -axis.
2 0 b b
cos 1 1 2
2 0 b1 b 2
1 1
cos 1 70.5 (1 d.p.) Since we are finding the acute angle, place
2 0 a modulus around the dot product.
2 0
1 1
(ii) 8 2 (Since N lies on l1 )
ON 5 2 , for some .
1
2 8 2 2 (Since ON is perpendicular to l1 )
ON 2 5 2 2 0
1 1 1
16 10 1 4 4 0 Expand the dot product, then solve for .
3
8 2 3 2 Substitute into the original equation for
ON 5 2 3 1 ON .
1 3 2
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(iii) Let P be the point of intersection
between l1 and l 2 .
8 2 6
Then OP 5 2 4 ,
1
for some , .
2 6 8 Write the system of linear equations such
that LHS has and in that order, and
2 4 5
1 RHS has a constant.
From the GC, 0.5 , 1.5 . Then, solve using PlySmlt2 on the GC.
6 1.5 9 The question asks for “the point”, so give
the coordinates of the required point
OP 4 1.5 6
instead of its position vector.
1.5 1.5
Hence, P is 9,6, 1.5 .
l2 Draw a diagram first to illustrate the
O question, and label the points clearly.
In a “Hence” question, use information
from previous parts. With reference to the
diagram, part (ii) gives ON and part (iii)
P N l1
gives OP .
A
l3
Let l3 be the reflection of l 2 in l1 . To obtain the vector equation of l3 , we
4 can find 2 points which lie on l3 . 1 point is
OA 2ON 2 P , and part (ii) gives OP .
4
From the diagram, we can use ON from
4 9 5
part (ii) to find the position vector of A ,
PA 2 6 8 another point on l3 , since ON AN .
4 1.5 5.5
Now PA is a direction vector of l3 .
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10 When writing the equation of a line
1 l : r a b , choose the simplest vector
PA 16
2 for a (here, choose OA over OP ) and
11 leave b in the simplest integer form. This
4 10 makes your working easier in any later
l3 : r 2 16 , parts.
4 11
Example 2 [N08/I/11]
The equations of three planes p1 , p2 , p 3 are
2 x 5 y 3z 3
3x 2 y 5z 5
5x y 17 z
respectively, where and are constants. When 20.9 and 16.6 , find the
coordinates of the point at which these planes meet.
The planes p1 and p2 intersect in a line l .
(i) Find a vector equation of l .
(ii) Given that all three planes meet in the line l , find and .
(iii) Given instead that the three planes have no point in common, what can be said about
the values of and ?
(iv) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane which contains l and the point 1, 1,3 .
Solution Comments
When 20.9 , 16.6 , Substitute the given values for and .
2 x 5 y 3z 3
Use the Cartesian equations of the 3 planes
3 x 2 y 5 z 5 to obtain a SLE with 3 equations in 3
5 x 20.9 y 17 z 16.6
variables: x , y , z .
From the GC, Solve it using GC, then the unique solution
4 4 7 for x , y , z gives the coordinates of the
x , y , z
11 11 11 point of intersection.
Coordinates of the point at which p1 , p2 Give the coordinates of the point, not its
and p 3 meet: position vector.
4 4 7
, ,
11 11 11
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(i) 2 x 5 y 3z 3 Use the Cartesian equations of the 2 planes
to obtain a SLE with 2 equations in 3
3x 2 y 5z 5 variables: x , y , z .
From the GC,
x 1 Solve it using GC. If the GC gives the
y 1 , where . solutions for x and y in terms of z , the 2
z planes intersect along a line.
Write z as a parameter, say , to get the
1 1 vector equation of the line.
l : r 1 1 ,
0 1
(ii) 5 p1 and p2 already intersect in the line l ,
p3 : r with equation found in part (i). If all 3
17 planes intersect in l , l must lie on p3 .
The method shown here uses the fact that
Since l lies on p3 , every point which
for each value of ,
lies on l also lies on p3 . 1 1
1 1 5
s 1 1
0 1
1 1 , for all .
0 1 17
gives the position vector of a point on l .
5 5 0 17
22 5
Since the above equation is true for all Consider 22 5 to have
, comparing coefficients,
as variable, with and constant. Since
22 0
every point on l lies on p3 , every value of
5 fulfils the equation.
22
5 17
22 , 17
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(iii) p1 , p2 and p 3 have no point in common p1 and p2 already intersect in the line l .
if and only if l is parallel to p3 and l
does not intersect p3 . Case 1: l is not parallel to p3 , then l and
p3 will intersect. This intersection point
will be a point in common to p1 , p2 and
p3 .
Case 2: l lies on p3 , then any point on l
will be a point in common to p1 , p2 and
p3 .
Case 3: l is parallel to p3 and l does not
intersect p3 , then since p1 and p2 only
intersect in l , p1 , p2 and p 3 have no point
in common.
l is parallel to p3 if and only if: l is parallel to p3 if and only if the
1 5 direction vector of l is perpendicular to the
normal to p3 , i.e. their dot product is 0.
1 0
1 17
5 17 0
22
When l is parallel to p3 , When l is parallel to p3 , either every point
l intersects p3 if and only if: on l or no point on l lies on p3 . Hence, it
1 5 is enough to check if a point on l lies on
p3 .
1
0 17
5
Hence, both 22 and 5 This corresponds to the situation when l is
must be true. parallel to p3 and l does not intersect p3 .
22 and 17
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(iv) Let be the required plane. To get the scalar product equation of the
1 1 2 plane in the form r n p ,
1 1 0 1. Find the normal n by taking the cross
0 3 3
product of 2 vectors which lie on the
1 2 3 plane.
1 0 1 Since l lies on , the direction vector
1 3 2
of l also lies on . Use a point which
lies on l and the given point 1, 1,3
to find another vector which lies on .
3 1 3 2. Once n is known, find the constant p
using
p4 : r 1 1 1 2
2 3 2
r n an p
where a is the position vector of any
point on .
x 3 Expand the dot product to get the Cartesian
equation of , as required.
y 1 2
z 2
Cartesian equation of :
3x y 2 z 2
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Complex Numbers
Im A complex number in Cartesian form:
z a bi
Z a, b consists of a real part a and an imaginary
b
part bi , where a, b and i 1 .
z Any complex number z a bi can be
represented geometrically as a point on the
arg z complex plane.
0 a Re On an Argand diagram, the horizontal axis is
the real axis, and the vertical axis is the
imaginary axis.
Let z a bi , a, b be a complex number in Cartesian form.
On an Argand diagram, let Z and Z * be the points representing z and z* respectively.
Real part, Re z and imaginary part, Im z
o Re z a
o Im z b (not bi )
o Re z is the x -coordinate of Z
o Im z is the y -coordinate of Z
Modulus, z
o z a2 b2
o Distance of Z from the origin (length of OZ )
Argument, arg z Im
arg z A arg z A
o Angle that OZ makes with the positive
real axis, in an anticlockwise sense
o arg z
o arg 0 is undefined A A
b A 0 A Re
o Calculate the basic angle, A tan 1
a
o Draw the Argand diagram: arg z
depends on both A and the quadrant arg z A arg z A
which the point Z is in.
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Conjugate, z * a bi
o Re z * Re z
o Im z * Im z
o z* z
o arg z * arg z
zz * z
2
o
o z z* 2 Re z
o z z* 2i Im z
o The conjugate distributes over addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division:
*
z z*
zw z w , * , z w z * w* , z w z * w*
* * * * *
w w
o To simplify a fraction with a complex number in its denominator, multiply both
numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator.
o Z is Z * reflected about the x -axis.
Forms of Complex Numbers
Cartesian form
o z a bi
o Useful for addition and subtraction of complex numbers
Polar form (also Trigonometric form or Modulus-Argument form)
o z r cos i sin
o Convert from polar to Cartesian or exponential forms, which are more useful.
Exponential form
o z re i
o Useful for multiplication, division and exponentiation of complex numbers
If z rei r cos i sin , i.e. z is in Polar or Exponential form,
o z r
o arg z
o z* rei r cos i sin
Conversion between forms
o Cartesian to Polar or Exponential: r z , arg z
o Polar or Exponential to Cartesian: a r cos , b r sin
o Between Polar and Exponential: Use the same r and
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Operations on Complex Numbers
i1
Let z1 a1 b1i re
1 and z2 a2 b2i r2ei2 .
