Apartheidgrandc

Apartheid Grand Corruption
Assessing the scale of crimes of profit

in South Africa from 1976 to 1994
A report prepared by civil society at the request of the

Second National Anti-Corruption Summit
May, 2006
Repor
Reportt Author:
Hennie van Vuuren
Institute for Security Studies, Cape Town
Foreword
Apartheid grand corruption

Assessing the scale of crimes of profit from 1976 to 1994
A report prepared by civil society in terms of a resolution of the

Second National Anti-Corruption Summit for presentation at the
National Anti-Corruption Forum, May 2006
Hennie van Vuuren

Programme Head: Corruption and Governance
Institute for Security Studies, Cape Town
2006
i
The vision of the Institute for Security Studies is one of a stable and peaceful Africa characterised by
human rights, the rule of law, democracy and collaborative security. As an applied policy research
institute with a mission to conceptualise, inform and enhance the security debate in Africa, the Institute
supports this vision statement by undertaking independent applied research and analysis; facilitating
and supporting policy formulation; raising the awareness of decision makers and the public; monitoring
trends and policy implementation; collecting, interpreting and disseminating information; networking
on national, regional and international levels; and capacity-building.
© 2006, Institute for Security Studies
Copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Institute for Security Studies, and no part may be
reproduced in whole or in part without the express permission, in writing, of both the author and the
publishers.
The opinions expressed in this monograph do not necessarily reflect those of the Institute, its Trustees,
members of the Advisory Board, or donors. Authors contribute to ISS publications in their personal
capacity.
ISBN: 1-919913-97-1
First published by the Institute for Security Studies,

P O Box 1787, Brooklyn Square 0075
Pretoria, South Africa
Cover artwork: Wim Botha, Table I, 2003, www.michaelstevenson.com

Language editing and layout: Page Arts +27-21-686-0171
Printing: Mega Digital, Cape Town
ii
Foreword
Contents
Acronyms v
Acknowledgements vi
Foreword vii
1 Introduction 1
2 Research methods 9
2.1 Research challenges 9
2.2 Sources of information 9
2.3 Making sense of money 10
3 Investigations 13
3.1 Apartheid Commissions of Enquiry 15
3.2 The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) 15
3.3 Apartheid corruption investigations post-1994 18
4. Corruption, colonialism and the apartheid state (1652–1976) 21
5. The insiders: The Broederbond 26
6. Information, blood and gold 29
6.1 The Information Scandal 29
6.2 Dr. ‘Gold’ (finger) 32
6.3 Two mysteries 33
6.3.1 The Swiss bank account 33
6.3.2 The Smit murders 35
7 Corruption under P.W. Botha and F.W. de Klerk 37
8 The security state 46
8.1 The production and procurement of arms: Armscor and sanctions busting 46
8.2 The role of the SADF in corruption: The case of ivory 48
8.3 Covert projects and covert profits: The CCB and other operations 51
8.3.1 Investigations into secret funds by the TRC 52
8.3.2 The CCB 55
8.3.3 ‘Dr Death’ and Project Coast 57
8.3.4 Operation Marion 58
8.3.5 Covert theft 59
iii
9. Crime, capital and apartheid 61

9.1 Sanctions busting: Oiling the wheels of corruption, greasing the
wheels of apartheid 62
9.1.1 Allegations of corruption 63
9.1.2 Agency and agency fees 64
9.2 Capital flight 65
9.3 Round tripping and the abuse of export incentives 67
9.3.1 Gold 67
9.3.2 Round tripping 67
9.3.3 Fradulent invoicing 68
9.3.4 Tax avoidance 68
9.3.5 Other forex fraud 69
9.4 The role of the South African Reserve Bank in various scandals 70
9.4.1 The Bankorp ‘lifeboat’ 72
9.4.2 Masterbond and the 22,000 victims 74
9.4.3 Albert Vermaas—friends in high places? 75
9.4.4 Container fraud? 76
10. Grand apartheid—grand corruption 78
10.1 The Sun King: Sol Kerzner 80
10.2 Mafia links in the Ciskei? The case of Vito Palozollo 82
11. The time for action: Policy recommendations 85
iv
Foreword
Acronyms
ABSA Amalgamated Banks of South Africa
AC Amnesty Committee
ADS African Defence Systems
ANC African National Congress
ARMSCOR Armaments Corporation of South Africa
BOSS Bureau of State Security
CCB Civil Co-operation Bureau
DA Democratic Alliance
DDA Department of Development Affairs
ESCOM Electricity Supply Commission
IFP Inkatha Freedom Party
ISCOR Iron and Steel Industrial Corporation
MI Military Intelligence
NIA National Intelligence Agency
NIS National Intelligence Service
NNP New National Party
NP National Party
NPA National Prosecuting Authority
PAC Pan African Congress
PFP Progressive Federal Party
PITU Presidential Investigations Task Unit
R&R Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee
RDM Rand Daily Mail
RSA Republic of South Africa
SADF South African Defence Force
SAHA South African History Archive
SANDF South African National Defence Force
SAP South African Police
SAPS South African Police Service
SIU Special Investigations Unit
SSC State Security Council
TBVC Transkei/Bophuthatswana/Venda/Ciskei
TML Times Media Limited
TNS Total National Strategy
TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission
UBS United Bank of Switzerland
UDM United Democratic Movement
v
Acknowledgements
The research project was made possible through a grant received by the ISS from
the Open Society Foundation for South Africa.
The project benefited from research and cataloguing of information by three
ISS research interns from Southern Africa:
• Siphumeze Cwayi, a post-graduate student at the University of Cape Town;
• Daniel Scher, a graduate student at Princeton University; and
• Madalitso Phiri, a graduate student from the University of Cape Town.
The archival research would not have been possible without access provided by
various archival collections, including:
• The South African History Archive (SAHA), located at the University of
the Witwatersrand (Wits University) (Johannesburg)—Sam Jacobs;
• The Wits University Historical Manuscripts (William Cullen Library)—
Michelle Pickover;
• The University of Cape Town Historical Archives (African Studies Library
Collection);
• The Johnnic Communications (Johncom) Archive (Johannesburg)—Michelle
Leon;
• The Digital Image Struggle Archives (DISA), an online collection based at
the University of KwaZulu-Natal; and
• The South African Institute of Race Relations Library (Johannesburg).
Sincere thanks are due to the numerous researchers, journalists and others (some
of whom are not acknowledged by name in this report at their request), for sharing
their thoughts, giving interviews or providing access to their private records.
A civil society project reference group (constituted by the ISS) initially agreed
to the research framework and subsequently commented on a draft version of this
report and largely endorsed its findings at a meeting in November 2005. The
reference group consisted of the following people:
• Themba Masuku and Gareth Newham (Centre for the Study of Violence
and Reconciliation);
• Prakashnee Govender (Congress of South African Trade Unions);
• Jonathan Faull and Judith February (Institute for Democracy in South
Africa);
• Peter Just (National Religious Leaders Forum);
• Alison Tilley (Open Democracy Advice Centre);
vi
Foreword
Acknowledgements
• Dolos Luka (South African NGO Coalition); and

• Hassen Lorgat (Transparency South Africa).
Thanks also to those who commented on earlier drafts of the report including Dr.
Stephen Ellis, Peter Gastrow, André Standing, Lala Camerer, Sarah Meek and Dr.
Jakkie Cilliers. Thanks to Antony Altbeker (ISS Senior Researcher) and Daniel
Scher (ISS Research Intern) for developing a formula and producing the conversion
tables for calculating the contemporary value of money quoted in this report.
Thanks to Fiona Adams for her patient editing.
vii
Foreword
South Africans, whether in their individual capacities or as members of some

form of organized civil society institution, have this proud history of engaging
head-on with the issues affecting us. This outstanding trademark stems from our
history of injustice and oppression. Coupled with this is our deep concern about
the well-being of our fellow citizens.
Corruption is a legacy of our past and it is therefore not surprising that the
civil society sector pushed that the issue of apartheid grand corruption be put
under the spotlight. This sector discussed the matter at its preparatory meeting to
the Second National Anti-corruption Summit in March last year and raised the
matter during the Summit itself. As one of 27 resolutions the Summit agreed that
the sector should prepare a research report on crimes of corruption committed
under apartheid and that this research be presented to the National Anti-Corruption
Forum (NACF).
This report is welcomed for the contribution it makes to the ongoing debate
about the nature of South African society. Obviously not all persons will welcome
the report, but that should not detract from the need to engage with it and with
the research findings.
As chairperson of the NACF I wish to thank the authors of this report for
their dedication and commitment in preparing it and in lifting the veil of secrecy
that surrounds many actions of the past. Corruption is a crime committed in
secret and the deed is often only discovered at a later stage. Collecting the
information underpinning the research must have been a monumental task.
The discussion of this report within the NACF provides the public, business
and civil society sectors with another opportunity to strengthen the partnership
against corruption. I also expect that the report will be discussed widely, in many
other forums.
Ms. Geraldine J. Fraser-Moleketi

Minister of Public Service and Administration
in her capacity as Chair of the National Anti-Corruption Forum
22 May 2006
viii
Introduction
1. Introduction
One name for another, a part of the whole: the historic violence of Apartheid
can always be treated as a metonymy. In its past as well as in its present…one
can always decipher through its singularity so many other kinds of violence
going on in the world. At once part, cause, effect, example, what is happening
there, what takes place here, always here, wherever one is and wherever
one looks, closest to home. Infinite responsibility, therefore, no rest allowed
for any form of good conscience.
Jaques Derrida (1994), from his dedication to the murdered Chris Hani1
Corruption, the abuse of entrusted power for private benefit, costs the people of
South Africa billions of rand annually. 2 It is a burden that is carried
disproportionately by the poor as it effectively subsidises criminal elites within
the public and private sector. It is a matter of public record that in the dozen years
since South Africans claimed the right to elect a democratic government, almost
no day has gone by without media reports highlighting the extent of the scourge.
This includes allegations of intrigues involving individuals ranging from corporate
tycoons to local councillors in remote rural areas, who have abused the power
with which they have been entrusted in favour of narrow self-interest.
Yet South Africans have made remarkable strides in countering criminal business
in the past dozen years. Building on the foundation provided by the Constitution
(1996) and the Bill of Rights, elected lawmakers have asserted their mandate to
create laws and institutions that for the first time seriously combat corruption.
The country has a comprehensive framework consisting of a host of public bodies
with a mandate to vigorously tackle graft—and they are doing this with increasing
success. Although the anti-corruption mechanisms are not without their flaws,
1
they do ensure that many ordinary South Africans have the sense that justice
usually prevails. The media, unshackled from apartheid-era press censorship, use
this freedom to report on the anti-corruption efforts of the state and, importantly,
to probe the thorny issues that citizens in every modern society fear are being
covered up by various interest groups.
However, it is worth noting that this was not always the case. For more than
300 years, all South Africans were under the yoke of colonial and apartheid rule,
a system that benefited the few at the expense of the many. It was a system that
ensured that white settlers—and later, white South Africans—were at the helm of
a racial oligarchy that was built on the subjugation of black South Africans. It was
a corrupt system of governance. A near monopoly on money, power and influence
were in the hands of a minority and they used this to either violently suppress the
majority or, at best, transfer resources in order to stave off the inevitable revolution.
Racist nationalism is as vulnerable to corruption as most systems of authoritarian
rule. In closed societies, which are highly militarised under dictatorial rule, the
truth is hidden from public view by design. Access to power (and a monopoly
over it) provides the elite in the public and private sectors with a unique opportunity
to line their pockets. In so doing, the defenders of an illegitimate and corrupt
system start to defy their own rules and laws that criminalise such behaviour. In
terms of common law crime they are simply crooks dressed in the guise of patriots
representing the interests of their volk, their race or their narrow class. They have
effectively corrupted themselves.
Such a system can also only survive for as long as a monopoly over power is
maintained. Its survival is therefore tenuous—common knowledge to all
functionaries of the system, who are the first to ensure that they are taken care of
should there be a break with the past. This leads to a reliance on ‘insurance’,
usually in the form of cash or other easily moveable assets that can be moved
abroad in the event of regime change. It is in the period before regime change that
the elite, in particular, are likely to accumulate as many resources as possible for
fear that they may soon be out of a job or, at worst, have to flee the country.
This is illustrated in the history of many countries. In Peru, President Alberto
Fujimori was alleged to have embezzled $600 million (over R7 billion) from the
Peruvian people before he fled to Japan, where he resisted requests for his
extradition to Peru.3 It was also only after fascism in Germany was smashed in the
mid-1940s that tales emerged of generals who had stolen gold and fantastic treasures
from the victims of the European genocide. All the Nazi gold did not end up at
the bottom of an illusive lake in the Alps, as was often theorised—some of it was
located soon after the war but much of the money remained locked up in Swiss
bank accounts for decades or financed homes in South America and elsewhere.4
2
Introduction
Closer to home, in the past decade, between $2 and $5 billion (between R14
and R32 billion) was allegedly stolen by the Nigerian dictator, Sani Abacha.5 Some
of this money has since been located in Swiss and English banks accounts. In
contrast, the money allegedly stolen by former Kenyan dictator, Daniel Arap
Moi, is said to still elude the authorities, as is the $5 billion (R32 billion) stolen by
Zaire’s dictator, Mobutu Sese-Seko.6 Banks in the global North, which in many
instances may have not had knowledge of the identity of the depositor, have
profited handsomely from harbouring stolen wealth. In response, the United
National Convention Against Corruption (2003) binds its signatories to provide
mutual legal assistance, among other things, in order to trace such funds. South
Africa has both signed and ratified the United Nations Convention Against
Corruption. As a sign of Africa’s commitment to the process 19 African states
(out of a total of 52) have ratified or acceded to the Convention, which came into
force in December 2005.7
In South Africa the issue of grand corruption under apartheid has been the
source of comparatively little public debate. Since the advent of democratic rule
scant attention has been paid to the possibility that leading apartheid-era
functionaries (in government and business) may have used the cover of authoritarian
rule to illegally acquire vast sums of wealth in defiance even of the legal ‘norms’ of
that time.
Public perception that a democratic South Africa is more corrupt than the
apartheid regime dominated much of the public discourse for a number of years
after 1994. It may be that white and black South Africans alike had come to believe
their masters’ lie. Public perception of apartheid-era corruption was reinforced by
the views of former leaders of the National Party, such as F.W. de Klerk, who
noted in 1997 that:
With regard to...crime and corruption, the true facts are that the situation
has deteriorated seriously since the ANC took over.8
This commonly held view probably reinforced another misconception, namely
that there was a sort of South African ‘exceptionalism’ during apartheid. This is
perhaps better described as a belief in white ‘exceptionalism’ that allows the regime
to be remembered as ‘brutal’ in the way in which it wielded power, yet ‘honest’ in
the way it managed its finances at the same time. It would follow, using this logic,
that there was no war profiteering under apartheid and although other African
dictators may have shifted funds abroad, in South Africa under white minority
rule this was not the case. In such a scenario the politics of apartheid is trivialised
as misguided idealism and the role of the business community in such a system
was primarily about legitimate shareholder profit.
3
In this regard, South Africa is not unique. Russia, once the apartheid regime’s
greatest foe, is an example of a state in which corruption has existed for centuries.9
This view challenges any misconception that graft originated under the rule of the
reformer, Michael Gorbachev, or his successor, Boris Yeltsin. Rather, as
criminologist Patricia Rawlinson points out, it was already prevalent in Tsarist
Russia which preceded the Soviet Union.10 This provided the foundation for a
Bolshevist state that also allowed corruption to grow and eventually saw the rise
of social bandits (or organised criminal groups) by the 1930s. There followed a
passive assimilation of these groups by the state until endemic corruption was
recorded in the Communist Party structures under Brezhnev. As private property
was slowly legalised in the 1970s, the mafia began to rise in importance until they
were eventually actively assimilated into the state and economy under Gorbachev’s
economic reforms. In summary, the Russian state created an environment that
favoured such criminal behaviour. The rise of the Russian oligarchs in the 1990s
was not accidental: they were borne out of a historical process that had evolved
over many centuries.
This report attempts to document and describe instances of corruption that we
know took place during apartheid and in particular, during the period 1976–1994.
Through documented evidence and testimonies of those who have information
about this period it attempts to highlight on some well-known corruption cases.
However, the report is equally concerned with that about which little is known:
the questions that are asked throughout are those that have either not been
answered, or not fully explored, by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
(TRC) or any other organ of the democratically elected government. Importantly,
the report is not intended to be an exhaustive expose of corruption under apartheid.
In highlighting examples it does not mean that these are necessarily the only
examples of apartheid-era corruption. The report does not attempt to make
judgement on all the cases presented and has been limited in the extent of its
enquiry by the amount of material available on the subject. It is worth noting that
additional research is required to build a body of knowledge (which does not exist
to any significant degree at present) of the types of governance failures that occurred
during apartheid. This, together with limited human resources available in
undertaking research for this report should also contextualise the reliance on
newspaper clippings and single source interviews.
The report begs the question: why has there been no successful dedicated
prosecution of crimes of corruption involving the apartheid era elite? Is it due to
a lack of evidence? Is this, in turn, due to a lack of capacity? Does it reflect part of
a broader political agreement as part of the sunset clause? This report does not
attempt to provide answers to these difficult questions but rather attempts to lay
the groundwork for probity by others.
4
Introduction
The report also attempts to help explain, from a governance perspective, the
extent to which the apartheid state was not only criminal in terms of international
law by the early 1990s, but had been criminalised in itself (see Stephen Ellis’s
excellent description of criminalisation of the state in Africa11). The legacy of such
a corrupt system did not disappear into the night in 1994, when the white flag was
lowered and a new South African banner hoisted. Rather, it had entrenched itself
to such an extent that it would inevitably serve to corrupt the new order.
Individuals who entered the public and private sector after 1994 and were
motivated by greed to act corruptly were likely to welcome the opportunity to
work through, and with, influential people, often well networked, who had escaped
criminal prosecution under apartheid for similar activity.
The linear or inter-generational nature of corruption is seldom understood as a
system that straddles the old and new order— a number of individuals who were
alleged to abuse power for private benefit under apartheid are seen either courting
power (most often as business people) or holding public office during the past
dozen years. They have managed to negotiate the transition with
aplomb,ingratiating themselves with corrupt elements in the old and new elite.
Although this report does not deal with that phenomenon in great detail, it is an
important factor to keep in mind.
The years before and after 1994 cannot simply be neatly compartmentalised.
However, there was (and possibly still is, in some quarters of society) political
support for this point of view as summed up in comments made by National
Party (NP) leader, Martinus van Schalkwyk, (a supporter of the NP under P.W.
Botha and a Cabinet Minister since 2004), in his preface to the National Party
Corruption Barometer (1997):
…They [the ANC] turned South Africa into a Mecca of maladministration,
crime and corruption. It is the NP’s duty to take them to task on this, and
we will do precisely this.12
In making this comment van Schalkwyk appears to support the argument that
corruption is an import of democracy, as opposed to apartheid-era corruption
making any contribution at all to contemporary corrupt behaviour. However, as
Frene Ginwala, the former Speaker of Parliament (1994–2004), points out, to break
with the past may not have been so easy:
In South Africa we inherited an intrinsically corrupt system of
governance…To survive, it created a legal framework that was based on
and facilitated corruption. It has taken years in Parliament to repeal old
laws and introduce even the basic legal framework that would enable us
to deal with corrupt bureaucrats, politicians and police. The private sector
also operated in a closed society and profited by it. There were partnerships
5
with international criminals, and the corruption that was built into the
system is very difficult to overcome.13
Recognising all of this, civil society organisations met on 21 March 2005 (Human
Rights Day) in Pretoria, to formulate policy recommendations to the Second
National Anti-Corruption Summit (22–23 March 2005). Civil society
recommended that the state invest dedicated capacity to investigate crimes of
corruption that took place during apartheid.14 This was motivated not to detract
from ongoing anti-corruption efforts, but rather as a simple (or probably more
correctly, complex) matter of justice that, for a number of reasons, could bolster
attempts to counter the corruption we experience today. Following debate at the
conference, the compromise reached was that:
Civil society will prepare a research report on crimes of corruption under
Apartheid and present these to the National Anti-Corruption Forum
(NACF) for consideration within six months.
A draft of this report presented to the NACF at its first meeting after the six-
month period (November 2005). A final draft version of the report was submitted
to the NACF in March 2006. It was again discussed at a NACF meeting in April
2006, where it was agreed that the final report would be released by civil society
after an NACF meeting in May 2006. The report does not purport to be the
definitive guide on the subject—rather, it is an attempt by civil society to point
representatives of all government, business and civil society towards what can
only be considered as the tip of the corruption iceberg.
It also does not attempt to reflect all voices in South Africa’s large and diverse
non-profit sector. Rather, it reflects research undertaken by the Institute for Security
Studies (ISS) Corruption and Governance Programme. A draft version of this
report was presented at a workshop in Cape Town15 to members of civil society
organisations (see the Acknowledgements above for details), who broadly endorsed
the main findings. These individuals and the organisations they represent have a
track record of anti-corruption activism, advocacy and research. The organisations
formed a research reference group that also agreed to the project’s Terms of
Reference, including:
• The period under review

The research focuses on the period 1976–1994. This period covers the student
uprising, includes apartheid’s first big corruption scandal (Muldergate) and
concludes with the country’s first democratic elections in April 1994. It is
assumed that this period created a climate conducive to grand corruption, as
it was characterised by growing political uncertainty over the future of white
domination, increased state spending on ‘covert’ military operations,
6
Introduction
economic decline, sanctions (particularly oil and defence since 1976) and
increased state secrecy.
• Types of corruption
The research focuses on large-scale corruption (known as grand corruption)
or maladministration involving members of the private sector or functionaries
of the apartheid state. Special attention has been paid to money that may
have been illegally externalised from South Africa (and placed in foreign
banks or invested in real estate etc.), as well fixed assets that belong to the
state (such as houses ), which have found their way into private hands through
an illegal enterprise. Petty corruption (administrative corruption), although
prevalent during apartheid (the pass system, for example, was open to such
corruption), is not the main focus of the study.
Although the study focuses on corruption, it also touches on other economic
crimes that facilitate corruption and did so under apartheid. These include:
• large-scale fraud/white-collar crime;
• exchange control contraventions; and
• sanctions busting (particularly where this is facilitated by corruption).
• Focus areas
The research focuses on corruption in both the public and private sectors.
To narrow its focus the following areas were identified as being prone to
grand corruption (involving individuals in the private and public sector) as
they were characterised by large cash flows combined with low levels of
public oversight:
• arms purchases and covert defence funding;
• defence activities (in Namibia and Angola, involving the South African
Defence Force [SADF]);
• activities by members of the Broederbond (‘Brotherhood’);
• corruption involving the executive in both the ‘white’ state and the
‘homelands’;
• exchange control (circumvention of laws);
• oil purchases by the state; and
• sanctions busting, including activities involving the private sector.
This list is by no means exhaustive but provides a good basis from which to
examine corruption under apartheid.
The report does place an emphasis on acts of corruption involving the
state and its security apparatus. However, mention is also made of the private
7
sector, which played the dual role of propping up and benefiting from the
apartheid regime.
The report does not focus on corruption involving members of the country’s
liberation movement inside or outside of South Africa’s’ borders. Of course,
this is not to say that there were not opportunists who abused the struggle
against apartheid for personal gain.16 Such corruption may also have taken
the form of people acting as informers in exchange for cash, pilfering
donations to various organisations or, in the extreme, involvement in drug
trafficking in Southern Africa. Although not trivial, when seen in their
entirety these allegations pale into insignificance in comparison with the
corruption that took place under the watch of the apartheid regime. The
resources at the disposal of corrupt individuals within the South African
state bureaucracy and private sector were vast beyond imagination when
compared to those at the disposal of the liberation movements. It was here
that the real intersection between power and money took place.
• Recommendations
Finally, this report makes policy recommendations for consideration by
the National Anti-Corruption Forum and other state and non-state actors
for possible future action.
8
Research methods
2. Research methods
2.1 Research challenges
Undertaking research on corruption is notoriously difficult. It is a crime that
almost always takes place where there is little light or probity. As the evidence of
corrupt transactions often relies on paper trails and official records, these are the
first to be destroyed. Where money has been taken abroad, it is either difficult to
document due to geographic distance, banking secrecy provisions or because
attempts are made to hide all traces of bank transfers through trusted money-
laundering schemes. Where individuals are subject to knowledge of corrupt
behaviour they are usually silenced through intimidation, violence or co-option.
Evidence of corrupt activity therefore relies on official investigations, media reports
or whistleblowers. This limited number of sources of information—particularly
the reliance on newspaper clippings—does limit the depth of the research. However,
as noted above, it is hoped that this research will nonetheless be a contribution to
a research field to which others will add.
All these factors present a challenge to any enquiry into the financial crimes
that took place under apartheid. Given the time allocated to the research and
limited research capacity, this report is not intended to be exhaustive but rather
indicative of corruption and related economic crime under apartheid. The research
therefore not only provides answers but also poses questions that only a competent
state investigation with greater capacity and legal powers could answer. These
questions are asked in boxes at the end of each section of the report.
2.2 Sources of information

