Lighting: Lighting Power Semiconductor Applications Philips Semiconductors

Lighting Power Semiconductor Applications
Philips Semiconductors
CHAPTER 8
Lighting
8.1 Fluorescent Lamp Control
575
Fluorescent Lamp Control
577
8.1.1 Efficient Fluorescent Lighting using Electronic Ballasts
This section provides a general background to fluorescent

LOW PRESSURE ARGON
lamps and their control requirements, with emphasis placed OR KRYPTON FILLING SMALL DOSE OF MERCURY
on high frequency electronic ballasts and their advantages
over conventional 50/60Hz "magnetic" ballasts. Simplified
examples of popular electronic ballast topologies suitable
for low cost / economy applications are introduced.
PHOSPHOR COATING CATHODE
The fluorescent lamp. Fig. 1. A fluorescent tube.

A fluorescent tube is a low pressure mercury vapour A non-operating fluorescent tube will appear as an open
discharge lamp containing an inert gas consisting of argon circuit, since there is no electrical connection from one end
or krypton at low pressure (below 1 atmosphere) plus a to the other. In order to "strike the arc", a high voltage must
small measured dose of mercury. There is a filament at be applied across the lamp in order to ionise the gas within.
each end which, when hot, emit electrons to sustain the This will instantly "cold start" the lamp and shorten its life
discharge when the lamp is operating. The mercury vapour by sputtering electron-emitting material from its cathodes.
discharge produces ultraviolet light which is converted to
visible light by the phosphors coating the inside of the glass However, if the cathodes (heaters) are first preheated to
tube. The glass blocks the exit of the ultraviolet radiation generate a space charge of electrons at each end of the
but allows the visible radiation through. See Fig. 1. lamp, the strike voltage is considerably reduced and lamp
life will not be unduly compromised by the start-up.
Fluorescent tubes exist in many shapes and sizes. Apart As soon as arc current flows, the lamp’s electrical
from the many compact types that have appeared on the impedance will drop. It now exhibits a negative impedance
market in recent years as energy efficient replacements for characteristic, where an increase in current is accompanied
incandescent lamps, the traditional linear tubes range from by a reduction in lamp voltage. There must therefore be a
150mm 4W up to the very high output 2400mm 215W. current limiting device in circuit to prevent the rapid onset
of runaway and destruction of the lamp.
Modern fluorescent tubes incorporating the latest
triphosphor technology (i.e. red, green and blue phosphors The lamp running current should ideally be sinusoidal to
similar to those used in modern high brightness television minimise the radiation of electromagnetic interference from
picture tubes) possess efficacies of around 80 lumens per the lamp and its supply wires. Sinusoidal lamp current also
lamp Watt compared with 68 lumens per lamp Watt for the maximises lamp life. A peak current approaching twice the
older most efficient "white" fluorescent tubes and around RMS current will prematurely deplete the electron emitting
12 lumens per Watt for an incandescent bulb. Moreover, material from the lamp cathodes. (For a sinewave the peak
the triphosphor lamps reveal colour and skin tones more value is only 1.414 times the RMS value.)
accurately than the standard "white" lamps, which suffer There should also be no D.C. component to the lamp
from a deficiency in output at the red end of the spectrum. current; that is, the positive and negative half cycles should
This results in a greenish hue and a suppression of red be of equal duration. If this is not the case, the resulting
colours from anything illuminated by them. partial rectification will result in premature depletion of the
electron emitter from one of the lamp cathodes.
The elimination of the traditional causes of criticism for
fluorescent lighting means that this form of lighting is The ballast.
becoming more acceptable in wider applications than ever
The requirements of a fluorescent lamp ballast are to:
before. Adjustment of the ratios of the three phosphors can
(a) Preheat the cathodes to induce electron emission.
create colour appearances from a very warm, intimate,
(b) Provide the starting voltage to initiate the discharge.
incandescent equivalent colour temperature of 2700K
(c) Limit the running current to the correct value.
through the cool, clean, businesslike 4000K to the very cool
daylight colour temperature of 6500K, all with high There are several types of mains frequency "magnetic"
efficacies and good colour rendering properties. Before the ballast available. By far the most common circuit for 230V
availability of triphosphors, these qualities have always mains supplies has traditionally been the switchstart ballast
been mutually exclusive. You could either have high (see Fig. 2), where lamp ballasting is provided by the choke.
efficacy and poor colour rendering or poor efficacy and good Other circuits include, in order of popularity, the
colour rendering, but not both. semi-resonant circuit and the quickstart circuit.
579
The switchstart circuit has been widely adopted because Why electronic ballasts?
of its simplicity, low cost and improved efficiency when
compared with the alternative options mentioned above. Electronic ballasts have been available for well over a
Another reason is that the 230V mains voltage is sufficiently decade. Recent leaps in performance, coupled with ever
higher than the tube running voltage to allow the use of the increasing energy costs, the increased awareness of the
simple series impedance ballast in almost all cases. Where advantages they offer, the increasing environmental
this is not possible, for example in most 120V supplied awareness of the consumer, and the increased
circuits, the lamp is controlled by a quickstart circuit acceptability of the new fluorescent light sources in existing
incorporating voltage step-up. and new applications, have seen an upsurge in electronic
ballast use since the beginning of the 1990’s.
CHOKE
Replacing the most efficient low loss mains frequency
L switchstart ballast with an electronic ballast leads to
230V reduced energy consumption and improved performance.
PFC The reasons for this are detailed below.
50Hz
N
Increased light output.
If the operating frequency is increased from 50Hz to above
the audible limit of 20kHz, fluorescent lamps can produce
around 10% more light for the same input power (see
STARTER
Fig. 3). Alternatively, the input power can be reduced for
Fig. 2. Conventional switchstart "magnetic" ballast the same light output.
circuit.
Lamp efficacy (%)