On an Argand diagram, let Z 1 and Z 2 be the points representing z1 and z2 respectively.
Addition & Subtraction
Im
A
Z1
Z2
0 Re
o z1 z2 a1 a2 b1 b2 i
o z1 z2 a1 a2 b1 b2 i
o Complex numbers can be represented as vectors on an Argand diagram. Hence,
addition and subtraction of complex numbers can be represented as addition and
subtraction of vectors.
o OZ1 OZ 2 OA , the position vector of the point representing z1 z 2 .
o OZ1 OZ 2 OB , the position vector of the point representing z1 z 2 .
Multiplication & Division
o z1 z2 z1 z2 r1r2
z1 z r
o 1 1
z2 z2 r2
o arg z1 z2 arg z1 arg z2 1 2
z
o arg 1 arg z1 arg z2 1 2
z2
o Starting from O Z 1 ,
An anticlockwise pivot by 2 radians about the origin and scaling by a
factor of r2 gives the position vector of the point representing z1 z 2 .
A clockwise pivot by 2 radians about the origin and scaling by a factor of
z
r2 gives the position vector of the point representing 1 .
z2
An anticlockwise pivot by radians about the origin gives the position
vector of the point representing z1ei . In particular, when , the
2
position vector of the point representing iz1 is given.
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Complex Roots of Polynomial Equations
Non-real complex roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients occur in conjugate
pairs. If is a root of a polynomial equation with real coefficients, then * is also a root of
the equation.
Example: Since z 3 5 z 2 17 z 13 0 is a polynomial equation with real
coefficients and z 2 3i is a root, z * 2 3i is also a root. Equivalently,
since z 2 3i is a factor of the polynomial, z 2 3i is also a factor.
De Moivre’s Theorem
If z rei r cos i sin ,
z n r n ei n r n cos n i sin n
Loci of Complex Numbers
A locus (plural loci) is a set of points which fulfill a given condition.
On an Argand diagram, let Z , A , B be the points representing z , a , b respectively.
Z is a variable point which can move, while A and B are fixed points.
z a is the distance between Z and A .
arg z a is the angle made by the vector AZ with the positive real axis.
Im za r za r
What it means:
r A The distance between Z and A is a constant, r
Locus of Z :
0 Re A circle with centre A and radius r
za r
Im za r
The distance between Z and A is less than r .
Locus of Z :
r
The area inside the circle with centre A and radius r .
za r
0 Re The distance between Z and A is more than r .
Locus of Z :
The area outside the circle with centre A and radius r .
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Im z a z b za zb
A What it means:
Z is an equal distance from each of A and B
B
Locus of Z :
The perpendicular bisector of
0 Re the line joining A and B
Im z a z b za zb
Z is closer to A than it is to B .
A
za zb
Z is closer to B than it is to A .
B
Locus of Z in each case:
0 Re z a z b separates the plane into 2 areas:
z a z b is the area containing A .
z a z b is the area containing B .
Im arg z a arg z a
What it means:
The angle made by AZ with the positive real axis is a
A constant,
0 Re
Locus of Z :
The half-line starting at (but not including) A and
making an angle with the positive real axis
Im 1 arg z a 2 1 arg z a 2
The angle made by AZ with the positive real axis is
between 1 and 2 .
2 Locus of Z :
A 1
The area bounded from the locus arg z a 1 ,
0 Re anticlockwise to the locus arg z a 2 .
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FAQ
Q: Find the roots of the equation z n w ,
where z and w are complex numbers, is a constant, and n is a positive integer.
A: 1. Convert w to exponential form. Say w rei .
z rei
n
2. Introduce 2k to .
z re 2 k i , where k .
n
1
3. Raise both sides to the power of .
n
1 1
z r n e 2k i n
4. By De Moivre’s Theorem,
1 2 k
i
z r e n n
5. Solve for z .
1 2 k
i
z r e n n
6. Write the possible values of k . In general, k 0,1, 2, , n 1 .
However, if the roots must be given in the form rei with , substitute
values of k to check if is in the required range. There will be n consecutive
integer values of k .
Reject those values of k which make any expression undefined (denominator 0 ).
Q: Solve for z and w in 2 simultaneous linear equations.
Example [PJC07/Prelim/I/1]
Solve the simultaneous equations
iw z 1 i ----- (A)
40
2 z 1 i w ----- (B)
6 2i
giving each answer in the form a bi , where a and b are real.
A: Method 1
1. Multiply (A) by 2 such that the coefficient of z in (A) and (B) are both 2.
2. Use (A) (B) to eliminate the 2 z term from both equations.
3. Solve for w , then solve for z .
Method 2
1. Using (A), express z in terms of w : z 1 i iw .
2. Substitute z in (B) with the expression in terms of w .
3. Solve for w , then solve for z .
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Q: Find the complex (real and non-real) roots of a polynomial equation.
A: If the polynomial equation in z has degree n (the highest power of z is n ), and
the coefficient of z n is k , the equation can be expressed as a product of k and n
linear factors of the form z .
If is a root of the equation, z is a factor of the polynomial.
1. If the polynomial equation has real coefficients,
Given that is a non-real complex root of the equation, * is also a root.
2. Using any given roots or factors, long division or comparing coefficients, express
the polynomial as a product of its factors.
3. Use the general quadratic formula to factorize any quadratic factors.
4. When the equation is in this form with n linear factors of the form z :
k z 1 z 2 z n 0
then 1 , 2 , , n are the n (possibly repeated) roots of the equation.
Q: Sketch loci on an Argand diagram.
A: Draw all circles, lengths and angles accurately and to scale using a compass, ruler
and protractor. Ensure the real and imaginary axes are to the same scale.
For loci of the form arg z a , draw a small circle at the point representing a
to show that it is excluded, since arg a a arg 0 is undefined.
For strict inequalities, draw the loci of the equality cases as dashed to show that
they are excluded, e.g. for z a r , draw the locus z a r as a dashed circle.
Label all loci with their equations, and label required regions/sets of points.
Q: Find the minimum/maximum value of z a , arg z a or z w ,
OR Find the points of intersection of the loci of points representing z and w ,
where z and w are variable while a is fixed.
A: Interpret what expressions mean geometrically on the Argand diagram, rather than
interpret them algebraically. e.g. minimum value of z w is the minimum distance
between any point on the locus of points representing z and any point on the locus
of points representing w .
As a last resort for finding points of intersection, find the Cartesian equations of the
lines or circles and solve the equations simultaneously.
Find lengths using the formula for the distance between 2 points.
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Find right-angled triangles to use trigonometric ratios.
If the locus of z is a circle, z b r and the fixed complex number a is
represented by the point A outside the circle,
o Use tangents to the circle to find the min./max. values of arg z a .
o Draw a line from point A through the centre of the circle. The line and
circle will have 2 points of intersection. Use the distance from A to these 2
points to find the min./max. values of z a .
Example 1 [SRJC08/Prelim/II/3]
1 ei
(i) Show that i
can be reduced to i cot .
1 e 2
1
(ii) Find all the roots of the equation z
8
1 i , giving each root in the form rei
2
where r 0 and .
w 1
8
1
(iii) Hence deduce all the roots of 1 i .
w 1 2
Solution Comments
(i)
i
i
1 ei e 2 e 2 “Factoring out ” is a common theme in
2
1 ei i
i Complex Numbers proving questions.
e 2
e 2
2 i
2 Re e Here, it takes the form of factoring out e
i
2
from both the numerator and denominator.
i
2i Im e 2
The aim is to create expressions of the form
z z* or z z* , which can be written as Re z
2cos or 2i Im z respectively.
2
2i sin
2
cos cos
cos
2 sin sin
i sin
2
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1 1 i i
2 i
cot
i 2 i i 1
i cot
2
(ii) 1
z
8 1 i
1 i e 4 1. Convert 1 i to exponential form.
2 2
8 k 1
i
e 4
2 k i
e 4
, where k . 2. Introduce 2k to .
4
By De Moivre’s Theorem, 1
8 k 1
3. Raise both sides to the power of , and
i 8
ze 32
, 4. Use De Moivre’s Theorem.
where k 3, 2, 1, 0,1 , 2,43,
5. Write out the possible values of k . Since
the question requires , there will
be exactly 8 consecutive integer values of k
which will give in the required range.