The research is primarily historical in nature, which raises its own challenges, and
draws on the following sources of information:
9
• Primary research
In-depth interviews were conducted with over 20 individuals including
researchers (such as TRC researchers), journalists, ‘struggle’ activists,
politicians active in ‘homeland’ and ‘white’ politics, members of the business
community and security personnel (police, defence etc.). Some of those
interviewed have since retired. It is worth noting that a number of
interviewees requested that comments not be attributed to them and they
are accordingly not referenced in the report. This reflects the fact that the
nature of this research is still considered sensitive by many.
• Secondary research
This focused on information collected from various public and private
archival collections. It is worth noting that little exists in the way of official
records of corruption under apartheid. Many of the official records that
were not destroyed prior to 1994 are either accommodated by disparate
departments, the national archive or are held in private collections by officials
who have may kept them out of ignorance. This makes the task of any
research in this field very difficult. Equally important is that some material,
such as official submissions to the TRC, can only be accessed from the TRC
after presenting an ‘access to information request’. Many of these were once
a matter of public record and should (from a public research perspective)
remain so. General relevant information is either to be found in reports of
official commissions of enquiry (often whitewashes, as reflected below), or
in academic papers and books and newspaper clippings. The latter is a rich
source of information and points to allegations throughout the period under
review. Committed journalists were not afraid to investigate allegations of
scandal involving top officials. However, the impact of their investigations
was limited by the number of journalists prepared to do this, the courage of
their newspapers’ owners and the might of the security apparatus and the
laws it used to silence critics.
2.3 Making sense of money17

It is important to understand that R1 million stolen through corruption in, say,
1976, does not have the same value as it would in 1994 or 2005. This potentially
makes it difficult for the reader to grapple with the relative value of some of the
allegations documented in this report. The report attempts to compensate for this
by providing estimates of the value of the money in 2005. The figures below
should assist the reader with comprehending the relative value of the rand today—
and, importantly, how currency fluctuations and profit would have impacted on
10
Research methods
the rand if the money had been kept in South Africa or taken out of the country.
The formula has not been applied to all amounts mentioned in this document and
equally, where it was felt not to be relevant, all three figures are not included. For
ease of reference ‘keys’ listed below identify the three calculations.
The calculations are based on the following questions:
1. What would the 2005 (August) value of a rand be if it was kept in South Africa over
a number of years?
This is calculated by using CPIX (Consumer Price Index) data from two
sources, namely, for 1981–2005, the Economist Intelligence Unit; for 1960–
1980, the December 1987 Statistical News Release published by the Central
Statistical Service (RSA).
According to this calculation R1 in 1981 would be worth R12,62 in 2005.
Key: ZAR2005
2. What would the 2005 (August) value of a rand be if it was invested (conservatively)
in a US Bank account over a period of time?
These figures have been calculated using an average interest rate of 3% per
annum and a currency exchange rate of R6,5 to the US Dollar in 2005.
According to this calculation R1 in 1981 would be worth R16,96 in 2005.
Key: USD-Bank
3. What would the 2005 (August) value of a rand be if it was invested on the New
York Stock Exchange (NYSE) over a period of time?
This is calculated by using figures drawn from the NYSE composite index
(last day of the year and at 23 August 2005). A currency exchange rate of
R6,5 to the US Dollar in 2005 is used.
According to this calculation R1 in 1981 would be worth R82 in 2005.
Key: USD-NYSE.
11
In summary, this research report set out to try and answer

some of the following questions:
• Do we know the true extent of corruption under apartheid?
• In what manner did the apartheid system of governance facilitate
corrupt behaviour?
• Which areas of the public service and economy were vulnerable to
corrupt behaviour?
• Are there known allegations of grand corruption that have not been
sufficiently investigated?
• What can be done to ensure that we learn from our past, while ensuring
that justice is seen to be done?
12
Investigations
3. Investigations
There have been a number of attempts to establish the truth about crimes that
took place under apartheid. These were primarily focused on gross violations of
human rights and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) undertook
the bulk of that work. However, a number of investigations (listed below) did
focus on commercial crimes under apartheid, such as corruption. It could be argued
that the two major constraints that any investigation experienced were:
1. The nature of the negotiated transition

South Africa emerged in 1994 from a prolonged period of civil war and
strife as a country that had negotiated a peaceful settlement and the transition
to democracy. It was a recognition of the stalemate of the early 1990s (between
the regime and its opponents) that would, in part, define the nature of the
transition. This meant that certain issues were either too politically sensitive
to be dealt with or may have been part of deals brokered to facilitate the
transfer of power and therefore remained untouched. It remains unclear if
grand corruption under apartheid could be such an area. In addition, in
order for any investigation to prove successful, the assistance of officials in
the previous regime would be required. It was clear that although some
officials quickly backed the new constitutional order, many did not share
such sentiments. In 1997 Moss Chikane (chairperson of the Parliamentary
Public Works programme), commented on the slow process of identifying
state assets, such as houses and land abroad, saying:
Officials in the previous government have been unhelpful in the
extreme…Even before we start looking at what properties the former
homelands bought, we should at least be able to establish what the central
government owned. But we have not…we have inherited an empty house.18
13
At the time of this comment was made, the Department of Public Works
had started the tedious process of compiling a national asset register. It had
(by then) identified over 25,000 buildings, pieces of land and other properties
that did not form part of the original register of approximately 125,000
buildings.19
2. Destruction of the evidence

As Terry Bell and Dumisa Ntsebeza point out in their book, Unfinished
Business:
…tons of files, microfilm, audio and computer tapes and disks were
shredded, wiped and incinerated. In little more than six months in
1993…some 44 metric tons of records from the Headquarters of the
National Intelligence Service alone were destroyed.20
This would translate into approximately 5.5 million standard A4 photocopy

pages of paper.21 The destruction of documents took place on a massive
scale considering that the Presidency, Department of Defence, State Security
Council, Military Intelligence, South African Police (SAP), homeland states
(and their bureaucracies) and front organisations for the security and
intelligence sector also disposed of documents. Bell and Ntsebeza go on to
describe the extent of the destruction and the impact thereof:
There was so much material that the state incinerators could not cope;
the furnaces of private companies, such as steelmaker ISCOR, also had
to be used. Into these flames disappeared the last vestiges of the voices of
thousands of victims. It was a paper Auschwitz…A new eco-friendly
generation would pen their own, private, secrets on the recycled remains
of much of a nation’s memory.22
At the time the then-President, F.W. de Klerk, and later the National
Intelligence Agency (NIS), obtained a legal opinion stating that any
documents marked ‘secret’ should not be archived.23 In so doing, evidence
that might have changed the course of post-apartheid politics and given
closure to numerous victims of apartheid were destroyed. Evidence of theft
of money by state officials may well have gone up in smoke over the ISCOR
factory, south of Johannesburg. Some of the evidence may also have found
its way into the garages and safety deposit boxes of individuals, either as a
means to ensure future protection from prosecution and/or to gain an unfair
advantage (possibly through extortion) by monopolising the information.
14
Investigations
3.1 Apartheid commissions of enquiry

The use of commissions of enquiry into allegations of corruption and reporting to
Parliament—or more often, the State President—became more frequent from the
late 1980s into the mid-1990s. Of these, the Erasmus Commission into irregularities
in the Department of Information (the Information Scandal) received a high public
profile. However, commissions were also public pressure valves that created the
sense of a state committed to tackling corruption. As the then-leader of the
Progressive Federal Parliament in the white parliament notes: “They were a way
of buying time and covering up the problem. It was one meeting after another and
a waste of time.”24 In addition to this, they could also be used to isolate potential
rivals: some believe the Erasmus Commission was designed to ensure that P.W.
Botha could stymie aspirations his political rival, Connie Mulder, had for the
Premiership. However, despite these obvious shortcomings, the commissions did
go some way towards uncovering specific instances of corruption that took place
in the apartheid state and the various homelands. Some of the details that emerged
from these commissions are documented elsewhere in this report. Some of the
relevant commissions include:
• The Commission of Enquiry into Alleged Irregularities in the Former
Department of Information (1978, the Erasmus Commission);
• The Commission of Enquiry into the Alleged Misappropriation of Funds
of the Lebowa Government Service (1989);
• The Commission of Enquiry into the Affairs of the Department of
Development Education and Training (1989);
• The Commission of Enquiry into Certain Alleged Murders Report (1990,
the Harms Commission);
• The Commission of Enquiry into Development Aid (1991);
• The Commission of Enquiry into 1986 Unrest and Alleged
Maladministration in KwaNdebele (1993);
• The Commission of Enquiry Regarding the Prevention of Public Violence
and Intimidation. Report by the Committee appointed to inquire into
allegations concerning front companies of the SADF and the training by the
SADF of Inkatha Supporters in the Caprivi in 1986 (1993, the Goldstone
Commission).
3.2 The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)25

The South African ‘miracle’ is the story of compromise over conflict. Well before
the final negotiations were concluded in 1994, two competing claims were being
made for what would be done to deal with the ‘past’ in what would hopefully be
15
a peaceful ‘future’. The NP favoured the option of blanket amnesty for all apartheid-
era crimes, while the liberation movements wanted individuals to account for
their role in perpetuating what the United Nations has classified a crime against
humanity. A breakthrough came in 1995 when Parliament passed the Promotion
of National Unity and Reconciliation Act and the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission was established under the chairpersonship of Nobel Peace Prize
recipient, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, in the same year. The TRC was to promote
national unity and reconciliation through the achievement of four objectives during
the 18-month period of its existence:26
• the discovery of the causes, nature and scope of ‘gross violations’ of human
rights between 1960 and 1994;
• the extension of amnesty to those who fully disclosed their involvement in
politically motivated violations of human rights;
• the identification and location of victims of violations and the design of
reparations for them; and
• the compilation of a report, which should contain recommendations for
measures to prevent any future violations of human rights.
The TRC effected its mandate through the following three committees:27
• the Human Rights Violations Committee;
• the Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee; and
• the Amnesty Committee.
Corruption was never the focus of the TRC. Its focus was the thousands of
applications for amnesty that were submitted and the public hearings on gross
violations of human rights. The loss of life inflicted across the political divide as a
result of apartheid was the focus of what had become a cathartic national process
(although with strong religious overtones).
According to the former Director of the TRC’s research division, Charles Villa-
Vincencio, corruption fell outside of the mandate of the TRC and was therefore
never discussed or seriously considered by the Commission.28 The already extensive
mandate of the TRC and its limited resources no doubt also limited the possibility
of extending its mandate.
However, Martin Welz, a seasoned financial journalist and the editor of Noseweek
magazine, described his experience of how difficult it was to get the issue of white-
collar crime and corruption on the TRC’s agenda. Welz, who has investigated and
reported on these issues since the 1970s, approached the TRC soon after it was
established and indicated that he would be interested in undertaking research on
issues such as offshore trust funds.29 When finally invited to appear before an
interview panel Welz was told that he would not be suitable for the position. The
16
Investigations
reason given was that, since he had been fired some years earlier from the Sunday
newspaper, Rapport (which had strong links to the National Party), he had a track
record of ‘disloyalty’. Welz was taken aback and is of the opinion that others in
the TRC investigation department had been against his employment. The TRC
probably lost an opportunity to bring on board some expertise to look at an issue
that would eventually only feature peripherally in its final reports.
The TRC not only attempted to establish the truth about individual acts of
terror. It also understood the context in which apartheid era crimes took place.
This led to the establishment of a number of special hearings focussing on the
media, business, prisons, the faith community, the legal system and the health
sector. Many argue that the hearings only touched the surface of the way in which
various professions and sections of society, including South African and foreign
business, propped up the apartheid regime. It did, however, shed some light on
the sectoral responsibility for apartheid.
Many companies either made no submission to these hearings (such as Armscor,
which was responsible for all state weapons procurement during the 1980s) or,
when they did, were criticised for not sufficiently engaging with the past (the
Chamber of Mines, for example, omitted any reference to the migrant labour
system in its submission).30 Some of the critics of the TRC argue that it did not go
far enough in holding senior members of the former government, the security
establishment and the business community to account. The TRC process was, of
course, about restorative justice rather than the Nuremburg-type trials that took
place in Germany after the defeat of the Nazi regime.
By sacrificing the ‘lower’ and ‘middle managers’ of apartheid (the policemen,
soldiers and others who were rightly implicated in the system), the top end of the
apartheid elite were left to while away their days in holiday homes along the
country’s coastline (such as P.W. Botha, who retreated to his villa in the aptly
named resort town of Wilderness). Many of these individuals, including leaders in
business, have never accounted for all their crimes, nor did they apply for amnesty
for offences they might have committed, refusing in some instances even to co-
operate with the TRC. This should not, however, detract from the fact that the
TRC did help thousands of victims of political violence to find some answers to
what had happened to loved ones and thereby contributed to the process of national
reconciliation in South Africa. According to Zenzile Khoisan, a TRC researcher:
As a start it was good, it was auspicious and audacious. It held open the
door of promise to those who have been harmed by history. But it is up to
us who live in the aftermath of the nightmare to wake gently and work
tirelessly to realise the substance of that promise.31
17
3.3 Apartheid corruption investigations post-1994

There are very few examples of state funded public investigations of apartheid-era
corruption since 1994. It is important to recall that the democratic state was
immediately forced to deal with the legacy of apartheid, including evidence that
the incidence of corruption had apparently not abated.
Some of the investigations into specific instances of corruption include:
• The Commission of Enquiry into the Alleged Smuggling of, and Illegal Trade
in, Ivory and Rhinoceros Horn in South Africa (1996): The Kumleben Report
focused on ivory smuggling involving members of the SADF before 1994
(this is discussed elsewhere in this report).
• The Commission of Enquiry into Alleged Irregularities or Malpractices
Regarding the Allocation, Leasing, Alienation and Transfer of Certain State
Land (1997): This focused on areas in the former provinces of Natal, Transvaal
and the Cape.
• The Heath Special Investigations Unit (as the Special Investigations Unit, or
SIU, was known before Willem Heath’s departure), was also reported to
have investigated acts of corruption predating 1994.32
• The South African Police Service (SAPS) and arms of the National
Prosecuting Authority (NPA) have investigated alleged instances of
corruption involving individuals such as Dr. Wouter Basson, who was
involved in the apartheid state’s chemical and biological warfare programme
(this is described in more detail elsewhere).
• In 2003, the Minister of Finance, Trevor Manuel, announced a government
foreign exchange control amnesty. Although not an investigation, it did
prompt the identification of over R68 billion in assets held abroad and
government netted R2.9 billion in levies through that process.
The state, through the National Intelligence Agency (NIA), other special
presidential task forces or other means, has also investigated corruption that took
place during apartheid.
• The Thabo Kubu Unit: This intelligence operation was eventually shut down
when a number of its members themselves became embroiled in allegations
of fraud, theft and corruption. The unit, headed by NIA operative Thabo
Kubu, was “apparently set up to recover money said to have been taken out
of the country as slush funds for intelligence operations during the apartheid
years, and capital smuggled out of the country prior to 1994.”33 Allegations
in the press were that this 15-person unit, which was at one time based in
Sandton and operated as Mhlanga (or Umhlanga) Rocks Transporters CC,
had misused as much as R3 million allocated to it.34 Despite this awesome
18
Investigations
responsibility, questions were raised about the choice of personnel selected.

The unit is alleged to have included among its members characters such as
Rian Stander, a former security policemen linked to apartheid-era Civil Co-
operation Bureau (CCB) operative Craig Williamson.35 Membership of the
unit was also alleged to include a known fraudster, who had once attempted
to pass himself off as the President of Portugal to a small Boland town.
According to Dirk Coetzee (who blew the lid on the CCB in the early 1990s
with the help of the Vrye Weekblad newspaper), the unit, which was disbanded
very shortly after he joined, “…was a joke, I could see that when I first
walked in there.”36 To add substance to this, a member of the unit was fingered
by the SAPS for his involvement in a R180 million scam following the unit’s
suspension in mid-1998.37 There is no evidence that this special unit ever
managed to track down money that had been taken out of the country;
rather, it became a burden on taxpayers through its alleged corrupt dealings.
• The Presidential Investigations Task Unit (PITU): This unit was established to
investigate high-profile organised crime, with a focus on alleged mafia member
and convicted fraudster, Vito Palozollo. It was also disbanded following
infighting and allegations of corruption.
• It was alleged by some individuals interviewed that the Executive, authorised
an investigation by a private company that tracks stolen assets internationally.
This allegation has not been substantiated. This is alleged to have taken
place in the late 1990s or the early part of this decade and was allegedly
aimed at tracking public money that had been moved abroad. It is believed
that the company was unable to trace any assets.
It is possible that intelligence operatives within the liberation movement have
undertaken investigations. If so, these records may either be with the individual
operatives who undertook such investigations or may be contained in the current
national intelligence archives.
Although speculative, it has also been argued by some that in the lengthy period
of negotiations in 1994, deals were not only struck at a political level but possibly
also at a personal level between individuals of the old and new orders. This could
have taken the form of promises not to release compromising information (held
by apartheid security agents about informants, for example) or possibly bribes
(often in the form of gifts). Individuals active in organised crime or those wishing
to secure continued access to public contracts from a government-in-waiting
potentially corrupted individuals even before they had been elected or appointed
to public office.
19
This section raises an important issue:

Attempts to investigate apartheid-era corruption appear to be
piecemeal and have not led to many high profile prosecutions since
1994, raising the issue of unfinished business that should be addressed.
It also raises some important questions:
• Why have allegations of corruption under apartheid never been
investigated through a state body other than intelligence agencies?
• Has the state invested any assets into investigations since the Kubu
Unit was closed down?
• If so, what were they looking for and have they managed to trace any
stolen funds?
• Are there presently any plans to continue such investigations?
• Should there be call for individuals to open their private archives and
share information they have with the state?
• Greater access to information—such as TRC documents—has to be
secured for those undertaking research on South Africa’s past.
20
Corruption, colonialism and the apartheid state (1652-1976)
4. Corruption, colonialism and the apartheid state

(1652–1976)
Although this report focuses on the period from 1976 to 1994, it is important to
contextualise corruption, thus the examination of the preceding era. This is equally
relevant to help understand how corruption before 1994 affects South Africa today.
White supremacy in South Africa has always been premised on greed and
corruption. Ideology has often been misused as a pretext for what constitutes
corrupt behaviour. The first attempt by Europeans to ‘settle’ at the Cape was a
decision of the Dutch East India Company—a forerunner of modern-day
multinational corporations—which required a replenishment station that would
aide its business forays to the East and to Indonesia in particular. The success of
the station at the Cape of Good Hope required the subjugation of local inhabitants,
to the benefit of the company’s Dutch headquarters.
The subsequent British colonial administrations were no less subtle when wars
were raged and people subjugated (both black and white) in order to acquire access
to the country’s wealth of minerals and land. Although sharply critical of the
white English for entrenching poverty among white Afrikaans-speakers, Prof.
Sampie Terreblanche points out that some more introspection is required. As far
back as the nineteenth century, ‘Notables’, such as Generals Botha, Cronje, Koos
de la Rey and others, had as many as 20–30 large farms. The Transvaal in the late
nineteenth century was a feudal society in which the Voortrekkers each ‘received’
a farm for which they had to pay regular tax. However, when they defaulted on
their tax payments, the farms were put up for sale. With the connivance of the
local Landrost (magistrate) the ‘Notables’ were often the first to be informed of
such sales and so they became landlords with many farms in their possession.
When gold was discovered, many of them would become involved in corruption.
21
After the end of the South African War (1900–1902) the political leaders of the
‘Notables’, such as Generals Botha and Smuts (both later Premiers of the Union
of South Africa) entered into political deals with the British. This was the beginning
of the so-called ‘bloed SAPe’ (members of the South African Party), who would
make way for the rising force of Afrikaner Nationalism in the second half of the
twentieth century.38
Another historical text indicates that:
One of President [Paul] Kruger’s three sons was his private secretary. A
son-in-law of his, C.F. Eloff, was a businessman who was granted several
(government) concessions, namely business monopolies of one kind or
another.39
Writing in 1899, Hillegas notes that “Eloff was several times a millionaire”.40
At the time reference was also made to a secret ‘third Volksraad’ (a second
Volksraad, or Assembly, existed to represent ‘foreign’ whites), which was an
undercover group of businessmen who secretly controlled the economy and of
which the aforementioned Eloff was said to be a ‘member’.41
Following the bloody South African War, the Union of South Africa, under
British imperial rule, cemented the white dominated political system for the next
50 years. The two former British colonies and the Boer ‘free’ states constituted
the provinces and territory of this new state. A white parliament was elected with
an upper house (Senate) that included representatives of the majority black,
coloured and Indian South Africans. The nascent white state, with the approval
of its imperial overlords, systemically used power to corrupt. The 1912 Land Act
placed 87% of the country’s land in the hands of 13% of the population. This
served two purposes: ensuring white domination of the agricultural sector and
ensuring that black South Africans were forced to move to the cities where labour
was in short supply in the county’s mines. This situation suited the emerging
mining companies, including the forerunners of the latter-day de Beers and Anglo
American. These crony capitalists were the beneficiaries of political patronage
resulting from the convergence of interests between the business and political
elite in the country.42
When the NP came to power in 1948 it deviated from the system of British
colonial rule in that it wished to swell the ranks of those who benefited from the
oligarchy to include working-class white Afrikaans-speakers. However, it had no
intention of extending it beyond this group.
One of the first problems the NP faced in 1948 was that it had won the elections
with a majority of seats (based on a constituency system) but without a majority
of votes. Party leaders were well aware that they would need to grow their electoral
support in the next election and for that, the NP required funding. In such an
22
environment political parties are vulnerable to outside influence. The NP soon

started a drive for funds and it is believed that the emerging white Afrikaans capital
became the conduit for party support and fundraising.43 Large corporations that
were close to the NP at that stage included Genkor, Sanlam, Nasionale Pers,
Rembrandt and others. At the same time there was a noticeable toenaadering
(drawing together) between the NP and the English business establishment. It was
during this time that people such as J.F. Klopper, the leader of the Broederbond,
and Nico Diedrichs, the Minister of Finance and later leader of the Broederbond,
and some of the staunchest Afrikaner (national) socialists became darlings of the
Chamber of Mines when the creation of an ‘Afrikaner’ mining group, Genkor,
was accepted as a pay-off for not nationalising the other ‘English’ mines.44 Parallel
contact was also sought with foreign capital, such as large construction companies,
who conducted work for Eskom. At one point in the 1960s it was suspected that
a large part of the top echelon of Eskom, together with individuals such as Klopper
and Diedrichs, used their political leverage to secure contracts for large
multinational corporations.45
What differentiates the early apartheid state from later years is its efficiency in
ensuring that those who benefited from the system were not only the top leadership
and their families. Hundreds of thousands of individuals would be afforded access
to state grants, free education and job reservation at the expense of the majority,
ensuring that the patrimonial network was comparatively massive. The
beneficiaries were not all white, as elites within other communities were also
bought off in this process. It was a system, however, that relied on a number of
key tenets for its survival:
• blind acceptance of party authority from beneficiaries of the system;
• successful repression of those who questioned its legitimacy (both within
and outside the network); and
• an acceptance that apartheid’s beneficiaries were not allowed to become
‘too greedy’—the creation of an elite within the group could eventually result
in the alienation of working-class supporters.
The third element, the necessity for class solidarity within the ranks of white
Afrikaans speakers, lay at the heart of the support the NP received from working
class voters in 1948. However, it was access to capital and power— and the inevitable
abuse of such power to accumulate more capital—that would deepen the faultlines
that already existed within the white Afrikaans community. Corruption entrenched
class differences between a growing groups of ‘haves’ and working-class supporters
of the NP, who relied on job reservation to secure jobs in the public sector. The
difference in quality of life is apparent to any observer who drives from the rich
(primarily) white suburbs to the east of Pretoria (a city that was once the engine-
23
room of Afrikaner nationalism) across the city to the working-class (primarily)

