Indian Accounting Standards

Accounting is the art of recording transactions in the best manner possible, so as to enable the reader to arrive

at judgments/come to conclusions, and in this regard it is utmost necessary that there are set guidelines. These

guidelines are generally called accounting policies. The intricacies of accounting policies permitted Companies to

alter their accounting principles for their benefit. This made it impossible to make comparisons. In order to avoid

the above and to have a harmonised accounting principle, Standards needed to be set by recognised accounting

bodies. This paved the way for Accounting Standards to come into existence.

Accounting Standards in India are issued By the Institute of Chartered Accountanst of India (ICAI). At present

there are 30 Accounting Standards issued by ICAI.

Objective of Accounting Standards

Objective of Accounting Standards is to standarize the diverse accounting policies and practices with a view to

eliminate to the extent possible the non-comparability of financial statements and the reliability to the financial

statements.

The institute of Chatered Accountants of India, recognizing the need to harmonize the diversre accounting

policies and practices, constituted at Accounting Standard Board (ASB) on 21st April, 1977.

Compliance with Accounting Standards issued by ICAI

Sub Section(3A) to section 211 of Companies Act, 1956 requires that every Profit/Loss Account and Balance

Sheet shall comply with the Accounting Standards. 'Accounting Standards' means the standard of accounting

recomended by the ICAI and prescribed by the Central Government in consultation with the National Advisory

Committee on Accounting Standards(NACAs) constituted under section 210(1) of companies Act, 1956.

Accounting Standards Issued by the Institute of Chatered Accountants of India are as below:

 Disclosure of accounting policies:

 Valuation Of Inventories:

 Cash Flow Statements

 Contingencies and events Occurring after the Balance sheet Date

 Net Profit or loss For the period, Prior period items and Changes in accounting Policies.
  Depreciation accounting.

 Construction Contracts.

 Revenue Recognition.

 Accounting For Fixed Assets.

 The Effect of Changes In Foreign Exchange Rates.

 Accounting For Government Grants.

 Accounting For Investments.

 Accounting For Amalgamation.

 Employee Benefits.

 Borrowing Cost.

 Segment Reporting.

 Related Party Disclosures.

 Accounting For Leases.

 Earning Per Share.

 Consolidated Financial Statement.

 Accounting For Taxes on Income.

 Accounting for Investment in associates in Consolidated Financial Statement.

 Discontinuing Operation.

 Interim Financial Reporting.

 Intangible assets.

 Financial Reporting on Interest in joint Ventures.

 Impairment Of assets.

 Provisions, Contingent, liabilities and Contingent assets.

 Financial instrument.

 Financial Instrument: presentation.

 Financial Instruments, Disclosures and Limited revision to accounting standards.

Disclosure of Accounting Policies: Accounting Policies refer to specific accounting principles and the method

of applying those principles adopted by the enterprises in preparation and presentation of the financial

statements.

Valuation of Inventories: The objective of this standard is to formulate the method of computation of cost of

inventories / stock, determine the value of closing stock / inventory at which the inventory is to be shown in

balance sheet till it is not sold and recognized as revenue.

statement exhibits the flow of incoming and outgoing cash. This statement assesses the ability of the enterprise

to generate cash and to utilize the cash. This statement is one of the tools for assessing the liquidity and

solvency of the enterprise.

Contigencies and Events occuring after the balance sheet date: In preparing financial statement of a

particular enterprise, accounting is done by following accrual basis of accounting and prudent accounting policies

to calculate the profit or loss for the year and to recognize assets and liabilities in balance sheet. While following

the prudent accounting policies, the provision is made for all known liabilities and losses even for those

liabilities / events, which are probable. Professional judgement is required to classify the likehood of the future

events occuring and, therefore, the question of contingencies and their accounting arises.

Objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting of contigencies and the events, which take place after

the balance sheet date but before approval of balance sheet by Board of Directors. The Accounting Standard

deals with Contingencies and Events occuring after the balance sheet date.

Net Profit or Loss for the Period, Prior Period Items and change in Accounting Policies : The objective of

this accounting standard is to prescribe the criteria for certain items in the profit and loss account so that

comparability of the financial statement can be enhanced. Profit and loss account being a period statement

covers the items of the income and expenditure of the particular period. This accounting standard also deals with

change in accounting policy, accounting estimates and extraordinary items.

Depreciation Accounting : It is a measure of wearing out, consumption or other loss of value of a depreciable

asset arising from use, passage of time. Depreciation is nothing but distribution of total cost of asset over its

useful life.

