TQM Tools

Here follows a brief description of the basic set of Total Quality Management tools. They
are:

 Pareto Principle
 Scatter Plots
 Control Charts
 Flow Charts
 Cause and Effect , Fishbone, Ishikawa Diagram
 Histogram or Bar Graph
 Check Lists
 Check Sheets

Pareto Principle

The Pareto principle suggests that most effects come from relatively few causes. In
quantitative terms: 80% of the problems come from 20% of the causes (machines, raw
materials, operators etc.); 80% of the wealth is owned by 20% of the people etc. Therefore
effort aimed at the right 20% can solve 80% of the problems. Double (back to back)
Pareto charts can be used to compare 'before and after' situations. General use, to decide
where to apply initial effort for maximum effect.

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Scatter Plots
A scatter plot is effectively a line graph with no line - i.e. the point intersections between
the two data sets are plotted but no attempt is made to physically draw a line. The Y axis is
conventionally used for the characteristic whose behaviour we would like to predict. Use,
to define the area of relationship between two variables.

Warning: There may appear to be a relationship on the plot when in reality there is none,
or both variables actually relate independently to a third variable.

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Control Charts
Control charts are a method of Statistical Process Control, SPC. (Control system for
production processes). They enable the control of distribution of variation rather than
attempting to control each individual variation. Upper and lower control and tolerance
limits are calculated for a process and sampled measures are regularly plotted about a
central line between the two sets of limits. The plotted line corresponds to the
stability/trend of the process. Action can be taken based on trend rather than on individual
variation. This prevents over-correction/compensation for random variation, which would
lead to many rejects.

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Flow Charts
Pictures, symbols or text coupled with lines, arrows on lines show direction of flow.
Enables modelling of processes; problems/opportunities and decision points etc. Develops
a common understanding of a process by those involved. No particular standardisation of
symbology, so communication to a different audience may require considerable time and
explanation.

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Cause and Effect , Fishbone, Ishikawa Diagram

The cause-and-effect diagram is a method for analysing process dispersion. The diagram's
purpose is to relate causes and effects. Three basic types: Dispersion analysis, Process
classification and cause enumeration. Effect = problem to be resolved, opportunity to be
grasped, result to be achieved. Excellent for capturing team brainstorming output and for
filling in from the 'wide picture'. Helps organise and relate factors, providing a sequential
view. Deals with time direction but not quantity. Can become very complex. Can be
difficult to identify or demonstrate interrelationships.
Return to TQM Tools index

Histogram or Bar Graph

A Histogram is a graphic summary of variation in a set of data. It enables us to see

patterns that are difficult to see in a simple table of numbers. Can be analysed to draw
conclusions about the data set.

A histogram is a graph in which the continuous variable is clustered into categories and
the value of each cluster is plotted to give a series of bars as above. The above example
reveals the skewed distribution of a set of product measurements that remain nevertheless
within specified limits. Without using some form of graphic this kind of problem can be
difficult to analyse, recognise or identify.

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Check Sheets
A Check Sheet is a data recording form that has been designed to readily interpret results
from the form itself. It needs to be designed for the specific data it is to gather. Used for
the collection of quantitative or qualitative repetitive data. Adaptable to different data
gathering situations. Minimal interpretation of results required. Easy and quick to use. No
control for various forms of bias - exclusion, interaction, perception, operational, non-
response, estimation.