white suburbs to the west. The discrepancy is still not comparable to the wealth
gap between the wealthy and the black working poor. However, it would also be
true to say that the aspirations and lived experiences of white Afrikaans speakers
on both sides of Pretoria differ dramatically. Corrupt behaviour played no small
role in this process, as discussed elsewhere in this report.
The NP dedicated a large amount of money to (white) social spending from
when it took office in 1948. However, by the 1960s the NP’s focus shifted to the
concerns of the large farmers and Afrikaner industrial sector. From then on the
NP was in the grip of Afrikaner capital and, increasingly, also English capital.46
The locus of interest for the ruling elite started to shift away from volk towards
that of capital.
This is mirrored in the rise of an Afrikaner haute bourgeoisie (the Afrikaner
nouveau riche) by the late 1960s. Evidence of the growing position within white
society of this class can seen in the fact that per capita income of white Afrikaners
increased from 50% of that of white English South Africans in 1948, to 75% by
1975. Although all whites made progress at that time, it was the top 20–30% of
Afrikaners who became extraordinarily rich. It was these people who, together
with a white English elite, began to pull the strings in South African society.47
Welz argues that the real rot (in terms of corruption) set in with Verwoerd,
who maintained control by doing deals with corrupt elements. This coincided
with a shift whereby the urban elite displaced the rural (agricultural) elite in
positions of influence and control. Terreblanche places this slide slightly later,
with the advent of B.J. Vorster’s presidency. He is:
…alleged to have started some of his cabinet meetings by sending out details
of recent land bankruptcies in the Transvaal (province) to inform Ministers
about the availability of farms in the farm market.48
This has an uncanny resemblance to the dealings between the ‘Notables’ and
the landrosts described earlier in this report.
An allegation of corruption in the late 1960s involved a businessman called
Agliotti, in what became known as the Agliotti Affair. O’Meara notes that he:
…bought land at the end of Jan Smuts International Airport [now
Johannesburg International] for R5 million [ZAR 2005=R212 million],
selling it back to the state for R95 million [ZAR2005=R4,028 billion]
shortly thereafter. The Sunday Times campaigned unsuccessfully for years
for an enquiry into ministerial collusion. Agliotti was eventually obliged
to return much of his profits to the state.49
24
Corruption in the late 1960s and 1970s appears crude compared with the
sophistication of the 1980s, which saw a clampdown on access to information
under the Botha imperial premiership. Within Afrikaner society there were also
many pressure groups, such as the wine farmers, represented by KWV, who used
their close proximity to Parliament to ‘take people to parties’ and provide them
with a quota of wine annually—this continued in the immediate post-1994 period,
when MPs had access to cost-price wines. Similarly, the large white landowners
further north were equally effective in lobbying by taking ministers on hunting
trips in winter, a practice that started in earnest in the early 1970s.50 These were all
subtle forms of influence buying that could be compared with contemporary private
sector-subsidised golf days for politicians and public sector officials.
The growing nexus between private capital and political power apparent in the
1970s is exemplified in a case of alleged property speculation. The NP elite in the
Cape Province became embroiled in a deal surrounding the creation of new seaside
holiday resorts. They had effectively reversed an earlier decision (made by the NP
government) not to allow any more resorts to be built and favoured a scheme
whereby a private investor (with backing from the Trust Bank) would sell holiday
homes to working class Afrikaners. They were, however, unable to make their
bond payments and the Trust Bank faced financial ruin through this enterprise.
In order to save the NP and its leadership in the Cape huge potential embarrassment,
it is alleged that Sanlam, the life insurance company, was convinced to bail out
Trust Bank in order to prevent a potentially catastrophic political and economic
fall-out.51
In parallel, freedom of political association, movement and the press were
increasingly curtailed by the state machinery. So, too, were other checks and
balances hemmed in. One example is that “…the Auditor-General’s reports stopped
routinely detailing malfeasances after 1967".52
Some of the important issues raised in this section include the

following:
• Corrupt behaviour in South Africa has been both systemic and for
centuries also perpetrated by individuals within the dominant class.
• The twentieth century saw the rise of crony capitalism and the general
blurring of lines between party and state.
• The issue of private funding of political parties—the nexus between
private capital and political parties—has always been vulnerable to
corrupt behaviour in South Africa.
25
5. The insiders: The Broederbond

A key tenet of the apartheid state was secrecy. This manifested itself in the creation
of secret organisations such as the Broederbond, a group of white male Afrikaner
Nationalists that numbered 12,000 by the late 1970s (almost all loyal members of
the NP), who were the invisible hand directing NP policy and who held enormous
influence over government policy and its implementation.53 The mere existence
of such a secret society, with unparrallaled power within the state, questions the
often-held assumption that the white state was democratic. If anything, it was
manipulated by a secret elite. This caused a crisis of conscience for a few leading
members of the Afrikaans clergy, such as Beyers Naude, who resigned from the
Broederbond and suffered the personal and political consequences.
In such an environment, highly vulnerable to the abuse of power, the idea of
transparent, accountable government would be extremely difficult to implement.
The Broederbond was established in 1918 and operated through front organisations
such as the Federation for Afrikaans Culture, seeking to ensure domination of
South Africa by white Afrikaans-speaking members of the NP. It could count
among its membership (secret at the time and controlled through a cell-like
structure), every NP President from D.F. Malan to F.W. de Klerk, as well as three
State Presidents.54 In addition, most Cabinet members, military leaders, heads of
Afrikaans-speaking universities (including rectors and professors) and of the South
African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) were broeders (‘brothers’). Leaders of
white Afrikaans clergy, teachers and established farmers also featured prominently
among its membership. This small group of people wileded tremendous influence
and power within the state, parastatels, Afrikaans universities and the private sector.
Ivor Wilkins and Hans Strydom exposed this organisation in their 1980 book,
The Super-Afrikaners. The Broederbond had become the preserve of the wealthy
26
The insiders: The Broederbond
and powerful among the white Afrikaans elite. In 1968 the first Chairman of the
Broederbond, H.J. Klopper, proclaimed at the organisation’s 50th anniversary:
Do you realise what a powerful force is gathered here tonight between four
walls? Show me a greater power on the continent of Africa! Show me a
greater power anywhere, even in your so-called civilised country!55
Such ‘power’ may well have translated into opportunity: Broeders were likely
to be among the first to know of forthcoming large government procurements
and of where universities and harbours were to be built (an advantage for property
speculators). Efforts were made to stack the public service with broeders who shared
similar values of racist nationalism.
According to Prof. Sampie Terreblanche, a former member of the Broederbond,
what was initially networking created opportunities for “circles within circles”.56
A similar argument can, of course, be made about other exclusive ‘clubs’ that are
the preserve of the elite—golf clubs, country clubs, the Freemasons etc. However,
the Broederbond was different in that it had a near monopoly on political power.
This, combined with its support for white capital, meant that it had the power to
set policy that would direct the thinking of the NP and ultimately the white
Parliament and Cabinet. It became the hidden hand that steered the white
establishment and was perhaps only paralleled in power and influence by P.W.
Botha’s State Security Council in the 1980s (discussed below).
By the 1970s the Broederbond had fulfilled its 1918 mission of alleviating
Afrikaner poverty. The organisation had become a powerful network of patronage,
which meant that Broeders had access to contracts and to quotas where the Minister
had discretionary power.57 Author Hennie Serfontein goes on to argue that the
Broederbond was originally an “underdog” organisation concerned with the
interests of impoverished Afrikaners. However, once a significant part of the
Afrikaner community became wealthy it continued to promote Afrikaner
interests—i.e. the interest of the “top dogs”. Terreblanche argues that when a “top
dog” organisation acts as if it is still involved with the interest of the “underdogs”,
it is almost inevitable that a culture of nepotism and corruption will set in.58
According to Serfontein, as early as the 1940s the Broederbond had a system
called help mekaar (‘help one another’). Through the network of about 800 cells
throughout the country, information about vacancies in almost every field of
employment was sent to the head office in Johannesburg. These ranged from
vacancies in public bodies and the professions to openings for tailors and
shoemakers.59
27
Some important issues raised in this section:

• There is an inherent propensity for corruption to flourish in closed and
secretive systems.
• The Broederbond was a powerful and influential group and was most
likely the scene of deal making and patronage between members.
• It is unknown whether, during the negotiations preceeding democratic
rule, the Broederbond and others supported amnesty for certain crimes
committed under apartheid, including corruption.
28
Information, blood and gold
6. Information, blood and gold

6.1 The Information Scandal
Between 1977 and 1979 scandal raged in apartheid South Africa. The Prime
Minister, Balthazaar John (B.J.) Vorster, had authorised secret funding to the
Orwellian Department of Information to wage propaganda wars at home and
abroad. This included establishing publications such as the government mouthpiece,
The Citizen, and attempts to purchase established foreign newspapers, such as the
Washington Star, in an attempt to ensure that the apartheid state received better
press around the world.
The central figures in this enterprise included:
• The Prime Minister, B.J. Vorster, who kept information of the slush fund
from (some) of his Cabinet colleagues;
• The Minister of Information, Connie Mulder, who was tipped to succeed
Vorster as Prime Minister;
• His number two, Dr. Eschel Rhoodie, head of the Department of
Information, who was involved in spending the Department’s money;
• ‘Lang Jan’ Hendrik van der Berg, the vicious Head of the State Intelligence
Service, the Bureau of State Security (BOSS). Funds for the Department of
Information’s secret slush account were at first diverted from the BOSS
budget and later from the Department of Defence’s secret accounts (which
were kept secret by law);
• The Minister of Defence, P.W. Botha, who later claimed that he “strongly”
disapproved of the Secret Defence Fund being used in this way. It is alleged
that this powerful Minister had the ability to stop it, should that really have
been his wish. In his account of the scandal, published in 1983, Eschel Rhoodie
29
maintained that both Botha and General Malan knew full well about the
activities of the Department of Information and had agreed to these
throughout.60 He goes as far as to reproduce a note from Botha to Mulder
acknowledging how much money would be transferred from his budget to
the Department of Information that year;
• The Minister of Finance (and later State President), Nico Diedrichs, is thought
to have known of the existence of the slush fund (Diedrichs is discussed in
more depth in this section). The Treasury was kept in the dark about the
secret account; and
• Louis Luyt, a private businessman who was the one-time fertiliser king and
later became the rugby supremo in the 1990s. Luyt had acted as the conduit
for the purchase of The Citizen, one of the Department of Information’s
loss-making assets.
Importantly, the rest of the white Cabinet, white Parliament and its electorate
were kept in the dark.
This was to change in 1977 when Rand Daily Mail (RDM) journalists Chris
Rees and Mervyn Day were approached by a ‘deep-throat’ with information that
would lead to a scandal known as the Information Scandal, or Muldergate.61
Whether an honest bureaucrat leaked the information or if it was part of internal
National Party machinations is not known, but evidence started to emerge of the
vast sums of money and the gilded lifestyles members of the Department of
Information enjoyed. Importantly, Day and Rees also learnt of allegations that
Rhoodie had, for example, spent R320,000 (ZAR2005=R5,9 million) on
publication of a book that was meant to cost half that amount.62 In April 1978, the
RDM reported that Rhoodie had admitted that his Department had:
…spent R10 million [ZAR2005=R187 million; USD-Bank=R26million;
USD-NYSE=R827 million] in foreign currency annually and for some of
this he did not know if he had the authority of the Reserve Bank.63
The full extent of the money available to the Department of Information is not
known because the Secret Defence Fund was used, in part, to channel the money
and details of this account have always been kept secret. Only a handful of the
suspected over 130 ‘projects’ undertaken by the Department of Information (such
as buying publications) were ever revealed—and it is suspected that the majority
continued to function well into the Botha presidency. A surprising revelation was
made in September 2000 on the CBS programme, 60 Minutes, by a renowned
Hollywood producer, Arnon Milchan. Prior to making blockbuster movies such
as Pretty Women, Free Willy and The Fight Club, Milchan was an arms dealer for
the Israeli government (as an Israeli citizen).64 It is worth remembering that
30
apartheid South Africa and Israel co-operated closely on the development of nuclear
and conventional weapons for a number of decades. In the 60 Minutes interview,
Milchan reportedly disclosed that he had worked for the South African state and
that he “used a $100-million fund to buy off politicians and unsympathetic media”.
This was a massive amount of money (ZAR2005=R1,8 billion; USD-Bank=R2,6
billion; USD-NYSE=R8,27 billion) and points towards the types of resources
that were available to defend apartheid. It also gives a picture of the extent of
funds that officials in the Department of Information (and more importantly,
those who had access to the Secret Defence Fund) had at their disposal. Given the
amount of money involved it is also questionable if all of it was spent on its
originally intended purpose. It is also not clear if this was just one of many such
funds that the Department of Information or the South African government
controlled at the time.
The Information scandal was probed by the Auditor-General, a one-man
commission headed by Judge Mostert, and finally by the Erasmus Commission,
which is accused of having not probed the matter sufficiently. Ten years later a
retired member of the bench, Judge Hiemstra, would slam the Erasmus
Commission for being “unequalled in the number of blunders it made,” describing
it as “a means to remove the Information Scandal from the arena”.65
Hiemstra questioned the wisdom of appointing a provincial judge to head up a
commission in a scandal that implicated the State President, the Prime Minister, a
series of other Ministers and senior public servants. He also challenged the merit
of appointing two public servants to undertake investigations in a case that
implicated senior members of the public service.66 From the findings of the
Commission it was also clear that it did not undertake its work without
intimidation from the likes of van der Berg, the head of BOSS, who did not mince
his words when appearing before the Commission:
I really want to tell you…that I can do the impossible…I have enough men
to commit murder if I tell them…to kill. I do not care who the prey is or
how important they are. These are the types of men that I have. And if I
want to do something like that to protect the security of the state, nobody
would stop me. I would stop at nothing.67
He had effectively warned the Commission that he was beyond the law.
Although commissions of enquiry are meant to signal the beginning of attempts
to tackle issues such as abuse of office, as epitomised by the Information Scandal,
the attempts to investigate this scandal signalled, in reality, the end of any attempt
at probing the myriad of secret accounts that would grow under the tenure of
P.W. Botha’s Presidency.
31
Soon after the official enquiries were closed many of the central characters
moved on. P.W. Botha survived the scandal to become Prime Minister and later,
Executive State President. Eschel Rhoodie and Connie Mulder left public office
and later public life. General van der Berg also left unscathed—but the brutal
activities of his hated BOSS (and its involvement in fraud) would later probably
inform the activities of the CCB. His old friend B.J. Vorster resigned as Prime
Minister. Before the final report of the Commission was released, Dr. Nico
Diedrichs, the State President at the time and former Minister of Finance, had
died, taking his knowledge of many secrets (and possibly bank accounts) to his
grave.
Some important issues raised in this section:

• Did the Erasmus Commission ever uncover the true extent of the
Information Scandal?
• Do we know what happened to the remaining Department of
Information funds that were held abroad?
• Was P.W. Botha privy to information on the true extent of the Information
Scandal? If so, should he not, as the Minister of Defence at the time,
share responsibility for it as the responsible accounting officer?
• Do we know if the Department of Information’s funds were ever used
to finance activities of the National Party?
6.2 Dr. ‘Gold’ (finger)

Dr. Nico Diedrichs served for 20 years in the Executive as Minister of Economic
Affairs from 1958–1967, Minister of Mines from 1961–1964, Minister of Finance
from 1967–1974 and finally, as State President, by then a largely ceremonial
position, from 1974–1978. A Broederbonder since he was young, his position as
State President was secured through Broederbond support.68 Admired during his
tenure by many in the press, he was nicknamed ‘Dr. Gold’ for his unwavering
belief in gold, then an essential part of the South African economy. Helen Zille
(now a Democratic Alliance MP) reported at the time of his death in the RDM
that “His economic brilliance brought him recognition from all over the world”.69
The Sunday Times pondered if this was “the richest politician since Rhodes”, given
that his assets were valued at R744,000 (ZAR2005=R13 million), excluding the six
companies he owned.70 Neither his fame nor his fortune would last for very long.
32
By December 1978 allegations surfaced regarding his involvement in property

speculation with a company called Glen Anil. The most spectacular of many deals
he concluded while serving as State President took place in 1975, when he sold a
piece of land for R125,000 (ZAR2005=R3,2 million), which amounted to 62 times
the purchase price of R2,000 two years earlier.71 Glen Anil was considered a blue
chip township developer and had a prestigious board, including non-executive
director Michael Katz (the latter-day tax guru). The ‘investment’ was alleged to be
bribes paid to Diedrichs. According to a story published by former Finance Week
editor, Alan Greenblo, in 1999, he had wind of the story for some time.72 An
article was prepared and presented to Diedrichs for his comment and he asked to
see Greenblo (then at the Financial Mail) and his editor. Diedrichs allegedly never
denied the story but by the end of the nearly four-hour meeting at the Union
Buildings, he had pleaded that the press should not bring his name into disrepute
and finally warned that he would charge them if they attempted to bring the
office of the State President into disrepute. The then-editor of the Financial Mail,
who attended the meeting, eventually decided that he did not want to face
prosecution for publishing the story.
Diedrichs was later implicated in a steel scandal involving Iscor73 and a massive
land acquisition that would, coincidentally, some years later be purchased to
develop Hoedspruit air force base (in Limpopo province).74 His estate was
eventually declared bankrupt as he owed money to everyone from meat barons to
diamond companies—a reflection of his healthy appetite for credit and his
connections to various influential lobbying groups.
6.3 Two mysteries
6.3.1 The Swiss bank account

However, there was more to come in the way of revelations. In 1980 retired Judge
Joe Ludolf (a ‘hanging’ judge who sent the so-called Johannesburg station bomber
and freedom fighter John Harris to the gallows in the 1960s) informed the RDM
of a R28 million secret bank account held in Switzerland (USD-Bank=R475
million; USD-NYSE=R2,3 billion). The bank account was said to be linked to
Dr. Nico Diedrichs.
It was alleged that Diedrichs, as Minister of Finance, had agreed to moving the
base for South Africa’s gold sales from London to Zurich in the 1970s on condition
that a small amount (possibly US 10c per ounce sold) would be transferred into a
private account.75 This would probably not have been too far fetched, as other
‘commissions’ in the natural resource sector such as the oil trade work on similar
kickbacks.
33
Alister Sparks, the then-editor of the RDM, travelled to Switzerland and made
two deposits into a numbered Swiss bank account (no. 187-613-L1 E) totalling 50
Swiss Francs. The main branch of United Bank of Switzerland (UBS) in Zurich
accepted both these deposits. On the same occasion Sparks spoke to the former
chairman of UBS, Dr. Saager, who commented: “I was a very good friend of Dr.
Diedrichs and I will not do anything that will raise matters again that will harm
him”.76 His comment was in line with the Swiss banking policy of ‘don’t ask,
don’t tell’ at the time.
After huge public outcry the Advocate-General eventually launched an
investigation that completely exonerated Diedrichs. The secret account belonged
to a Mr. David Mort and contained as little as R500 (ZAR2005=R7,200).77
However, it was also clear that Mort was a friend of Diedrichs and a former business
associate of his family—a matter largely ignored by the Advocate-General at the
time. The Advocate-General could also not find any details of the deposits made
by Sparks, which raised eyebrows as Sparks published the deposit slips on the
front page of RDM.
At around the same time (1980) a story broke that the Erasmus Commission,
which investigated the Information Scandal, had probed an alleged secret Swiss
Bank account which was supposed to contain R128 million (USD-Bank=R2,1
billion; USD-NYSE=R10,5 billion).78 It seemed impossible to shake the story
that money was being stashed abroad and that Dr. Gold was linked to this in
some way.
The mystery deepened when it was revealed that a safety deposit box Diedrichs
had opened at Volkskas Bank months before his death was found empty only
three weeks after he died.79 What evidence had been whisked away? Did Diedrichs
own a foreign bank account to conceal stolen assets, or did it belong to others
within the ruling elite (including the Broederbond)? This is not known but as
Minister of Finance Diedrichs spent months at a time travelling abroad, particularly
to see South African creditors in Europe (including Switzerland). In 1974 the NP
rag, Die Vaderland, described him as South Africa’s “son of the clouds”, who
travelled a half a million flight miles per year.80
It was clear that the NP government had little interest in pursuing the matter
much further: it had been bruised by the Information Scandal and didn’t need
another scandal.
According to journalist and author Alister Sparks, he gave photocopies and
details of the Swiss transfers to the former Minister of Justice, Dullah Omar, in
1995/1996. He is not aware if the Minister requested any further investigation
into the matter as he made no further mention of it. Sparks still believes that there
is a strong possibility that there is a lot of money in the Swiss banks, but expresses
the concern that inactive accounts become the property of the bank after 30 years.
34
Questions remain about the bank account and whether it was linked to the
mysterious ‘Smit murders’ in 1977.
6.3.2 The Smit murders

Robert Smit, a bright, ambitious former South African representative to the
International Monetary Fund, was found slain with his wife in his home in Springs
in 1978 together; both were riddled with bullet and stab wounds. The mysterious
words, ‘Rau-Tem’, were sprayed on the wall of their kitchen. Smit was a NP
parliamentary candidate in Springs and his brutal murder made the headlines.
One theory about his murder is that Smit was on to something, possibly involving
foreign bank accounts; he indicated to one of his closest colleagues shortly before
the murder that he was planning to drop a bombshell that would “rock the nation
and go straight to the top”.81 Smit is alleged to have visited B.J. Vorster some
months before his death to disclose secret information and some newspapers
speculated that he was part of a government probe. This was something P.W.
Botha denied at the time.82
During the years that followed, extensive investigations were undertaken by
the police but the murder remains an open case as the killers have never been
found. It is widely believed that the murders were probably an assassination, linked
to information Smit had collected. A former BOSS agent, Gordon Winter, who
would later flee the country, confirmed the assassination to journalist Alister
Sparks.83 Winter had worked for Sparks at the Sunday Express for a while although
Sparks suspected Winter of being a spy, which he later confirmed. In approximately
1979 (when Sparks was editor of the RDM), Winter arrived at his house one evening
and claimed that the police were trying to kill him as he planned to write a book
about BOSS. Winter spent the entire evening in discussion with Sparks at his
home and admitted that he had been the ‘cleaner’ (the person responsible for
removing any incriminating evidence from a crime scene before the police arrive)
for the Smit murders. He eventually left after daybreak, abandoned his car at Jan
Smuts airport and boarded a flight to Ireland, never to return to South Africa.
The Smit murders were again raised at the TRC in 1997 but no further evidence
was produced that could assist the Commission. The Commission did conclude
that the murders were politically motivated and a gross violation of human rights,
and not just a criminal act. The TRC report went on to say that the murders were
likely to have been perpetrated by members of the security forces. It also believed
that “explosive information” may have led to the assassination, which may have
been linked to massive corruption in the government, the nuclear programme
and the sanctions-busting programme of the state.84 However, it was clear that
those involved were still around and had much to hide. At the time of the TRC
investigations the daughter of the Smit family (one of two surviving children)
35
reported that she had received “numerous death threats” and was promised a
“couple of million rand” to buy the family’s silence.85
In the early 1990s, Eschel Rhoodie, who was linked to the Information Scandal,
indirectly shed some light on the issue in an interview with Noseweek magazine.86
He points to the fact that Smit may have come across a contingency fund for a
government-in-exile that was held in an overseas bank account. Such an account
would serve to assist the white regime should it be forced to flee South Africa due
to war or revolution. According to Rhoodie, the Secret Defence Fund, when not
a laundering house for Department of Information activities, was used to procure
weapons abroad. However, he noticed in the 1970s that a massive amount of
money was lost due to “fruitless expenditure”. He explained:
We figure out that, even with all the mark-ups which one must have when
buying in secret, even allowing for third parties who are always involved
in the process of covering your tracks, allowing for excess commissions and
bona fide fruitless expenditure, that about R200 million more was going
out each year (USD-Bank=R3,4 billion; USD-NYSE=R16,5 billion). That
was just a ‘guestimate’. But even if we were way off by R50 million a year,
there could be a fund sitting out there amounting to a billion or two. If
not, our buyers have been milked to the point where they are the biggest
suckers in the world. And I don’t believe our people are that stupid or
unqualified.87
Unanswered questions:
• Why was Nico Diedrichs allowed to retain senior office for so long,
even when he had a track record of involvement in corruption and
other shady deals?
• Did the ‘Diedrichs’ Swiss bank account ever exist and if so, what
happened to it?
• Do any other foreign bank accounts still exist (for a government-in-
exile or as an overseas slush/defence fund)? What happened to these
accounts after 1994?
• Why were Robert and Cora Smit murdered?
• What secret information did Robert Smit have that caused his daughter
to still receive death threats 20 years later?
36
7. Corruption under P.W. Botha and F.W. de Klerk

