,~

.~.

Guideto motors and starting

-.-~ .. ----.------------------------------~

Introduction

Electric motors are deservedly the most popular prime movers for industry and commerce. Compared with other sources of mechanical power, they're inexpensive, compact, reliable and versatile. As a result of this popularity, millions of .motors are installed ~a<;ll~~ar ~n()r t.~e.~~~tiniG1%:tr,~very

'on'~'+leed:;;l eO'la~ufa9tu r:~ of~~ese ·st~rl~~$:is ., thW6ichthecontrolgear industry was built, and motor starters are still at the core of almost every control gear supplier's business.

Starters commonly used today, however, differ from their predecessors. Some types, such as the faceplate starter, have disappeared altogether. Other types, such as primary resistance starters, are fast declining in popularity. In addition, asynchronous induction motors are now almost universal, virtually eliminating the need for the specialised starters used by other types of motor.

This supplement deals with a wide range of starting techniques for asynchronous motors, an area where Schneider's engineers have unrivalled expertise. The benefits and limitations of various starting methods are explained and, unlike some ostensibly similar publications, the information presented is right up to date - current, useful and practical data is presented in a clear concise form.

Your comments on the contents of this supplement are welcome, as are your suggestions for topics which you would like to see covered in future issues.

The scope of this publication

This supplement has been written to provide engineers, designers and users of motor starters with

B~,phgtlgv~~rewito u ~derstan8ii2g,,;a equipmEg[ltlt 'by n

motor sfarting but, nevertheless, it deals with the vast majority of applications likely to be encountered in industry and commerce. For those requiring further information, a short list of sources is included at the end of the supplement.

techniques to assist in their them in the design of

Motors - a few basics

Principle of operation

Three-phase asynchronous motors are, by far, the

most widely used)ype. The operation of this type of motqr reli~s upornl[g~preati'()~T of~ni,n9JJtedcurr~nlin =e=s; a~~nductor which r§-,lts~'lf,tnde/th'~i~fltendei ofa ' "

magnetic field. It is this principle of operation which gives rise to the commonly used term "induction

motor."

The rotating magnetic field

A typical motor has three stator or field windings

which are arranged at an angle of 1200 relative to each other. These windings are fed from the three phases of the mains supply which are, themselves, offset by 1200 • This arrangement produces a rotating magnetic field which, as it turns, tends to pull the motor's rotor round with it.

Slip

In practice, an induction motor can never run at its synchronous speed, since it can only generate torque if there is an induced current in the rotor conductors. This can only be the case if there is relative movement between the rotor and the rotating magnetic field. The must, therefore, rotate slightly more slowly than the

which rotat This is why

d as asynchronous.

The diff~~~nce between the synchronous speed (Ns) and the actual nominal rotor speed (Nn) is called the slip. Slip is always expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed:

slip = 100(Ns - Nn)/ Ns

Motor construction

A three-phase asynchronous motor comprises two main components, the stator and the rotor.

As its name suggests, the stator is the stationary part of the motor, and

. cOI1~lst~prastrongcasing (usually manufactured from cast-iron or alloy) ,'intqwgie:h is fixed a ring of laminated silicon steel sections. The laminatiOns are slotted so as to accommodate the stator windings which

·cre.iiI.teAge rotating there are tl1ree.'j~ mcig'n~Hc60upli'~g()ftlle number of pole pairs (and thus synchronous speed) of the motor.

The rotor is the rotating part of the motor which drives the machine to which it is coupled. It is similar to the stator, but is made up of a greater number of laminated sections. Together, these form a cylinder which is keyed to the motor shaft. There are two principle types of rotor - squirrel cage and wound.

--

are, by far, the most common. They have straight

to slots the n""inh,,,nJ

cq .<.ors,. "' .. ,. '\."

thcltjheirarrangementso@Jewhat rp<:pmnlP

which the assembly gets its name. A popular variation is the doublecage, which has two concentric cages and offers a higher starting torque than single-cage versions. No external electrical connections can be made to any type of squirrel cage rotor.