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Check Lists
A Checklist contains items that are important or relevant to a specific issue or situation.
Checklists are used under operational conditions to ensure that all important steps or
actions have been taken. Their primary purpose is for guiding operations, not for
collecting data. Generally used to check that all aspects of a situation have been taken into
account before action or decision making. Simple, effective.
TOOLS OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Sujata Mitra
Implementing TQM in the hospital
posed certain challenges. It meant convincing
people that Quality was not extra work, it was
an integral part of work and the way to work.
People had to be motivated to achieve ‘gobeyond-
service’ Quality. The approach was to
encourage people to be creative and find
solutions to their own problems.
Which brings us to the next stumbling
block. Would all the individual efforts combine
to give a significant thrust to the Quality
movement or would they remain isolated
islands of improvement? There was need to
align and prioritise the individual goals with
the organisational goals, conversely, the
organisational goals had to cascade down to
individual goals. Specialised training in IVF
technique could be an individual need, but if
the organisational goal was to reduce average
hospital stay, laparoscopic training would be
given priority.
Prioritisation and alignment was done
through the Balanced Scorecard concept.
1. BALACED SCORECARD
This is a set of measurements and
targets that are used to prioritise and quantify
goals (Ref.Chow,et.al,1998). A hospital may
have identified cost competitiveness as its goal.
How is this communicated to all the working
units? In the scorecard, an overall target for
cost saving is set which is then broken into
specific targets for different areas like power
consumption, rightsizing, revenue generation
etc. Each department sets its own target in
these specific areas and plans to achieve it
through improvement projects, value
engineering etc. Ultimately, two and two may
not just be four, but even five due to this
synergistic working.
The scorecard is like a progress report.
It is a ready reckoner for planning as well as
assessing progress vis.a.vis the targets (Ref.
Fig. 2, ‘An introduction to TBEM model’).
II. QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
PROJECT
A quality improvement project is taken
up preferably by a cross-functional team to
tackle chronic, recurrent problems which
impact upon customer satisfaction (Ref. Total
Quality Handbook, Tata Steel). Most of these
problems are either not obvious or have been
swept under the carpet. The job of the team
lies in correctly identifying the problem,
analysing it and coming up with a solution that is
acceptable to all. If it is a problem that cuts
across different work areas, a cross functional
team ensures that benefits are shared by all.
A number of patient complaints related
to long waiting time in the out-patient
department. One of the hospital goals
therefore, was to reduce average waiting time in
OPD to less than 30 minutes. The Cardiology
department took up the challenge and included
this as their departmental goal. A QIP team
was formed. After data collection and
brainstorming for all possible causes, the main
reason identified for the increased waiting time
was too many patients arriving at the same
time. The analogy of congestive cardiac failure
was drawn- increase in preload (number of
patients) leading to pump failure (doctors
unable to cope with the sudden rush). The
solution was again drawn from the analogyreduce
the preload! An appointment system
was put in place, with segregated time slots
for different patient categories. The solution
appealed to both, doctors and patients, and the
pump efficiency increased to 90% patients seen
within 30 minutes! (Ref.Bharat et.al, 1999). This
solution has been emulated by other clinical
departments too so that today the average
waiting time in OPDs is less than 15 minutes
and more than 95% patients are dealt with in
less than half hour of their arrival.
III. VALUE ENGINEERING PROJECT
Cost effectiveness is the need of the hour
for any organisation. A value engineering
project helps to achieve this
6
strategic goal. It aims at ‘Value added service’.
It implies reducing wastage, not spending.
Teams use creativity and innovation to come
up with alternatives that may be cheaper,
eliminate wastage or add value to existing
services (Ref. Jaganathan, 1998).
A classic example is the value
engineering done in the Nursery to reduce
wastage of nappies. Irrespective of baby size
or need, bulky, full size nappies were provided to
all babies, which, besides wastage, were quite
uncomfortable for the little customers. Nurses
and doctors brainstormed to find out what the
ideal nappy size should be. The existing nappies
were reduced to a quarter, wastage was
eliminated and the babies smiled!
IV. QUALITY CIRCLE
A Quality Circle is a small group of
employees from the same work area who
voluntarily meet regularly to identify, analyse
and resolve work related problems (Ref.
Hutchins, ‘In pursuit of Quality’ 1990) This not
only improves the performance of any
organisation, it also motivates and enriches the
work life of employees. The philosophy behind
Quality Circles is building people.
A Quality Circle tackles small, work
related problems through teamwork.
Statistical tools are used to analyse problems,
members arrive at a solution by consensus and
implement it themselves. This leads to
empowerment at the grass root level.
TMH has 57 active Quality Circles in
diverse work areas like the Hospital laundry
and kitchen, Steward section, Nursing section
etc.
Unlike the QIP and VE teams, a Quality
Circle is permanent.
The quality circle of the hospital kitchen
was worried about the complaints regarding
the quality of food. The chappatis in particular,
were singled out for criticism. The fluffy, soft
chappatis leaving the kitchen became cold and
hard by the time they reached the patients. The
defect lay in the distribution system. A simple,
7
but innovative solution was rearranging the
food on the trolleys. The chappatis were now
wrapped in a cloth and placed directly on top
of the steaming ‘dal’container.
Patient satisfaction on hospital services
is greatly influenced by mundane matters like
food. If professional expertise is not backed
with concern in areas like hospitality, patient
dissatisfaction is bound to linger. With
successful quality circles taking care of such
‘pinpricks’, the hospital administration can rest
easy.
V. INTEGRATION OF
IMPROVEMENT INITIATIVES
How do these improvement initiatives
contribute to improving the overall
performance of the hospital? As described, all
targets cascade from the scorecard. The
integration of improvement projects with the
scorecard is shown in Fig.l
REFERENCES
1. Bharat.V., Mohanty.B., Das.N.K,
‘Waiting time reduction in out patient
services -an analogy to heart failure
therapy.’ Indian Journal of Occupational
and Environmental Medicine; 1999; 3,
181-184
2. Chow.W.Chee, ‘The balanced scorecard: A
potent tool for energizing and focusing
healthcare organisation management’-
Journal of HealthcareManagement 43:3
May/June 1998
3. Hutchins David ‘In pursuit of Quality’
Wheeler Publishing, 1992
4. Jaganathan.G. ‘Getting more at less cost-
The value engineering way.’ Tata McGraw
Hill, New Delhi,1992
5. Total Quality Handbook, Tata Steel