This section describes some of the many scandals that characterised the presidencies
of P.W. Botha (1978–1989) and F.W. de Klerk (1989–1994). It excludes three case
studies that are discussed separately because of their importance. They are:
• the Homelands;
• defence spending and the SADF; and
• foreign exchange fraud and sanctions busting.
It is argued that, although the Information Scandal was not the largest financial
scandal during apartheid, the NP learnt an important lesson from it, which was
about how to cover up information. The eleventh Commandment of the regime
would now be strictly followed—‘Don’t get caught’.88
Under the leadership of P.W. Botha, an old warmonger and long-time Minister
of Defence, the government developed a new over-arching understanding of its
relationship with the world. According to this, South Africa was facing a so-called
‘Total Onslaught’ by forces both internal and external that were bent on destroying
the regime. This was in part informed by growing internal and external resistance
to apartheid by South Africans (at home and in exile) and the international anti-
apartheid movement. To counter this a ‘Total National Strategy’ (TNS) would
have to be developed. As the 1980s unfolded it was clear that everything that
could be part of the TNS became the over-arching focus of the government. As
Sampie Terreblanche argues, “If you could make a contribution to the TNS you
are in the pound seats. This ideological ploy was a formula for corruption”.89
As the former Minister of Defence who had overseen the South African invasion
of Angola and later conducted proxy wars in Mozambique and Rhodesia, P.W.
Botha employed a policy of ‘co-optive domination’ between 1985 and 1989, in
37
close collaboration with the SADF. As Botha muscled out the influence of civilian
structures such as Parliament, the SADF started to play an increasingly important
role within society, occupying townships and exhausting a massive amount of the
annual budget in the process.
Having taken over the reigns as Executive President in 1981, Botha’s so-called
Imperial Presidency reigned supreme over the new tricameral Parliament (into
which some Coloured and Indian South Africans were co-opted). According to
Frederick van Zyl Slabbert, the former leader of the white opposition party, the
Progressive Federal Party (PFP), he had made it his business to visit parts of the
country and neighbouring states (including the war zone in Northern Namibia)
and he realised that the average NP MP had little idea of what was going on.90
One of the Botha establishments’ pet hates was the press and, in particular,
some of the English language newspapers such as the RDM (and later, South, the
Weekly Mail and the Afrikaans language weekly, Vrye Weekblad), which
courageously reported the news that the SABC and other state organs refused to.
One of the issues that the RDM was not prepared to shy away from was that of
corruption. The government, in turn, did battle against the press through censorship
or buying journalists as spies at many newspapers. No doubt to the relief of the
establishment, the RDM was eventually closed down in 1985 by its proprietors,
the South African Newspaper Association (later to become Times Media Limited,
TML, and today owned by Johnnic). A source has indicated that the RDM may
have been shut down in favour of ‘inducements’ offered by the government at the
time.
In the early 1980s the Minister of Broadcasting Services, Pik Botha, announced
that applications for licences to run a new pay-TV channel would be invited from
parties who feared that their businesses might be adversely affected by pay-TV
(later to become M-Net). The two leading applicants were Ster-Kinekor (then
under Sol Kerzner) and Naspers, on behalf of a consortium of daily and Sunday
newspaper proprietors (the ownership was split on the following basis: Naspers
26%, Perskor 24%, TML 24%, Argus 24% and Daily Dispatch 2%).
After canvassing with Pik Botha, the licence was awarded to the newspaper
consortium. This would see the birth of the pay-TV channel M-Net, an
entertainment-driven broadcaster (a condition of its licence was that it could not
broadcast news). The reason given by Pik Botha was that televised advertising
would have an adverse effect on newspapers and it was in South Africa’s interests
to have a ‘dynamic’ print industry. However, in the decade after that newspaper
advertising volumes grew and they never suffered the loss that was predicted. One
question that arose out of the deal is whether the government would have favoured
the newspaper consortium had the RDM, a voice critical of government, not have
been closed down by TML. Was there a trade-off between the newspaper
38
Corruption under P.W. Botha and F.W. de Klerk
consortium and government: the licence in exchange for support of government

in the ‘total onslaught’ era? How did the award of the licence to the newspaper
consortium affect the income (such as shares) of the newspaper proprietors and
directors?
Botha further weakened the general ‘accountability’ that the white electorate
had over the Presidency with the creation in the mid-1980s of the State Security
Council (SSC), which came to virtually dominate the country. This group of
individuals, largely appointed by Botha, became extremely influential in shaping
the country’s security policy. Given the importance placed on security by the
mid-1980s this translated into policy that would impact on almost all economic,
social and political activity in South Africa. The SSC would meet before Cabinet
meetings and therefore directly inform Cabinet’s thinking. It became an ‘insider’
group whose hidden hand in guiding white power can probably only be compared
with the influence exercised by the Broederbond. The Imperial Presidency, as
Botha’s tenure became known, therefore intensified the environment for structural
corruption. If not benefiting from it directly, Botha and his cohorts ploughed and
fertilised the fields in which corruption could grow unabated.
Sampie Terreblanche believes that this:
...can be regarded as an important episode in the long drama (or tragedy)
of white power. However, this method of co-option did not benefit all whites,
but only those members of the elites (of all population groups) who were willing
to be co-opted. This development hastened the downfall of the old order.91
Van Zyl Slabbert goes on to explain that, as far as political corruption is
concerned, there was an old saying that someone was “taking a brown paper bag
to Pretoria,” referring to attempts to bribe senior civil servants or Ministers.92
Almost non-existent disclosure regulations made it possible for Cabinet Ministers
to own more than one home in South Africa and abroad without attracting
attention to the fact that they may have been living beyond their supposed financial
means.
A number of sources have drawn links with the flight of capital from South
Africa, possibly involving members of the Executive as well as Portuguese banks,
at a time when it was nearly impossible to remove substantial amounts of foreign
exchange from South Africa. Although the validity of such alleged illegal
transactions could not be established, there were, of course, legitimate links between
Portuguese banks and South African capital. The most prominent was the Bank
of Lisbon & SA (acquired by Mercantile Bank in the late 1990s). In The Rise of the
South African Reich (1969), Brian Bunting draws attention to the fact that three
Portuguese banks (including Banco National Ultramarino, which primarily traded
in Portugal’s’ former colonies in the Far East and Africa), joined together with
39
General Mining (the first big white Afrikaans mining conglomerate) in 1965 to
establish the Bank of Lisbon.93 This association, especially given the links between
General Mining and the Broederbond and the NP, was no doubt politically
advantageous to the Bank at various stages in its history. The actions of the Bank’s
chairperson, Justice Cecil Margo, raised eyebrows in the early 1990s. Margo, (who,
among other things, became known for chairing the controversial enquiry into
the aeroplane crash that caused the death of Mozambican President Samora Machel),
wore another hat while chairing the Board of the Bank of Lisbon, serving
simultaneously on the Bench of the Supreme Court. The Sunday Times highlights
the conflict of interest this created in a 2000 obituary:
As Judge he heard cases involving the bank…which played a murky role in
several highly questionable apartheid era deals….of which he was chairman.
There can be little doubt that his authority and stature made it very difficult for
people to ask questions about the bank that many feel should have been asked.94
Margo succeeded Portuguese billionaire, Joe Berardo, as Chair of the Bank of
Lisbon.95 Berardo, who once held interests in South African mining, is an
internationally recognised art collector and now lives in Madeira. He was also the
subject of public attention in 1990 when he was fingered in the van Zyl Commission
of Enquiry for illegally exporting 297 extremely rare and endangered species of
South African cycads to Funchal, the capital of Madeira. Berardo, who received
permission to transport the trees from the Eastern Cape to the Transvaal, shipped
them out of the country after having declared to the Reserve Bank that their value
was R22,300 (ZAR2005=R104,943). The true purchase price of R285,000 was
almost ten times more (ZAR2005=R1,341,202).96 It can only be speculated that
this assisted with ensuring favourable import taxes that may have been levied for
the importation of the cycads to Madeira. However, testimony before the Van
Zyl Commission also indicated that Berardo’s agent in the purchase had, on a number
of occasions, used the Minister of Foreign Affairs Pik Botha’s name in negotiating the
permits—a suggestion that both Botha and Berardo’s agent, van Blommenstein, denied
at the time.97 However, it appeared that Pik Botha and Berardo had at some stage
developed a cordial relationship. The Madeiran website, www.madeiraisland.com,
briefly announced in 1998 that Botha had arrived on the island and:
…was invited for a stay on the island by Multi-Millionaire Joe Berardo…
‘Pik’ is a very popular personality with the Madeiran community in South
Africa and his personal contacts extend beyond Joe Berardo to other
prominent Madeiran Businessmen and Leaders.98
However, these questionable relationships between the business and political
elite aside, it is important to note that the inner workings of the apartheid state
40
were fertile ground for corruption. It took considerable infrastructure to create

the multiple levels of government required by apartheid laws, such as the Population
Registration Act, Section 10 of the Urban Areas Control Act and the Homelands
Government Act. Each piece of legislation required a bureaucracy to be created to
administer it. The country was divided into the white state and various ‘homelands’,
each with their own bureaucracy. The white state then had its white parliament,
coloured and Indian ‘parliaments’, local councils and black local councils. It was
almost impossible to make such a system accountable. As Hyslop argues, corruption
at the lower levels of the bureaucracy was intensified by this:
…Kafkaesque elaboration of the administration of racist legislation,
especially the pass laws...Here minor officials, both white and increasingly
by the seventies, black, had the opportunity to gouge money out of
impoverished migrants.99
As the imperial presidency of P.W. Botha declined in the late 1980s, a series of
scandals was revealed in 1989 that threw light on a “R650-million foreign exchange
fraud and various other multimillion rand scams. These implicated Cabinet
Ministers...MPs, several government departments and multiple rungs of the state
bureaucracy”.100 However, it was inconceivable that rot would not set in within a
system that had become so bloated with these ‘multiple rungs’ of structures that it
was probably almost impossible to oversee state expenditure with any certainty.
O’Meara notes that Botha’s ‘reform’ was no more than ‘reform’ through
bureaucratic proliferation and patronage.101 He gives an overview of the officialdom
that managed the central state and the four ‘independent’ and six ‘self-governing’
Bantustans:
The central government bureaucracy included the departments to manage
‘general’ (white) affairs as well as three parallel bureaucracies for ‘own
affairs’ [for blacks, coloureds and Indians]. Each of the four ‘independent’
and six ‘self-governing’ Bantustans were likewise endowed with ‘national’
bureaucracies and seconded white officials. Tens upon tens of thousands of
additional functionaries served the networks of Regional Services Councils
and Local Authorities. Coordinating all of this were the still further parallel
bureaucracies of the National Security Management System…By 1988 South
Africa was governed by five presidents, nine chief ministers…14 Cabinets
or ministerial councils, close to 300 Cabinet ministers, more than 1,500
Members of various Parliament and/or legislative bodies, and literally
tens of thousands of local councillors. All were paid by the state.102
It was under these circumstances that F.W. de Klerk would take control of a
corrupted state. A career politician, de Klerk had served in Botha’s cabinet and
41
must have been all too familiar with the state of affairs when he took over the
State Presidency in 1989. Sampie Terreblanche argues that of all NP leaders, de
Klerk presided over the most corrupt period:
…[it] might have been the most corrupt of them all. The shortage before
lending in the budget increased from three to nine percent between 1990
and 1994. Public sector debt increased from R90million
[ZAR2005=R198billion] in 1994 to R240 billion [ZAR2005=R486
billion] in 1995 [this includes the debt of the homelands that was
incorporated after 1994]. This was the final period of white plunder.103
He adds that by the 1990s:
the entire bourgeoisie establishment knew that they only had a few years
left and they enriched themselves shamelessly. This includes the government
bureaucracy and a large segment of Police and Defence Force.
This is not dissimilar to situations where regimes are about to implode and which
see a virtual free-for-all in the run-up to an inevitable regime change. In South
Africa by this stage it had become a matter of ‘when’ and not ‘if’ a democratic
government would be elected. As Sunday Times editor, Ken Owen, noted at the
time:
…the prosperity of the mandarins is teaching South Africans of every race,
what matters in this game: it is to get your snout into the trough and grab
as much as you can get. For the manoeuvrable man with a flexible
conscience, this is the time to get yourself elected to some council or other,
or to get astride the floods of money that flow from the fiscus, or simply
pick up the contracts that flutter like confetti at a wedding in the name of
privatisation.104
Hyslop (2005) argues that:
…once it became clear that the end of white rule was at hand, there was a
rush to grab as much in the way of spoils as possible before the curtain
came down. De Klerk shut down the Department of Development Aid in
1991, after a commission under Judge Pickard found that it was a swamp
of corruption. Pickard wrote that ‘public officials felt they were missing
out if they were not helping themselves’ and noted significantly that ‘many
of these officials had become disillusioned by their futile efforts to serve
apartheid ideology’. Similarly, an enquiry into the Department of
Education and Training found the department riddled with ‘corruption,
fraud, bribery, kickbacks…and a general lack of accountability’.105
42
Speaking at a conference on Public Sector Ethics in 1989, Justice Victor Hiemstra

exclaimed that:
There is a strange atmosphere in the land, as if people have no faith in the
future and consequently want, as soon as possible, to make as much money
as possible. By the time they are discovered, so they reason, the whole affair
would have collapsed anyway...an atmosphere of let us eat, drink and be
merry for tomorrow we die.106
When the scale of this abuse had become clear, the media, which gradually operated
in a slightly more open environment, reported on some of these instances of state
plunder. Some illustrative examples are listed below. They exclude the issues of defence,
homelands and foreign exchange fraud that are discussed in the next section:
• The electricity monopoly, Escom/Eskom, lost “hundreds of millions of rands
in secret overseas deals” by the mid-1980s, according to former accountant,
Dr. Gert Rademeyer. In just one nuclear energy deal that turned sour Escom
lost R67 million (ZAR2005=R490 million).107
• By 1988 a total of R130 million (ZAR=R540 million) was being investigated
by the Attorney-General in the Transvaal alone.108
• The Auditor-General released a damning report on the House of
Representatives in 1990, claiming millions of rands had been misused or
stolen.109
• The government continued its funding of secret front companies well into
the early 1990s. One such example, Project Crist, saw millions of rands
transferred abroad to launch anti-ANC publications. The head of the outfit,
Abel Rudman, later declared to the Weekly Mail that:
Volkskas Bank was intimately involved in the transfer of secret funds
and its International Department transferred over R2,3 million
[ZAR2005=R8,3 million] from its accounts in London to an
investment front company.110
• In 1992, the Department of Development Aid was in the spotlight when a

manager of the Consultative Forum on Drought stated that it was:
...impossible to say how much of the R1,4 billion [ZAR2005=R3,9
billion] allocated by government to drought [relief] had been misspent
because of a total lack of transparency and the poor accounting
procedures of homeland governments.111
• A secret Department of Education and Training project was funded by

subsidies for farm schools “in order to pay for printing work done by Pretoria
publishers Thinus Strydom, son of the Department’s Deputy Director-
43
General”.112 Evidence in front of the van der Heever Commission suggested

that part of the R46,000 (ZAR2005=R190,000) bill was paid in that way.
Strydom prepared “dummy quotations on fake letterheads” and received
work worth more than R2 million (ZAR2005=R8,4 million) in two years.
However, large scale corruption was not only a problem in the public sector: it
affected the private sector as well:
• Standard Bank Investment Corporation’s chairman, Henri de Villiers, called
for strenuous measures to eradicate corrupt practices in public life, noting
that in 1989, “the disturbing decline in standards of business morality” in
South Africa.113
• In 1990, Dr. Raymond Korbin, an East Rand doctor, was shot in the head
and dumped in the boot of his car. He had been investigating a cartel which
he believed controlled the pharmaceutical industry in South Africa and his
death took place a month after he showed a draft of the report to the Sunday
Times.114 This case has a chilling echo in December 2004, when Mpumalanga
official, Andrew Tladi, was shot and dumped in the boot of his car. At the
time he was investigating corruption in multi-million rand tenders that had
been awarded by the Mpumalanga Department of Health.115
• According to Witwatersrand Attorney-General, Klaus von Lieres, by 1992
“economic crime seemed to enter a bull phase”. He disclosed that reported
fraud complaints increased from 33,101 in 1986 to 58,572 in 1992, an increase
of almost 80%. During this period all serious crime also increased by 20%.116
• In 1993 the South African Chamber of Commerce estimated that economic
crime was costing the country R5 billion per year (ZAR2005=R12,1
billion).117
• The Masterbond scam was one of the biggest private sector collapses to hit
apartheid South Africa. An investment scheme, it took with it the savings
of almost 22,000 lower-middle income earners, leaving many destitute (a
number subsequently committed suicide). The auditing firm Ernst & Young
may still be prosecuted for its failure to take appropriate action when it saw
that the investments were in trouble. In 1996 it paid R40 million (ZAR2005=R76
million), without admitting guilt, of a total of R600 million (ZAR2005=R1,3
billion) that was lost at the time.118 (For more detail see Section 9.)
These are only a handful of indicators pointing towards the extent and scale of
corruption facing the apartheid state. This was probably only the tip of the iceberg
given that some departments, such as Defence, had access to a R10 billion secret
account by the early 1990s.119 As the old guard was preparing to abandon ship
there were also moves afoot to privatise parastatals such as the SABC and ISCOR.
44
It is also believed that there was a rush of long-term contracts entered into at the
time with various service providers that would tie the new government’s hands
for some years to come.
Had sanctions and the liberation movement brought the country to its knees
or was it a case, as Ken Owen argued, that F.W. de Klerk was brought to the
negotiating table by “the bankruptcy of a nation that had been looted until it
could no longer honour its debts”?120 Owen goes on to argue that we “owe our
liberation, really, to greed”. This is clearly true in part; however, liberation was
brought about by a number of factors including internal and external struggle.
Corruption, on the other hand, became the drug of choice for a regime intent on
self-destruction. It had the predictable consequence of severely damaging society
as a whole and not only the incumbent political elite.
Looking back, Sampie Terreblanche remarks that:
With the wisdom of hindsight, we now realise that the structural corruption
that took hold in the public sector and in the dealings between the public
and private sector in the 15 years before 1994 was far more serious than was
appreciated at the time and the long-term effects were extremely damaging.
When the democratically elected government assumed power in 1994,
corruption in the private sector proved to be really ‘structural’ or ‘endemic’.121
This section raises some important questions:

• Given the massive amount of corruption taking place in the period
1978–1994, was self-enrichment not taking place at all levels of
government?
• If so, were there ever investigations into the assets and property owned
by leaders in the Botha and de Klerk Cabinets (both in South Africa
and abroad)?
• What knowledge did leaders in government and the private banks
have of corruption within their own ranks that was never disclosed?
• What was the true extent of secret funds and deals used to silence the
press in the 1990s?
• How much money was lost by the public sector in this period?
• How much money was lost by the private sector in this period?
• How much of the money lost to corruption was ever recouped?
45
8. The security state

When statesmen were allowed to practice deception with impunity,
national integrity was corrupted. Innumerable lives were thrown away
by waging unwarranted wars on false premises. The State itself became
corrupt.122
Nelson Mandela (1998)
In the previous section the rise of the security state under P.W. Botha was discussed
as well as the impact of the resultant culture of secrecy on the South African state.
This section deals with some of the key elements linked to the militarisation of
the apartheid state and the alleged links to elite plunder. These include:
• the production and procurement of arms: Armscor and sanctions busting;
• the role of the SADF in corruption: the case of ivory; and
• covert projects and covert profits: the CCB and other operations.
8.1 The production and procurement of arms: Armscor and sanctions busting
The arms industry is one of the murkiest in the world with kickbacks, commissions
and bribes being accepted as the norm. The cost of such ‘sweeteners’ increase
dramatically when a country that sells or produces arms is under an international
arms embargo. The UN placed South Africa under an arms embargo (together
with a restriction on the sale of oil to the country) in 1977. For nearly two decades
South Africa’s strategy was to develop a massive domestic arms industry through
large-scale subsidisation, while continuing to procure all essential weapons material
abroad, at a premium, from countries and middlemen who were prepared to bust
the embargo. The country probably paid a hefty financial price for such sanctions
busting.
46
The security state
As will be discussed in a later section on oil, sanctions busting only increases

the opportunity for graft, as monies have to be paid to middlemen who demand
even heftier commissions to acquire weapons when the client is a ‘rogue state’. In
turn, the local officials who are entrusted with this task of procuring weapons
have an almost unique opportunity to inflate the prices they have been quoted
and keep the change or possibly split it with weapons suppliers, who inflate their
prices accordingly. As has been mentioned earlier, the secret defence fund probably
paid for many illegal expenses that we have little knowledge of today. The secret
defence fund is reported to have been allocated between R4 billion123 and R10
billion per annum by the state (approximately R20–R30 billion in 2005 rand value),
which would have been used to buy weapons and fund various covert activities
such as the Department of Information in the 1970s and the CCB hit-squads in
the 1980s and early 1990s.
According to Jacklyn de Kock, the estimated defence budget in 1986 was R6,8
billion (ZAR2005=R44 billion).124 However, she argues that most analysts felt
that it was much higher and could have been closer to R15 billion (ZAR2005=R70
billion), translating into 28% of the national budget by 1988. With such amounts
of money the propensity grows for officials to use the cloak of secrecy for private
enrichment.
An area of massive expenditure was also the country’s nuclear weapons
programme. According to Dr. Garth Shelton, South Africa’s nuclear weapons
programme consumed an enormous amount of state funding, totalling
approximately $5 billion (quoting a figure published in 1994125). When this is
translated into 2005 monetary terms it translates to over R22 billion. He goes on
to add that the real figure is probably double that if secret defence funds and the
nuclear research and enrichment programme are included (bringing the value to
over R44 billion at 2005 prices). The sole known output of the programme—six
nuclear weapons—were destroyed in the early 1990s on the orders of F.W. de
Klerk. The amount of money available for developing such secret technologies
must have meant that these were also open to abuse by those in a position of
power within the defence establishment.
Central to the procurement and sale of weapons was Armscor, which had
become the country’s largest exporter of manufactured goods by the mid-1980s.
Armscor did not make a submission to the TRC and therefore little is known
about its business dealings during apartheid. What is known is that it used
approximately 1,500 private sector sub-contractors who had become important
players in the siege economy.126 According to Prof. Sampie Terreblanche, big
business profited from Armscor and many private businesses were effectively
subsidised by government through Armscor.127
47
In many instances businesses not only profited from the sale of goods to
Armscor, but also from investments Armscor made in their businesses thereby
subsidising the development of weapons that could be sold for profit on the
international market. According to a former employee in the arms industry, Mr.
Fritz Louw, one company he worked for was allegedly involved in such activities.128
Louw, a former employee in African Defence Systems (ADS), was involved as an
engineer in upgrading the Cactus (Crotale) missile system. ADS was a subsidiary
of Bill Venter’s Allied Electronics Group (Altech) at the time and is now owned
by the French company, Thomson CSF (Thales), which has more recently been
linked to alleged corruption in the South African post-apartheid arms deal.
According to Louw he was originally employed in 1992 by an Altron subsidiary
called Teklogic (later to become ADS), which was updating the technical
requirement of the Cactus missile. Louw was aware that the French (as original
developers of the missile technology) were supplying the various technical
specifications or codes as required in return for payment by Teklogic. This all
took place in contravention of the arms embargo and Armscor is alleged to have
carried the cost of acquiring this information. According to Louw, ADS could
then sell the technology on the international market, while the South African
public had effectively subsidised the development of the technology without seeing
any monetary profits from the sale.129 If what Louw alleges happened at Teklogic
it is likely that this was a common practice across the arms industry.
8.2 The role of the SADF in corruption: The case of ivory