Substitute values of k to check which
values are valid.
(iii) w 1 1
8
1 i
w 1 2
8k 1
Let .
32
w 1 w 1
z ei Since corresponds with z in part (ii),
w 1 w 1
zw z w 1 equate the two. To deduce the roots of the
1 z w 1 z equation in w , express w in terms of z .
1 z 1 ei
w
1 z 1 ei
8k 1 k takes the same values as in part (ii), since the
w i cot i cot , values of k are for the roots of the equation in
2 64 z from part (ii).
where k 3, 2, 1, 0,1 , 2,43,
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Example 2 [AJC08/Prelim/I/6]
If z i is a root of the equation z 3 1 3i z 2 2 3i z 2 0 , determine the other roots.
Hence find the roots of the equation w3 1 3i w2 3i 2 w 2 0 .
Solution Comments
Let z 3 1 3i z 2 2 3i z 2 Let P z z 3 1 3i z 2 2 3i z 2 .
z i z 2 az b ,
for some complex numbers a and b . Not all of the coefficients of P z are real.
Hence, though i is a root, i i may not be
*
z 3 1 3i z 2 2 3i z 2 a root.
z 3 az 2 bz iz 2 aiz bi
z 3 a i z 2 b ai z bi After P z (degree 3) is divided by z i
(degree 2), it should leave a quadratic factor
Comparing coefficients, (degree 2). Expand z i z 2 az b and
1 3i a i a 1 2i compare the coefficients.
2
2 bi b 2i
i Do NOT write P z in terms of linear factors
z az b z 1 2i z 2i
2 2
first: z i z a z b , since it will be
difficult to compare coefficients.
Alternative method
Use long division to find the remainder when
P z is divided by z i .
When z 2 1 2i z 2i 0 , Use the general quadratic formula to factorize
the quadratic factor.
1 2i 4 1 (2i)
2
(1 2i)
z Use the GC to perform calculations with
2(1)
complex numbers, including square roots, to
2i 1 3 4i avoid careless mistakes.
2
2i or 1
Hence, the other roots are 2i and 1 .
Taking conjugates on both sides, Let Q w w3 1 3i w2 3i 2 w 2 .
z 3 1 3i z 2 2 3i z 2 0*
*
Observe that the coefficients of w in Q w are
the conjugates of the coefficients of z in P z .
Hence, convert the coefficients of z in P z to
their conjugates.
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z 1 3i z 2 3i z 2 0 Simplify the LHS using z w z * w* , and
* * * * *
3 2 *
z 1 3i z 3i 2 z 2 0 zw z * w* , which extends to:
*
3 2
* * *
z z z z
3 *
z* z* z* z*
* 3
Hence, the roots of
w3 1 3i w2 3i 2 w 2 0 Since the equation in z* is now similar to the
are the conjugates of the roots of equation in w , each root of Q w corresponds
z 3 1 3i z 2 2 3i z 2 0,
to the conjugate of a root of P z .
i.e. i , 2i , and 1 .
Example 3 [AJC07/Prelim/II/3]
In an Argand diagram, the point A represents the fixed complex number a , where
0 arg a . The complex numbers z and w are such that
2
z 2ia a and w w ia
Sketch, in a single diagram, the loci of the points representing z and w .
Find:
(i) the minimum value of z w in terms of a ,
1
(ii) the range of values of arg in terms of arg a .
z
Solution Comments
Im Let B be the point representing 2ia .
Let C be the point representing –ia .
w w ia
z 2ia a
If 0 arg a , A is in the first
B 2
a A quadrant of the complex plane. Plot any
a such point A .
D a
The locus of points representing z is a
0 Re circle centred at B with radius a .
C
The locus of points representing w is the
perpendicular bisector of the line
segment joining the origin and C .
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From OA , an anticlockwise pivot about
the origin by radians and a stretching
2
by factor 2 gives OB .
From OA , a clockwise pivot about the
origin by radians gives OC .
2
(i) Minimum value of z w Geometrically, the minimum value of
1 z w is the minimum distance between
OD OC a point on the locus of points
2
1 representing Z and a point on the locus
a a of points representing W .
2
3
a Since the locus of points representing w
2 is a bisector of OC , it divides OC into
1
2 segments of equal length, a .
2
(ii) 1 Express the condition in terms of a
arg arg 1 arg z arg z
z known variable, arg z .
z 2ia a Im Do not redraw the diagram, a relevant
part of it is copied here for easier
reference.
a M
B
A
a
D
a a
N
0 Re
Let M and N be the points at which the Using tangents to the circle is a
tangent to the locus of z passes through the common technique to find the min./max.
origin, as shown. value of arg z a when the locus of
points representing z is a circle.
Let M and N represent the complex
numbers m and n respectively.
If Z is the point representing z , arg z
Then arg(m) arg z arg n . is the angle made by the vector OZ
with the positive real axis.
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a Use arg a since the question requires
BOM BON sin 1
2a the final answer to be in terms of
6
arg a .
arg m arg a BOM
2
The line OB passes through the centre
arg a of the circle. Hence, use the angle OB
2 6
makes with the positive real axis as a
arg a reference, and add/subtract from it.
3
OA makes an angle of arg a with the
arg n arg a BON
2
positive real axis, and BOA .
arg a 2
2 6
Hence, OB makes an angle of
2
arg a
3 arg a with the positive real axis.
2
2 Convert the range of values of arg z
arg a arg z arg a
3 3 1
to the range of values of arg .
z
2 Multiply each term in the inequality by
arg a arg z arg a 1 , and flip the inequality signs.
3 3
2 1
arg a arg arg a
3 z 3
Example 4 [NJC08/Prelim/I/6]
(i) The set of points P in an Argand diagram represents the complex number z that
satisfies z 2 i 2 . Sketch the locus of P .
(ii) The set of points Q represents another complex number w given by
arg w 2 3i where . Give a geometrical description of the locus of
Q.
(a) Find the range of values of such that the locus of Q meets the locus of P
more than once.
3
(b) In the case where tan 1 , find the least value of z w in exact form.
4
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Solution Comments
(i) Im z 2 i 2
z 2i 2
(2,1 ) The locus of P is a circle centred at 2,1
2 with radius 2 .
0 Re Show on the diagram that the circle is
tangent to the imaginary axis. Examiners
will look out for the relative position of
lines and circles to the axes.
(ii) The locus of Q is a half-line starting at arg w 2 3i
(but not including) 2, 3 and making
an angle with the positive real axis. Remember to write “(but not including)”.
(ii)(a) Im z 2i 2 Using tangents to the circle is the same
technique as in Example 3, part (ii).
(2,1 )
2 2
0 4 Re
2
1
(2, 3)
2 The line passing through the centre of the
1 sin 1
2 4 2 6 3 circle makes an angle of with the
2
2 2
2 sin 1 positive real axis. Hence, use this angle as
2 4 2 6 3 a reference, and add/subtract from it.
1 2
2
3 3
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(ii)(b) Im z 2i 2 The locus of Q (which represents w )
should have gradient
A(2,1 ) arg w 2 3i 3 3
2 tan tan1
6 4 4
0 4 D Re
Geometrically, the least value of
3
C z w is the minimum distance
between a point on the locus of P
B(2, 3) 4 and a point on the locus of Q .
3 From the diagram, this minimum
tan 1
4 distance is DC , where DCB and
ACB are right angles.
AB 4 The only useful right-angled triangle
3 is ABC . Since DC AC 2 , aim to
ABC tan 1 find AC first.
2 4
AC
sin ABC Knowing AB and ABC , AC can
AB be found using trigonometric ratios
AC AB sin ABC on the right-angled triangle ABC .
3
4sin tan 1
2 4
4 16 3
AC 4 Let tan 1 .
5 5 4
Least value of z w DC
AC 2
6
5 5 2
3
4
To calculate sin in exact
2
form, draw a right-angled triangle
3
involving . Since tan , the
4
side opposite and the side adjacent
to have lengths in the ratio 3: 4 .
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Permutations & Combinations
Basic Counting Principles
Addition Principle: If there are a ways to do something and b ways to do another thing,
and the two things cannot be done simultaneously, then there are a b total ways to do
exactly one of the things.