Batanero, C. (Ed.), Training Researchers in the Use of Statistics, 53-63.

2001 International Association for Statistical Education and International Statistical Institute.
Printed in Granada, Spain
CHIHIRO HIROTSU
STATISTICAL TRAINING OF RESEARCHERS IN TOTAL QUALITY
MANAGEMENT: THE JAPANESE EXPERIENCE
A training system for statistical methods in Total Quality Control or Total Quality
Management is discussed and we suggest what and how to teach. It is stated that we
have no department of statistics in the universities in Japan and stressed that applied
statistics is most efficiently taught to those who have their own problems and
motivations to apply these statistical methods. It is then essential for a company to have
their own training systems for the TQM researchers although some extra company
training courses may also be efficiently utilised. As an example we introduce in some
detail the seminars provided by JUSE as well as in-company training systems of Toyota
Motor Corporation and Takenaka Corporation.
1. INTRODUCTION
In this paper we consider a training system for statistical methods in TQC (Total
Quality Control) or TQM (Total Quality Management). Two important aspects of the
system are what and how to teach. The success of quality control in Japan is due to the
company-wide activities, which involve all the staff and departments in a company and
do not just depend on a few experts. It is also due to the natural tendency of the
Japanese to be very diligent, generally clever and willing to devote themselves to the
company.
Each company has a statistics section as a part of the QM promotion section. Ideally
a company should have a TQM promotion team involving several advisors and trainers
who are expert in the area and can teach these statistical methods. However, some
elementary courses may be more efficiently taught in Japan by an external institution
such as JSA (Japanese Standards Association) or JUSE (Japanese Union of Scientists
and Engineers). Such institutions are particularly useful in Japan since there is no
department of statistics in the universities and statistical methods are very poorly taught.
Now I describe five courses to learn the statistical methods that are most useful in
practice:
1. Elementary statistics: Basic idea of variations in data, statistical estimation and
tests, concept of TQM, basic tools such as QC seven tools and control charts;
2. Design of Experiments: One- and two-way layouts, split plot design, hierarchical
design, orthogonal array, analysis of variance (ANOVA), reliability analysis;
3. Multivariate Analysis: Regression analysis, discriminant analysis, principal
component analysis, correspondence analysis, cluster analysis, contingency tables;
4. Advanced: Beyond ANOVA techniques, graphical modelling, GLM, GAM, Multiple
correspondence analysis, Taguchi method;
5. Applications: Problem solving by integrated use of various statistical methods.
54 Training in Total Quality Management
The first three courses might be taught by some external institution, but the last two
should be taught within the company and should be based on the researcher’s own
problems. It is then desirable to have convenient tailor-made software for statistical
analysis and the database of the company’s past achievements. It should be stressed here
that the CWQC (Company-Wide Quality Control) in Japan has been successfully
developed by all the people within a company, by applying statistical methods to his or
her own problem even though the methods used might be very elementary. It should
also be noted that a recent trend is to apply statistical approaches not only to the
manufacturing processes but also to the planning, marketing and management processes
of the company. It is also essential to have the hierarchical education system in a
company for maintaining its statistical activities. One of the most successful examples
in Japan is the Toyota System.
Finally an annual company-wide conference is very useful to give people in the
company an opportunity to present their statistical activities to the top management of
the company and to promote their statistical activities. A presidential award might be
given to the best achievement.
2. GENERAL STATISTICAL BACKGROUND IN JAPAN
We will begin by describing the general background of statistics education in Japan.
One of the most prominent characteristics is that there is no department of statistics at
Japanese universities and that statisticians are scattered around various faculties forming
very small research teams.
There was a very hot discussion on this subject a long time ago, when it was decided
to distribute the statistics offices (called koza in Japan) over the various faculties
requiring the study of statistics within their own field, instead of having a concentrated
statistical department. A koza has been composed of one professor, one associate
professor and two research associates.
To give an example, at the University of Tokyo about 15 professors and associate
professors of statistics are working in the Faculties of Economics, Engineering,
Medicine, Agriculture, Education, Mathematics, and Culture. In my experience as a