Switchstart ballast operation.
110
When the voltage is applied to the circuit, the lamp does
not operate at first, so the full mains voltage appears across 108
the starter via the choke and lamp cathodes.
106
The starter consists of bi metallic contacts sealed within a
small discharge bulb with an inert gas filling such as argon 104
or neon. The mains voltage causes a glow discharge within
102
the starter which heats up the bi metallic contacts, causing
them to close. This completes the circuit and allows preheat 100
current to flow through the choke and both cathodes. 50 500 5k 50k 500k
Since the glow discharge within the starter has now ceased, Frequency (Hz)
the bi metallic contacts cool down and open. Because the Fig. 3. Typical fluorescent lamp efficacy.
inductance of the choke tries to maintain current flow, the
voltage across the lamp rises rapidly and strikes the lamp.
If it does not, the starter’s contacts close again and the cycle
Flicker eliminated.
repeats.
Once the lamp has started, the choke controls its current A fluorescent lamp operating at 50/60Hz will extinguish
and voltage to the correct levels. The lamp running current twice every cycle as the mains sinewave passes through
is enough to keep the cathodes (heaters) hot and emitting zero. This produces 100/120Hz flicker which is noticeable
electrons without the need for separate heater supplies, or irritating to some people. It will also produce the
which would otherwise be wasteful of energy. Since the well-known and potentially dangerous stroboscopic effects
lamp’s running voltage is much lower than the mains on rotating machinery.
voltage, there is now not enough voltage to cause a glow
If the lamp is operated at high frequency, however, it
discharge in the starter, so it remains open circuit.
produces continuous light. This is because the time
The power factor correction (PFC) capacitor draws leading constant and hence the response time of the discharge is
current from the mains to compensate for the lagging too slow for the lamp to have a chance to extinguish during
current drawn by the lamp circuit. each cycle.
580
The output waveform of an electronic ballast will usually be output to maintain a constant level of illumination. Lights
slightly modulated by 100/120Hz "ripple". Provided this is may also be programmed to dim during intervals when
kept to a reasonable level by filtering within the ballast, the areas are not in use, for example during lunch breaks.
drawbacks associated with 100/120Hz flicker are
Electronic ballasts can incorporate feedback to detect the
eliminated.
operating conditions of the lamp(s) so that failed lamps can
be switched off to avoid annoying flicker and possible
Audible noise eliminated. ballast damage. They can also incorporate regulation,
Since electronic ballasts operate above the audible range, whereby a constant light output is maintained over a range
they do not suffer from the audible noise problems that can of input voltages. Operation can be either from AC or DC
occur with mains frequency magnetic ballasts. The familiar supplies for emergency lighting applications.
buzzing noise is caused by vibrations in the laminations
and coil of the choke. This can then excite vibrations in the Compact and light weight.
steel body of the fitting which effectively amplifies the Owing to the high frequency of operation, the magnetic
original noise. components in an electronic ballast are compact and
lightweight with cores of ferrite material, whereas at mains
Lower ballast power. frequency the ballast choke must be larger and heavier with
bulkier copper windings and a core of laminated steel.
An electronic ballast will consume less power and therefore
dissipate less heat than a mains frequency magnetic The shape and geometry of a mains frequency choke is
ballast. For example, for two 1500mm 58W energy-saving determined by magnetic efficiency requirements, whereas
lamps, the typical ballast power dissipations might be 13W the circuitry within an electronic ballast can be arranged to
per ballast for two 50Hz magnetic ballasts compared with produce a very slim final package. This permits new levels
9W for a single electronic ballast driving two lamps. of slimness and compactness for the final ballast.
The energy-saving benefits of electronic ballasts have Electronic ballast topologies.