Wound rotors have windings similar to those used in the stator. One end of each winding is connected to a common (star) point, and the other ends are connected to slip rings. External connections to the rotor windings are made via these slip rings, allowing additional resistance to be added to the rotor circuit during starting. This enables the motor's starting current and torque to be controlled.

Controlling speed

Varying the supply voltage alone is a comparatively ineffective way of controlling the speed of an induction motor. Voltage il},YI",a:"t::~ •. ,.\ raise speed somewhat, b effect is limited by magnetic saturation in the windings. Conversely, voltage reductions decrease speed but, again, the range of control is very limited, and torque is adversely affected.

Today, the most popular method of speed control is the use of a variable frequency (inverter) drive. These vary both the voltage and frequency of the supply to the

motor, giving a wide range of control over speed, without loss of

the range from 5 to 50Hz with only a slight loss of

frequencies of less,

cooling provided by the motor's built-in fan is likely to be insufficient, and additional forced cooling should be considered.

Starting current

If a stationary squirrel cage motor is connected directly to the supply, it will typically draw a starting

current 0 full-load

t08 times its normal r~ent (FLC;).FQns[lall~r.,

motors, tRls"is often acc~~~aple,

,,- ... . -,,,,,',"~"

but fOri(q[ggmachilJe;S,9r,liYbere·.;

supply capacity is limited, some means of reducing the starting current becomes necessary. is usually done by reducing the' voltage applied to the motor during starting. Most of the starters described in the remainder of this publication have been developed specifically to limit motor starting current.

With conventional contactor-based starters, however, there is a problem - reduced starting current means reduced starting torque

[lay, !nsom~ applic~ti9ns, nacc~Ptable ';-rhi<',iimltation is examined in more detail. in later sections which desc[ipe p§rticular

voltage, allow starting currents of 1.5 x FLC or less, while still providing high starting torque. When using soft starters, starting currents are generally between 2 and 5 x FLC.

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Starters

Direct-an-line (DOL) starters

With this type of starter, the stator windings of the motor are connected directly to the three-

starting current is between 5 and 8 times normal full-load current, and the peak starting torque is between 0.5 and 1.5 times the motor?s nominal operating torque. Overloads designed to

BS EN 60947-4-1 are based on a starting current of 7.2 times normal full-load current.

Direct-on-line current/speed characteristics Direct-on-line torque/speed curve

Direct-on-line starter diagram

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Although DOL starters offer a number of advantages, including simplicity, low cost and high starting torque, their use is limited to applications where:

• low-power motors are being used, and the supply that the starti does not adv equipment usi

is fitted with a gearbox or some other device which will soften the mechanical shock produced by the high starting torque

a high starting torque is needed - for example, the equipment starts against its full mechanical load.

When the limitations of DOL starting are not acceptable, it is necessary to use alternative starting techniques which reduce the peak starting current and, therefore, the peak starting torque. The normal approach is to arrange for the motor to be started at reduced voltages, and a number of methods have been developed for doing this.

• the peak starting current would result in a serious voltage drop on the supply system

• the equipment being driven cannot tolerate the effects of very high peak torque loadings

• the safety or comfort of those using the equipment may be compromised by sudden starting as, for example, with escalators and lifts

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supply voltage, star contactor and the closing of

and the motor the delta contactor. This allows

adopts its normal time for any switching arcs to be

operating extinguished.

characteristics.

Star-delta starters

This type of starter may only be used where access is possible to both ends of all three stator windings. In addition, the windings must be rated to withstand the full supply voltage when delta-connected.

delta starting, the •

peak starting current is typically between 1.5 and 2.6 times the normal full-load current, and the peak starting torque is between 0.2 and 0.5 times the motor's nominal operating torque.