Multiplication Principle: If there are a ways to do something and b ways to do another
thing, then there are a b ways to do both things in succession.
Choosing & Permuting
Is the order of objects important?
Look for keywords in the question, e.g.
o Important: arrange, order, in a row, around a table
o Not Important: choose, select, form groups/committees/teams
Yes No
Can each object be repeated any number of times? No. of ways to choose r
objects from n distinct
Yes No objects:
No. of arrangements of r objects (possibly n!
n
Cr
repeated) from n distinct objects: r ! n r !
nr
e.g. Choose 2 monitors
e.g. Form a string of 4 letters using the English
from a class of 24
alphabet: n 26 , r 4 , No. of ways 26 4 students: n 24 , r 2
Are all the objects distinct? No. of ways 24C 2
Yes No
No. of arrangements of r objects (all No. of arrangements of n objects, where:
distinct) from n distinct objects: n1 are of type 1,
n2 are of type 2, …
n!
n
Pr nk are of type k :
n r !
n!
e.g. Choose 1 monitor, 1 treasurer, 1 n1 !n2 !nk !
secretary (all distinct) from a class of e.g. Arrange 2 red balls, 3 green balls, 5
24 students: n 24, r 3 , blue balls in a row. Since 2 3 5 10 ,
No. of ways 24 P3 10 !
No. of ways
2 ! 3! (5 !)
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Useful Techniques
Circular permutations: No. of permutations of distinct objects in a circle = ( − 1)! ,
assuming the positions around the circle are identical.
Grouping adjacent objects: If some objects must be adjacent, group them and treat them
as a single object. When arranging all the objects/groups, remember to also arrange the
grouped objects within each group.
Slots: e.g. If 3 women and 5 men are to be seated in a row such that no 2 women are
adjacent, arrange the 5 men first. There are 6 ‘slots’ (denoted | ) between and beside the 5
men (denoted M):
|M|M|M|M|M|
Then, arrange the 3 women in 3 distinct ‘slots’. Hence, the number of ways is 5! 6 P3 .
Complement method: Use it when direct computation is tedious, especially if key
phrases like ‘at least one’ appear in the question.
If A is a condition, the number of objects with A equals the total number of objects,
minus the number of objects without A :
n A n total n( A ')
Case-by-case method: Use it if all else fails. Check that each possibility is counted in
one and exactly one case, such that no possibilities are double-counted or missed out.
Example 1 [RJC08/Tutorial 12/Section D/11]
Find the number of permutations of all eight letters of the word BELIEVED in which
(i) there is no restriction;
(ii) the three letter ‘E’s are next to each other;
(iii) the three letter ‘E’s are always separated.
Solution Comments
(i) 8! The letters in BELIEVED are 3 ‘E’s and 1 each of ‘B’, ‘L’,
6720
3! n!
‘I’, ‘V’, ‘D’. Since only ‘E’ is repeated, use
n1 !n2 !nk !
with n 8 and n1 3 ( n2 , , n8 1 ).
(ii) 6! 720 Group the 3 ‘E’s as 1 object. Arrange the 6 resulting objects.
(iii) 5! 6C 3 24 0 0 Arrange B, L, I, V, D first, for 5! permutations. There are 6
‘slots’ between and beside these 5 letters: | B | L | I | V | D |.
Place the 3 ‘E’s in 3 of these 6 slots. Since the order of the
‘E’s does not matter, use 6C3 instead of 6 P3 .
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Example 2 [RJC08/Tutorial 12/Section D/12]
3 boys, 2 girls, and a dog sit at a round table. How many ways can they be arranged if
(i) there is no restriction?
(ii) the dog is to be seated between the 2 girls?
(iii) the dog is to be seated between any 2 boys?
Solution Comments
(i) 6 1! 120 Use n 1! directly with n 6 .
(ii) (4 1)! 2 12 Group the 2 girls and the dog as 1 object. Arrange the 4
resulting objects, then multiply by 2 as the objects within the
group can be arranged in 2 ways.
Denoting the girls by G1 and G2 and the dog by D , the group
can be G1 DG2 or G2 DG1 in clockwise order.
(iii) 4 1! 3! 36 Group some 2 boys and the dog as 1 object. Arrange the 4
resulting objects to get 4 1! . Since the 3 boys are distinct,
multiply by 3! to arrange them.
Example 3 [HCJC01/I/7]
Thirteen cards each bear a single letter from the first thirteen letters A, B, …, L, M of the
alphabet. Seven cards are selected at random from the thirteen cards, and the order of
selection is not relevant. How many selections can be made if the seven cards
(i) contain at least two but not more than four of the letters A, B, C, D and E?
(ii) contain four but not five consecutive letters, e.g. A, B, C, D, G, H, I?
Solution Comments
(i) 5
C 2 8C 5 5C 3 8C 4 5C 4 8C 3 Use a case-by-case method.
1580
The 7 cards chosen contain:
Case (1): exactly 2 of the letters A, B, C, D, E.
Case (2): exactly 3 of those letters.
Case (3): exactly 4 of those letters.
e.g. for Case (1) when there are 2 of those 5 letters,
choose those 2 first to get 5C 2 . We are left with 5
letters to choose and 8 letters to choose from, to get
8
C5 .
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(ii) 8
C 3 2 7 C 3 8 392 Since there are only 7 cards, they can contain at
most 1 string of 4 consecutive letters. Use a case-by-
case method.
The 7 cards chosen have no 5 consecutive letters,
and:
Case (1):
Contain A, B, C, D or J, K, L, M (2 sub-cases)
Case (2):
Contain any other 4 consecutive letters (8 sub-cases)
For Case (1), after the 4 consecutive letters are
fixed, 1 other letter cannot be chosen, since it would
form 5 consecutive letters, i.e.:
If A, B, C, D are fixed, E cannot be chosen.
If J, K, L, M are fixed, I cannot be chosen.
We are left with 3 letters to choose and 8 letters to
choose from, to get 8C3 for each sub-case.
Case (2) is similar, except after the 4 consecutive
letters are fixed, 2 (not 1) other letters cannot be
chosen, e.g.:
If B, C, D, E are fixed, A and F cannot be chosen.
Hence, we get 7C3 for each sub-case.
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Probability
Definitions
Let A and B be random events.
P A B is the probability that both A and B occur.
P A B is the probability that only A occurs, only B occurs, or both A and B occur.
Conditional probability: P A | B is the conditional probability of A given B .
Equivalently, P A | B is the probability of A occurring, given that B has occurred.
P A B
o P A | B , where P B 0 .
P B
Mutually exclusive: A and B are mutually exclusive if A and B cannot both occur.
o P A B 0
o P A B P A P B
Independent: A and B are independent if the occurrence or non-occurrence of one
event has no influence on the occurrence or non-occurrence of the other.
o P A | B P A
o P B | A P B
o P A B P A P B
Useful Techniques
Use set diagrams to illustrate the problem.
Complement method: Use it when direct computation is tedious, especially if key
phrases like ‘at least one’ appear in the question.
P A 1 P A '
Case-by-case method: Use it if all else fails. Check that each possibility is counted in
one and exactly one case, such that no possibilities are double-counted or missed out.
For any 2 random events A and B ,
P A B P A P B P A B
In particular, if A and B are mutually exclusive, then since P A B 0 ,
P A B P A P B
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To find the probability of A occurring given that B has occurred,
P A B
o Calculate P A | B , or
P B
o Consider the reduced sample space given that B has occurred, then calculate
n A B
P A | B , where n X is the number of outcomes for X to occur.
n B
Use concepts from Permutations & Combinations (P&C) to count cases.
Use concepts from other topics for alternative approaches to questions.
o P&C, when objects are chosen without replacement.
o The Binomial distribution, when objects are chosen with replacement.
Probability Tree (Tree Diagram)
Use a probability tree when the fixed probabilities or conditional probabilities of 2 or 3
events are given.
Example: P A , P B | A 1 , and P B | A ' 2 .
Probability tree:
1 B
A
1 1 B'
2 B
1
A'
1 2 B'
is the probability of A , while 1 is the conditional probability of B given A . In
general, the probabilities on the first level of the diagram are for only 1 event, while those
on the second level are conditional probabilities.