made it possible to obtain the same light output from
fluorescent lamps as would be obtained using a The typical building blocks of an electronic ballast are
conventional 50/60Hz magnetic ballast, for a total circuit shown in Fig. 4.
power (i.e. lamp and ballast) that is actually less than the An increasing number of electronic ballasts are employing
rated lamp power alone. This is due to two reasons. active power factor correction in the form of a boost
Firstly, the lamp can be underrun at high frequency for the converter between the rectifier and DC filter stages. (Figure
same light output. Secondly, the power consumed by the 5 shows a simplified boost converter arrangement.) This
ballast can be so low that the total circuit power is still less obliges the ballast to draw current over most of each mains
than the rated power printed on the lamp. Because of this, half cycle instead of the usual current spike that a rectifier
energy cost reductions of 20 - 25% are achievable. / DC filter would demand at each peak of the voltage
waveform. This reduces the harmonic content of the current
and improves the power factor. It will also reduce the size
Extended lamp life. of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) filter required,
An electronic ballast which "soft starts" the lamp (i.e. since filtering is now required at the higher harmonic
provides preheat to the cathodes before applying a frequencies of the boost converter switching frequency
controlled starting pulse) will dislodge a minimum quantity instead of at the mains frequency and harmonics of it.
of material from the cathodes during starting. This will give Electronic ballasts take many forms. The simplest and most
longer lamp life when compared to the uncontrolled economical form might consist of a free-running
impulses to which the lamp is subjected in a switchstart self-oscillating circuit using bipolar transistors. This would
circuit. be an open loop circuit (i.e. no feedback to detect lamp
operating conditions).
Versatile lamp control.
More expensive options might contain a controlled
Electronic ballasts are available which permit lamp oscillator in a closed loop circuit using MOSFETs. Here,
dimming. This gives substantial energy savings in features could include regulation for varying AC and DC
situations where the lights are linked to an automatic control supply voltages, adjustable lamp brightness, soft starting
system which detects ambient light levels and adjusts lamp and a mechanism to detect and shut down failed lamps.
581
EMI BOOST DC DC - AC
SUPPLY RECTIFIER BALLAST TO LAMP
FILTER PFC FILTER INVERTER
OPTIONAL
POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION OPTIONAL FEEDBACK
CIRCUIT
OPTIONAL
DIMMING
CONTROL
Fig. 4. Electronic ballast block diagram.
No separate ballast inductor is required, since the only

