Brainy mind 1

how can chemistry and physiology give adequate explanations of

Brainy mind behaviour and of how the brain works? Yet why should
consciousness have evolved if it is useless?
Richard Gregory
The key notion of cognitive psychology since the collapse of
behaviourism is that we build brain descriptions of the world of
Brit. Med. Journal 1998 317:1693—5
objects, which give perception and intelligent behaviour.
Perceptions are not regarded as internal pictures or sounds, but
Department of Experimental Psychology, rather as language-like descriptions coded, we suppose, by brain
University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TN structures of what may be out there. We carry in our heads
Richard Gregory, emeritus professor predictive hypotheses of the external world of objects and of
ourselves.[REF 1,2] These brain-based hypotheses of perception
are our most immediate reality. But they entail many stages of
physiological signalling and complicated cognitive computing, so
experience is but indirectly related to external reality
Summary points From patterns of stimulation at the eyes and ears and the other
organs of senses, including touch, we project sensations of
Sensations of consciousness—qualia—are created by the brain consciousness into the external world. Although this is a startling
Qualia are psychologically projected into the external world of thought, the experience of projecting afferent reality from the eyes
objects is familiar in visual after-images. Try looking at a bright light,
then at a surface such as wall. You see the pattern that is
Perceptions are predictive hypotheses, based on knowledge photographed on the retina from the flash as outside the eye, as
stored from the past being on the wall. The more distant the surface the larger it
As perceptions maybe 90% memory, how is the present appears, though of course the retinal photograph is unchanged.
moment distinguished from memory and anticipation? This startling notion that perception is projecting brain-hypotheses
outwards into the physical world—endowing the world with
Qualia may be evoked by afferent sensory stimuli to avoid colour and sound and meaning—has surprising implications.
confusion with the past and future by flagging the present
moment

We have all been struck by the spooky question: Is your

sensation of green like my green? For how can we compare
sensations—or qualia, as philosophers call them—of colours,
tastes, or sounds? Our green qualia may be different (and in cases
such as colour anomalies must be different), though we all call
grass green and assume we all see the same.

Where do sensations come from?

The primary question is whether the brain receives or makes
sensations. When we look at grass: is the sensation of green
picked up by the eyes, from light reflected from the grass, or is the
sensation, the qualia of green, created in our brains? It is now as
certain as anything—as Isaac Newton appreciated three centuries
ago—that light itself has no colour. Light evokes colour in
suitable eyes and brains, which is very different. And violins have
no sounds without ears and brains to create sound qualia. Recently
the brain scientist Semir Zeki located colour creating cells in the
brain (in the visual area of the striate cortex V4).
One can imagine a bunch of interacting robots getting on fine
without any awareness of qualia; but surely they wouldn’t spend
hours looking at pictures, or listening to Beethoven. This is just
how behaviourist psychologists a few years ago described us—as
lacking consciousness, or qualia of red or pain or the sound of
violins. Why an audience without music qualia would sit through
a symphony was hardly questioned. Now, psychology has
abandoned the behaviourism of J B Watson and B F Skinner, who
tried to make psychology seem more scientific and less whimsical
by denying consciousness. The situation is reversed so that
physicists, especially Roger Penrose, are asking how the physical
world can have consciousness. And the brain Is very generally
seen as a physical system obeying physical laws. Consciousness is Fig 1 Hollow mask. The hollow inside of the mask seems to be a
a hot scientific topic. Philosophers such as Daniel Dennett and normal face with a nose sticking out. For the positions and shapes
Paul and Patricia Churchland, as well Francis Crick, discuss from of the eyes and mouth and so on, call up the brain’s hypothesis of a
the basis of detailed knowledge of neurophysiology and brain face, which past knowledge says is sticking out. This is how the
anatomy how the mind can be brainy. hollow mask appears, though we know that the perception is false.
This shows the modularity of brain and mind. Perceptual and
It remains mysterious how physical stimuli affecting the conceptual hypotheses may disagree when brain communication is
physical brain give us, and presumably at least the higher animals, lacking. [REF 3]
the consciousness of qualia. If qualia affect the nervous system,
 Brainy mind 2