On starting, the supply is first applied to the motor with its

,.C'>':"rl1otor aceelerates, its speed whehits ci~ve'loped torque become equal to its load usuallt.h~~pensat

- 800/0·ofnorninal StaricDntaCtor is{ de-energised, and the delta contactor energised to deltaconnect the stator windings. Each winding is now fed with the full

Star-delta starter

The run-up time with the windings star-connected is controlled by a time~which, typically, can be adjllstedifrom 0 to 30 seconds. ;Yh'is'tirner is adjusted during commissioning to ensure that the star-delta changeover occurs, as closely as possible, at the point of torque equilibrium. The transition time from star to delta is also important, and a special timer is normally used to ensure that there is a period of between 30ms and 50ms between the opening of the

Star-delta starters are particularly suited to machines which do not present a high load torque at start-up, or which normally start off-load. It is also important to note that, during th~.star-to-delt;:l transition, a high

current is genE;!ra\ed.lfamagI)etic shortt protective device-is-to be used i.nthestarter, ransient'ml.1sfbe taken il1to acc:oUrifir'lthe

selection of the device, in order to prevent nuisance tripping.

at the

Although the

transition is very brief, the current can be quite large and, particularly for larger motors, some form of current limiting may be necessary. One solution is to introduce a delay of 1 to 2 seconds during the star-todelta transition. To avoid too large a speed drop during the transition, however, this method can only be used with low-inertia loads.

Primary resistance starters

Starters of this type start the motor at reduced voltage by connecting a resistance bank in series with the

motor' has run up and its

speed k is shorted

6 not reqUire acc~ss to ing~.

Values of starting current and torque are dete~rnined

by the values of the resistors used. Typically,however, the peak starting current will be around 4.5 times nominal full-load current, and peak starting torque

be around 0.75 times nominal operating torque.

w

-

Primary resistance starter

Primary resistance starters are especially suitable for applications, such as ventilator fans, where the load torque with speed.

increasing the resistor values. Care must be taker), howev al~C;:redGc~s. st~gil1g

Primary resistance starting current/speed characteristics

Primary resistance starting torque/speed characteristics

Auto-transformer starters

In auto-transformer starters, the motor is started at reduced voltage which is supplied from an auto-transformer. The starting sequence has three stages.

During the first stage, the auto-transformer is starconnected, and the line contactor is closed. This starts the motor with a reduced voltage, the value of which depends upon the ratio selected for the

transformer. Auto-trans! ers are normally

,iprovided'\,Vith taps't9",qI trre bes(ratio'to be.

·· .. chosen duringcommISSIQJ;liBg'1iL, .. ,,;·

Current

Speed

In the second stage,th~ li?n i~>9pened,

and the auto-transformer n inductor

connected in sefieswHi1! r. tHis transition

is normally timed to occur when the motor speed has stabilised at the end of the run-up period. The third stage then follows almost immediately, and involves shunting the transformer completely, so that the motor is direct-connected to the supply.

The starting current and torque are reduced as a function of the reduced starting and run-up voltages (Usupply/Ustartinq)". Typical values for peak starting current are 1.7 to 4 times nominal full-load current and, for peak starting torque, 0.5 to 0.85 times nominal operating torque.

Auto-transformer starting is particularly used for large motors (above 100kW), but tends to be an expensive solution, largely because of the cost of the autotransformer itself. These starters may also produce a

Auto-transformer starter

current peak at

the instant when the motor is switched directly to the supply. This peak can be minimised by careful design of the auto-transformer, but only at the expense of increasing the peak current at the commencement of the first stage of the starting sequence.

Auto-transformer starting torque/speed characteristics

• control of the acceleration and deceleration ramps of the motor in such a way as to keep within all required limits on current and torque

• thermal overload protection for itself, and for the motor which it is controlling

mechanical protection for the machine being driven, by eliminating sudden changes in current - and, therefore, torque - during starting and stopping.

Electronic soft starters

This relatively recently introduced form of starter is rapidly growing in popularity. Soft starters operate by gradually increasing the voltage applied to the motor, so as to produce steady, smooth acceleration. This technique eliminates sudden changes in

vol cp~Jd p~oduce.peaks g'cG rrenfaHdtorqQE?

The steadily increasing supply odhemotor du .. s produced by a t

two thyristors connected back-toback. By varying the firing angle of

Electronic "soft starter" current/speed and torque/speed characteristics

each set of thyristors, it is possible to control the starting voltage and, hence, the starting current. Note that, unlike inverter drives, soft starters do not vary the frequency of the supply to the motor.