FAST
INDUCTOR DIODE
energy delivered to the lamp during the transistor’s OFF
time is what was stored in LPRI during the preceding ON
time. The transistor remains OFF and will not turn ON again
until all the stored energy has been delivered to the load.
Lamp power is therefore controlled by the amount of energy
FROM TO
stored in the LPRI during each ON period.
EMI CONTROL DC - AC
FILTER INVERTER
+
RECTIFIER BOOST CONVERTER DC FILTER
Fig. 5. A boost converter for active power factor R

correction.
Blocking oscillator. 12V DC

The most basic form of electronic ballast uses a blocking SUPPLY
oscillator as shown in Fig. 6. Its use is restricted mainly to
low voltage DC, low power ballasts as used in handlamps,
leisure lighting and emergency lighting, where operation is C
only for short periods. This is because the lamp has a
severely limited life when it is driven by a spiky waveform,
rich in harmonics, such as that produced by this circuit. This
topology might typically be used to operate tubes of 4W to -
13W ratings only because of the excessive voltage and
Fig. 6. Basic low voltage ballast using a blocking
current stresses and switching losses that would be
oscillator.
experienced by the transistor in higher power mains voltage
versions.
Voltage step-up to drive the lamp from the low voltage
supply is achieved by the turns ratio of the transformer Unlike the blocking oscillator, mains powered electronic
primary and secondary, while oscillation is maintained by ballasts usually use two switching power transistors in a
the positive feedback supplied by the auxiliary winding push pull or half bridge configuration. This can either be a
connected to the transistor’s base. The values of R, C, self oscillating or a driven oscillator circuit. The driven
transformer primary inductance LPRI and the transistor oscillator option permits easier lamp control and dimming.
parameters set the oscillation frequency and the mark / The self oscillating option has cost advantages where the
space ratio of the waveform (which should be 1:1 for the benefits of high frequency lighting are required without the
reason given in the first section). necessity for lamp dimming.
582
The push pull inverter. The transistor base drives are derived from auxiliary
windings on the transformer which provide the necessary
A push pull circuit can appear as a voltage fed inverter with
positive feedback. An advantage with this
series resonant load or a current fed inverter with parallel
transformer-based arrangement is the isolation it provides
resonant load. In both cases a centre tapped transformer
between the lamp and the mains supply.
is required.
Voltage fed push pull inverter. Current fed parallel resonant push pull
Figure 7 shows a simplified circuit. This example provides inverter.
isolation of the output from the mains supply with a separate The main difference with this circuit over the previous one
secondary winding. is that the D.C. rail voltage is fed to the transformer centre
In the voltage fed arrangement, the D.C. rail voltage is fed tap via an inductor which acts as a current source. A
straight to the centre tap. Both ends of the winding are capacitor C across the transformer primary forms a parallel
connected to zero volts via transistors, which are alternately resonant load in combination with the primary winding
switched on during operation. The alternate passage of inductance (see Fig. 8). Instead of a square wave as in the
current in opposite directions through each half of the voltage fed circuit, a full wave rectified sinewave appears
primary winding induces a square wave voltage across the at the centre tap whose theoretical peak amplitude is π/2 x
secondary. VDC. Twice this amplitude appears across the whole winding
for the same reason as in the voltage fed push pull circuit.
Since the full D.C. rail voltage appears across half the
Therefore the maximum theoretical VCE = π x VDC.
primary winding at a time, twice this voltage will appear
across the whole primary winding. This means that during
each transistor’s "off" period, it will experience a maximum L
TO
theoretical VCE of 2 x D.C. rail voltage. + T1 ADDITIONAL