Some truths from illusions

Paradoxically, such truths of perception are revealed most
dearly through illusions. Quite simple figures or objects can be
ambiguous, spontaneously changing into other orientations or
other objects, although there are no changes of the images in the
eyes. This is evidence of changes of the brain’s hypotheses of
what is out there. Just as for clinical or scientific hypotheses, there
may be many interpretations of the available evidence, and
background knowledge is important, though it is not always
appropriate. An example of the misleading power of inappropriate
knowledge is a hollow mask (fig 1).
Changes of brain hypotheses change the meaning of
perceptions and maybe even sensations. This was realised in the
nineteenth century by the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach.[REF 1].
Figure 2 shows an ambiguous corner which flips in and out in
depth. When the flipping corner is in, the grey region may look
considerably lighter than when it sticks out. It looks lighter when
seen as a shadow than as a mark on the surface, for shadows are
normally minimised, as they are not objects for behaviour. (This
little experiment works well with a shadow on a folded menu at a
boring dinner!)
Listen to a tape recording of an audience clapping. In the
kitchen it sounds like bacon frying. In the garden on a dull day it
sounds like rain, it is interesting to repeat words or musical
phrases on a tape loop: after several repetitions they seem to
change into other words or phrases. Though seeing and hearing
and touch seem simple and direct, they are not. ihey are fallible
inferences based on knowledge and assumptions which may not
be appropriate to the situation.
It might be useful to suggest a plan of the cognitive visual Fig 2 Mach’s corner. When the corner flips in depth, the grey region
system. It is useful to distinguish between top-down knowledge may change quite dramatically In brightness. When the corner is in,
from the past; bottom-up sensory signals from the present; and it seems lighter than when out. So seemingly simple qualia of
general rules, such as for perspective, which we may say are consciousness are affected by meanings of perception.
introduced sideways (fig 3).
Such a major contribution of stored knowledge to perception
is consistent with the recently discovered richness of downgoing
pathways in brain anatomy. Some 80% of fibres to the lateral
geniculate nucleus relay station come downwards from the cortex,
and only about 20% from the retinas. [REF 5] Although the plan
of visual processing of figure 3 is not an anatomical diagram, it is
consistent with brain anatomy as currently appreciated.

Qualia flag the present

We might hazard a guess as to what qualia do. As perception
depends on rich knowledge from the past stored in the brain, there
must be a problem in identifying the present moment from past
memories, and also from anticipations running into the future. The
present is signalled by real time stimuli from the senses; but as
perceptions are 90% or more stored knowledge, the present
moment needs to be identified for behaviour to be appropriate to
what is happening out there now. When crossing a road, one needs
to know that the traffic light seen as red is red now, and not a past
remembered red light. This importance of the present is seldom
recognised as important by psychologists, though it is discussed
by Humphrey. [REF 6]
Fig 3 Black box of visual processing. Bottom-up signals from the
Try this simple experiment Look intensely at some eyes are read or Interpreted with top-down knowledge of objects
distinctively coloured object, such as a red tie. Then close the eyes and with general sideways rules to generate perceptions of the
external world. Errors of behaviour with objects feed back to
and imagine the tie. The vivid qualia are suddenly far dimmer in
improve perception and motor control through learning.
imagination. To reverse the experiment, imagine the object, then
open the eyes and look at it. The qualia of the visual are now
startlingly vivid by comparison with the memory. So perhaps what
qualia do is flag the present so that we do not get confused with
remembered past or anticipated future.
 Brainy mind 3