To find P A B , P A ' B , P A B ' , P A ' B ' , multiply the 2 relevant
probabilities.
e.g. P A ' B P A ' P B | A ' 1 1
To find P B or P B ' , add the probabilities of the branches which lead to B or B ' .
e.g. P B P A P B | A P A ' P B | A ' 1 1 2
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Example 1 [D90/II/6]
A bag contains 4 red counters and 6 green counters. 4 counters are drawn at random from the
bag, without replacement. Calculate the probability that:
(i) all the counters drawn are green,
(ii) at least 1 counter of each colour is drawn,
(iii) at least 2 green counters are drawn,
(iv) at least 2 green counters are drawn, given that at least 1 counter of each colour is
drawn.
State with a reason whether or not the events ‘at least 2 green counters are drawn’ and ‘at
least 1 counter of each colour is drawn’ are independent.
Probability approach P&C approach
(i) 6 5 4 3 1 6
C4 1
10 9 8 7 14 10
C4 14
Let G be the number of green counters out Assume the counters are distinct, so that
of the 4 counters drawn. Then, this is each of the 10C4 combinations of 4
P(G 4) . counters have an equal probability of
being chosen. Out of these, 6C4
There is no need to multiply by anything
combinations are all green.
else to account for order, since all 4 counters
are the same type (green).
(ii) 1 4 3 2 1 97 1 4
C 97
1 1 10 4
14 10 9 8 7 105 14 C 4 105
Using the complement method: Similar to the Probability approach.
P G 1, 2, 3
1 P G 0 P (G 4)
1 P G 0 (i)
(iii) 1 97 6 4 3 2 4! 37
1 97 6C1 4C3 37
10
14 105 10 9 8 7 3! 42 14 105 C4 42
P G 2, 3, 4 Again, assume the counters are distinct.
P G 4 P G 1, 2, 3 P G 1 There are 6C1 combinations of 1 green
4
(i) (ii) P(G 1) counter, and C3 of 3 red counters,
giving 6C1 4C3 total combinations of 1
4! green and 3 red.
Multiply by when finding P(G 1) , to
3!
account for order when there are different
types of items (green and red).
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Solution Comments
(iv) 37 1 97 85 In probability questions with many parts, look out
for ways to use your answers to earlier parts, even
42 14 105 97
though the question may not require it explicitly.
We want to find the conditional probability of
G 2,3, 4 given that G 1, 2,3 . Since the
intersection of these 2 events is G 2,3 , using the
formula for conditional probability:
P (G 2,3) P G 2,3, 4 P (G 4) (iii) (i)
P (G 1, 2,3) P (G 1, 2,3) (ii)
Let A be the event that at least Since P ( B ) , P ( A) , and P( A | B) are known from
2 green counters are drawn. Let parts (ii), (iii), and (iv) respectively, choose the
B be the event that at least 1 condition P A P ( A | B ) to check if A and B are
counter of each colour is drawn.
independent.
85
Since P A | B
97
37
and P A ,
42
P A|B P B , thus A and B
are not independent.
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Example 2 [J88/II/6]
4 girls, Amanda, Beryl, Claire, and Dorothy, and 3 boys, Edward, Frank, and George, stand
in a queue in random order. Find the probability that:
(i) the first 2 in the queue are Amanda and Beryl, in that order,
(ii) either Frank is first or Edward is last (or both),
(iii) no 2 girls stand next to each other,
(iv) all 4 girls stand next to each other,
(v) all 4 girls stand next to each other, given that at least 2 girls stand next to each other.
Probability approach P&C approach
(i) 1 1 1 5! 1
7 6 42 7 ! 42
Amanda is in position 1 with probability There are 7! permutations of the 7 people,
1 each with equal probability. 5! of these
, then once there are 6 positions
7 permutations have Amanda in position 1
remaining, Beryl is in position 2 with and Beryl in position 2.
1
probability .
6
(ii) 1 1 1 1 11 6! 6! 5! 11
7 7 7 6 42 7! 42
Let F be the event that Frank is first, Similar to the probability approach.
and E be the event that Edward is last.
Use
P F E P F P E P(F E ) .
(iii) 4 3 2 1 1 4! 3! 1
7 6 5 4 35 7! 35
The 7 people must be in the order Since we are counting permutations with
‘gbgbgbg’, where ‘g’ denotes a girl and this approach, we must permute both boys
‘b’ a boy. and girls in the ‘gbgbgbg’ order, then
divide it by the total of 7! permutations.
Position the girls first, then the positions
of the boys are fixed and the condition is
satisfied.
(iv) 4 3 2 1 4 4! 3! 4 4
4
7 6 5 4 35 7! 35
This is similar to part (iii), except there Similar to the probability approach.
are 4 possible positions of ‘gggg’ within
or beside ‘bbb’.
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Solution Comments
(v) 4 Again, in probability questions with many parts, look out for
35 2 ways to use your answers to earlier parts, even though the
1 17 question may not require it explicitly.
1
35
Let A be the event that all 4 girls stand next to each other. Let B
be the event that at least 2 girls stand next to each other. Then
A B A , since B is a subset of A .
P( B' ) is given by the answer to (iii), since ‘at least 2 girls stand
next to each other’ and ‘no 2 girls stand next to each other’ are
complementary events. Using the formula for conditional
probability:
P ( A B ) P ( A) P ( A) (iv)
P A | B
P( B) P ( B ) 1 P ( B ') 1 (iii)
Example 3 [N01/II/11a]
1 1 1
Events A and B are such that P A , P B | A , and P A ' B ' .
3 3 6
Find
(i) P A B ,
(ii) P B .
Solution Comments
(i) 5 On a Venn diagram, A B is the area within one
P A B 1 P A ' B '
6 or both of A and B , and A ' B ' is the area not
within either A or B .
Hence, P A B 1 P A ' B ' .
(ii) P B Rewrite the given equations in terms of P ( A) ,
P A B P A P A B P ( B ) , and P( A B) for easier manipulation.
P A B P A P A P ( B | A) Use
5 1 1 1 P A B P A P B P A B
6 3 3 3 then
11 P( A B)
P B | A
18 P ( A)
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Distributions
Expectation
Since the expectation is a summation, you can apply summation rules to it.
Let a and b be constants, and X and Y be random variables.
E a a
E aX aE X
E aX b aE X b
E aX bY aE X bE Y
Variance
The variance is always positive. When combined, 2 variances are always added together.
Var a 0 , since a constant has no variation.
Var aX a 2 Var X
Var aX b a 2 Var X
If X and Y are independent,
Var aX bY a 2 Var X b 2 Var Y
Standard deviation Var X
Var 2 X 4 Var X , but Var X 1 X 2 2 Var X . (Example 2)
Properties of Distributions
Binomial: X ~ B n, p
n
P X x p x 1 p (In MF15) for x 0,1, 2,..., n
n x
o
x
o Mean, E X np
o Variance, Var X np 1 p
o Assumptions:
n independent trials
Constant probability of success
Each outcome is either success or failure
Occur randomly
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Poisson: X ~ Po
x
o P X x e
(In MF15) for x 0,1, 2,...
x!
o Mean, E X
o Variance, Var X
o Assumptions:
Occur independently
Uniform rate of occurrence
Occur singly
Occur randomly
Normal: X ~ N , 2
o Mean, E X
o Variance, Var X 2
GC Syntax
If you forget GC syntax, use CtlgHelp. For example, to find the syntax for normalcdf(,
1. [APPS] 3:CtlgHelp [ENTER]
2. [2ND][VARS], then press the down key until normalcdf( is highlighted.
3. Press the [+] key to display the syntax.
If X ~ B n, p ,
P X a is given by binompdf n, p , a
P X a is given by binomcdf n, p , a
If X ~ Po ,
P X a is given by poissonpdf , a
P X a is given by poissoncdf , a
If X ~ N , 2 ,
P X a is given by normalcdf E 99, a , ,
P X a is given by normalcdf a , E 99, ,
P a X b is given by normalcdf a , b, ,
P X a P X a
P X a P X a
P a X b P a X b P a X b P a X b
For Z ~ N 0,1 , the standard normal random variable, and can be omitted in the
GC syntax. The GC will assume that 0 and 1 .