During the period from 1975–1987, there was large scale destruction of
wildlife including elephant and rhinoceros in Angola and Northern
Namibia as a result of civil strife…During the period from mid-1978 to
about 1986 the South African Defence Force (Military Intelligence Division)
officially, though covertly, participated in the illicit possession and
transportation of ivory and rhino horn from Angola and Namibia to the
RSA. Originally the SADF was directly involved and at a later stage
collaborated with its ‘front company’, Frama Inter-Trading (Pty) Ltd., in
continuing such illicit handling of ivory and rhino horn.
Kumleben Commission of Enquiry, 1996130
The SADF, under the leadership of P.W. Botha in the 1970s and later under General
Magnus Malan, openly supported Jonas Savimbi’s rebel Unita movement in South
Western Angola from the mid-1970s until the late 1980s. This took the form of
direct military intervention (attacks) in Angola on civilians, the Angolan military
as well as SWAPO and ANC freedom fighters. The SADF also assisted Savimbi
48
The security state
by supplying him with a generous annual budget, weapons and military support
in his battle against the Angolan government.
By the late 1980s news began to trickle out that the SADF (and possibly senior
SADF personnel) may have been involved in profiteering while waging war. In
1988 a US environmentalist, Craig van Note, testified before the US House of
Representatives that senior members of the SADF and the government were
involved in Africa’s biggest ivory smuggling ring, which had slaughtered almost
100,000 elephants to help finance the civil war in Angola and Mozambique.131 The
tusks were being smuggled through South Africa, Burundi and Zaire (the
Democratic Republic of Congo) for resale abroad. These allegations led to a
commission of enquiry that cleared the SADF of any involvement. However, the
Kumleben Commission appointed after 1994 found substantial proof of SADF
involvement in the ivory trade through a front company, Frama Inter-Trading,
which was later supposedly privatised.
One person who witnessed the wholesale slaughter of Angolan wildlife, and
was prepared to talk out about it, was Colonel Jan Breytenbach. Among other
things, he founded the SADF’s 32 Battalion and spent a large part of his career in
the SADF based in north-eastern Namibia. Breytenbach eventually wrote a book,
Eden’s Exiles, which presents an account of his experience during that time.
In an interview Breytenbach described what he witnessed while based in the
Caprivi in the late 1980s.132 Breytenbach saw the bush, which was teeming with
wildlife in the 1970s, turn into a “green lifeless desert” by the 1980s. He received
reports from informants in south-eastern Angola and Caprivi that animals such as
rhino had been shot almost to extinction. Simultaneously he also learnt of reports
of soldiers coming across ammunition boxes full of ivory, either in transit to
South Africa or waiting for transport at SADF military bases.
South West African Nature Conservation set up roadblocks at that time and
began coming across cars carrying Kiaat wood and some ivory as well. Rumour
also had it that there was an ivory ‘pipeline’ that members of the SADF were
using to channel diamonds (from Angola) and drugs (primarily mandrax) from
Zambia.
When Breytenbach attempted to raise his concerns with a number of senior
officers he was effectively blocked. However, he realised that there was more at
play when at least two people investigating the matter died mysteriously:
• Captain Hennie Brink of the Diamond Branch in the South West African
Police met with Breytenbach and confirmed that a number of people were
involved in the ivory trade—some potentially higher than the generals. It
was then that Breytenbach realised that ivory smuggling was organised at
the highest level. Brink, who some time thereafter (1989/1990) died in a car
accident, maintained that the ivory hunting operation had been knocked
49
together at a ministerial level and would have to have been a joint operation
between the military and the administration. In order to get tusks registered
in South Africa there would have had to be co-operation with the Northern
Transvaal Nature Conservation Department (whose responsibility this was at
the time). To facilitate this it would require a man with power, such as General
Magnus Malan, the Minister of Defence, or somebody else with equal rank.
• There are further allegations that before Brink investigated the matter a
Nature Conservation official (Muller or Mulder), who had also been
investigating the ivory trade, was killed in a car accident. Breytenbach alleges
that a friend of his in Nature Conservation, Manie Grobler, was played an
audio tape recording that implicated the military in smuggling ivory. The
tape contained incriminating evidence and Grobler told Muller to make a
duplicate copy as soon as possible. Muller then placed the tape in his briefcase
and left by car to Grootfontein from Rundu where he was to hand the tape
over to another official. Before he could do this he was killed when he drove
into a large grader that pulled out in front of him. When Muller’s contact in
Grootfontein heard about the accident he rushed to the scene but the briefcase
containing the evidence had disappeared.
According to official SADF accounts, the money that would have been recouped
from the sale of ivory would flow back into funding the Unita rebels. However,
Breytenbach knew that in the year 1986/1987 alone, the SADF’s assistance to
Unita through military intelligence totalled R400 million (ZAR2005=R2,5 billion)
and this excluded the supply of almost all Unita’s hardware and fuel. It is therefore
unlikely that this was the reason behind the SADF’s interest in ivory smuggling.
It is more likely that the potential for self-enrichment that this presented to SADF
officers was enormous. General Chris Thirion, Former Deputy Chief of Staff
Intelligence, agrees and suspects that Savimbi was in fact over-funded at the time.133
Stefaans Brummer, an investigative journalist, compares the access that the SADF
had to diamonds and ivory in Unita territory to the mining concessions provided
to the Zimbabwean government and generals who were involved in supporting
Josef Kabila’s government in the DRC.134 General Thirion also points out that
numerous highly placed generals were allegedly invited to hunting parties in Angola
at the state’s expense (directly or via Unita). The excuse used was that they were
Jonas Savimbi’s guests. Savimbi had started to develop a personal relationship
with many highly placed SA military officials and had ways of thanking them for
fighting his battles in Angola (and in South Africa, with the South African
securocrats).
General Thirion, who is very clear that he refused to touch a diamond or any
ivory while in the SADF, maintains that there were many honest members of the
50
The security state
SADF, such as General Constand Viljoen. However, he acknowledges that there

may have been others who were less honest. According to Thirion, when he was
employed as Director of Foreign Liaison in Pretoria towards the end of his career
in the SADF (1990/1992) he went through the inventory of SADF gifts (usually
purchased for visitors to the SADF) and found that a lot of items had not been
given away. Soon thereafter he visited the Military Intelligence stores to decide
what should be written off. He then stumbled across four to six large elephant
tusks but nobody could tell him where they were from and what they were meant
for. According to Thirion:
I instructed officers working for me to find out who in the SAP we must
speak to, which we did. The SAP came and I handed the ivory over to
them and it was then given to Nature Conservation. Some people were
very angry when they heard about this...This does not confirm they were
involved in anything but it was a strange reaction.135
This does not prove anything other than the fact that the ivory was not necessarily
all sold off to aid Unita. Whoever kept the ivory in the Military Intelligence stores
may have had more to hide.

• What measures were ever taken to investigate which SADF or SANDF
members were involved in ivory smuggling?
• Were there ever any successful prosecutions of these individuals?
• Would the Minister of Defence at the time (Magnus Malan) have been
aware of such smuggling operations if they were intended to subsidise
UNITA?
8.3 Covert projects and covert profits: The CCB and other operations
…the recent history of South Africa shows clearly how the pursuit of state
interests by covert or clandestine means, and the provision of funds or the
implementation of plans which are not publicly accountable, encouraged
the growth of corruption in South Africa and elsewhere.
Stephen Ellis, Africa and International Corruption, 1998136
This section probes the secret funding by the state of various covert units within
the SADF and other state structures (such as the Police), which were designed to
51
murder, steal, spread propaganda and buy political influence on the instruction of
the security state. The details of these intrigues only became public in the 1990s
through the work of investigative journalists, whistleblowers, commissions of
enquiry and, finally, the TRC. This section focuses on the following elements of
South Africa’s covert war:
• investigations into secret funds by the TRC;
• the CCB;
• covert funding and ‘Dr Death’ (Wouter Basson);
• Operation Marion (KwaZulu); and
• covert theft.
8.3.1 Investigations into secret funds by the TRC

The architects of South Africa’s secret propaganda and death squads system required
access to large sums of money to realise their ambitions. Such money could not be
tied to any oversight from Parliament and at best, could allow for only cursory
oversight by the office of the Auditor-General. The roots of such funding can no
doubt be traced to the infamous ‘Z-Squad,’ alleged to have carried out covert
operations and murders for BOSS under Hendrik van der Bergh.
Secret funds were not only used to murder opponents of the state, they were
also crucial in ‘buying off’ others. They were possibly used to corrupt foreign
officials or political parties and were certainly used to assist with various forms of
sanctions busting. The sanctions-busting operations were primarily focused on
economic sanctions but included operations such as covert funding of the 1989/
1990 English Cricket Tour of South Africa.
The TRC probed the use of secret funding (1996–1998) to promote the policies
of the former state and to fund operations directed against the opponents of
apartheid. In its report on these investigations, it found that:
The need clearly exists for the President to appoint an appropriate committee
to enquire further into covert funding—not least with a view to ensuring
that, where possible, funds in covert accounts are paid back to the treasury.137
It adds that better management of such funds is required in future:
Where such funding continues to be absolutely necessary, clear guidelines
need to be put in place and the nature and extent of such funding reported
to Parliament on a regular basis. This requires an evaluation of existing
structures and regulations governing the use of secret funds.138
At the outset of its investigation the TRC requested the Auditor-General to provide
a report on the auditing of all secret funds from 1960–1994. Many of the relevant
departments informed the Auditor-General that much of the documentation had
52
The security state
been destroyed in accordance with various approved procedures—a fact that no

doubt hampered the work of the Auditor-General tremendously.139 In addition, it
was ascertained that there had been no auditing of secret accounts before 1979
when Parliament ordered this in the wake of the Information Scandal. Where
audits did take place, the Auditor-General’s level of probity was limited as he was
only allowed to carry out audits after 1979 and certain special accounts still remained
classified for a number of years.
According to information that TRC was able to collect, it ascertained that
secret funds had been transferred to various departments between 1978 and 1994
by the Treasury and later the Department of State Expenditure. These funds are
listed below. The amount allocated to the Defence Special Account is particularly
noteworthy.
Please note the ZAR 2005 value is calculated against the 1986 value of the rand.
This date is used as it falls in the middle of the period under review and attempts
to compensate for the massive currency fluctuations during the period 1978–1994:
Table 1: Estimated value of allocated secret funds by department (1978–1994):
Department/account Value estimated by the ZAR 2005 value

Auditor-General (based on
1986 value)
SADF Defence Special Account R49,648,737,696 R320 billion

National Intelligence R2,279,261,995 R14,70 billion
SAP R289,907,000 R1,58 billion
Foreign Affairs R79,434,205 R0,515 billion
South African Information Services R60,240,017 R0,391 billion
Finance R18,138,112 R0,117 billion
SADF R15,285,000 R0,099 billion
National Education R8,768,841 R0,056 billion
Bantu Administration R6,000 R39 thousand
TOTAL R52,399,778,866 +- R339,19 billion
(over R52,3 billion)
53
The staggering figure of R339,19 billion is approximately equal the amount the
modern South African state spends on procurement over a two-year period, or
marginally less than the annual budget as presented by the Minister of Finance to
Parliament. When reading this balance sheet together with the lack of oversight
over these funds, it is clear that tremendous opportunity existed for abuse of such
funds. Even if 1% of the 2005 value of the budget was lost through corruption and
fraud it would mean that a handful of individuals are in possession of almost
R3,39 billion in current value. Given the secret nature of the accounts and lack of
oversight the figure could conceivably be five to ten times as high.
The SADF Defence Secret Account stands head and shoulders above the rest in
terms of its total value and many other departments would turn to it for additional
funding for covert operations. The Auditor-General found that the Department
of Foreign Affairs (under the helm of Pik Botha for much of the time), spent
R210,087,535.32 (ZAR2005=R1,36 billion) “for control of sanctions and
disinvestment out of secret funds” in a total of 417 projects.140
Given the inherent limitations in auditing these figures, the Auditor-General
could not guarantee their accuracy. They could be lower or, more likely, higher.
The TRC did make some important recommendations with regards to secret
funds:
• Secret funding was inadequately administered and audited—although
attempts were made after 1991, through the Kahn commission, the
ministers’ committee on special projects and the evaluation commission,
to redress this situation.
• Initiatives undertaken by the Auditor-General’s office to execute a more
precise audit were hampered by legislative constraints and a ‘need-to-
know’ milieu which prevailed in state departments, as well as by the
refusal of some state officials dealing with secret funds to provide the
documentation and other information needed for auditing purposes.
• Agents and state employees working on secret projects received financial
and other settlements when specific secret projects were terminated,
which should be regarded at least as morally questionable.
• Funding through the special defence account in particular was not subject
to adequate auditing until at least the 1985–86 financial year.
• The funding of CCB activities was at no time subjected to an adequate
audit.
• Questions remain as to both the activities and financial resolution of
several projects. In particular, the issue regarding the use made of the
large sum of money located in a foreign trust account is outstanding. It
54
The security state
is suggested that the assets of the trust were in the vicinity of R20 million
[ZAR2005=R44 million; USD-Bank=R55 million; US-
NYSE2005=R111 million], after the payment of recommended
settlements.
• The commission finds that insufficient information is presently available
to describe these projects adequately and recommends that further
research and investigation be done into these secret projects to establish
a fuller picture of their range of activities.141
8.3.2 The CCB

Shortly after F.W. de Klerk announced key political reforms in February 1990,
Nelson Mandela described the existence of a ‘third force’ in South Africa bent on
destabilising the process of negotiation and killing innocent civilians. It would
take seven years before South Africans had a better (although some argue, still
opaque) understanding of the range of activities the state-funded terror squads
were involved in. Almost all the securocrats and military men denied a third force’s
existence following exposures in newspapers such as the Vrye Weekblad and Weekly
Mail. They would go on to try and sue the independent newspapers into silence,
betting that the 1991 Harms Commission (widely regarded as a whitewash of true
events) would reveal little. However, through the Goldstone Commission (1993)
and efforts by investigative journalists the story remained alive until the TRC
dealt with this chapter of South Africa’s history in some detail. Names such as
Eugene de Kock became closely associated with one of the many front companies
employed by the security establishment to fight white South Africa’s dirty war in
South Africa and abroad. However, the Generals and senior politicians effectively
walked free while de Kock and some of his cohorts were prosecuted and imprisoned.
By the time F.W. de Klerk publicly called a halt to funding of covert operations
in 1990 an industry had been spawned out of the business of duplicity. At the
helm were the Chief of Staff Intelligence and the CCB, which had set up hundreds
of companies that were involved in anything from state propaganda and weapons
trading to peddling in political influence.142 They could hire hit men and bribe
politicians and had essentially become a law unto themselves. Old Military
Intelligence documents that formed part of the Steyn Report to the State President
(located in the South African History Archive’s TRC collection) describe an
increasing state of paranoia even among the military intelligence establishment as
to the impact that the CCB and others could have on the negotiations process.143
When the SADF first admitted the existence of the CCB, the Chief of the SADF,
General Geldenhuys, indicated that 0,28% of the annual defence budget was
allocated to it. 144 This equalled approximately R28 million per annum
55
(ZAR2005=R116 million per annum), which was likely to exclude supplementary

funding received from the secret defence budget at the time.
According to Jaques Pauw, if Parliament had controlled the funds available to
the SADF, it is unlikely that the CCB would ever have existed. He adds that:
…the Botha era left South Africa with a Defence Force which had become a
law unto itself—a state within a state, owing accountability to nobody
and wasting millions of rands. 145
For operations outside the borders of South Africa the CCB and other covert
operations required vast amounts of money to be moved offshore. Given the
country’s strict foreign exchange regulations at the time it is unclear which public
officials/bodies (in and outside of the security establishment) would have sanctioned
and facilitated the movement of funds offshore.
Given the secret nature of its activities and the high risk of corruption, one
would have accepted the senior Defence establishment to entrust its money to
reliable individuals. A number of CCB operatives were highly trained soldiers
and policemen. Others, however, were convicted murderers, such as CCB
bookkeeper Theuns Kruger.146 The lack of any effective control measures is
exemplified in the fact that before 1986, CCB members were handed huge wads of
cash purely on the basis of trust. This changed when an operative took R480,000
(ZAR2005=R3,1 million) meant for a secret mission and gambled it on the famed
Swazi roulette wheels.147 We are unlikely to ever be able to establish how many
other operatives invested CCB money in get-rich-quick schemes, or simply stole
them. Many could also have made use of the financial rand to return money to
South Africa that had been taken out on the commercial rand, through front
companies. Since the financial rand was valued at four times the commercial rand
value, such ‘round tripping’ would have ensured a healthy return on an illegal
‘investment’. A report of the Auditor-General found that R12,5 million
(ZAR2005=R45 million) spent on CCB projects between 1988 and 1990 was
unauthorised.148 The Chief of the Defence Force sent him documentation that
stated that expenditure had been approved in advance—a highly questionable practice,
which the Auditor-General accepted. At the same time he noted that he had:
…a strong suspicion that virtually everything my audit team sought was/
is in fact available in writing somewhere but that the archives have been
selectively and purposefully withheld or destroyed.149
In contrast, if a post-apartheid-era Auditor-General displayed such simple trust
in those s/he suspected of destroying records it would earn a public outcry—such
were the standards of oversight over expenditure of public funds in apartheid
South Africa.
56
The security state
Even after de Klerk had supposedly shut the CCB down (and stopped all other
covert funding in March 1990), Magnus Malan is alleged to have authorised a
further payment of approximately R9 million (ZAR2005=R21 million) to the
CCB between April and July 1990.150 In 1991 the Weekly Mail broke the news that
the SAP had been covertly funding Inkatha Freedom Party rallies and that the
SADF had been involved in the training of IFP soldiers in Namibia.151
The legacy left by the CCB can be traced to both the untold suffering it caused
and the many front companies it spawned. In an interview journalist Jaques Pauw,
who first exposed many of the CCB activities with the help of CCB turncoat
Dirk Coetzee, recounts an experience when he was handed a USD$100 bill to
look at by (ex-CCB operative) Ferdie Barnard.152 It was counterfeit but looked so
genuine that only an expert could tell the difference. According to Pauw, before
Vlakplaas was finally disbanded in 1992/1993 it had a ‘money-machine’. It is
believed that one of the fathers of the Vlakplaas members worked at the South
African Mint and had produced plates for Vlakplaas to use in making US dollars.
When Vlakplaas was disbanded the ‘money-machine’ disappeared and may have
been used to print cash for private gain. At the time (the mid-1990s) the continent
was awash with fake dollars and the US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) was
allegedly so worried about this development that they came to see South African
officials to discuss the matter.
8.3.3 ‘Dr Death’ and Project Coast

On 20 October 2005 Dr Wouter Basson—the man who will be remembered by
many South Africans and Namibians as ‘Dr Death’—was a free man. After nearly
seven years of attempts spearheaded by the NPA to pin a guilty verdict on Basson,
the former head of the apartheid regime’s Chemical and Biological Warfare (CBW)
Programme won his court battles. He could now return to live out his life in the
leafy suburbs of Pretoria, like so many implicated in apartheid-era crimes against
humanity. The courts found him not guilty on almost all of the 67 charges of
murder, drug trafficking, fraud and theft brought against him. Following a
Constitutional Court judgment the NPA concluded that a fresh prosecution was
not permissible under South African law.153
Basson was originally acquitted on 46 charges in 2002 by Justice Willie
Hartzenberg in the Pretoria High Court. The state felt that Judge Hartzenberg
was biased (he has a reputation as a conservative judge) and took the matter on
appeal to the Constitutional Court, requesting a retrial. The Constitutional Court
found that Hartzenberg had not been biased but did agree that he had made some
incorrect findings.154
The state built up an enormous amount of evidence in the course of the trial,
which highlight the manner in which secret funds were used to purchase front
57
houses, take trips abroad on private jets and purchase equipment (such as chemical
warfare suits) that was allegedly never used and may have been sold for private
gain at the time of the first US invasion of Iraq in 1990/1991.155
Authors Chandre Gould and Marlene Burger give an excellent account of the
dealings that Basson and his cronies were allegedly involved in during the almost
dozen years (1980–1992) that he headed up the SADF’s CBW Programme.156 The
infamous Project Coast was a product of the CBW Programme and manufactured
poisons, drugs and other chemical agents for use in apartheid’s war. There were
allegations that SWAPO fighters were drugged and dumped from helicopters over
Namibia’s Skeleton Coast. Throughout this period Basson and others lived a life
of luxury, moving between large homes and private jets. They were, to an extent,
a law unto themselves with little effective oversight over the way in which funds
were spent.
In an interview researcher and CBW expert Chandre Gould questions the entire
plausibility of the CBW programme, believing that “it made no sense in the first
place”. She argues:
Why spend R10 million on a programme that one effectively has in place
already? There was no assessment of biological threat. There was no need
for specialised crowd control, they already had CS gas (tear gas).157
Gould goes on to argue that this begs the question, “Was it about satisfying
personal ambition—or was it about self-enrichment?” Unless the NPA finds new
evidence that could lead to a further prosecution, Gould’s question will remain
unanswered.
8.3.4 Operation Marion

The CCB and Wouter Basson’s Project Coast are only two examples of covert
funding of security operations. In KwaZulu-Natal a special investigations unit
was established in the mid-1990s to investigate hit squads in the security forces. Its
focus was support provided by the SADF to the Inkatha Freedom Party and the
KwaZulu Police for the creation of hit squad capacities and the implementation
of other political actions. In March 1997 Howard Varney, convener of the
Investigation Task Board, submitted a report of the Board’s findings to the Minister
of Safety and Security and the President before it was passed on to the TRC. The
report, entitled The Role of the Former State in Political Violence, Operation Marion:
A Case Study, is an analysis of the body of evidence produced by one of the enquiries
of the Investigation Task Unit.
Secrecy, as shown elsewhere, provides opportunities for corrupt activity.
Although there is no proof (or allegation for that matter) of corruption in Operation
Marion, the case study does show the environment it created, which was potentially
58
The security state
open to abuse. All effort was made to distance Pretoria’s funding of Operation
Marion from the KwaZulu government of Chief Minister Mangosuthu Buthelezi.
A report presented at a State Security Council (SSC) sub-committee in January
1986 notes that:
i) Chief Buthelezi is concerned that open special support will destroy his
political credibility, therefore it must be ‘considered and discussed with
him thoroughly’. He must not be seen as a ‘puppet of the RSA govt’.
ii) The project must be carried out on a ‘need-to-know basis’.
iv) The impression to the outside must be that the capabilities provided
came out of their own resources.
v) Funds must be channeled through the Treasury in a way that it cannot

be traced back to state depts.158
A premium was placed on secrecy and this shows the difficulty in controlling
the actual expenditure of funds. The financial aspects of Operation Marion (which
ran between 1986 and 1992) provide details of secret funding channeled to the IFP
and operatives on the ground in a way that could not be traced back to state
departments. According to State Security Council Sub-Committee Minutes (15
January, 1986), the budget of the project for the 1986/1987 financial year totaled
R19,5 million (ZAR2005=R126,5 million).159 This excluded the establishment of
offices, which the government of KwaZulu had to provide. Even though the
funding would have been wound down from 1989 into the early 1990s, the sums
of money spent were large and could have run into many hundreds of millions of
rands over a very short period. This excludes money that the report says was
secretly channeled through Armscor for the purposes of supplying arms and
ammunition.
8.3.5 Covert theft

When not collecting vast sums of money through state budgetary allocations, it
appears that covert operatives were not beyond stealing foreign funds. In his
amnesty application to the TRC, Marthinus Ras, a former Vlakplaas warrant
officer, indicated that “P.W. Botha personally ordered money destined for the
African National Congress and ‘leftist’ organisations from overseas to be
intercepted and channelled into state coffers”.160
A similar allegation was made by Dirk Coetzee (former Apartheid hitman turned
whistleblower) in 1996 that apartheid’s ‘super spy’ (and later Angolan diamond
dealer), Craig Williamson, stole millions of rands from the Swedish International
University and Aid Fund when he infiltrated the ANC on behalf of the regime.161
59
According to Coetzee the money was used to buy Daisy Farm, 15km from
Vlakplaas and close to the Pelindaba nuclear facility. Coetzee alleges international
assassinations were planned from there including that of vocal apartheid critic,
Olof Palme, the Swedish Prime Minister, who was assassinated in the 1980s.162 A
week before Coetzee’s revelations, former CCB operative Eugene de Kock is
reported to have made allegations in the Pretoria High Court that Williamson
was involved in the Palme assassinations and others.163 Williamson denied any
involvement in the Palme assassination at the time.164 If there is any truth to these
allegations it would mean that monies stolen from Sweden may have been used to
assist in plotting Palme’s death—a macabre twist.