LAMPS
Vdc
DRIVE
L
+ T1 CIRCUIT
Vdc
T1
DRIVE
-
CIRCUIT C
T1
T1 DRIVE
- C CIRCUIT
T1
DRIVE
CIRCUIT Fig. 8. Current fed parallel resonant push pull ballast

with isolated output.
Fig. 7. Voltage fed push pull ballast with isolated Since each successive half sine produces current flow in
output. opposite directions through the two half windings, a
sinewave is produced across the whole winding whose
When power is first applied, the secondary voltage should peak to peak amplitude is 2π x VDC.
not be high enough to cold start the lamp, which should
remain in the high impedance state. The only current The additional cost of the inductor might be regarded as a
flowing will be through the series resonant combination of disadvantage. However, the beauty of current fed parallel
L & C, and both lamp cathodes. This preheat current will resonant circuits, of which this is one example, is that they
be enough to initiate electron emission from the cathodes naturally produce a sinusoidal output, so selection of the
which will in turn lower the lamp striking voltage to a point ballast components for their harmonic filtering properties is
where the voltage across the capacitor can then start the no longer so important. This allows the use of a series
lamp (usually within a second). ballast capacitor instead of the series L normally required.
After starting, the lamp voltage will drop and the current will Another benefit with this type of circuit is its ability to
be limited and filtered by L. C will help to filter out residual continue normal operation with varying or open circuit
harmonic frequencies and its current will fall to negligible loads. This permits independent operation of
proportions at the fundamental operating frequency. The parallel-connected lamps across the secondary, each with
resulting lamp current will closely resemble a sinewave. its own ballast capacitor, where failure of one or more lamps
583
will not affect the operation of the remaining lamps. This is As each transistor conducts in turn, the current fed resonant
unlike series-connected lamps, where the failure of one load causes alternate polarity half sinewaves with peak
tube will disable all the tubes on that ballast. voltages of π/2 x VDC to appear at one end of the transformer
primary. Each half sine appears across the non-conducting
Sinusoidal output topologies are very popular in the self transistor. Therefore the maximum theoretical VCE = π/2 x
oscillating low cost ballast market because of these VDC.
advantages and the circuit simplicity.
The sum of these half sines produces a full sinewave with
a peak to peak amplitude of π x VDC. However, as the return
The half bridge inverter. current flows to the A.C. half rail created by the half bridge
capacitors, only half this voltage appears across the
The half bridge topology contains two npn transistors primary, resulting in a peak to peak primary voltage of π/2
connected in series across the D.C. rail with the load x VDC.
connected to their mid point. The half bridge is so called
because the return path for the load current is provided by Voltage fed half bridge inverter.
two series-connected capacitors across the D.C. rail. (A full
bridge circuit would have transistors in these positions also, See Fig. 10. This circuit does not employ a transformer so
but this arrangement is rarely used in electronic ballasts for output isolation is not provided. Feedback to drive the
fluorescent lamps. Although the required voltage rating of transistors is now supplied from two auxiliary windings on
the transistors would be halved, this would not compensate the current transformer CT1 in the lamp current path.
for the increased cost of four power transistors instead of As this is a voltage fed circuit whose output is not naturally
two, and the extra complication of controlling the timing of sinusoidal, lamp starting, ballasting and waveform shaping
the switching of all four transistors.) are provided by the series L and parallel C as for the voltage
fed push pull circuit.
The two capacitors, which have a very low reactance and
are essentially a short circuit at the ballast operating In the voltage fed half bridge circuit, since the transistors
frequency, create a mid-point A.C. reference between the are "firmly anchored" to the supply rails without any current
D.C. rails. This blocks the D.C. offset equal to half the rail source series inductance, they will experience a maximum
voltage that would be applied to the lamp if the return path theoretical VCE equal to the D.C. rail voltage.
were merely taken to one of the rails.
+
Vdc
Current fed parallel resonant half bridge
CT1
inverter.
Figure 9 shows the simplified circuit. Transformer isolation CT1
L
is provided, and the sinusoidal output permits the use of
ballast capacitors as for the current fed push pull topology.
The series inductance L in each power supply line acts as
the current source.
CT1 C
-
+ Fig. 10. Voltage fed half bridge ballast.
Vdc L C
DRIVE
CIRCUIT
Variation on the voltage fed half bridge
T1
T1 circuit.
A variation on this circuit is shown in Fig. 11, where the two
half bridge capacitors are replaced by the single D.C.
DRIVE
CIRCUIT blocking capacitor C2. This enables the load to be returned
to the positive D.C. rail.
TO
L ADDITIONAL
T1 LAMPS The circuit operates as follows:
- On initial power-up, before the lamp has struck, C1, L and
C2 form a series resonant circuit. C2 is larger than C1 so
Fig. 9. Current fed parallel resonant half bridge ballast it looks like a short circuit compared to C1. C1 therefore
with isolated output. dominates and dictates the resonant frequency in
584
combination with L. A high voltage is developed across C1 especially where high voltage devices up to 1000V rating
at resonance which starts the tube. At this point the tube and above are required. Ballast manufacturers have
voltage across C1 collapses and C2 then takes over in perfected many good, reliable designs using such devices
dictating a lower running frequency in combination with L. in circuits based on the simplified topologies shown.
+ Popular topologies for low cost electronic ballasts have

