Topic: Observation Method

Session: 12
INTRODUCTION:
Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a
human), consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside world
through the senses, or the recording of data using scientific
instrument. The term may also refer to any data collected during
this activity. An observation can also be the way you look at things
or when you look at something.
 Observation method is a technique in which the behavior of research subjects is
watched and recorded without any direct contact.
 Observation method commonly used in studies
relating to behavioral sciences

o We all observe many things, but it is not a scientific

observation.
o It will become scientific when it serves a formulated research
purpose, is
systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to
checks and
controls on validity and reliability
o e.g. investigator himself looking at the wrist watch

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION METHODS:

Subjective bias may be eliminated – it gives
information relating to current state of affairs –
Independent of respondent’s willingness or capability
to respond.
• Firsthand information.

• Simple to use.

• Verifies data from other sources.

• Useful for manual and psycho-motor tasks.

DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION METHODS:
Time consuming and expensive – limited amount of
information is available – extraneous factors may interfere.
• Time consuming.
 • May bias worker performance.

• Small sample size.

• Requires skilled observer.

• Validity & reliability may be problematic.

• Not useful for jobs consisting of mostly mental tasks.

TYPES OS OBSERVATION
a. Structured and unstructured observation:
Structured observation is characterized by a careful
definition of
the units to be observed – there should be
standardized
conditions of observation – proper method of
recording.

b. Participant and non-participant observation

:
In participant observation, the investigator observes
by
making himself a member of the group he is
observing
so that he can experience what the members of the
group experience. E.g. study on the lifestyle of
fishermen
community.

c. Controlled and uncontrolled observation:

If the observation is taking place in a natural setting,
it is uncontrolled – when observation is taking place
according to rearranged lands it is controlled.

12.1 Field Work

The term is mainly used in the natural and social sciences studies, such as
in anthropology, folk logistics, archaeology, biology, ecology,
environmental science, ethnomusicology, geography, geology, geophysics,
linguistics, paleontology, and sociology, although it is also used in other
subjects, such as in auditing.
In short, Field Work can be defined as:

“Field work is a general descriptive

term
for the collection of raw data.”

Purposes of Fieldwork:
• How is it started?
• How is it done?
• Name some methods of data collection.

Fieldwork – Research Strategies

Before going to the field:

1. Adopt a theoretical perspective

2. Formulate a research design
3. Analyze available data

In the field:

1. Get over culture shock

2. Learn the language
3. Observe (participant, naturalistic)

Fieldwork – Observation Strategies

Key informants

• Provide the anthropologist with insight

• Usually interested in own society
• Shostak and Nisa

Interviews

• Structured
• Unstructured
• Fieldwork – Data Collection

Methods of recording
• Field notes
• Tape-recorder
• Video
• camera
 Random sampling

Quantitative data

• Census, diet, income = numbers

• Ethic perspective

Qualitative data

• Beliefs, values, politics = non-quantifiable

• Emic perspective

Fieldwork - Ethics
AAA statement of ethics

• Responsibility to informants

• First do no harm (cannot exploit)

• Consult with informants (consent)
• Anonymity
• Explanation of culture

• Responsibility to scholarship and science

• No fabrication, plagiarizing
• Disseminate findings to fellow scientists
• Make data available (HRAF)

• Responsibility to the public

• Put information in proper context

• Publish information in understandable language

12.2 Editing and Coding

Processing involves editing, coding, classification and tabulation of
data:

1.Editing: First step in the analysis of raw data – editing

detects errors and omissions and corrects
them when possible – it involves a careful
scrutiny of the completed questionnaire. The
purpose of editing is to ensure that the data
are - Accurate, consistent with other facts
collected, uniformly entered, complete and
arranged to simplify coding and tabulation.
 Field editing and Central editing.

2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning

numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of
categories or classes. E.g. 1 for male and 2
for female or M for male and F for female. The
first one is numeric coding and the second
one is alphanumeric coding. Coding helps the
researcher to reduce several thousand replies
to a few categories containing the critical
information needed for analysis. Coding can
either be done on the margin of questionnaire
or transcribe the data from the questionnaire
to a coding sheet.