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FAQ
Q: Which distribution does a random variable X follow?
A: If X can have non-integer values,
X is continuous and follows a normal distribution.
If X can have any integer value from 0 onwards with no upper limit,
X follows a Poisson distribution.
If X can have any integer value from 0 onwards to an upper limit n ,
X follows a binomial distribution.
Q: “Using a suitable approximation,…”
or “Find the approximate number of…”
or “Estimate…”
A: Show that the original distribution fulfills the conditions for approximation.
Legend: “ ” denotes “approximates to”
n is large
such that np 5
and n 1 p 5
Binomial Normal
X ~ B n, p Continuity X ~ N np , np 1 p
correction
Normal
X ~ N ,
n is large ( 50 ),
p is small ( 0.1 ), Continuity
such that np 5 correction
10
Poisson Poisson
X ~ Po np X ~ Po
If X follows a binomial distribution, i.e. X ~ B n, p , use the value of p to decide
whether to approximate to a Poisson or normal distribution.
If p is close to 1, approximate X to a Poisson distribution.
If p is moderate (close to 0.5), approximate X to a normal distribution.
If p is close to 0, define a new variable Y which has p close to 1, and approximate
Y to a Poisson distribution.
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Q: Sum random variables.
A: Let X and Y be independent random variables.
If X ~ Po 1 and Y ~ Po 2 ,
X Y ~ Po 1 2
Subtraction ( X Y ) is not allowed.
If X ~ N 1 , 12 and Y ~ N 2 , 2 2 ,
o X Y ~ N 1 2 , 12 2 2
o aX b ~ N a 1 b, a 2 12
o aX bY ~ N a 1 b 2 , a 2 12 b 2 2 2
Q: Solve for multiple unknowns, e.g. and .
A: For Binomial or Poisson, use GC or use the formula for P X x .
For Normal, if , , or both are unknown, always standardize X to Z .
X
1. If X ~ N , 2 , then let Z .
X
2. Then Z ~ N 0,1 and P X x P Z
.
3. Since for Z , both mean (0) and standard deviation (1) are known,
X
use InvNorm on the GC to find an equation for .
4. Solve simultaneous equations if necessary.
Example 1 [N01/II/8]
The random variable X has a normal distribution with P X 7.460 0.01 and
P X 3.120 0.25 . Find the standard deviation of X .
200 independent observations of X are taken.
(i) Using a Poisson approximation, find the probability that at least 197 of these
observations are less than 7.460.
(ii) Using a suitable approximation, find the probability that at least 40 of these
observations are less than -3.120.
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Solution Comments
Let X ~ N ( , 2 ) . Since and are unknown for X , we
x cannot immediately use InvNorm, and
Let Z , then Z ~ N (0,1) . standardization is necessary.
7.460
P X 7.460 P Z 0.01
7.460 Once you get an equation in this form,
PZ 0.99 InvNorm can be used as and are
known for Z .
From the GC, Key in InvNorm(0.99) . If you do not
7.460 specify and , the GC will assume
2.3263 (5 s.f.)
0 and 1 , as with the standard
normal distribution.
(working omitted) Similarly, standardize and use InvNorm
for the other equation from the question,
From the GC, P X 3.120 0.25 .
3.120
0.67449 (5 s.f.)
2.3263 7.460 Write the system of linear equations and
use PlySmlt2 on the GC to solve for
0.67449 3.120
and .
From the GC, 3.53 (3 s.f.)
(i) Let Y be the number of observations not We define Y with “not less than” rather
less than 7.460 out of 200 observations. than “less than”, because p must be
Then Y ~ B(200, 0.01) . small for a Poisson approximation.
Since n 200 is large (>50) and p 0.01 Remember to write “out of 200
is small such that np 2 5 , observations”.
Y ~ Po(2) approximately.
P 200 Y 197 200 Y is the number of observations
less than 7.460, as required.
P Y 3 0.857 (3 s.f.)
(ii) Let W be the number of observations less Z is reserved for the variable with the
than 3.120 out of 200 observations. standard normal distribution, so define the
Then W ~ B(200, 0.25) . variable as W instead.
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Since n 200 is large such that To approximate a binomial variable with
np 50 5 and n 1 p 150 5 , moderate p e.g. 0.25 , use a normal
W ~ N 50, 37.5 approximately. approximation. If p is extreme e.g. 0.01 ,
use a Poisson approximation.
P W 40 P (W 39.5) Remember to key in 37.5 for
(by continuity correction) normalcdf on the GC, not 2 37.5 .
0.957 (3 s.f.)
Example 2 [AJC05/II/27]
The weights of large eggs are normally distributed with mean 65 grams and standard
deviation 4 grams. The weights of standard eggs are normally distributed with mean 50
grams and standard deviation 3 grams.
(a) One large egg and one standard egg are chosen at random. Find the probability that
4
the weight of the standard egg is more than the weight of the large egg.
5
(b) Standard eggs are sold in packs of 12 while large eggs are sold in packs of 5.
(i) Find the probability that the weight of a pack of standard eggs differs from
twice the weight of a pack of large eggs by at most 5 grams.
(ii) A customer bought two packs of large eggs. Find the value of m (to the nearest
0.1 gram) if there is a probability of 0.03 that the average weight of the eggs in
one pack is more than the average weight of the eggs in the other pack by at
least m grams.
Solution Comments
(a) Let X represent the weight of a large egg, in grams.
Let Y represent the weight of a standard egg, in grams.
Then X ~ N 65, 42 and Y ~ N 50,32
4
Required probability is P Y X
5
4 4
E Y X 50 (65) 2
5 5
4 16
Var Y X 32 4 19.24
2
5 25
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4
Y X ~ N 2,19.24
5
4 4
P Y X P Y X 0 0.324 (3 s.f.)
5 5
(b)(i) Required probability A pack of standard eggs
P Y1 Y2 ... Y12 2 X 1 ... X 5 5 contains 12 different eggs,
hence each egg is an
E Y1 ... Y12 2 X 1 ... X 5 independent observation of
Y.
50 12 2 5 65
50
Var Y1 ... Y12 2 X 1 ... X 5
12 32 4 5 16
428
Y1 ... Y12 2 X 1 ... X 5 ~ N 50, 428
P Y1 Y2 ... Y12 2 X 1 ... X 5 5
P 5 Y1 ... Y12 2 X 1 ... X 5 5
0.0109 3 s.f.
X 1 ... X 5 X 6 ... X 10 Even though one pack is
~ N 0, 6.4 more than the other, use the
5 5
X ... X 5 X 6 ... X 10 modulus sign because either
Let Q 1 pack could be the heavier
5 5 one.
P | Q | m 0.03 P Q m 0.015
From G.C., m 5.5 g nearest 0.1g
Example 3 [NJC05/II/30]
A Geography student is studying the distribution of bullfrogs in a large rural field where there
is an average of 500 bullfrogs per 400 km2. One part of the field is identified and divided into
50 equal squares, each with sides measuring 2 km. The student wishes to model the
distribution of bullfrogs in each square by using the Poisson distribution with mean .
(i) State the value of and one assumption made in using the Poisson distribution.
(ii) Four squares are selected at random. Find the probability that two of these squares
contain no bullfrogs and each of the other two squares contains at least 2 bullfrogs.
(iii) Using a suitable approximation, find the probability that, out of 50 squares, there are at
least 35 squares that contain at most 5 bullfrogs each.
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(iv) Determine the approximate probability that the total number of bullfrogs in 10 randomly
selected squares is between 40 and 60 (not inclusive).
(v) The student suggests using the same model on another rural field in another country.
Comment on the suitability of the model in this situation.
Solution Comments
(i) Area of a square is 4km2 . Do not write the “probability” that
400 a bullfrog lies in a square is
Total squares in field 100. independent. Use the word
4
“event”.
500
5
100 Alternative assumption
Assumption: The event that a bullfrog lies in a Average rate of occurrence of
square is independent of other bullfrogs. bullfrogs in the field is constant.
(ii) Let X be number of bullfrogs in a square. Use P & C:
Then X ~ Po 5 There are
4!
permutations of 4
2!2!
Required probability objects where 2 objects are of type
A and the other 2 are of type B.
[ P X 0 ]2 1 P X 1
2 4!