Professor of the Department of Mathematical Engineering at the University of Tokyo, I
took charge of a laboratory composed of one associate professor, one research associate
and about ten doctoral and master students including a few from companies. There is
only one statistics laboratory among more than two hundred laboratories in the Faculty
of Engineering at the University of Tokyo. It may be surprising that we have only one
professor and one associate professor among approximately 400 faculty members in the
very big Faculty of Engineering. We have, however, several additional statistics
laboratories in the Faculties of Economics, Medicine, Science, Agriculture, Education
and Culture and we organise an inter-faculty statistics meeting once a week and
collaborate to educate graduate students. In this sense the University of Tokyo is rather
favoured and I am afraid that the case will not be the same for other many universities.
Professional statisticians are usually brought up in the statistics laboratories
scattered in various faculties in the universities as in the example of the University of
Tokyo. The number and the range of lectures are usually not enough and students read
books themselves or in small groups, attend seminars and discuss their notes with their
supervisors. There is no particular external consulting service for researchers in the
universities. Of course we give advice on their request, though this is not often needed
since, at least in the Faculty of Engineering, researchers are usually capable enough to
Chihiro Hirotsu 55
solve their statistical problems by themselves with the aid of some statistical package.
Therefore, we think it is important to have a weekly inter-faculty statistics seminar
for graduate students. We have many opportunities to present our respective problems
and ideas to our colleagues and obtain suggestions from them, and sometimes this
naturally leads to collaborative work. Those opportunities include seminars and
symposiums.
Most undergraduate students, however, take only an elementary statistics course
during their studies except those students who belong to particular departments where
there is statistics staff. They only have a poor concept of variations in data and an
elementary knowledge of statistical tests and estimation. The general backgrounds of
the researchers who perform the Total Quality Management in the company in Japan
will be mechanical, civil and electronical engineering, chemistry, architecture and so on.
Even when I give advice to graduate students from other departments on their requests
this is far from sufficient. It is thus essential to have the statistical training courses
outside universities for researchers in companies who did not receive any proper
statistics courses in universities.
However, this is not a major defect in Japan since applied statistics can be most
efficiently taught when students have their own problems and motivations. In my
experience, for example, it is much more difficult to teach the idea of multiple
comparisons procedure to students in a classroom than to explain those ideas to
researchers in pharmaceutical companies who are dealing with various types of
multiplicity problems in their ordinary research work, such as multiple endpoints,
subgroup analyses and interim analyses.
It is therefore possible for a researcher to learn statistics methods after he or she has
been involved in some department of a company and has realised the problems to be
solved there. We also note that the Deming Prize Application has been useful in Japan
to motivate people in companies to learn statistics (see the special issue: The Deming
Prize edited by Okuno, 1990-1991).
Fig.1 The Four Phases of R & D Activities
Planning and Exploratory Phase
Scientific and Explanatory Phase
Pragmatic and Confirmatory Phase
After-market Research Phase
Feedback
One thing I should stress here is that a researcher in a company should not be an
individual data analyst, but should relate his or her research to preceding and succeeding
works. Any research and development (R&D) activity has four steps of exploration,
explanation, confirmation and after-market research, and thus the information obtained
by the after-market research should give feedback promptly to the first step of planning,
56 Training in Total Quality Management
as it is shown in Figure1.
In each phase the type of data might be different and even with the same data the
approach to the data and the decision based on the data might be different (Hirotsu,
1992). An example of this could be the difference between Phase II and Phase III of
clinical trials in the stream of new drug development, which are sometimes referred to
as explanatory and pragmatic phases. To perform his or her role appropriately, it is
therefore essential for a researcher to be aware of the stage he or she is in the stream of
R & D. This implies the necessity of an in-company training course at least in the final
stage of education of applied statistics, and also suggests a need for a general manager
to supervise the whole process of R & D.