• Has the R20 million identified by the TRC as being held in a foreign
trust been returned to South Africa?
• Was the TRC recommendation of further investigation into secret funds
ever followed up?
• What has happened to all the companies that formed part of the CCB
and other covert operations?
• If any are still in operation should they not be closed down and the
money returned to the state?
• How did the CCB and other secret operations manage to move money
outside of the country? To what extent were currency regulations broken
in the process and who outside the police/military establishment was
aware thereof?
• How much of the CCB’s funds for its operations outside of the country
(especially Europe) have been accounted for adequately?
• What happened to the alleged CCB ‘money machine’?
• Were covert funding operations, such as Operation Marion in
KwaZulu, thoroughly probed to trace the use of funds?
• Were any of the funds stolen by covert operatives returned to their
rightful owners?
60
Crime, capital and apartheid
9. Crime, capital and apartheid

South Africa (in 1987) is one the few countries in which there is no control
whatsoever over foreign capital…any foreigner can, with no restrictions,
either bring money into South Africa—whether it is hot or not, does not
matter—bring it in, or take it out. There is no restriction whatsoever on
the flow of capital…
General Tienie Groenewald, former Head of South African Military
Intelligence,1987165
There is a tradition of corruption in South Africa and it’s a white tradition.
If we want to tackle corruption we have to realise that big business came to
do business in a certain way and it will take time to reverse that…the
macro-economic co-operation between business and apartheid regime was
a common conspiracy.
Prof. Andre Thomoshausen, UNISA, 2005166
As explained in earlier sections the South African economy had developed the
characteristics of a siege economy by the 1980s. This was preciptated by the UN-
imposed economic sanctions starting in 1977 that focused on the export of arms
and oil to South Africa. The country could develop the infrastructure to produce
much of its weaponry locally but the South African economy ran on oil and
Sasol’s ‘coal to oil’ syntheitic fuel industry could not cover all its requirements.
This required the government to set in motion various sanctions-busting operations,
which are discussed later in this section. Sanctions busting is, of course, extremely
vulnerable to fraud and corruption due to the secret nature of such activity and
the use of middlemen throughout the process.
61
Apart from arms and oil, a third set of sanctions that took a heavy toll on the
economy concerned the lack of foreign credit available to the regime. In the mid-
1980s foreign banks, traditionally loyal supporters of the apartheid state, started
calling in many of South Africa’s short-term loans. This was both due to the
growing influence of the international anti-apartheid movement and a result of
P.W. Botha’s ‘Rubicon’ address in August 1985 (this was a hardline address that
confirmed the fears of an already jittery international market that Botha was not
ready to choose compromise over conflict). The Reserve Bank was subsequently
in desperate need of foreign capital and accordingly, in the mid-1980s a parallel
currency—the financial rand—was introduced. This allowed foreign residents to
bring in capital on the basis that it would be valued at approximately four times
the rate of the commercial rand. This, too, was a system that was open to massive
abuse, through a process known as ‘round tripping’, as discussed in more detail
below.
An additional factor that placed strain on the economy was driven not by
sanctions but by sentiment among the South African elite, who wanted to get as
much money off-shore as possible since they had little confidence that the ‘party’
was going to last. This became known as capital flight or foreign exchange fraud.
Those involved were in search of foreign bank accounts and foreign assets in
which to invest their money. However, moving money abroad without the
permission of the Reserve Bank was illegal. Until the mid-1990s, South Africans
were limited to moving a tiny annual sum of money (relative to the wealth of the
country’s rich) out of the country (less than R20,000 for individuals and R30,000
for tourists).
This section examines these four areas in more detail. It also discusses the role
of the Reserve Bank as a key player in South African monetary supply.
9.1 Sanctions busting: Oiling the wheels of corruption, greasing the

wheels of apartheid
Oil—black gold—is one of the few natural resources not found in South Africa’s
mineral-rich soil. It also became the source of great intrigue and alleged corruption
after the UN oil embargo was announced in 1977. The country was forced to buy
oil at a premium price from secretive middlemen with dubious backgrounds, who
extorted a premium from the country in the process. This was sometimes also
associated with corruption. Some of the allegations of corruption surrounding
South Africa’s oil purchases in the 1980s are discussed in this section. However, it
is worth noting the absolutely secrecy of the environment in which oil purchases
took place. The former Minister of Energy Affairs, F.W. de Klerk (1978–1982), is
on record as stating in the early 1980s that:
62
Any relaxation in respect of secrecy, however small, can…enable our enemies

to identify our friends and partners who deliver [oil] to us. Secrecy is essential.167
Once again, this was an area with little or no public oversight and newspaper
reports on the issue were censored regularly.
9.1.1 Allegations of corruption

One of the first allegations of corruption on record concerning oil sales occurred
in 1984 when the PFP received a large bundle of documents, possibly from a
senior official at the Strategic Fuel Fund (SFF), alleging large-scale corruption in
the purchase of oil. The then-leader of the PFP, Frederick van Zyl Slabbert, recalled
in an interview that he knew that P.W. Botha had also received a copy of the
documents.168 According to van Zyl Slabbert, he sent a note in Parliament, via
parliamentary messenger, asking to see Botha about this matter. He recalls receiving
a furious phone call from Botha’s office, in which the State President cursed him
in Afrikaans: “Who the…do you think you are to send me a message that is not
enclosed in an envelope?”169 Two weeks later van Zyl Slabbert was again contacted
about the matter but this time by Botha’s Cabinet colleague, Chris Heunis, who
informed him that there was nothing to the story as they had also been handed
the same documents. The PFP decided to hand the information over the Advocate-
General, whose responsibility it was to investigate corruption. Nothing came of it.
In the context of secrecy, rumours and speculation were rife. In April 1984,
van Zyl Slabbert told the President and Parliament that the PFP had received
anonymous phone calls alleging that certain civil servants had opened Swiss bank
accounts.170 The consequences of the allegations could have been disastrous for
the Botha administration but the Advocate-General once again reported that there
was no truth to the rumours. However, PFP MP John Malcomess, who was critical
of public corruption and of the secrecy in the oil industry, stated in Parliament:
There is no doubt from my personal experience, that there were many,
many suppliers of oil who wanted to do business with the South African
government and were able to supply cheaper oil. On many occasions, I, as
the spokesman for the official opposition, was approached by people from
outside the country, telling me what they had to offer, including bribes, if
I could get their oil accepted.171
However, an earlier case involving the supertanker Salem was proof of the
type of fraud the state was involved in. It would become known as the greatest
fraud in maritime history. At least 25 countries were touched by this case, setting
off 13 separate investigations and legal proceedings in the US, Greece, the
Netherlands, Britain and Liberia. The only country in which no investigations or
prosecutions took place was the beneficiary state: South Africa.
63
Arthur Klinghoffer, who has written extensively on the fraud in his book Oiling
the Wheels of Apartheid, describes how three novices in the international oil trade
offered to supply the South Africa SFF with oil.172
The South Africans agreed and supplied a cash advance that allowed the traders
to purchase a tanker, shipping company and the required insurance. The tanker
docked in Kuwait and filled its tanks with oil owned by Shell. The oil was registered
for delivery in France. However, en route to Europe from the Gulf the tanker
stopped in Durban and off-loaded almost all of its oil crude oil—almost 180,000
tonnes—with the South Africans paying the difference between the purchase price
and the fees it had advanced for the purchase of the tanker. The Salem was then
filled up with water in order to create the impression that it was still laden with
oil. Off the coast of West Africa (Senegal), at one of the deepest points of the
Atlantic, the ship was scuttled and the crew, who were prepared for the evacuation,
were conveniently ‘rescued’. They had hoped to make an extra $24 million off the
insurance claim for the lost oil. Following investigations by the insurance company
the main perpetrators were prosecuted. The biggest loser next to Shell was South
Africa, as it agreed to pay the Dutch multinational US$30 million (ZAR2005=R436
million) in an out-of-court settlement. Shell was left to carry a remaining loss of
US$20 million. The use of corrupt middlemen had cost South Africa almost half
a billion rand. There was no prosecution in South Africa of the officials at the SFF
who had authorised South Africa’s procurement of a full tanker of oil from three
novice (criminal) entrepreneurs.
9.1.2 Agents and agency fees

Being embargoed is costly: the Amsterdam Shipping Research Bureau has calculated
that between 1979 and 1993 South Africa spent US$36,2 billion (ZAR2005=87,7
billion—calculated at 1993 rand value) on purchasing crude oil.173 It then calculated
the cost of middlemen, searching for oil on- and off-shore, the Mossgas project
and the development of synthetic fuel facilities and the operation of storage facilities.
The total estimated cost is $34,6 billion (R83,8 billion—calculated at 1993 rand
value). The embargo and South Africa’s response to it cost the country a fortune
in valuable resources. The cost of middlemen, in particular, is worth noting.
According to official reports, South Africa was paying them anything from $8 to
$20 per barrel of oil in the period 1979 to 1980, when the cost of a barrel of oil on
the open market was $13. Middlemen such as John Deuss, Marc Rich, Mario
Chiavelli and others became rich off the pariah state. It is clearly possible that
officials working in the oil sector may have brokered deals that would see them
receiving a kickback from the middlemen if this was built into his price. There is
no proof of this happening but it would provide an enticing opportunity for an
official wishing to get rich quickly.
64
Dealing in embargoed goods also means that a country is forced to start doing
business with middlemen who may have dubious records when it come to good
business practice. The Amsterdam Shipping Research Bureau compiled a
comprehensive list of companies that shipped oil to the apartheid state. At the top
of the league was Marc Rich, a fugitive from US justice (later to be pardoned by
President Bill Clinton in the late 1990s, shortly after he allegedly made donations
to the US Democratic Party).174 Of the 865 shipments of oil in excess of 50,000
tons delivered to South Africa that could identified by the Amsterdam Shipping
Research Bureau (there were probably many more front companies that went
undetected),15% (+- 26,2 million tons) can be attributed to Marc Rich.175
In the mid-1990s Frene Ginwala, the Speaker in the South African Parliament,
remarked:
There may have been other companies that we [the liberation movement]
would have liked to see disinvest from South Africa but instead remained
in the country. But I want to distinguish these from people like Rich who
were pure speculators and profiteers, who broke laws and violated sanctions
and who I personally would want to see treated as criminals and pirates.
But what I would like to see and what actually happens is another
thing…But if South Africa awards a big contract to Marc Rich, I am still
able to write to the press and speak about it.176
In 2003 Rich, who made his first big deal with apartheid South Africa in 1978, was
once again doing business with South Africa. His company, Glencore, supplied
Imvume with oil in the infamous ‘Oilgate’ deal. Allegations are that the oil
parastatal, PetroSA, purchased oil from Imvume, which was an alleged conduit
for funding of the ANC (there are no allegations that PetroSA was aware of this).
Few, if any, media commentators have made the connection between Marc Rich,
the supplier to apartheid South Africa, and Marc Rich, oil dealer to a democratic
South Africa.
9.2 Capital flight

In 2003, during his budget address to Parliament, Minister of Finance Trevor
Manuel announced a foreign exchange control amnesty and accompanying tax
measures to allow past transgressors of exchange controls to declare their assets
and regularise their financial positions.
In his 2006 Budget speech, the Minister announced the completion of
adjudication of applications.177 Some 42,672 applications had been dealt with and
R68,6 billion in foreign assets had been disclosed. Linked to the amnesty was the
requirement of a one-off tax payment (higher if the funds remained offshore) of
5–10% of the value of the amount disclosed to the South African Revenue Service.
65
This raised R2,9 billion in revenue which Trevor Manuel announced would be
assigned to joint public-private partnership investments in community
infrastructure and business development in low-income neighbourhoods.
This was an important process but, given the nature of amnesties, did not see
any individuals or companies involved in foreign exchange fraud facing prosecution.
In a sense it was a milder form of the TRC in that it only carried with it a financial
burden for those willing to participate in complete disclosure. This does not, of
course, exclude the possibility that that the Minister of Finance may request the
state to institute charges against those individuals who did not disclose their foreign
assets.
The foreign exchange control amnesty includes the period post-1994, when the
country saw the biggest outflow of cash. This outflow was probably a mix of
exports of personal assets, often illegally, along with short-term investments by
foreigners in the stock exchange (legal) and large institutional outflows (for example,
the legal listings on the London Stock Exchange of several South African
corporations).
This does not detract from the sheer value of criminal externalisation of South
African funds in the period before 1994. While conducting this research no exact
measurement of this could be found. However, according to research conducted
by Brian Khan178 in 1991 (looking at capital outflows from 1978 until 1988), there
are three models to determine capital outflows. Two are reproduced below.179
• The balance of payment approach: This focuses on the recorded flows of
residential capital in the Reserve Bank balance of payments account.
According to this model (which is not described in detail here), there was
capital flight from South Africa in every year between 1972 and 1988, except
1982. Cumulative capital flight for the period is estimated at $12,4 billion
and, during the two heaviest periods of outflows, estimated capital flight
averaged 10% of gross domestic fixed investment.
• The partner country trade approach: This recognises that a major channel for
capital flight is the over-invoicing of imports and the under-invoicing of
exports. The figures calculated from this are in addition to the figures above
and represent an additional form of capital flight. The methodology, although
with its problems, suggests that under-invoicing of exports was a greater
problem at the time than over-invoicing of imports. The research shows
that cumulative capital flight through under-invoicing may have amounted
to US$20 billion (worth well over R100 billion in 2005 value) for the period
1970–1988.
In a separate study, Mohammed and Finnoff also suggest that there was a large
volume of capital flight during apartheid, indicating that “during the 13 years of
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apartheid from 1980 to 1993, average capital flight as a percentage of GDP was 5.4
percent a year”.180
Lost between the tens of billions of rands are the tales of elite crime and
misconduct. Such misconduct is less tangible than the theft of a loaf of bread by
an indigent person but has a social and economic impact which far outstrips the
crimes of the poor in society. It also stresses the fact that the elite were prepared to
break apartheid’s own laws when this was in the interests of private profit. This is
exemplified in the simple act of moving funds offshore illegally or in the US$20
billion estimated to be lost to under-invoicing. This and other forms of exchange
control fraud are discussed in the next section.
9.3 Round tripping and the abuse of export incentives

Some of the specific instances of fraud designed to abuse the exchange control
mechanism or illegally move assets abroad are discussed below.
9.3.1 Gold
Anecdotal stories from the late 1980s tell of wealthy socialites leaving the country
laden with gold jewellery and furs that, once they arrived in the global North,
were sold and turned into cash. Such activity was probably minor in comparison
with smuggling operations. Gold and other precious metals (as well as precious
stones) are easy to come by and can be bought from illegal mining operations if
necessary. This provides a perfect conduit for externalising currency. If the person
wishing to shift money offshore is a senior South African government official, the
trusty diplomatic bag is one option that could be used to smuggle small quantities
at a time to a safe haven such as Switzerland or the Isle of Man. Some ‘entrepreneurs’
are also said to have woken up to this opportunity. In 1996 Minister Sydney
Mufamadi (then Minister of Safety and Security) announced that police had
investigated a scam connected to the smuggling of 49 consignments of gold out of
South Africa in 1994, with a value of US$52 million (well over R300 million).181
This smuggling ring may have acted on behalf of wealthy South Africans wishing
to move their money out of South Africa illegally. In November 1996 Safety and
Security Minister Sydney Mufamadi informed Parliament that Police investigated
(but did not charge or convict) socialite Paul Ekon.182 Ekon, who is reported as
saying that, “…he found the charge ‘unbelieveable’ and that ‘Mufamadi has a lot to
answer for’”,183 had made efforts in the preceding years to ingratiate himself with the
ANC leadership, including funding birthday parties for prominent politicians.
9.3.2 Round tripping

As described earlier the financial rand mechanism was, if not policed properly,
custom-made for fraud. The system allowed non-residents to invest in South Africa
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through the financial rand and then take their money out at the higher commercial
rand rate. The South African public would directly subsidise the investment—or
alternatively, if it involved ‘round tripping’, the fraud.
One example of alleged currency round tripping involved Oliver Hill, a South
Africa resident who was sequestrated. Although resident in South Africa, he
artificially brought funds into the country at the financial rand rate and expatriated
real profit (as the difference between the two) at the commercial rand rate.184 Hill,
who fled South Africa in the 1980s, was eventually arrested in London and faced
extradition on 500 charges involving foreign exchange fraud totalling R210 million
(this was primarily linked to the forgery of Eskom bonds).185 Hill was held in
custody in the UK while fighting the application from South Africa for his
extradition. It is believed that the matter was eventually settled on the basis that
Hill would be released from custody and could return to South Africa as a free
person, having paid back to South Africa some portion of his ill-gotten gains. It is
furthermore believed that the amount paid back was kept confidential as part of
the agreement between Hill and the Reserve Bank.
9.3.3 Fraudulent invoicing

As discussed in the previous section, foreign exchange fraud involving fraudulent
invoicing may have led to the loss of $20 billion between 1970 and 1982. In this
scheme goods were exported but then sold for a discounted price abroad. The
balance was kept abroad in banks or investments. For example, ‘X’ is the South
African owner of company ‘A’ in the UK. ‘A’ buys clothing from ‘X’ for R500,000.
However, the clothing is worth R1 million. The excess clothing is sold in the UK
and the profit (R500,000) is kept in the UK and not repatriated—and not declared
in South Africa. This is a system that many medium and large South African
corporations probably employed, either at the instigation of employees (as
individual fraud) or with the knowledge of senior management (corporate fraud).
9.3.4 Tax avoidance

Newspaper reports from 2005 indicate that the South African government is
investigating a massive quantity of diamonds moved off-shore by the global
diamond giant, de Beers, just before the 1994 elections. It is alleged that de Beers
did not pay any tax on three and a half tonnes (19 million carats) of stones that it
exported.186 De Beers has strongly denied this.
However, this would not be the first time that de Beers was implicated in tax
avoidance. In their book South Africa Inc., Pallister, Stewart and Lepper focus on
the activities of the Oppenheimer’s de Beers empire which was, for years, charged
with operating as a cartel in the USA, among other things.187 According to Pallister
et al, a commission of enquiry was set up in 1982 (under Natal Supreme Court
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Judge Pieter Thirion), to investigate allegations of corruption and

maladministration in Namibia (then under effective South African control).
Thirion was serious about this mandate and in 1984 he turned his attention to
state control over the mining industry and the way in which tax for mining
companies was assessed. Since mining rights were vested in the state in Namibia,
attention quickly turned to de Beers, which was by far the largest diamond company
mining and the country’s second biggest export earner. Against the protestation
of de Beers, Judge Thirion found “…the allegations of mining and tax evasion
proven and he accused the company of deliberately doctoring reports to state
officials who were, in any event, incompetent”.188 The commission and investigators
produced detailed evidence linking de Beers to tax evasion in Namibia.189 One of
the allegations was that diamonds were exported through a host of de Beers
subsidiaries, who each took a cut of profit, before the diamonds were channelled
through the tax haven of Bermuda.190 This meant that the Namibian holding
company would receive only 86% of the selling price. In the first six months of
1983 diamonds worth US$171 million were channelled in this way.191
9.3.5 Other forex fraud

Many instances of foreign exchange (forex) fraud were investigated by the SAP,
the Office of Serious Economic Offences (OSEO) and the Reserve Bank during
the 1980s and 1990s. Newspaper reports from that time indicate that authorities
were well aware of the extent of the problem. In 1993 the Reserve Bank Executive
Director, Charles van Vuuren, said that 254 foreign exchange rackets were being
investigated, involving about R2,7 billion (ZAR2005=R6 billion).192 Some of the
investigations undertaken by the SAP and the OSEO included:
• suspected scams in the motor industry by component manufacturers, who
were believed to have swindled the Department of Trade and Industry out
of R600 million (ZAR2005=R1,3 billion) in false claims;
• large-scale smuggling of Kruger Rand gold coins out of the country; and
• in the textiles trade, the falsification of accounts regarding imports and
exports.
Other newspaper reports from that time confirm that forex fraud was on the
increase and although the state had made attempts to investigate and prosecute
such activity, the crisis probably ran much deeper:
• Trust Bank manager Simon Samuels fled South Africa in 1988, a day after he
was quizzed by officials who were investigating his involvement in an
irregular R60 million (ZAR2005=R282 million) forex deal.193 It is not known
if the police pursued the matter any further.
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• The Standard Bank International trade centre reported in July 1992 that it
had detected a R160 million (ZAR2005=R441 million) foreign exchange
fraud attempt involving a major international syndicate.194 Although police
were investigating the matter it could not be ascertained if anyone was charged
or convicted.
• In March 1993 a couple charged with exchange control contraventions
admitted to the Johannesburg Regional Court that they were part of a R400
million (ZAR2005=R969 million) scam and had “exported” R19million out
of the country for “customers”.195 It is not known if they were found guilty
of any crime in court.
• In November 1993 a warrant of arrest was issued for Mr. Neville Jessop.
Allegations against him related to charges of fraud and contravening exchange
control regulations involving R64,8 million (ZAR2005=R157 million).196 It is
not known whether he was eventually charged and convicted on such charges.
• The company auditor and other shareholders in Postmansburg Mining and
Exploration (Pty) Ltd were charged, arrested and appeared in court in 1993
for alleged contravention of foreign exchange regulations to the value of
R72 million (ZAR2005=R174 million).197 It is not known whether they
were found guilty of such contraventions.
• Wealthy Pretoria businessman Jacques Joubert was arrested and appeared in
court in 1993 in connection with alleged foreign currency fraud involving
R179 million, which had been allegedly mostly transferred abroad through
a company called Namib Gems (ZAR2005=R433 million).198 It is not known
whether he was convicted on such charges.
• Cape Town chartered accountant Nicolaas Griesel was convicted in August
1993 on charges of fraud and foreign exchange control contraventions
totalling R80 million (ZAR2005=R220 million). Griesel was implicated in
round tripping.199
9.4 The role of the Reserve Bank in various scandals