2!2!
0.000251 3 s.f.
(iii) P X 5 0.61596 If np > 5, try approximating
binomial to normal. Otherwise, try
Let Y be the number of squares that contain at
binomial to Poisson, since these
most 5 bullfrogs, out of 50.
are the only two possible cases.
Y ~ B 50, 0.61596
Since n 50 is large,
np 30.8 5, n 1 p 19.2 5,
Y ~ N 30.798,11.828 approximately.
P Y 35
P Y 34.5 (by continuity correction)
0.141 3 s.f.
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(iv) Let Q denote number of bullfrogs in 10 squares.
Then Q ~ Po 50
Since ,
Q ~ N 50,50 approximately.
P 40 Q 60
P (40.5 Q 59.5) (by continuity correction)
0.821 3 s.f.
(v) The number of bullfrogs may not be randomly
distributed in another country. Therefore, the
model may not be suitable.
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Sampling & Testing
Sampling Methods
Example: Say we want to select a sample of 50 workers from a company with 200 workers.
40 workers are under 30 years old, 100 are 30 to 40 years old, and 60 are above 40 years old.
Simple random sampling Systematic sampling
Random Random
Method Assign each worker a number from 1 to 200.
Select a sample of 50 workers 200
using a list of random As 4 , randomly select one worker from
50
numbers. the first 4. If say the 3rd worker is chosen, include
every 4th worker from the 3rd worker in the
sample, i.e. the 3rd, 7th, 11th, …, 199th workers.
Pros Even spread over population
Cons Requires sampling frame Requires sampling frame
Cannot replace unavailable Cannot replace unavailable sampling units
sampling units Biased if members of the population have a
Time-consuming to locate periodic or cyclic pattern
selected units
Stratified sampling Quota sampling
Random Non-random
Method Select random samples from the age Same as stratified, except:
groups with sample size proportional to the Sample size need not be (but can
relative size of each age group, i.e.: be) proportional
Non-random samples are drawn
Age Sample size from each age group
30 20
30 – 40 50
40 30
Pros Likely to give more representative Lower cost
sample Less time-consuming
Does not require sampling frame
Cons Requires sampling frame Non-random
Cannot replace unavailable sampling Likely to give less representative
units sample
Strata may not be clearly defined Biased as researcher may just pick
members who are easier to collect
data from
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FAQ (Sampling)
Questions on sampling methods Use the context of the question in your answer.
Identify type of sampling method used
Explain why:
o Method is inadequate: list cons
o Method is biased/unbiased
o Sample is likely to be representative or not
Suggest a better method if required
Describe your suggested method
Given x and x 2
, 1
x x
n
x x
2
or ,
x
2
1 1 x x
Find unbiased estimate x of
2
s
2
x
2
population mean n 1 n n 1
Find unbiased estimate s 2 of
population variance 2
Find x and s 2 , Let y x b .
given ( x a) and x b . y
2
x a b a
x a n(b a)
y x b
2 2
Find y and s y2 (see above).
x y b , sx2 s y2
Find x and s 2 , GC gives sx , square the value to get s x2 .
given a list of data. Individual data
o Values in L1
o Key in: 1-Var Stats L1
Grouped data
o Values in L1 , frequencies in L2
o Key in: 1-Var Stats L1 , L2
Testing
Do this: Only if:
Use t -test instead of z -test sample is small ( n 50 ), and
2 is unknown
Use s 2 instead of 2 2 is unknown
Use Central Limit Theorem sample is large ( n 50 ), and
population distribution is unknown
Assume population distribution is normal sample is small ( n 50 ), and
population distribution is unknown
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If the sample is large, population is normal, and 2 is unknown, Central Limit Theorem is
not required. However, since s 2 must be used as an unbiased estimate of 2 , write
“approximately” after the distribution of X .
FAQ (Testing)
Explain what is meant by ‘a A % significance level means that the probability of
% significance level’ in the
context of the question concluding that H 0 is rejected given that H 0 is true is .
100
Example: A 5% significance level means that the
probability of concluding that the mean mass of a chicken is
greater than 1.75kg when it is actually 1.75kg is 0.05.
State the assumptions made, if If the sample is large ( n 50 ):
any o Central Limit Theorem holds, hence the
population follows a normal distribution
approximately, and no assumptions about its
distribution are needed.
If the sample is small ( n 50 ):
o Assume the distribution of the population is
normal
Compare outcomes of z -test Since the graph of the t -distribution has “thicker tails” than
and t -test, given same data that of the z -distribution about 0 , given the same
significance level, the t -test would be lead to a conclusion
of H 0 being rejected for more values of x .
Compare effect of change in x 0
significance level, sample If p value P X x P Z ,
/ n
mean, or population mean on
x 0
outcome o If increases, p value increases
/ n
x 0
If p value P X x P Z ,
/ n
x 0
o If increases, p value decreases
/ n
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Find the range of , x , 0 , Find an expression for the p -value
s , or n such that H 0 is o 1-tailed: P X x or P X x
rejected (or not rejected) at a o 2-tailed:
% significance level. If x 0 , 2P X x
If x 0 , 2P X x
State the condition on the p -value for the outcome (For
e.g. a 5% significance level, value 0.05 )
o If H 0 is rejected, p value value
o If H 0 is not rejected, p value value
s2
Standardize, only if the mean 0 or variance of X
n
is unknown, i.e. when finding the range of 0 , s , or n
Use InvNorm to find the range of , x , or 0 that
satisfies the condition on the p -value
Conclude in the context of the question
Example [TJC07/Prelim/II/9 (Modified)]
The manufacturer of the ‘Genius’ brand of cigarettes claimed that the average tar content of a
‘Genius’ cigarette is not more than 14mg per cigarette (mg/cig). A surveyor from a rival
company took a random sample of 8 ‘Genius’ cigarettes and lab measurements of the tar
content yielded 14.2, 14.5, 13.9, 14.1, 14.0, 14.1, 14.2, 14.4 mg/cig. Will he be able to reject
the manufacturer’s claim at 5% level of significance? State any necessary assumption made
by the surveyor in carrying out the test.
To confirm his findings, the surveyor took another random sample of 50 ‘Genius’ cigarettes
and measured the tar content x in mg/cig. The following results were obtained:
x 10 208.2515 , x 14 5.2455 .
2
Based on this sample,
(i) Find unbiased estimates of the population mean and variance of the tar content in
mg/cig.
(ii) Find the range of values for the average tar content per cigarette that the manufacturer
should claim in order that it will not be rejected as an underestimate at the 1% level of
significance if a z -test is carried out.
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Solution Comments
Let X be the tar content of a cigarette in Always define X if the question does not.
mg/cig. Specify its units, if any (mg/cig).
Since n 8 is small, the surveyor must Since the sample is small and the
assume that X follows a normal distribution of the population is unknown, it
distribution. must be assumed to be normal.
H 0 : 14 vs H1 : 14 1. State the null hypothesis H 0 and the
alternative hypothesis H1 .
Perform a 1-tailed test at the 5% 2. Write down 1-tailed or 2-tailed test, and
significance level. the level of significance α% .
X 0 3. Decide on the test statistic (t or z) to be
Under H 0 , T ~ t (n 1) , used and determine its distribution.
s/ n
where x 14.175 , 0 14 ,
x and s 2 will appear on the GC screen
s 0.19821 , n 8 . with the p -value, so we do not need to
calculate them.
X μ0 X μ0
T , not , since σ is
s/ n σ/ n
unknown and we estimated it with s .
X is a random variable representing the
sample mean, which can have many values.
x is the mean of a particular sample,
usually given in the question.
Using a t -test, p value 0.0206 (3 s.f.) 4. Use the GC to calculate p -value.
Since p value 0.0206 0.05 , the 5. Conclude in the context of the question.
surveyor will be able to reject H 0 and
conclude that there is sufficient evidence
at the 5% significance level that X 14
and the manufacturer’s claim is false. █
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(i) Let y x 14 . Always let y be the expression which is
y x 14 squared in the summary statistics, e.g. let
y x 14 when x 14 is given.
2
x 10 50 4 8.2515
y x 14 5.2455
2 2
Give values which will be used in later
8.2515 parts of the question to 5 s.f. first, then to 3
x y 14 14
50 s.f.