Now under the circumstances of Japan and the characteristics of applied statistics,
the need of some extensive training system for people to perform TQM in companies is
obvious.
3. TQM EDUCATION COURSES HELD OUTSIDE COMPANIES
In Japan we have many TQM education courses outside companies. Typical and
extensive examples are the courses provided by JUSE and JSA (see Ishikawa, 1969 and
Mizuno & Kume, 1978). There have been, however, several changes since these papers
and the current status of JUSE is described in some detail below.
A variety of systems of education courses exist, such as post-oriented, divisionoriented,
theme-oriented, methodology-oriented courses, statistical software courses and
a correspondence course. There are also various levels from elementary to advanced,
which include also rather philosophical seminars to introduce the concept of TQM as
well as more technical statistical seminars. Since it is important to maintain the training
system successfully in a company, top management of the company should be aware of
the relevance of applying statistics fully in the R & D activities. It should also be noted
that there are courses provided not only for the manufacturing processes but also for the
planning, marketing and management processes.
3.1. POST ORIENTED COURSES
1. Top Management Course (intensive, 9 hrs.×4 days): Introducing the managing
director to management and TQM for the promotion of company-wide quality
management activities.
2. Executive Management Course (intensive, 9 hrs.×4 days): Introducing the general
manager to planning and implementing TQM.
3. Senior Management Course (6 hrs.×3 days): Introductory course for senior
managers to the basic principles of TQM and TQC.
4. Middle Management Course (6 hrs.×9 days): Practical course for middle managers
to promote TQM in their respective departments.
5. Chief Basic Course (6 hrs.×6 days): Role of chief staff in the ordinary quality
control activities.
Chihiro Hirotsu 57
3.2. DIVISION ORIENTED COURSES
1. TQM Instructor courses (6 hrs.×6 days): Methods of introduction and promotion of
TQM for TQM instructors with basic knowledge of TQM and TQC.
2. Procurement Department Course (6 hrs.×4 days): Purchasing and logistics service
control for value engineering and cost reduction.
3. Elementary Course for Sales Department (6 hrs.×4 days): Concept of TQM and QA
(Quality Assurance) in sales department.
4. Advanced Course for Sales Department (6 hrs.×8 days): Roles of sales department
for TQM and the current method of QA for customer satisfaction.
5. QC Seminar for Good Manufacturing Practice (6 hrs.×3 days): Necessary
knowledge of GMP (Good Manufacturing Practice) to promote TQM and QA in
manufacturing and selling foods and drugs.
3.3. THEME ORIENTED COURSES
1. Policy and Planning Seminar (6 hrs.×3 days): Method and organisation for
determining the management, quality and quality control policies of the company
and for transmitting them throughout all the company sectors.
2. Introductory Course for TQM (6 hrs.×3 days): Basic concept of TQM, quality and
control; Method of problem solving and approaching a project.
3. Cost Down Seminar (6 hrs.×6 days): Basic concept, promotion and method of cost
down in manufacturing planning and purchase departments.
4. QC Story Seminar for Achieving a Management Project: An approach and knowhow
for innovating the business based on the company top management policy.
5. Introductory Course for Product Liability (6 hrs. ×3 days): Current status of the law
and system for product liability; Experiences and measures to solve the product
liability problems.
6. Advanced Course for Product Safety:
A. Product Safety Technology Course (6 hrs.×2 days): Guidelines of product
liability for engineers in planning, design, research and development, quality
assurance and quality control.
B. Product Safety Co-ordinator Course (6 hrs.×2 days): Roles of the product safety
co-ordinator in product safety; Designing the product safety review system and
the document safety system.
7. R & D Management Seminar: Management of research and development; Method
of new product development, market research and new product planning.
58 Training in Total Quality Management
3.4. METHODOLOGY ORIENTED COURSES (ELEMENTARY)
1. QC Seminar Basic Course (6 hrs.×30 days): Seminar of quality control concepts and
theory and application of statistics for engineers and staff with at least 3 years
business experience; Lectures, practice with personal computer and QC games for
basics statistics methods, statistical test and estimation, design of experiments,
regression analysis, reliability engineering, sensory test, feeling evaluation and so
on.
2. QC Seminar Elementary Course (6 hrs.×8 days): Basic concept of quality control
and elementary statistics methods including QC seven tools, collecting and
summarising data, test and estimation, analysis of variance and correlation and
regression analyses.
3. QC New Seven tools (6 hrs.×3 days): Affinity chart method, relation chart method,
system chart method, arrow diagram method, process decision program chart
(PDPC), matrix chart and matrix data analysis.