At the heart of the system of moving monies in and out of the country is the
Reserve Bank. From its seemingly faceless tower are made some of the most
important decisions on how to regulate South Africa’s private banks to ensure
that they retain their integrity and other functions that are common to central
bankers the world over. However, though enjoying a good reputation in
international monetary circles as a sound institution, the Reserve Bank was also
run by individuals who were responsible for smoothing the way for the CCB and
hundreds of other ‘secret’ operations by shifting funds abroad. It was this sort of
involvement in subterfuge that no doubt had an impact on the Reserve Bank’s
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institutional culture. At the helm of the institution from the early 1980s until
after 1994 were two alleged members of the Broederbond, Gerhard de Kock (1981–
89) and Dr. Chris Stals (1989–1999). Stals is now one of the lead players in the
continental African Peer Review Mechanism Process. These two leaders’
membership of the Broederbond and their positions at the Reserve Bank may, of
course, have been purely coincidental, but it was clear that the Broederbond had
friends in high places.
Within the Reserve Bank, the exchange control directorate was under massive
pressure to efficiently police the number and value of capital transfers. Were there
temptations for corruption? To date, there have been no such allegations but there
has been no public investigation, either. As an agent of the apartheid government,
the Reserve Bank and its personnel knew all about the movement of capital in and
out of South Africa.
Professor Andre Thomashausen of UNISA’s Institute of Foreign and
Comparative law points out that the Reserve Bank enjoyed, and still enjoys,
unfettered and draconian powers in terms of a broad and vague Act of Parliament
that gives the Minister of Finance unlimited powers, by means of regulations, to
control any transactions involving foreign currency.200 The Minister simply
delegated this power to the bank itself, which exercised it by appointing a small
number of forex dealers as the only persons allowed to receive and process
applications for forex authorisations. The decisions over forex applications were
governed by secret Directives, issued by the Reserve Bank from time to time to its
appointed forex dealers. The Directives may not be disclosed to clients and forex
applicants or the public and are often changed with retrospective effect. According
to Thomashausen, the Directives form a body of “secret law”, something
extraordinary anywhere in the world. Thus, in the apartheid years forex
authorisations could be delayed or withheld at will from politically undesirable
persons and businesses. According to Thomashausen this was an “enormous
opportunity for corruption”. As an example, take a manufacturer who needs to
buy steel on the international market. However, he is required to pay in US dollars
within two weeks, to take advantage of good prices prevailing in the market at the
time. In such an instance, having contacts within the Reserve Bank will result in
the granting of an immediate authorisation and allocation of the required forex,
thus ensuring that the manufacturer is able to pay for the steel at the price quoted
and not at some future (more expensive) price.201
However, it was not only the Reserve Bank that could be manipulated by the
state for personal or political benefit. The tentacles of the state machinery reached
into the private banking sphere. One example thereof was Volkskas, the
government’s bank of choice and, together with Trust Bank, eventually part of
the Allied Bank of South Africa (ABSA). It is understood that there was a room in
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the Volkskas head office in Pretoria known as the Geheime Kamer (‘Secret Room’)
where many decisions were made to finance sanctions busting deals—and in which
Volkskas handled foreign exchange for the government.202 It was also alleged that
leading bankers in Volkskas were also members of the Broederbond. According
to former ABSA banker Bob Aldworth, he was told by Hennie Diedericks (former
CEO of Volkskas and Trust Bank) that, “…it was a prerequisite to be a
Broederbonder if one sought to rise to the top”.203 Aldworth adds: “At board
meetings, Broederbond matters were openly discussed and the ethos of Afrikaners
sustaining other Afrikaners was paramount”.204
There are a number of high-profile cases implicating the Reserve Bank in alleged
corruption. It should be noted that they include a number of other actors as well,
but are included in this section for ease of reference. They include:
9.4.1 The Bankorp ‘lifeboat’

The Reserve Bank also had the power to help friends in trouble. Allegations surfaced
in the early 1990s that it had assisted banks with well-connected Broederbond
executives, such as giving Bankorp (the holding company for Trust Bank, Senbank
and Bankfin),205 over R1 billion in loans when it was theoretically bankrupt.
Bankorp was bought by ABSA, today Africa’s biggest commercial bank, which
was formed out of amalgamation of United Bank and Volkskas in 1990 and
eventually a further acquisition of the three banks that constituted Bankor in
1992. Prior to that Bankor was owned by Sanlam/Sankorp—a financial services
giant that historically was well connected to the NP and the Broederbond.
However, Bankorp was in financial trouble for some years and in 1985 the Reserve
Bank provided it with a ‘lifeboat’ of approximately R300 million to prevent it
from capsizing.206 In order to further assist Bankorp, in mid-1990 the Reserve
Bank made a loan of R1,5 billion available at an interest rate of 1% per annum.207
These were extremely favourable terms not available to any individual (or probably
commercial lender) in South Africa at the time or since. Former ABSA banker
Bob Aldworth, in his exposé on the deal (The Infernal Tower), writes that R1,1
billion was invested in government stock and R400 million was put on deposit
with the Reserve Bank and both earned interest of 16% a year.208 Aldworth goes
on to explain how the scheme worked in practice:209
To put it in simple terms, if the Reserve Bank gave (debited) Bankorp a
total of R10, Bankorp had to repay R10,10 (R10 plus 1%). But since the
R10 earned R16% [interest] (R10 plus R1,60 = R11,60) Bankorp’s gift
was the difference between R10,10 and R11,60 = R1,50. The return of the
R10,10, so to speak, is what enables Stals to call the lifeboat a loan. But the
‘R1,50’ never gets repaid. In short it is not a loan. It is a gift.
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As Aldworth points out, these small numbers do little to help one understand
the magnitude of the sums involved. The interest (the R1,50 described as a gift
above) earned first by Bankorp and from April 1992 by its new owners ABSA,
“…equalled R1,125 billion [ZAR 2005=R2,281 billion]. The agreement remained
in force until 23 October 1995”.
When the Reserve Bank’s Governor, Chris Stals, was confronted with evidence
of this secret deal, his response was that it was in the interest of the economy to
keep it secret, he had done it to protect the country’s banking system and that it
wasn’t really taxpayers money as it had all been created with a specific purpose
and it was a loan to boot.210
Aldworth, and a number of other commentators, have critiqued Stals’s
response:211
• This was no loan—but was clearly a gift by the Reserve Bank to a private
institution which benefited its shareholders. A large bank was given unfair
advantage by the state over its competitors.
• The Reserve Bank, in creating R225 million a year to finance this deal, diluted
the value of the Rand in the process.
• No tax was required to be paid for the loan/gift to Bankorp and ABSA—
meaning that the loss in tax revenue may have been as large as the loan/gift
itself.
The Bankorp affair was the subject of a number of investigations including the
Heath Special Investigations Unit in the late 1990s (the unit acted with a Presidential
mandate) and later a specialist panel headed by Cape High Court Judge Dennis
Davis.212
In February 2002 the Davis expert panel found that the Reserve Bank, under
Chris Stals, had exceeded its authority in the way it assisted Bankorp between
1985 and 1995.213 Although the Bank had not acted within the law, Davis is reported
as saying that:
…he was confident that the Reserve Bank had acted in good faith, and
there was no suggestion that former [bank] governor Chris Stals had
intentionally broken the law.214
The report also found that ABSA had paid a fair price to Sanlam in 1992 for
Bankorp and “unlike Sanlam was not a major beneficiary of the lifeboat extended
to Bankorp”.215
Following the release of these reports, financial journalist David Gleason argued:
This was the biggest fraud ever perpetrated on the South African taxpayer.
It was executed directly against the Reserve Bank’s own act; it contravenes
the Companies Act; and it constitutes fraud as defined in common
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law…what is available is quite enough prima facie evidence collected and

revealed in two judicial reports for him [Reserve Bank Governor Tito
Mboweni] to refer everything…to the Director of Public Prosecutions.216
9.4.2 Masterbond’s 22,000 victims

The Masterbond scam, an investment scheme that collapsed in October 1991, was
one of the biggest private sector collapses to hit apartheid South Africa: it erased
R615 million (ZAR 2005=R1,957 billion) in savings of almost 22,000 lower-middle
income earners, particularly pensioners. Many were left destitute and a number
subsequently committed suicide.
Noseweek (No. 31) provides a comprehensive summary of Masterbond’s rise
and fall, on which this section of the report draws extensively.217 Masterbond was
formed in 1984 by a trio of businessmen with a marketing pitch aimed at pensioners
who were struggling to make ends meet. The enterprise started on shaky footing
as the company had insufficient capital and the directors soon started dipping into
investors’ funds to cover operating costs. It would later be described by Judge
Hennie Nel as “SA’s largest-ever chain letter”. According to Noseweek, the directors
were moving funds around so freely between the group’s 85 bank accounts that it
made nonsense of the types of investments and projects chosen by investors.218
How could this take place without the knowledge of the investors? It is alleged
that auditors Ernst and Young should shoulder a fair share of the blame. The
company may still be prosecuted for its failure to take appropriate action when it
saw that the investments were in trouble. In 1996 Ernst and Young paid a R40
million (ZAR2005=R76 million) fine, without admitting guilt. The total lost at
the time was R600 million (ZAR2005=R1,3 billion).219 According to Judge Nel,
“the auditors were only so dishonest because they had taken their cue from the
standards of dishonesty set by the Reserve Bank itself.”220
In 1989 Masterbond approached the Reserve Bank with a request for a banking
licence. The directors were referred to Amore ‘Piet’ Strydom who suggested they
should rather gain effective control of an existing entity, Pretoria Bank. Through
a Masterbond loan, Strydom acquired 10% of Pretoria Bank and was appointed its
Executive Director.221 Strydom in turn appointed Stan Lee, who reportedly had
links to the CCB, as the bank’s chief accountant, allegedly “enabling Lee to use
his position at the bank to fund CCB operatives by granting loans to dummy
companies without any requirement of security or the prospect that they would
repay the loans”.222 By 1991 Lee and Strydom had run Pretoria Bank into the
ground by issuing unrecoverable loans, resulting in the Reserve Bank placing
Masterbond under curatorship which, unlike liquidation, means that curators are
not accountable to the creditors—they are only required to report to the courts.223
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Ironically, it seems that the Western Cape Attorney-General, Frank Kahn,

received reports as far back as 1986 indicating criminal activity at Masterbond.
According to Noseweek, the Reserve Bank was fully aware of these reports but
according to some accounts, it was the “head of banking supervision at the Reserve
Bank, Dr. van Greuning, who persuaded Kahn not to prosecute.”224 This is
amplified by the experience of George Philippaki, co-owner of the Cape leisure
development, Mykonos, in which Masterbond also had interests. Philippaki fell
out with the Masterbond directors in 1990 and he decided to expose the fraud at
Mykonos. When he visited Frank Kahn’s office to sign an affidavit detailing this,
he was told by a policeman, Brigadier Visagie, that he did not have to sign an
affidavit at all and that things would be “sorted out”.225 They never were, however,
and even though the Nel Commission of Enquiry probed the Masterbond affair,
this brought little financial relief to many of the impoverished investors. It remains
unclear why the Reserve Bank did not act sooner on Masterbond and why it
never tried to offer a ‘lifeboat’ to Masterbond similar to the one given to Bankorp
at roughly the same time, in the form of R1 billion.
9.4.3 Albert Vermaas—friends in high places?

In May 1996, Albert Vermaas was found guilty of operating illegal investment
schemes and foreign exchange round tripping. The Pretoria lawyer and businessman
was sentenced to 18 years in prison after having been found guilty of 110 charges
ranging from fraud to insolvency. Members of the public, including the Public
Service Association, lost R139 million (exchange rate compared with 1989, as this
is when he was fingered by the Harms Commission: ZAR2005=R579 million) in
some of his fraudulent schemes.226 Vermaas took another R100 million out of the
country (ZAR2005=R417 million) and brought in R92million (ZAR2005=R383
million) as part of a round tripping exercise.
During his trial Vermaas denied the evidence of his former accountant that he
had once mentioned that “he knew the right people who could solve his problem”,
including the former State President, P.W. Botha, the Minister of Finance, Barend
du Plessis, and the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Pik Botha.227 What was, however,
confirmed by Magnus Malan and Pik Botha at the Harms Commission is that
they were good friends with Vermaas for 15 and 12 years respectively.228 Malan
went as far as to indicate that he went hunting on Vermaas’s farm on seven occasions
and had asked Armscor to investigate making him one of its directors.229 Vermaas
also had important friends at the Reserve Bank, such as its Governor, Dr. Gerhard
de Kock, who opened Vermaas’s R1 million game farm, Sebaka. Another influential
friend was John Postmus, general manager of the Reserve Bank’s exchange control
division, with whom Vermaas discussed his forex applications.230
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It was the Reserve Bank that drew much of the Harms Commission’s fire.
Some of the issues raised were that:231
• The Registrar of Banks wrestled with Vermaas’s bank activities, yet at the
same time the foreign exchange control section continued to issue him with
forex.
• Top officials had varying views on the control mechanisms around foreign
transactions. Johan Postmus believed it was a Customs and Excise
responsibility while the Deputy-Governor, Jan Lombard, argued that they
nothing to do with it.
• Harms noted the unsatisfactory manner with which the Bank handled
Vermaas’s dealings. He noted that extensive documentation was “either not
read, or…viewed in an uncritical light”.
Once again, the activities of the Reserve Bank leave unanswered many questions
about why senior officials acted in the manner that they did.
9.4.4 Container fraud?

From 1979 onwards many wealthy South Africans made use of an ingenious system
of moving monies abroad: they bought shipping containers worth hundreds of
millions of rands in South Africa and then legally moved them offshore. The
scheme, devised under the auspices of Trade and Industry Department, was as an
attempt to source much needed foreign reserves. It also benefited from tax breaks
provided by the Ministry of Finance which allowed individuals who moved
containers offshore to write off the value of the containers against tax.232 However,
the scheme was open to abuse by individuals and it is alleged to have amounted to:
a huge fraud on…(the) department of Trade and Industry. In the following
ten years it paid out tens of millions of rands in export incentives for
fictitious exports.233
Noseweek reported that the Reserve Bank did not attempt to investigate the matter
until one of its officials, Nico Alant, stepped in and probed it jointly with the SAP
Commercial Branch and the British police. His investigation took almost five
years, beginning in the early 1990s.234 When Alant approached the Transvaal
Attorney-General, Baron Klaus von Lieres, on this matter, the Bank effectively
accused Alant of disloyalty and of talking to an outsider. It is alleged that Alant
was eventually hounded out of his job at the Reserve Bank for blowing the whistle
on the abuse of the container export system.235
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Some important questions raised in this section:

• How much control did the Broederbond and security establishment
have over the Reserve Bank and how did that impact on organisational
integrity?
• Was there an attempt to further investigate alleged crimes of corruption
in the oil industry after 1994?
• Do we know the real extent of South African money that has been
moved offshore in contravention of the law?
• Do we know the real extent of foreign exchange crimes in South Africa?
• Has the state ever investigated the Bankorp lifeboat and who should
be held criminally liable if the Reserve Bank loan was a gift in disguise?
• Why did the Reserve Bank not act more speedily in resolving the
Masterbond matter to the benefit of investors in the scheme?
• To what extent did Albert Vermaas’s good connections at the Reserve
Bank and in the Executive assist him with round tripping and foreign
exchange fraud?
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10. Grand apartheid—grand corruption

In Hendrik Verwoerd’s grand understanding of apartheid, he not only saw cities
divided along racial lines but the creation of ‘black’ ethnic states within the white
ethnic state. It was this madness that would spawn six ‘self-governing’ and four
‘independent’ homelands, or Bantustans. They largely became labour repositories
for white South African capital and served as an attempt to contain encroaching
‘black spots’.
Leading many of the homelands were elites that had been compromised and
co-opted by the system. There were exceptions, particularly from the 1970s and
1980s when some homeland leaders became vocal supporters of the liberation
movements. However, many of the homelands were no less corrupt than the
white central state on which they relied for political and, importantly, monetary
support. Ultimately, of course, it was Pretoria that tightly managed the purse
strings of all the homelands and could turn the tap on or off. Where corruption
became endemic, the central government of the day therefore shares in the
responsibility for the levels of graft, even if only for its inaction in stemming the
looting.
As indicated earlier a number of commissions of enquiry into corruption in
the homelands began in the 1980s. However, as Pretoria relied on the homeland
leaders for legitimacy, the homelands also relied on Pretoria for patronage. It was
an abusive relationship, not unlike that of puppet states in the cold war, which
had been utterly corrupted and existed largely at their masters’ mercy. Only one
post-1994 commission of enquiry focussed on corruption in a former homeland:
the Skweyiya Commission, which looked at the abuse of power in
Bophuthatswana.236 It came across massive irregularities but it was argued by critics
that the focus only on the Lucas Mangope’s administration and not that of other
homelands was prompted by political expediency.
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Grand apartheid, grand corruption
A handful of the instances of corruption during this period (both alleged and
proven, as reported in the media) are listed below. This short overview should be
read as instructive of the types of corruption that took place—but it by no means
provides an accurate assessment of levels of corruption in the apartheid homelands:
• Lebowa: The South African government required police protection to secure
a computer in Lebowa that had been spewing out cheques valued at millions.
It is estimated that if such action had not been undertaken in 1993 it would
have costs the state R1 billion (ZAR2005=R2,4 billion).237
• KwaNdebele: The financial chaos in KwaNdebele was so bad by 1993 that
the Auditor-General, Henry Kluver, was unable to rely on the
administration’s accounting system and could not express an audit opinion
for the 1992–1993 financial year.238
• KwaNdebele: the Parsons Commission of Enquiry heard in 1991 that Deputy
Minister of Law and Order and Order Steve Mabona granted a R13 million
(ZAR2005=R41 million) tender to Springbok Patrols, despite far lower bids
being submitted. In addition, Mabona extended the contract by two years,
while the state was still funding officials to do the same work, implying an
effective duplication of functions and equivalent waste of state revenue.239
• KwaNdebele: The former KwaNdebele police commissioner, Hertzog Lerm,
who was later to become a Conservative Party councillor in Warmbaths
(Bela Bela), claimed that “alleged abuse(s) by police under his command were
part of a strategy sanctioned by Pretoria”.240
• Lebowa: Hundreds of tons of chemicals were dumped in Lebowa by a
company called Firechem Lebowa, which had donated R100,000
(ZAR2005=R275,000) to the ruling United Peoples Front shortly after it
was awarded a R15 million contract (ZAR2005=R41,3 million). The contract
was never put out to tender.241
• Ciskei: A 1992 report by the select committee on public accounts showed
that parasatals under the control of Ciskei’s Department of Agriculture had
‘lost’ almost R30 million (ZAR2005=R82 million) in just over two years.242
• KaNgwane: The government of Mpumalanga inherited a debt of over R118
million (ZAR2005=R260 million) from KaNgwane in 1994. The government
of Enos Mabuza had gone on a multimillion rand spending spree that was so
badly accounted for that the Auditor-General could not complete his reports
for the financial years 1992–1993 and 1993–1994.243
The story of corruption in homelands is largely a reflection of the venality of

some of the leaders in these ‘states’. However, what is often not reflected on is the
79
role that external actors (primarily from South Africa) played in corruption and
bribery in the ‘homelands’. The next section addresses a few well-known examples.
10.1 The Sun King: Sol Kerzner

The 1970s and 1980s saw the rise in fortune of Sol Kerzner, hotelier and gambling
supremo, who understood the monetary reward of bringing Las Vegas to South
Africa. It was Kerzner who dreamt up the idea of luxury resort hotels in the
homelands, which would benefit from being out of reach of the Calvinist rulers
of the white central state. Here gambling would be permitted, pornography could
be viewed and the chorus line in the ‘shows’ at his hotels could titillate without
fear of imminent prosecution by the censor board. Kerzner offered not only the
luxury accommodation he already offered in South Africa (as part of the Sun
International group), but lured monied (largely white) South Africans across ‘the
border’ to visit Sun City and the Lost City in Bophuthatswana and the Fish River
Sun in Transkei, among others.
However, the relationship that Kerzner enjoyed with the rulers in these
homelands was problematic at times. In 1990 the Harms Commission found that
Kerzner had paid R5 million to Transkei’s Chief George Matanzima, linked to
his gaming licences in this homeland. It was alleged that R2 million
(ZAR2005=R8,3 million) of that payment was a bribe. Kerzner contested this,
claiming that he was under pressure to pay for a gambling licence he already
owned (this would technically be extortion). At the time it was also revealed that
Holiday Inn had paid a R500,000 (ZAR2005=R11,5 million) fee to buy a company
that had been awarded exclusive gambling rights by Matanzima in 1976.244 Clearly,
Matanzima and his government had also come to appreciate the value of such
gambling rights.
After the prosecution eventually dropped its charges in 1997, Matanzima
claimed, “I don’t consider it to be a bribe. There is a difference between a gift and
a bribe”.245 The Transkei Attorney-General, Christo Nel, reported to the
Parliamentary Portfolio Committee in Cape Town that Matanzima, who had
been the key state witness, had been “incorrigible, unreliable, vacillating,
prevaricating and even obstreperous”.246 It was because of Matanzima that the
state eventually dropped the case. Nel added that on two occasions Matanzima
had requested that he drop the charges. “He said, ‘Mr Nel, you must let Sol go.’”.247
Linked to this alleged bribe was R50,000 that was allegedly paid to a minister in
Matanzima’s government, Stella Sigcau. The former military leader of Transkei,
Bantu Holomisa, raised this at a TRC hearing in 1996—an act that ultimately saw
his sacking from ANC structures and his departure to form a new political party.248
Ms. Sigcau, who served as a Minister in both the Mandela and Mbeki cabinets,
80
denied allegations of bribery and was eventually cleared by a judicial enquiry

headed by Justice Gerald Alexander.249
It was in the best interests of Sol Kerzner that the case against him was dropped.
Not only did that allow him to return to South Africa from his London home,
where he was now based, without fear of prosecution, but it could also help smooth
out the international expansion of his resort hotels that he was vigorously pursuing
in the US and the Caribbean. On at least two occasions the alleged ‘homeland’
bribe became an obstacle to being awarded gaming licences: first, in 1996, when
he applied for gaming rights on the Mohegan native American reserve in
Connecticut,250 and again in 2003, when he was vying to turn the London white
elephant Millennium Dome into a casino.251
However, Kerzner has more than once had to deal with bad publicity. In 1997
respected financial journalist Alan Greenblo and his publisher, Jonathan Ball, were
prohibited from publishing a biography of Kerzner, titled Kerzner—Unauthorised.
Witwatersrand Judge Monas Flemming handed down a controversial decision that
resulted in one of the first book bannings under the democratic constitutional
order. The Judge’s decision to ban the book outright went even beyond Kerzner’s
request that sections be cut out.252 Labelled a blow to free speech by many free
speech activists, the decision was eventually upheld on appeal in 2002.
This did not stop Noseweek from publishing extracts from the book in 1997.
They provided some insight into Greenblo’s perspective on the manner in which
Kerzner had been operating in Bophutatswana. In summary:253
• President Lucas Mangope wrote to Kerzner in 1987 requesting that he finance
a salary increase for his Minister of Finance, Leslie Young, to the tune of
R20,000 (ZAR2005=R109,000) per year. He also indicated that Gencor,
which had substantial mining interests in Bophuthatswana, was doing the
same.254 There is no information that verifies the allegation that Gencor did
make such payments. However, Noseweek states that the Deputy Chairperson
of Sun International, Ian Heron, is alleged to have written a letter (Kerzner’s
is reported to have been abroad at the time), stating:
We would certainly be prepared to contribute to the augmentation of Mr.
Young’s salary…Upon receipt of the amount required each year and the
desired manner of payments we will make the necessary arrangements.255
• In February 1984 Young had already agreed that any investment by Sun
International that would have the effect of marketing apartheid abroad was
tax deductible.256
• In a secret agreement in 1987, Young agreed that 90% of the taxes collected
from entertainers working in Bophutatswana would flow back to Sun
81
International. Any performer or sportsperson who earned more than R26,000