The detailed design of soft starters varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, but a representative unit Is the Telemecanique Altistart 46. This is fitted

a phase squirrel-cage motor. It provides:

Electronic "soft starter"

The peak starting current may be adjusted between 2 and 5 times nominal full-load current, corresponding to a range of starting torques from 0.1 to 0.7 times the starting torque which would be produced if the motor were started with a DOL starter.

This type of starter may be used with any asynchronous motor. The Telemecanique Altistart may be bypassed by a contactor at the end of the acceleration ramp, the contactor being controlled by a

this purpose. This will avoid

during normal however, the W/415Vand above remain operational, thus protecting both the andthell1e~or. For sTallerjtJni~Sj asepara~e overloadjs required .•. Other. f§<ltur.e~Whic?~2<ln

lOsses whi'qlj the starterqyp

be provided by sOflstarters includetcontrolled deceleration, and braking to a complete stop.

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Rotor resistance starters

Starters of this type can only be used with motors having a wound rotor to which external connections can be made, usually via slip rings. This type of motor cannot be started direct on line because the peak starting current at the instant that the supply is connected would be far too high. Instead, the motor

is started with a resistance bank connected windings (NOJthe res i st~:h cei::$tart~~s)"

.;:;c- - ···'U,ti_,,., ~, .. ;,

The starter is designed so that, at start-up,

maximum resistance in the rotor.circuit, sections of the resistance bank are then progressively until, during no'r'ma'frunni resistance remains and the rotor windings are simply star-connected.

Rotor resistance starter

Rotor resistance starting current/speed characteristics

Rotor resistance starting torque/speed characteristics

For this type of motor, the torque is with rotor resistance starters are,

virtually proportional to motor therefore, ideal for high-inertia

current. A starting torque of twice loads which need to be started on-

hotmalfuU-16ad current, therefore, load, but where the peak current

pr9$lycesa starting torque which is taken from the supply must be

twice the nominal operating torque. limited. Further, the values of the

OL··resistances and the number of ptagescan be calculated so as to 'match the motor characteristics to those of the

nominal torque during starting. Slip-ring motors

Selecting a starter

When choosing a starter for a particular application, the following procedure should be used:

• The power for the machine installation will normally be supplied by the Regional Electricity Company, and t6 comply r!3g~Jati.9ns

Electricity :nn,l"\<mv

motor rating. If the motor is below the DOL starting limit, determine the peak starting current which

it would draw if started direct-on-line.

• Check that this peak starting current is within the capacity of the supply.

• The installation will normally be fed from a stepdown power transformer. Check that the peak starting current will not initiate a circuit breaker trip on the highvoltage (primary) side of the transformer.

Check that the supply line will not introduce unacceptable voltage drops when the peak current is taken. If this is a problem, the installing

• If t ve con

satisfied, DOL starting will provide an economical solution, provided that the mechanical load can handle the peak starting torque produced.

If any of the conditions are not satisfied, use the table to choose an alternative method of starting. Be particularly careful to ensure that the starting torque produced by the method of starting chosen is adequate for the application.

Speed regulation of asynchronous motors

While speed regulation, strictly, goes a little beyond motor starting, the two subjects are so closely related that a brief discussion of speed regulation is included here for the sake of completeness.

For many years, the scope for varying the running speed of asynchronous motors was rather restricted. Only motors with pole-changing facilities, and those with separate windings, were popular for applications requiring multi-speed operation, but even these types could only operate at one of a number of fixed speeds.