Construction Contracts : Accounting for long term construction contracts involves question as to when revenue

should be recognized and how to measure the revenue in the books of contractor. As the period of construction

contract is long, work of construction starts in one year and is completed in another year or after 4-5 years or so.

Therefore question arises how the profit or loss of construction contract by contractor should be determined.

There may be following two ways to determine profit or loss: On year-to-year basis based on percentage of

completion or On cpmpletion of the contract.

Revenue Recognition : The standard explains as to when the revenue should be recognized in profit and loss

account and also states the circumstances in which revenue recognition can be postponed. Revenue means

gross inflow of cash, receivable or other consideration arising in the course of ordinary activities of an enterprise

such as:- The sale of goods, Rendering of Services, and Use of enterprises resources by other yeilding interest,
dividend and royalties. In other words, revenue is a charge made to customers / clients for goods supplied and

services rendered.

Accounting for Fixed Assets : It is an asset, which is:- Held with intention of being used for the purpose of

producing or providing goods and services. Not held for sale in the normal course of business. Expected to be

used for more than one accounting period.

The Effects of changes in Foreign Exchange Rates : Effect of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rate shall be

applicable in Respect of Accounting Period commencing on or after 01-04-2004 and is mandatory in nature. This

accounting Standard applicable to accounting for transaction in Foreign currencies in translating in the Financial

Statement Of foreign operation Integral as well as non- integral and also accounting for For forward

exchange.Effect of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rate, an enterprises should disclose following aspects:

 Amount Exchange Difference included in Net profit or Loss;

 Amount accumulated in foreign exchange translation reserve;

 Reconciliation of opening and closing balance of Foreign Exchange translation reserve;

Accounting for Government Grants : Governement Grants are assistance by the Govt. in the form of cash or

kind to an enterprise in return for past or future compliance with certain conditions. Government assistance,

which cannot be valued reasonably, is excluded from Govt. grants,. Those transactions with Governement, which

cannot be distinguished from the normal trading transactions of the enterprise, are not considered as

Government grants.

Accounting for Investments : It is the assets held for earning income by way of dividend, interest and rentals,

for capital appreciation or for other benefits.

Accounting for Amalgamation : This accounting standard deals with accounting to be made in books of

Transferee company in case of amalgamtion. This accounting standard is not applicable to cases of acquisition

of shares when one company acquires / purcahses the share of another company and the acquired company is

not dissolved and its seperate entity continues to exist. The standard is applicable when acquired company is

dissolved and seperate entity ceased exist and purchasing company continues with the business of acquired

company

Employee Benefits : Accounting Standard has been revised by ICAI and is applicable in respect of accounting

periods commencing on or after 1st April 2006. the scope of the accounting standard has been enlarged, to

include accounting for short-term employee benefits and termination benefits.

Borrowing Costs : Enterprises are borrowing the funds to acquire, build and install the fixed assets and other
assets, these assets take time to make them useable or saleable, therefore the enterprises incur the interest

(cost on borrowing) to acquire and build these assets. The objective of the Accounting Standard is to prescribe

the treatment of borrowing cost (interest + other cost) in accounting, whether the cost of borrowing should be

included in the cost of assets or not.

Segment Reporting : An enterprise needs in multiple products/services and operates in different geographical

areas. Multiple products / services and their operations in different geographical areas are exposed to different

risks and returns. Information about multiple products / services and their operation in different geographical

areas are called segment information. Such information is used to assess the risk and return of multiple

products/services and their operation in different geographical areas. Disclosure of such information is called

segment reporting.

Related Paty Disclosure : Sometimes business transactions between related parties lose the feature and

character of the arms length transactions. Related party relationship affects the volume and decision of business

of one enterprise for the benefit of the other enterprise. Hence disclosure of related party transaction is essential

for proper understanding of financial performance and financial position of enterprise.

Accounting for leases : Lease is an arrangement by which the lesser gives the right to use an asset for given

period of time to the lessee on rent. It involves two parties, a lessor and a lessee and an asset which is to be

leased. The lessor who owns the asset agrees to allow the lessee to use it for a specified period of time in return

of periodic rent payments.

Earning Per Share :Earning per share (EPS)is a financial ratio that gives the information regarding earning

available to each equiy share. It is very important financial ratio for assessing the state of market price of share.