physiological functions are related to cognitive processing and to

Exceptional cases consciousness, but much remains mysterious.
At least one exceptional person free of drugs or schizophrenia This idea of flagging the present has implications for
has been described as confusing memories with present reality. consciousness in other animals. As perception evolved to become
This is the remarkable case of S described by the Russian more intelligent through evolution, it drew away from direct
neuropsychologist Alexander Luria. [REF 7] At times in his control by stimuli as it depended increasingly on hypotheses of
strange life S was a professional memory man. His vast memory what might be out there. So identifying what is out there now must
and extremely vivid imagination became confused with realtime have become an increasing problem with development of
reality to the point of danger. It may be suggestive that he cognitive brain function.
experienced unusually rich synaesthesia. [REF 7] Confusions of
memory with present reality could be dangerous for him, as he Intelligence cannot be tied to the sensed present. So here there
would confuse imagined with real traffic lights, and as he said: is a balancing act. What is needed for imagination and intelligence
“I’d look at a clock and for a long while continue to see the hands is what pushes the mind to distance present reality. It is a
fixed just as they were, and not realise lime had passed ... that’s speculation that qualia normally flag the present. But, as the
why I’m often late" [REF 7] tortoise said, “I can’t take a step forward without sticking my neck
out.”
There are some commonly experienced failures of separating
the present from memory. An after-image from a bright flash
gives qualia lasting even minutes after the flash. But afferent
signals continue after this stimulus (gradual breakdown of
photopigment molecules) so, as for normal perception, there is a
present afferent input but giving qualia from past stimuli.
Vivid qualia unrelated to present sensory signals seem to be
experienced in dreams. In sleep the present moment has no special
significance, for behaviour is not related to external events. When
sensory inputs are cut off, or ignored, the system may become
abnormal. This occurs in isolation situations when sensory 1 Gregory RL. Perceptions as hypotheses. Philosophical
stimulation is absent over many hours. And in hallucinogenic drug Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1980:290 (series B):
induced states and in schizophrenia vivid qualia are experienced 181-97.
with no sensory input; but similar brain activity seems to be
2 Gregory RL. Mind in science. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson,
present.[REF 8-10] 1981.
It is reported that in drug induced states time may seem to 3 Gregory RL Knowledge in perception and illusion. Philosophical
stop. In The Doors of Perception Aldous Huxley describes Transactions of the Royal Society of London B l997; 352:1 121-8.
changes of consciousness experienced with mescaline.” He ceases
to be interested in action, becoming a passive observer (“the will 4 Mach E. Analysis of sensation (translated by S Waterluw). New
York: Dover, 1959.
suffers a profound change for the worse”), though his ability to
think straight is little if at all reduced. So he becomes almost “a 5 Sillito A. Chemical soup: where and how drugs may influence
Not-self” Most suggestive, “Visual impressions are greatly visual perception. In: The artful eye. Oxford: Oxford University
intensified:’ while “interest in space is diminished and interest in Press. 1995: 291-306.
time falls almost to zero:’ Huxley emphasises that colours are 6 Humphrey N. A history of the mind. New York: Simon and
immeasurably enhanced in vividness, ordinary objects appearing Schuster. 1992.
self luminous, with the inner fire of jewels, while time essentially
stops, becoming “an indefinite duration or alternatively a 7 Luria A. The mind of a mnemonist: a little book about a vast
memory. New York: Cape, 1969.
perpetual present." With mescaline and other hallucinogenic drugs
sensations become enhanced—super qualia—and the present is 8 Kosslyn SM, Thompson WI.. Kim IJ, Alpert NM. Topographical
emphasised with corresponding little flow of time. representations of mental images in primary visual cortex. Nature
1995: 378:496-8.
Although memories usually lack visual or other qualia,
sensations are surprisingly vivid in remembered emotions, as 9 Silbersweig DA, Stern E. Filth C. Cahill C. Holmes A. Grootonk S.
et al. A functional neuroanatomy of hallucinations in schizophrenia.
when an embarrassing situation is recalled years later. William Nature 1995: 378:176-9.
James, with the Danish physician Carl Lange, suggested that
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12] The James-Lange theory of the emotions is that the body 1994.
responds—for example, to danger—by preparing for action and 11 Huxley A. The complete works of Aldous Huxley London: Chatto
these autonomic physiological changes are sensed as emotions, of and Windus, 1968.
fear or rage or whatever. For shame there is a marked autonomic
12 James W Principles of psychology. London: Macmillan. 1890.
change with visible blushing. Darwin suggested that blushing is a
social signal, warning others that this person is not to be trusted.” 13 Darwin CR Expression of the emotions in man and animals.
It is possible to blush at the memory, or thought, of the shame- London: John Murray 1872.
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This notion that qualia normally flag the present does not
begin to explain how qualia are produced by brain processes;
Reprinted from the BMJ, 19-26 December 1998, Vol 317, p 1693-
though much has been discovered recently; especially for
1695
vision.[REF 14, 15]. Which brain regions are affected should
change with changes of cognitive processing, to be charted
dynamically with local changes of blood flow recorded by
functional magnetic resonance imaging. These new techniques of
brain research are promising deeper understanding of how