3. Classification: Reducing raw data into homogenous groups – it is

the process of
arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of
common characteristics:

a. Classification according to attributes:

They are descriptive in nature (qualitative),

like

b. Classification according to class intervals:

These refer to quantitative phenomenon

which can be measured through some
statistical units – e.g. data
relating to income, production, age,
height & weigh etc.

4. Tabulation: It is a concise, logical and orderly

arrangement of data in columns and rows –
summarizing raw data and display them in
compact form – it provides a basis for starting
statistical comparisons – it could be one way,
which furnishes answers to questions about
one characteristic of the data only – Two-way,
three - way and manifold tables deal with two,
three or several interrelated characteristics of
the data. These are known as cross-
tabulation.

12.3 Data Analysis

 The stage in the research process which assesses secondary and/or
primary data and relates it to the defined issue or problem.

The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in

accordance with the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of
developing the research plan. The analysis planning should be done
earlier at the research design stage itself.

Key Elements for Analyzing Data:

• What’s the difference between qualitative and quantitative

data?
• What’s the difference between the emic and etic perspectives in
anthropology?
• What kinds of information are anthropologists interested in?

 Demography,
 subsistence,
 technology,
 economy,
 social structure,
 political organization,
 religion

The process of data analysis

Data analysis is a process, within which several phases can be

distinguished:
• Data cleaning
• Initial data analysis (assessment of data quality)
• Main data analysis (answer the original research question)
• Final data analysis (necessary additional analyses and report)

12.4 Communicating Research Results

(Report)
A research report is an oral presentation and/or a written
statement that has the purpose of communicating the
research findings, recommendations for course of action,
other findings to management or other specific audiences.
 Oral Report Written Report
1. No rigid standard format. Standard format can be adopted.
2. Remembering all that is said is It can be read a number of times and
difficult. clarifications can be sought
whenever the reader chooses.
3. Tone, voice modulation and Free from presentation problesm.
several other communication
factors play an important role.
4. Correcting mistakes is difficult. Mistakes can be pin-pointed and
corrected.
5. Audience has no control over Not applicable.
the speed of the presentation.
6. Audience does not have the Reader can pick and choose
choice of picking and choosing whatever he thinks is relevant to
from the presentation. him.

How to plan and organize Research

Report:
The first step in writing as research report is to organize the way the
material is to be presented. Suppose a researcher never did
preliminary work needed to clarify the research problems, but instead
sent out questionnaires in the hop of getting some sort of the results.
This approach will certainly cause difficulty in analyzing the results;
which will be a barrier in reporting results.

In writing a report consideration of how to organize the presentation

effectively should be made. The major sections are usually
determined by what is customary in the discipline or by organizational
practice. The reader should be able to read the objectives, turn to the
conclusions section, and find specific conclusions relative to each
objective. They should also turn to the results section, or to the
methodology section, or the letter of authorization, in fact, when they
turn to any part of the report, they should see the whole report tied
together by concern with one problem, stated in terms of small
number of interrelated objectives.

Good organization is achieved by outlining. An outline has tow

major functions:

1. To show the order of presentation.

2. To show the way the parts relate to each other.

STEPS OF REPORT WRITING

 a. Logical analysis of the subject-matter.
b. Preparation of the final outline.
c. Preparation of the rough draft.
d. Rewriting and polishing.
e. Preparation of the final bibliography.
f. Writing the final draft.

PARTS OF REPORT WRITING

a. Title page
b. Letter of transmittal
c. Letter of authorization
d. Table of contents
e. Summary
f. Body
o Introduction
o Methodology
o Results/Conclusions
o Limitations
g. Appendix

TYPES OF REPORT
There are two types of reports:

1. Technical Report
2. Popular Report

1. TECHNICAL REPORT
In the technical report the main emphasis is on:
a. Assumptions made in the course of study.
b. The detailed presentation of the findings supporting data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:

 Summary of results
 Nature of the study
 Methods employed
 Data
 Analysis of data and presentation of findings
 Conclusion
 Bibliography
 Technical appendices
 Index

2. POPULAR REPORT
 a. The findings and their implications
b. Recommendations for action
c. Objective of the study
d. Methods employed
e. Results
Technical appendices