4. Seminar for Computer Application for Problem Solving (6 hrs.×2 days): Problem
solving, decision making and information system.
5. Quality Function Deployment (QFD) Seminar
5.1. QFD Practice Course (6 hrs.×2 days): Practice of QFD application, making
two-way tables and problem solving.
5.2. QFD Introductory Course (6 hrs.×4 days): Outline and utility of QFD.
6. Strategy Planning Seminar for Policy Management (6 hrs.×2 days): Framework of
planning strategy, environmental analysis, product analysis, market analysis,
allocating resources, analysis of strategy factors; case studies.
7. Product Planning Seven Tools
7.1. Introductory Course (6 hrs.×4 days): Seven tools for producing hit product;
Group interview, questionnaires, positioning analysis, imaginary method, joint
analysis, product planning based on marketing; case studies.
7.2. Quick Course (6 hrs.×1 days): Outline of seven tools for product planning.
3.5. METHODOLOGY ORIENTED COURSE (ADVANCED)
1. Design of Experiment Seminar (1) (7 hrs.×8 days): Role experimental design, mean
and variance, test and estimation, 1-way layout, 2-way layout, split plot design,
orthogonal array, theory of ANOVA, correlation analysis, simple regression
analysis.
2. Design of Experiment Seminar (2) (7 hrs.×12 days, 4 days per a month): Multi-way
layout, advanced orthogonal array, non orthogonal experiment, sequential
experiment, mixed experiment, random effects model, optimisation of multiple-end
variables, Taguchi method, multiple regression analysis, analysis of proportions.
3. Multivariate Analysis (1) (7.5 hrs.×4 days): Introduction to multivariate analysis,
principal component analysis, variable selection in regression analysis, logistic
Chihiro Hirotsu 59
regression analysis.
4. Multivariate Analysis (2) (7.5 hrs.×4 days): Latent structure analysis of categorical
data, graphical modelling, canonical correlation analysis, covariance structure
analysis integrating regression analysis and factor analysis, data mining.
5. Statistical Methods for Clinical Trials Seminar (1) (6 hrs.×7 days): Introduction to
clinical trials, planning, designing, elementary statistical methods including nonparametric
method and cross-over design.
6. Statistical Method for Clinical Trials Seminar (2) (6 hrs.×24 days, 2 days per
month): Introduction to statistical inference, regression analysis, ANOVA, analysis
of categorical data, analysis of survival data, dose-response analysis, sample size
determination, meta-analysis, statistical guideline for regulation.
7. Data Management in Clinical Trials Seminar (camping system, 6 hrs.×5 days):
Outline of data management in clinical trial.
3.6. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS SOFTWARE SEMINARS BASED ON
JUSE-QCAS OR JUSE-MA
1. QC Practice Seminar (6 hrs.×3 days): Process analysis, problem solving, QC seven
tools, and regression analysis.
2. Design of Experiment Seminar (6 hrs.×3 days): Factorial experiments, orthogonal
array, QC game.
3. Multivariate Analysis Seminar (6 hrs.×3 days): Principal component analysis,
multiple regression analysis, and correspondence analysis.
4. Reliability Analysis Seminar (6 hrs.×2 days): Analysis of reliability data and field
data.
5. Seminar for Questionnaire Planning and Its Analysis by Personal Computer (6
hrs.×2 days): Application of multivariate analysis to the analysis of questionnaires.
3.7. CORRESPONDENCE COURSE (6 MONTHS)
This course is based on two textbooks, one for methods and the other for practice of
quality control.
Similarly the Japanese Standards Association (JSA) provides some standard courses,
in particular, ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 seminars.
4. IN-COMPANY TQM EDUCATION AND TRAINING
Although these external seminars provide a very good opportunity for TQM
education and training the internal education of people in a company is even more
important for practising these methods and techniques in their ordinary activities.
Most companies, if not all, arrange education and training courses in TQM for their
60 Training in Total Quality Management
employees. Ideally for in-company education a company should be equipped with:
1. A hierarchical education system;
2. Tutors with various achievement levels;
3. Taylor-made software for statistical analysis;
4. Database of company’s past projects and case studies;
5. Annual company-wide conference for statistical activities.
In this section we describe two characteristic cases of in-company education system.
4.1. THE CASE OF TAKENAKA CORPORATION
The Takenaka Corporation was the winner of the first Deming Prize in the
construction sector and should be regarded as the leader of the sector. Its education
schedule has been introduced by Jido (1990-91), from which we reproduce his Table 3.2
(Table 1 here).
We can see from Table 1 that the Takenaka Corporation is giving in-company
seminars by in-company instructors and extra professionals for its employees to learn
the TQC (TQM) concepts and statistical methods as well as using extra seminars
provided by JUSE and JSA. It should be noted that a hierarchical system is taken so that
senior instructors who have finished an advanced course can teach the elementary