This accounting standard gives computational methodology for the determination and presentation of earning per

share, which will improve the comparison of EPS. The statement is applicable to the enterprise whose equity

shares or potential equity shares are listed in stock exchange.

Consolidated Financial Statements : The objective of this statement is to present financial statements of a

parent and its subsidiary (ies) as a single economic entity. In other words the holding company and its subsidiary

(ies) are treated as one entity for the preparation of these consolidated financial statements. Consolidated

profit/loss account and consolidated balance sheet are prepared for disclosing the total profit/loss of the group

and total assets and liabilities of the group. As per this accounting standard, the conslidated balance sheet if

prepared should be prepared in the manner prescribed by this statement.

Accounting for Taxes on Income : This accounting standard prescribes the accounting treatment for taxes on

income. Traditionally, amount of tax payable is determined on the profit/loss computed as per income tax laws.

According to this accounting standard, tax on income is determined on the principle of accrual concept.
According to this concept, tax should be accounted in the period in which corresponding revenue and expenses

are accounted. In simple words tax shall be accounted on accrual basis; not on liability to pay basis.

Accounting for Investments in Associates in consolidated financial statements : The accounting standard

was formulated with the objective to set out the principles and procedures for recognizing the investment in

associates in the cosolidated financial statements of the investor, so that the effect of investment in associates

on the financial position of the group is indicated.

Discontinuing Operations : The objective of this standard is to establish principles for reporting information

about discontinuing operations. This standard covers "discontinuing operations" rather than "discontinued

operation". The focus of the disclosure of the Information is about the operations which the enterprise plans to

discontinue rather than dsclosing on the operations which are already discontinued. However, the disclosure

about discontinued operation is also covered by this standard.

Interim Financial Reporting (IFR) : Interim financial reporting is the reporting for periods of less than a year

generally for a period of 3 months. As per clause 41 of listing agreement the companies are required to publish

the financial results on a quarterly basis.

Intangible Assets : An Intangible Asset is an Identifiable non-monetary Asset without physical substance held

for use in the production or supplying of goods or services for rentals to others or for administrative purpose

Financial Reporting of Interest in joint ventures : Joint Venture is defined as a contractual arrangement

whereby two or more parties carry on an economic activity under 'joint control'. Control is the power to govern

the financial and operating policies of an economic activity so as to obtain benefit from it. 'Joint control' is the

contractually agreed sharing of control over economic activity.

Impairment of Assets : The dictionary meanong of 'impairment of asset' is weakening in value of asset. In other

words when the value of asset decreases, it may be called impairment of an asset. As per AS-28 asset is said to

be impaired when carrying amount of asset is more than its recoverable amount.

Provisions, Contingent Liabilities And Contingent Assets : Objective of this standard is to prescribe the

accounting for Provisions, Contingent Liabilitites, Contingent Assets, Provision for restructuring cost.

Provision: It is a liability, which can be measured only by using a substantial degree of estimation.

Liability: A liability is present obligation of the enterprise arising from past events the settlement of which is

expected to result in an outflow from the enterprise of resources embodying economic benefits.

Financial Instrument: Recognition and Measurement, issued by The Council of the Institute of Chartered

Accountants of India, comes into effect in respect of Accounting periods commencing on or after 1-4-2009 and

will be recommendatory in nature for An initial period of two years. This Accounting Standard will become
mandatory in respect of Accounting periods commencing on or after 1-4-2011 for all commercial, industrial and

business Entities except to a Small and Medium-sized Entity. The objective of this Standard is to establish

principles for recognizing and measuring Financial assets, financial liabilities and some contracts to buy or sell

non-financial items. Requirements for presenting information about financial instruments are in Accounting

Standard.

Financial Instrument: presentation : The objective of this Standard is to establish principles for presenting

financial instruments as liabilities or equity and for offsetting financial assets and financial liabilities. It applies to

the classification of financial instruments, from the perspective of the issuer, into financial assets, financial

liabilities and equity instruments; the classification of related interest, dividends, losses and gains; and the

circumstances in which financial assets and financial liabilities should be offset. The principles in this Standard

complement the principles for recognising and measuring financial assets and financial liabilities in Accounting

Standard Financial Instruments:

Financial Instruments, Disclosures and Limited revision to accounting standards: The objective of this

Standard is to require entities to provide disclosures in their financial statements that enable users to evaluate:

 the significance of financial instruments for the entity’s financial position and performance; and

 the nature and extent of risks arising from financial instruments to which the entity is exposed during the

period and at the reporting date, and how the entity manages those risks.