This situation changed dramatically with the introduGlionofJrequency inverters which allow the rllnningjspeed$ of standard motors to be accurately controllec:f over a wide range. Inverter technology is so successful that AC inverter drives are nov/being adot:>ted for madyapplicatiOhswh~fe,in &8~ p~st,~nly chf;'es, ,with their iriher~ht ~~se of"~pekd

, V\lg'61dh~ve beeriSuit~ble.':1+; . .

becoming obsolete as they are systems. This supplement will,

principally with speed control

tlJ)jJjj

The frequency inverter drive

Inverter drive operation

This type of drive is intended mainly for use with three-phase squirrel cagE) motors. It operates by using a technique called pulse-width modulationtpWM) t9 synthesise a sinusoidal waveform, the frequency of Which· can beliaried, that is used to supply the motor. By varying the frequency of the

full-wave diode bridge, and is used to charge the main reservoir capacitors. This provides the system with a high-voltage DC source which is then switched by the output power bridge to produce a pulse train made up

of precisely controlled long and short pulses. The train of pulses

produces a sinusoidal current in the motor, the voltage and frequency

of which can be accurately controlled. By retaining the correct voltage/frequency ratio in the supply to the motor, its torque can be maintained over a wide speed range.

Main circuit of a frequency inverter

Peak starting torque

Control

"fypical applications

• Machinesstarting on no-load (small centrifugal pumps, fans.ietc.)

High inertia machines with normal starting current/torque characteristics

Inverter drive applications

Frequency inverter drives are very easy to use with standard squirrel cage motors. Their torque capabilities allow their use with all types of load,

.. inclUding those requiring . .veryhightoNl.I a~plic~lior1§where overha~lir1g Iqi:ld~;rF

encountered (hoists, mechanical handling, etc.) drives

are available for four-qUgdri:iht 0E.Z.ration.}hEl~:7c~ri

and re~e£§e (h0isr§~Q(j:lo.wer) ~/ "n,rLtr,';\i oftenih6ru.g~Fa~~a~ir]G (~~ili~X:

Inverter drives almost invariably incorporate electronic protection against thermal overloads and short circuits. This protects both the motor and the drive. Many drives also incorporate communications capabilities which facilitate their integration into automated systems.

Variable-voltage controllers

An alternative to inverter drives, these units offer another method of achieving motor speed control electronically. As they are much less versatile than frequency inverters, however, they are now declining in popularity.

T~e 8rincipl~of.op~ration in thistyp~pfcontrolleris to v~ry.only.tl)6 voltage applied to themQtor. Th§ torque' ptoduced bY'aH asynchronous molbr i~jp'rbPortional to the square of the supply voltage. This type of drive; operates by regU'f3ting~h~iySltage~8c:!~.th;~Fth:e Jor~'L§ . produced just baiancesthe loadtorque at the speed required. The motor supply voltage is usually

controlled by varying the firing angle of a pair of backto-hack thyristors in each- phase of the supply.

The use of variable-voltage controllers is limited by the high losses in the rotor, which occur when asynchronous motors are operated under highslip/low-speed conditions. These drives are most suitable for motors with ratings of 3kW or less.

Starters by design

This supplement has dealt with the general principles of motor starting, and it is intended as an aid to choosing the best starting technique for a particular application. With the starter type decided, the next

Design guidelines for popul~fstarte'rtyp found in the literature availablefrorn .. centro suppliers, but designers are also encouraged to their suppliers. Products and methods are constantly evolving and, perhaps even more important, new standards and regulations are imposing new duties and responsibilities on designers. There is no better way to keep up-to-date than to talk to an expert supplier which has a strong focus in the control gear market.

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Further information

supplement, is has not been possible to do morejhan discus? briefly the most popular methodsro~$tartingahqrhotorspee informaf\on)s, hovyeve.( readily ava,ila Telemecanique, a brand of the Schneider group, offers two invaluable publications which are particularly relevant.

Power control and protection components

This contains technical details and characteristics of motor starting components necessary for the starting methods

described in this supplement.

Practical Aspects of Industrial Control Technology

This comprehensive and up-to-date 290-page hardback publication is available for purchase from Telemecanique. It provides proven design and application information covering

both electric and electronic products for industry, and it has substantial sections dealing with motor starting and control.

These publications are available from:

Telemecanique

University of Warwick Science Park Sir William Lyons Road

Coventry CV4 7EZ

Tel: (01203) 416255

Schneider Limited University of Warwick Science Park Sir William Lyons Road Coventry CV4 7EZ Tel: 01203416255 Fax: 01203690209

Internet address: http://www.schneider.co.uk

GSUK 0244

MAR 98