course. It is essential for the staff and foremen to learn statistical methods based on their
own problems. A more recent example of this approach is seen at the Toyota Motor
Corporation.
4.2 CASE OF TOYOTA MOTOR CORPORATION
According to the highly stable condition of manufacturing processes in Japan a
recent tendency of TQM is changing from statistical approaches to a more philosophical
(or conceptual) approach with slogans such as customer’s satisfaction, market in (rather
than product out), source control and so on. It is, however, obvious that the philosophy
of TQM can only be carried out with the scientific approach. Furthermore the recent
development of statistical methods has enabled us to handle new types of problems and
data coming out of off-line as well as on-line processes. It is therefore very
inappropriate to adhere to the classical SQC (Statistical Quality Control) approach and it
is strongly recommended to go beyond it. Under these circumstances Toyota’s approach
is remarkable in that it is convinced of the necessity of the new scientific SQC method
and it is practising it. We will briefly introduce the system here and refer to Amasaka
and Osaki (1999) as well as to Amasaka et al. (1999) for details.
First, Toyota has developed its own methodology called ‘SQC Technical Methods’
integrating statistical methods such as Seven New Tools and other basic SQC methods,
multivariate analysis and design of experiments with engineering technology, which can
be used efficiently and appropriately at each step of problem solving in the course of
research, development, manufacturing and marketing. This is carried out by assessing a
one shot analysed with a ready made statistical method. They call it mountain climbing
for problem solving by use of ‘SQC Technical Methods’.
To support the efficient utilisation of the ‘SQC Technical Methods’ the integrated
SQC network TTIS (Toyota SQC Technical Intelligence System) has also been
developed. It is composed of TSIS (Toyota SQC Intelligence System), TPOS (Toyota
TQM Promotional SQC Original Soft), TSML (Toyota SQC Manual Library) and TIRS
Chihiro Hirotsu 61
(Toyota Information Retrieval System).
Table 1. QC Education Schedule in Takenaka Corporation (Table 3.2 of Jido, 1990-1991)
HIERARCHY PURPOSE IMPLEMENTATION PROCEDURE
Seminar Follow-up
Directors To acquire knowledge to
evaluate TQC activities as
top management
Director Special
Course (JUSE)
To enhance
knowledge through
attending President
Diagnoses &
Consultations.
General managers To acquire fundamental
knowledge and concept of
TQC, as “upper” middle
management.
Executive Course
(JUSE)
Senior managers
Managers
To acquire principal
knowledge and basic
statistical methods of TQC
as middle management.
Manager Course
(JUSE & JSA)
In-house TQC
Manager Seminar (5
days)
To hold Branch
General Manager’s
QC Diagnoses and
Consultation
To participate in
various QC
Diagnoses and
Consultations.
To present the
outcome of TQC
activities at in-house
gatherings and
conventions.
QC Specialists To acquire the TQC concept,
statistical methods and other
professional knowledge
becoming QC promoter in
his department.
Various outside
seminars (JUSE &
JSA)
Engineers To acquire the TQC concept
and statistical methods.
In-house TQC Basic
Course (B) 15 days
Administrators To acquire the TQC concept
and basic statistical methods.
In-house TQC Basic
Course (A) 10 days
Staff members To acquire the TQC concept
and often-used QC
techniques
In-house TQC
Elementary Course 3
days
To present QC
activities at various
gatherings and
conventions.
Clerical workers To acquire the TQC concept
and knowledge required for
QC circle activities
Seminars and lectures
conducted by in-house
instructors
QC circle gatherings
and conventions.
New recruits To acquire basic TQC
concept
In-house TQC
Orientation Course 1
day
JUSE: Union of Japanese Scientist & Engineers, JSA: Japanese Standards Association
TPOS is the friendly tailor-made software of Toyota and it is composed of TPOSPM
(Multivariate Analysis), TPOS-PS (General SQC Methods), TPOS-PO (design of
experiment), TPOS-PK (sensitivity analysis) and TPOS-PR (reliability analysis).
Multivariate analysis, for example, contains discriminant analysis, multiple regression
analysis (1), (2) and principal component analysis. One can refer to various successful
applications in real business through TSIS and also find past successful examples of
problem solving in Toyota by TIRS. To sum up TTIS is, as stated in Amasaka and Osaki
(1999), the intelligent system for SQC applications consisting of four main systems
synthesised to grow while supplementing one another. TTIS has been very efficiently
used in in-company education and training of SQC in Toyota.
62 Training in Total Quality Management
Toyota also employs the hierarchical system of education and training. It is intended,
in addition to educate beginners, to train the in-company SQC special staff and advisors
who can act as SQC promotion leaders of workshops of 200 departments and also to be
engaged in the SQC seminars as trainers.
Now the Toyota education system is planned and implemented in six ranks:
Beginner (100%), business (100%), intermediate (60%), lower advanced (15%), upper
advanced (5%) SQC classes and SQC special advisor class (2%). The ratios of
participants to the total of twelve thousand employees are given in the parentheses so
that 100% of employees are, for example, expected to attend the beginners and business
classes.
The beginners and business classes are designed to cover the daily works while at
the two middle class courses participants will learn and practice the new SQC methods.
The two highest classes are aimed at training the trainers and leaders of respective
workshops and for extra professional purposes advanced lectures are also given.
Qualifications for SQC special staff and SQC special advisors are determined and the
respective titles are given to successful candidates. According to Amasaka and Osaki
(1999) eight hundred special staff and advisors who have successfully completed the six
steps are now actively engaged in their respective works.
Three courses for the beginner personnel are prepared in more detail: technician,
sales and clerical courses. Typical curricula of the technician course (3 days, 21 hrs.),
which are composed of twelve lectures, are given in Amasaka and Osaki. It should be
noted that in the second lecture they learn how to integrate various statistical methods to
solve real problems using the Toyota Technical Methods. The TPOS is fully utilised
throughout the twelve lectures so that each trainee can take the TPOS back to his or her
own workshop for practical use.
5. TQM SYMPOSIUMS AND CONFERENCES
JUSE and JSA have been promoting many conferences and symposiums on various
topics and at a variety of levels. It is important to attend those meetings to present their
own activities and to learn of achievement by others. An annual Conference on Science
SQC is being held within the Toyota Group inviting top management and external
professionals to attend and it is a very good incentive for employees to present their
achievement to the heads of the company.
Of course the Annual Conference and Symposium of the Japanese Association of
Quality Control are also giving a very good opportunity for researchers of TQM to
present their achievements as well as to learn from others.
6. CONCLUDING REMARKS
As stressed in the text the most important thing for training researchers in the
company is that trainees themselves have their own motivations. Then it is essential to
teach statistical methods based on the real problems they are confronted with. When
they have their own motivations and related data, it is very easy to teach them statistical
ideas. It does not depend on the particular field where they are working. It inevitably
suggests to them not to work alone when analysing their data, but to be aware of the
phase of R & D activities he or she is, and to include manufacturing, marketing and
after market research.
Chihiro Hirotsu 63
I also suggested that statistics training is most efficiently done by in-company
trainers with some appropriate software and database of the company’s past
achievements. Then an in-company hierarchical education system of special SQC
advisors and staff is essential for discovering skills and also for maintaining the system
itself. However, if the in-company education system is not matured enough the courses
outside the company may also be efficiently utilised.
In Japan, JUSE, JSA and other Institutions are providing a sufficient variety of
courses, philosophical as well as technical, for TQM training. Researchers can also
consult with the experts in the universities. Those experts have usually some connection
with JUSE or JSA and they can introduce appropriate tutors for the companies. It should
be noted that even the most prominent companies such as Toyota Motor Corporation
and Takenaka Corporation are utilising the courses of JUSE introduced in § 3.
REFERENCES
Amasaka, K., & Osaki, S. (1999). The promotion of the new statistical quality control internal
education at Toyota Motor: A proposal of ‘science statistical quality control’ for improving
the principle of total quality management. European Journal of Engineering Education, 24,
259-276.
Amasaka, K., Kosugi, K, & Maki, K. (1999). A proposal of the new SQC internal education for
management (in Japanese). Quality, Journal of the Japanese Society for Quality Control, 29,
292-299.
Hirotsu, C. (1992). QC technology (in Japanese). Quality, Journal of the Japanese Society for
Quality Control, 22, 238-258.
Ishikawa, K. (1969). Education and training of quality control in Japanese industry. Reports of
Statistical Application and Research, JUSE 16, 85-104.
Jido, J. (1990-1991). TQC in Takenaka Corporation. Reports of Statistical Application and
Research, JUSE 37, 29-44.
Mizuno, S., & Kume, M. (1978). Developments of education and training in quality control.
Reports of Statistical Application and Research, JUSE 25, 78-102.
Okuno, T. (Ed.) (1990-1991). Special issue: The Deming Prize. Reports of Statistical
Application and Research, JUSE 37.
Chihiro Hirotsu
Faculty of Science & Technology, Meisei University
2-1-1 Hodokubo, Hino-City, Tokyo 191-8506, Japan
E-mail: [email protected]