14.165 (5s f. .) 14.2 (3s f. .)█
1 8.25152
sx2 5.2455
50 1 50
0.079260 (5s f. .) 0.0793 (3 s f . .)
█
(ii) H 0 : 0 vs H1 : 0 . Translate the question into mathematical
Perform a 1-tailed test at the 1% terms: What is the range of μ 0 such that
significance level. H 0 is not rejected when a z-test is carried
Under H 0 , by the Central Limit Theorem out at the 1% significance level?
since n 50 is large,
s2 The manufacturer’s claim is H 0 : μ μ 0 ,
X ~ N 0 , approximately, where
n and if
μ it μwere “rejected as an underestimate,
H1 : 0 would be true.
x 14.165 , s 0.079260 , n 50 .
X 0 Since μ 0 is unknown for X , we cannot
Let Z . Then Z ~ N (0,1) .
s/ n immediately use InvNorm, and
If H 0 is not rejected, p value 0.01 . standardization is necessary.
x 0
P X 14.165 P Z 0.01
s/ n
x 0 Once you get an equation in this form,
PZ 0.99 InvNorm can be used as μ and σ are
s/ n
known for Z .
From the GC,
14.165 0
2.3263 (5 s.f.)
0.079260 / 50
Solving, 0 14.1 (3 s.f.) █
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Correlation & Regression
Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PMCC)
r > 0 Positive Linear Correlation
r < 0 Negative linear correlation
r ≈ 0 No linear correlation
(Note that no linear correlation does not
imply no relation)
The closer the absolute value of r is to 1, the stronger the linear correlation between 2
variables.
Limitations of PMCC
Does not necessarily prove that there is a linear relationship between two variables
o e.g. there may be an outlier
Unable to prove any non-linear relationship between variables using the coefficient
o e.g. points on a parabola can be chosen to give a PPMC of close to zero
Therefore, use BOTH the scatter diagram and the r-value together when making
judgements/statements/comparisons.
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Relevant Formulae (In MF15)
Estimated Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
xy n
x y
r
( x x)( y y )
( x x 2
) ( y y )
2
x
2 x
2
y
2 y
2
n n
Estimated regression line of y on x
y y b( x x )
b
( x x)( y y)
( x x) 2
Although not in MF15, the formula for the regression line of x on y can be obtained by
swapping x with y in the above formula for the regression line of y on x)
Linear Regression
The least square regression line is the line which minimises the sum of squares of the
residuals. (Note that the a residual is the difference between the observed & predicted values.)
Scatter Diagrams
Label each axis with the variable and its units.
Ensure the relative position of the data points is correct.
Display the origin at the correct relative position. If the data is far away from the origin,
use a jagged line to indicate an omitted range of values.
GC Tips & FAQ
1. How do I key in the data set into the GC?
Key STAT EDIT Type in your data
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2. When a question requires me to plot ln y against x, but it only provides data set for x
and y, what can I do other than manually evaluating each value of ln y?
For example, if the data given is a list of values of y, but the question requires you to plot
ln y against x, you can do so using GC. For example, y values are in L2. Key all your
values into the lists, with x values in L1, y values in L2. Then, key ln(L2) STO L3
3. What is the significance of the intersection point of regression lines of x on y and y
on x?
The intersection point of regression lines of x on y and y on x is ( ̅ , ).
4. How do you assess whether an estimate is reliable?
First, we look at the r-value. If it is close to 1 or – 1, then the estimate would be reliable.
Next, we look at whether it is an interpolation or an extrapolation. Assuming r is close to
1 or – 1, an interpolation would be very reliable.
In the case of an extrapolation, we would look the amount of extrapolation. If it is close to
the experimental range of values, then that estimate is reliable. Otherwise, it is not
reliable.
Note that you should use the scatter plot in line with the r-value.
Example 1 [SAJC08/Prelim/II/6]
Each of a random sample of 10 students are asked about the average number of minutes
spent on doing mathematics tutorials in a week (x), and their percentage score for the
mathematics final examination (y). The results are tabulated below:
x 20 35 45 60 70 80 100 110 120 140
y 16 25 35 50 60 65 70 75 80 85
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(i) Find the equation of the regression line of y on x.
The question is indirectly saying that y is the dependent variable and x is dependent.
Key all the values into the lists in GC. Remember to turn on the diagnostic function.
From G.C.,
y 0.591x 10.0 3s. f .
[Whether you use LinReg(ax+b) or LinReg(a+bx), linear regression should be done with L1,
L2 where L1 is the independent variable and L2 is the dependent variable.]
(ii) Find the linear product moment correlation coefficient between y and x, and
comment on the relationship between x and y.
Use the G.C values calculated earlier
r 0.972 3s. f .
(iii) Use the appropriate regression line to estimate the percentage score of a student
who spends 10 minutes doing mathematics tutorial in a week. Comment on the
reliability of the estimate.
y 0.591x 10.0 3s. f .
Using G.C, y 15.9
However, the estimate is not reliable as 10 minutes is well outside the given range of x values
so the approximation would be unreliable.
Example 2 [HCI08/Prelim/II/8 (Modified)]
A teacher decided to investigate the association between students’ performances in
Mathematics and Physics. She selected 5 students at random and recorded their scores,
x and y, in Mathematics and Physics tests respectively. She found that, for this set of
data, the equation of the regression line of y on x was y 18.5 0.1x and the equation of
the regression line of x on y was x 16.6 0.4 y .
Remember that the intercept of the
Show that x 125 and y 105 . regression lines (y on x and x on y)
is x, y .
18.5 0.1x y
Combination of concepts from
16.6 0.4 y x
sampling
x 25 and y 21
x 5 25 125 and y 5 21 105
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(i) The Physics score of a sixth student was mislaid but his Mathematics score was
known to be 26.
Use the appropriate line of regression to estimate this student’s Physics score,
and give a reason for the use of the chosen equation.
y 18.5 0.1x
When x 26, y 21(nearest integer)
Since x is given, y is the dependent variable and therefore we use the regression line of y on x.
(iii) Comment on the reliability of your estimate.
The estimate is not reliable because | r | is small, i.e. it is close to 0, hence the linear
correlation between x and y is very weak, indicating that the linear model is not suitable.
Example 3 [NYJC08/Prelim/II/11]
A student wishes to determine the relationship between the length of a pendulum, l, and the
corresponding period, T. After conducting the experiment, he obtained the following set of
data:
l/cm 150 135 120 105 90 75 60 45 30 15
T/s 2.45 2.31 2.22 2.07 1.91 1.74 1.56 1.35 1.10 0.779
(i) Obtain the scatter plot of this set of data. [2]
(ii) The student proposes two models.
A : T a b ln l
B : T 2 a bl
Calculate the product moment correlation coefficients for both models, giving your
answer to 4 decimal places. Determine which model is more appropriate. [3]
(iii) Using the model determined in part (ii), estimate the value of l when T = 3s to 1
decimal place. Comment on the suitability of this method. [3]
(iv) Find a value of l and its corresponding value of T such that the equation of the
regression line for the chosen model will remain the same after the addition of this pair
of values. [3]
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Solution Comments
(i) Note that your scatter plot must be
to scale. This means that your
points should be relatively correct
to each other.
Axis should be labelled correctly.
(ii) Using a G.C., Be careful as question asks for 4
r for model A is 0.9871. (4 d.p.) decimal places.
r for model B is 0.9996. (4 d.p.)
For appropriateness of model,
Since the value of r for model B is closer to 1 as look at r values.
compared to model A, model B is more
appropriate.
(iii) Since T is given, we should use the regression line Even though it is in the Physics
of l on T2. mindset that the period depends
on the length of the pendulum, it
is NOT the regression line of T2
From G.C., the value of l is 223.9 (1d.p.)
on l.
Although r is close to 1, the value of T = 3s lie Be aware that model B uses T2
well outside of the range of the T values used to instead of T.
plot the regression line. Hence it is not a good
estimate of l.
(iv) The values to be used are l and T 2 . Use G.C. to evaluate the values.
Note that you can plot the
l l 82.5 and T 2 3.3301 5 s.f.
regression lines for both l on T2
T T 1.82 3 s.f. and T2 on l. The intersection of
the two lines will obviously be the
point you are looking for.
129
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