(ZAR2005=R142,000) per month was required to pay half their income to
the Bophutatswana revenue authorities.257
• Sun International had access to an extraordinary array of tax breaks. Greenblo
is quoted in Noseweek as saying:
From the 1960s and into the 1970s there was a one-time allowance on new
equipment; a depreciative allowance on used equipment; and a further
investment allowance for the first year. There was a ‘basic’ buildings
allowance; plus an additional grading allowance, plus another investment
allowance on the cost of buildings…the upshot was that Southern Sun [as it
was at the time] paid next to no tax.258
• The directors of SunBop are alleged to have set up a company called Sun
International Management (SIM) in 1985, which paid them a management
fee through the Bermuda-based tax-sheltered company. It is alleged that this
allowed the SunBop directors (Kerzner and his confidantes) to pay themselves
more than double the normal management fee through SIM. Greenblo is
quoted as saying that they were making these payments either with the
knowledge of the Reserve Bank or in contravention of the Exchange Control
regulations. Young estimates the excess paid into the Bermuda-based bank
account was R50 million per annum (ZAR2005=324 million; USD-
NYSE=R739 million).259
10.2 Mafia links in the Ciskei? The case of Vito Palozollo

In the past 15 years numerous attempts have been made to extradite former Sicilian
mafia boss Vito Palozollo (known as Robert von Palace Kolbachenko since 1987)
to Italy, to stand trial for his involvement in the infamous ‘Pizza connection’.
The New York Pizza connection was the biggest detected international heroin
operation at the time. Palazollo has today transformed his image into that of a
responsible businessman, owner of a wine farm and guesthouses in the Franschoek
mountains and proprietor of a bottled water company, La Vie de Luc, which,
among things, supplies South Africa’s national airline, South African Airways.
The persistence of Italian prosecutors in trying to secure his extradition to that
country is, however, proof that he was not always a respected member of South
Africa’s rich. The background to his South African connection is as follows:
In 1986 the NP MP for East London, Peet de Pontes, flew to Switzerland to
assist a new client, Mr. Vito Palozollo, a former financial trader in Switzerland,
who was now in jail for breaking the law in Switzerland. Palozollo had accepted
lesser charges in Switzerland to escape extradition to the Mafia trials in Italy.260
82
The meeting went well and by October Palozollo had been offered temporary
residence by Ciskei’s President Sebe, who was keen on Palozollo establishing a
bank in the impoverished homeland. Before the end of the year, Palozollo had
escaped from prison, crossed into Germany and was ready to settle in the Ciskei
(or at least in the Eastern Cape, as he moved between Bisho and East London with
ease—despite not having a visa for South Africa). De Pontes had allegedly offered
to help President Sebe to amend legislation to grant Palozollo citizenship within
two weeks of his entry into Ciskei.261 Palozollo nurtured his relationship with
Sebe, contributed to various Presidential charities (and the NP) and was soon appointed
plenipotentiary for the Ciskei (a position from which he resigned in 1990).262
In the meantime, de Pontes was charged with theft, forgery, and bribery—
some of which was related to his relationship with Palozollo. It was a major scandal
as de Pontes was a member of the NP caucus in Parliament at the time and had
introduced Pik Botha and others to Palozollo at his home. They had developed a
business interest that would, among other things, see toxic waste exported to the
Ciskei for a handsome profit.263 Palozollo chose to act as a state witness in the trial
in which de Pontes was found guilty.
Palozollo went on to establish himself in South Africa as businessman, owning
property around Cape Town and a game farm in Namibia. The Ciskei provided
his entry point into South Africa. In 1994 a Noseweek expose (Nose 9: A cute little
bankhaus in Bisho) revealed that one of the reasons that President Sebe had wanted
Palozollo (who was also a banker in Italy and Switzerland) in Ciskei was to help
establish the Bank of Bisho (later Eurobank). Palozollo had shares in the bank
together with Albert Vermaas (see the Crime and Capital section of this report).
The bank, which was alleged to have links to South African and Israeli intelligence,
would be a conduit for cleaning ‘hot’ money needed to finance the joint South
Africa/Israeli arms and nuclear programmes. However, as Vermaas’s financial
pyramid collapsed in the late 1980s, so too did the bank.
Ciskei served as foothold from which Palozollo, an internationally wanted
fugitive from justice, settled in South Africa. His almost effortless ability to move
between the old and new South Africa perhaps best describes the links between
corrupt activity in these two areas. The period before 1994 and after 1994 are
intrinsically linked and those who were alleged to have been involved during the
former period remained rooted in the latter.
Palozollo was the subject of the Presidential Investigative Task Unit’s focus in
the 1990s. This unit was, however, eventually disbanded, in large part due to
allegations that it had been compromised by corrupt dealings of its members which
may, or not, on turn have been linked to infighting within the South African
security establishment (which was undergoing a transformation from old to new
guard) at the time.
83
Some important questions raised in this section:

• Do we know the full extent of corruption in apartheid-era homelands?
Has enough been done to try and prosecute homeland leaders and
officials implicated in corruption?
• Has the relationship between gambling companies and homeland
leaders been sufficiently investigated?
• Does the public have a right to read Alan Greenblo’s biography of
Kerzner?
• Why has Vito Palozollo not been successfully prosecuted in South
Africa—or extradited to Italy to stand trial?
• To what extent were homelands used as money laundering operations
by the state and foreign intelligence agencies?
84
The time for action: Policy recommendations
11. The time for action: Policy recommendations

Although we have made many strides in the past 12 years, the truth about much
of our history still escapes us. However, what we do know is that when the
apartheid state was at its most repressive, it was also at its most corrupt. The racist
state was criminalised by an elite that was not only bent on retaining exclusive
political power but also wished to profit handsomely while doing so. It is also
argued here that when its grip on power was waning the elite stepped up its efforts
to plunder the country, moving money abroad, subverting secret funds and
engaging in economic activities that would have a devastating long-term effect on
the state. It would rob the poor of future opportunities, while entrenching old
elites. These activities were criminal even by the apartheid state’s skewed sense of
legality. The law was broken, but it is suspected that only a few of the perpetrators
were eventually prosecuted. This may have been the cost of our compromise as a
society in 1994, or perhaps the consequence of a collective fear of what skeletons
lie buried in the closet. It is also clear that the intergenerational nature of corruption
means that some of those who were involved in corruption before 1994 now
profit from the fruits of democracy. These are powerful interest groups that any
society would find difficult to challenge.
It is argued that this report contributes in three ways to facing up to the past:
• It debunks the position that South Africa under white rule was ‘corruption
free’. Rather, the conditions of secrecy, oppression and authoritarian rule
created a climate in which corrupt activity was stimulated. Huge slush funds
were potentially rich pickings for individuals from both the public and private
sector. Public perception that says otherwise is either deeply ignorant or
racist (although the former can be a prerequisite for the latter).
85
• It stresses the need to see the link between the period between 1994 and
today, to see how our society was fundamentally corrupted in the past and
to highlight the need for South Africans to learn from these experiences in
order not to repeat them. No society is likely ever to be free of corruption—
however, the apartheid era provides a measure of how national integrity can
be completely corrupted. This alone should encourage us to tackle corruption
in a democratic South Africa with zeal.
• It asks difficult questions about how we deal with aspects of our past that
are characterised more by questions than answers. Do we investigate and
prosecute or just return the gaze on the past?
Facing up to the past requires some difficult questions to be answered:

• How do we deal with alleged perpetrators of corruption under apartheid
who have never been brought to book?
• Do we need a TRC for economic crimes in South Africa?
• How do we start to learn from the mistakes from the past?
• Should those in positions of authority in the apartheid-era military and
executive, who might have profited from corruption, at the very least be
investigated to establish the source of their assets and where they are located?
• Should those in positions of authority within the private sector, who might
have profited from corruption or illegally taken money abroad, be
prosecuted?
• If so, which state agency would be best placed to do so?
• How do we ensure that this does not detract from current anti-corruption
efforts but rather assists in building existing anti-corruption capacity?
• How do we deal with crimes of the past while ensuring that its intentions
are communicated to all South Africans not as a witch-hunt but rather a
step in the search for justice?
These are difficult questions that this research report cannot answer alone. A
response is required from the National Anti-Corruption Forum and government
to take these issues forward.
We are faced with two options in handling this matter. Both will have profound
consequences:
• If our interest in the subject of apartheid-era corruption is limited to learning
more about our history as a nation, then we will benefit, at the very least,
from the wisdom of hindsight. However, this could also represent a missed
opportunity, for as the past slips away so too do the perpetrators and witnesses
to such crimes. Evidence of these crimes will be further erased over time and
86
The time for action: Policy recommendations
money stolen will continue to enrich the beneficiaries of corruption. In

taking this path, we choose to close the book on the past. Such a decision
will not threaten the South African elite and will no doubt be welcomed by
many. It will, however, probably always haunt us as a society. If billions of
rands were stolen, this path means they will not be made available to be
used for reconstruction and development. When we see the patterns of old
replicate themselves in our democratic society, we will also have to admit
that we have chosen not to fundamentally break these cycles.
• If we choose to forthrightly engage with the past, head on, through initial
calls for more information and eventually criminal investigations, resourced
by the state, we will have chosen a risky option but one which may reward
us in many ways. It could help in seeing money returned to the country and
long-denied justice being done. Many obstacles will have to be negotiated in
the process: it cannot become a witch-hunt but should be a process owned
by all South Africans. It should not detract from current investigations but
should rather seek to ensure that the country’s anti-corruption efforts are
bolstered. It would require a change in the law, as commercial crimes ‘age’
after 20 years. If carefully managed, it could represent an important step in
healing the divides that continue to scar this land. If not correctly handled,
it could also entrench divisions within society, alienate private capital and
impact negatively on South African society. However, if this is seen as a
process, such obstacles could be negotiated step by step.
Democracy affords us, and especially so those who can influence policy, with
choices over certain issues. The choice of how to deal with crimes of corruption
under apartheid is now ours, as a society, to make.
This research suggests that the time for action is now and, though mindful of
the associated risks, the second of the two options would be the more rewarding
option for those committed to sustaining the fight against corruption in South
Africa.
87
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Notes
Notes
1 Jaques Derrida in Spectres of Marx (1994) as quoted in Asmal, Kader et al (1997).
2 For more details on reported instances of corruption see: van Vuuren, 2005.
3 Transparency International, 2004.
4 See the work done by the Jewish Claims Commission and other in this regard when seeking
compensation from Swiss Banks and German industries in the late 1990s.
5 Transparency International, 2004. p. 13.
6 Ibid. p. 13.
7 Data as at May 2006. Consult the UNODC website for an updated list of countries who
have signed, ratified and acceded to the Convention: <http://www.unodc.org/unodc/
en/corruption.html>
8 de Klerk, FW, The Star, 1997.
9 See a detailed description thereof in Rawlison, 1997.
10 Rawlison, 1997, p. 28.
11 Ellis in Bayart, Elli, Hibou, 1999.
12 National Party, 1997.
13 Remarks by Frene Ginwala, Speaker of Parliament, to the Global Forum II, opening Session,
May 28 2001, The Hague, www.gca-cma.org. Accessed on 18 November 2003.
14 This was in part informed by the Draft Transparency International National Integrity
Study (van Vuuren, 2005).
15 Held at the ISS Cape Town office on 24 November 2005.
16 An example thereof is the Reverend Alan Boesak, who was convicted in the 1990s of
fraudulently using donor funds that were intended to benefit the victims of apartheid.
17 I am grateful to Antony Altbeker (ISS Senior Researcher) and Daniel Scher (ISS Research
Intern) for developing this formula and producing the conversion tables.
18 Capel, 1997.
19 Ibid.
20 Bell and Ntsebeza, 2001, p. 7.
21 This is based on the weight of standard photocopy: 125 pages is equal to one kilogramme.
22 Bell and Ntsebeza, op cit. p. 7.
23 Ibid.
24 Interview with Fredrick van Zyl Slabbert, 2 September 2005.
25 This section draws on a paper presented by the author in October 2004. van Vuuren,
Hennie.
26 Lodge, 2002.
27 See the records of the TRC, www.truth.org.za, accessed 25 September 2004.
27 Telephonic interview, September 2004.
28 Interview with Martin Welz, 1 November 2005.
29 Truth and Reconciliation Commission and Department of Justice, 1998.
30 Khoisan, 2001, p. 160.
31 Daily Dispatch, 28 July 1998.
32 Carter, 1998.
33 Ibid.
97
34 Trench and Whitlock, 1998.

35 Telephonic interview, 29 October 2005.
36 Arenstein, 1998.
37 Interview with Prof. Sampie Terreblanche, 2 September 2005.
38 See Marais, 1990.
39 Hillegas, 1899.
40 Quoted from Nathan, 1941.
41 See van Vuuren, 2004.
42 Interview with Martin Welz, 1 November 2005.
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid.
45 Interview with Prof. Sampie Terreblanche, 2 September 2005
46 Ibid.
47 Ibid.
48 O’Meara, 1996.
49 Ibid.
50 Interview with Martin Welz, op cit.
51 Lodge, 2002.
52 For more detail of the history and influence of the Broederbond see Serfontein, 1979 and
Wilkins et al, 1978.
53 See Wilkins, Strydom, 1980.
54 Ibid.
55 Interview with Prof. Sampie Terreblanche, op cit.
56 Ibid.
57 Ibid.
58 Serfontein, 1979.
59 Rhoodie, 1983, p 737.
60 Rees and Day, 1980.
61 Ibid.
62 Ibid.
63 Bardach, 2000.
64 Esterhuyse, 1989.
65 Ibid.
66 Erasmus Commission supplementary report.
67 Strydom, 1974.
68 Zille,1978.
69 Welz, 1978.
70 Meyer 1978
71 Greenblo, 1999.
72 Welz and Allen, 1981.
73 Welz, 1980.
74 Rand Daily Mail, 9 September 1980.
75 Ibid.
76 Hugo and Sterling, 1981.
98
Notes
77 Sterling, 1980.
78 Hoper, 21 December 1980.
79 Die Vaderland, 11 June 1974.
80 The Star, 17 November 1978
81 Zille, 1978.
82 Interview with Alister Sparks, 7 November, 2005.
83 Bothma, 1998.
84 Bothma, 1997.
85 Noseweek, July 1993.
86 Ibid.
88 Ibid.
89 Ibid.
90 Terreblanche, 2002, p 310.
91 Interview with van Zyl Slabbert, op cit.
92 Bunting, Brian, 1965.
93 Barron, Chris, 2000.
94 Welz, Martin. Noseweek 1. 1993.
95 Beeld, ‘Bewaringsoowehede gelooi...’, 1990.
96 Beeld, ‘Joe Berardo het…’, 1990.
97 Madeira-Island.com, 1998.
98 Hyslop, Jonathan, 2005.
99 O’Meara, 1996, p. 351.
100 Ibid.
101 Ibid.
103 Owen, 1992 in O’Meara, 1996, p. 352.
104 Hyslop, Jonathan, 2005.
105 Financial Mail, 6 October 1989.
106 Katzin, and Faure, 1985.
107 The Star, 8 September 1988.
108 Robertson, 1990.
109 Goldstuck and Stober, 1992.
110 Hartley, 1995
111 Financial Mail, 26 May 1989.
112 Turvey, 1989.
113 Krost, Peta, 1990
114 Makhudu Sefara, 2004
115 van Niekerk, 1993.
116 Mathews, 2003.
117 Rose, 2005.
118 Breier, 1993.
119 Owen, Ken. 1993
120 Terreblanche, 2002, p 310
99
121 ANC, 1998.

122 O’Meara, op cit.
123 de Kock, Jacklyn, 1989, p 3
124 Shelton, date unknown.
125 de Kock, Jacklyn, ibid, p. 207.
127 Interview with Mr. Fritz Louw, 8 September, 2005.
128 Ibid.
129 Republic of South Africa, 1996.
130 Potgieter, 1995, p. 28.
131 Interview with Colonel Jan Breytenbach, 27 September 2005.
132 Interview with Chris Thirion, 9 November 2005.
133 Interview with Stefaans Brummer, 5 September 2005.
134 Interview with Chris Thirion, 9 November 2005.
135 Ellis, 1996.
136 TRC, 1998.
137 Ibid.
138 Ibid.
139 Ibid.
140 Ibid.
141 Ellis, 1998.
142 Research undertaken in the archives in September/October 2005.
143 Jansen and Hooper, 1990.
144 Pauw, 1991.
145 Ibid.
146 Ibid.
147 Ibid.
148 Ibid.
149 Evans, 1990.
150 Forrest, Drew et al, 199.1
151 Interview with Jaques Pauw, 07 November 2005,
152 Adams, 2005
153 Ibid.
154 Burger and Gould, 2002.
155 Ibid.
156 Interview with Chandre Gould, 19 September, 2005
157 Varney, 1997, p. 75.
158 Ibid, p. 77.
159 IOL, 1997.
160 IOL, 1996.
161 Ibid.
162 Ibid.
163 Ibid.
164 Noseweek Magazine, April/May 1997.
100
Notes
165 Interview with Prof. Andre Thomoshausen, 08 November 2005.

166 Hengeveld and Rodenburg, 1995.
167 Interview with van Zyl Slabbert.
168 Ibid.
169 Hengeveld and Rodenburg, op cit, p. 86.
170 Ibid, p. 86.
171 Klinghoffer, 1989, p. 72.
173 Klinghoffer, op cit, p. 57.
175 Ibid, p. 159.
176 Manuel, 2006.
177 Khan, 1991.
178 Ibid.
179 Mohamed and Finnoff, 2004.
180 Mail & Guardian, 1996.
181 Brummer, 1997.
182 Brummer, 1996.
183 Robertson, Alan, 1996.
184 Robertson, Alan, 1996.
185 Dawes, 2005.
186 Pallister, David (et al), 1988
187 Ibid,. p. 167.
188 Ibid, p. 168.
189 Ibid, p. 169.
190 Ibid, p. 169.
191 Chester, 1993.
192 Woods, Mandy, 07 August 1988.
193 Wood, Sharon, 01 July 1992.
194 Lieberum, Sandra, 19 March 1993.
195 The Citizen, 10 November 1993.
196 Stagg, Cathy, 21 March 1993.
197 The Citizen, 24 February 1993.
198 Ensor, Linda. 24 August 1993
199 Interview with Prof. Andre Thomoshausen, 08 November 2005
200 Ibid.
201 See also Aldworth, Bob, 1996. p. 163.
202 Ibid.
203 Ibid.
204 Noseweek, 1996 p. 5.
205 Ibid, p. 6.
206 Aldworth, Bob, op cit, p. 32.
207 Ibid, p. 33.
208 Ibid.
101
209 Ibid.
210 Ibid, p. 34.
211 Gleason, David, 04 March 2002.
212 Whitfield, Chris, 26 February 2002.
213 Ibid.
214 Ibid.
215 Gleason, op cit.
216 Noseweek, 2001.
217 Ibid.
218 Rose, Rob, 15 August 2005.
219 Noseweek, op cit.
220 Ibid.
221 Ibid.
222 Ibid.
223 Ibid.
224 Ibid.
225 The Star, 1996.
226 Citizen, 1993
227 Woods, Mandy Jean, 1989
228 Ibid.
229 Katzin, Kitt, “Albert Vermaas…”, 1989.
230 Financial Mail, 1989.
231 Noseweek, May1999.
232 Ibid.
233 Ibid.
234 Ibid.
235 Seiler, 1995.
236 Botha, Eddie, 1993.
237 Botha, Eddie, 1993.
238 Haffajee, Ferial, 1991.
239 Financial Mail, 1992.
240 Pauw, 1993.
241 Argus, 1992.
242 Arenstein, 1996.
243 Business Times,1989.
244 Doonan, Craig, 1997.
245 Rantao, Jovial, 1997.
246 Ibid.
247 Citizen, 1997
248 Ibid.
249 Barber, Simon, 1996.
250 Barnett, Antony, 2003.
251 Rickard, Carmel, 1997
252 Noseweek, March 1998
102
Notes
253 Ibid.
254 Ibid.
255 Ibid.
256 Ibid.
257 Ibid.
258 Ibid.
259 Noseweek, September 1994.
260 The Star, 1988
261 The Star, 08 March 1990.
262 Ibid.
103
“Civil society will prepare a research report on crimes of corruption under apartheid
and present these to the National Anti-Corruption Forum (NACF) for consideration
within six months.”
Resolution of the Second National Anti-Corruption Summit

held in Pretoria/Tshwane (22–23 March 2005).
“...any simple straightforward truth about political institutions or events is bound to

have polemical consequences. It will damage some group interests. In any society the
dominant groups are the ones with the most to hide. Very often therefore truthful
analyses are bound to have a critical ring, to seem like exposures rather than objective
statements, as the term is conventionally used…For all students of human society,
sympathy with the victims of historical processes and scepticism about the victor’s claims
provide essential safeguards against being taken in by the dominant mythology.”
Moore, Barrington Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and

Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern
World, Boston, Beacon Press, 1966, pp. 522–23.

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Apartheid Grand Corruption

Assessing the scale of crimes of profit

A report prepared by civil society at the request of the

Apartheid grand corruption

A report prepared by civil society in terms of a resolution of the

Hennie van Vuuren

© 2006, Institute for Security Studies

First published by the Institute for Security Studies,

Cover artwork: Wim Botha, Table I, 2003, www.michaelstevenson.com

9. Crime, capital and apartheid 61

• Dolos Luka (South African NGO Coalition); and

South Africans, whether in their individual capacities or as members of some

Ms. Geraldine J. Fraser-Moleketi

• The period under review

2.2 Sources of information

2.3 Making sense of money17

In summary, this research report set out to try and answer

1. The nature of the negotiated transition

2. Destruction of the evidence

This would translate into approximately 5.5 million standard A4 photocopy

3.1 Apartheid commissions of enquiry

3.2 The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)25

3.3 Apartheid corruption investigations post-1994

responsibility, questions were raised about the choice of personnel selected.

This section raises an important issue:

4. Corruption, colonialism and the apartheid state

environment political parties are vulnerable to outside influence. The NP soon

room of Afrikaner nationalism) across the city to the working-class (primarily)

Some of the important issues raised in this section include the

5. The insiders: The Broederbond

Some important issues raised in this section:

6. Information, blood and gold

Some important issues raised in this section:

6.2 Dr. ‘Gold’ (finger)

By December 1978 allegations surfaced regarding his involvement in property

6.3 Two mysteries

6.3.1 The Swiss bank account

6.3.2 The Smit murders

7. Corruption under P.W. Botha and F.W. de Klerk

consortium and government: the licence in exchange for support of government

were fertile ground for corruption. It took considerable infrastructure to create

Speaking at a conference on Public Sector Ethics in 1989, Justice Victor Hiemstra

• In 1992, the Department of Development Aid was in the spotlight when a

• A secret Department of Education and Training project was funded by

General”.112 Evidence in front of the van der Heever Commission suggested

This section raises some important questions:

8. The security state

As will be discussed in a later section on oil, sanctions busting only increases

8.2 The role of the SADF in corruption: The case of ivory

SADF, such as General Constand Viljoen. However, he acknowledges that there

This section raises some important questions:

8.3.1 Investigations into secret funds by the TRC

been destroyed in accordance with various approved procedures—a fact that no

Table 1: Estimated value of allocated secret funds by department (1978–1994):

Department/account Value estimated by the ZAR 2005 value

SADF Defence Special Account R49,648,737,696 R320 billion

8.3.2 The CCB

(ZAR2005=R116 million per annum), which was likely to exclude supplementary

8.3.3 ‘Dr Death’ and Project Coast