Vdc
proved to be the current fed parallel resonant circuits. To
summarise the reasons for this, they naturally produce the
ideal sinewave output. This permits the use of simple ballast
CT1 CT1 capacitors instead of inductors. The circuits also maintain
C1 safe operation with abnormal load conditions. Lamps can
be operated in parallel, where the failure of one or more
C2
lamp will not disable the remaining lamps.
L
CT1 The current fed topologies require higher voltage
- transistors than the voltage fed topologies. For example,
Fig. 11. Variation on voltage fed series resonant half for the current fed half bridge topology, allowing for safety
bridge circuit. margins of around 400V for voltage spikes at start-up and
110% mains voltage, a 120V ballast would require
This circuit is the one most commonly used in the transistors with typical voltage ratings of at least 700V. The
electronically ballasted compact fluorescent lamps and it ratings for 230V mains would typically be at least 950V, and
lends itself to driven as well as self oscillating circuits. for 277V mains typical voltage ratings of at least 1100V
would be required.
Summary.
The circuit examples presented in this Publication all use The ratings for a current fed push pull topology would be
bipolar transistors, mainly for cost advantage reasons, 1000V, 1500V and 1700V respectively.
585
8.1.2 Electronic Ballasts - Philips Transistor Selection Guide
Section 8.1.1 provides an introduction to fluorescent lamps The transformer centre tap is no longer connected directly
and the circuits required to operate them for maximum life to the D.C. rail. The voltage developed across the series
and efficiency. Several simplified electronic ballast inductor L as each transistor conducts results in a positive
topologies are introduced. half sinewave at the centre tap whose average voltage is
equal to the D.C. rail voltage. A half sine instead of a
This section lists those topologies with the theoretical
rectangular pulse is produced because of the resonant
voltage demands they place on the transistors, together
nature of the load.
with a selection table of suitable Philips transistors.
Therefore Vc.t.(ave) = VDC.
a) Voltage fed push pull inverter.
The peak value of this waveform can be shown by
L
integration to be π/2 x its average value.
+ T1
Vdc Therefore Vc.t.(pk) = π/2 x Vc.t.(ave) = π/2 x VDC.
DRIVE Each successive half sine is conducted through alternate
CIRCUIT halves of the primary, so twice this amplitude appears
across the full primary. This gives a peak voltage of twice
T1
the peak centre tap voltage appearing across the
- C
non-conducting transistor (as for the voltage fed push pull
T1
circuit), so:
VCE(pk) = π x VDC.
DRIVE
CIRCUIT
c) Current fed half bridge inverter.

The D.C. rail voltage appears at the transformer centre tap.
+
Therefore Vc.t. = VDC. Vdc L C
Half of the transformer’s primary winding is energised with DRIVE
CIRCUIT
the full D.C. rail voltage at any one time. Therefore twice
this voltage will appear across the whole winding T1
T1
(autotransformer effect). This voltage appears across each
transistor in turn when it is non-conducting. So, during
stable circuit operation and neglecting unforeseen voltage DRIVE
CIRCUIT
spikes:
TO
VCE(max) = 2 x VDC. L T1 ADDITIONAL
LAMPS
-
b) Current fed push pull inverter.
L The transformer primary is driven from one end by the

TO
+ T1 ADDITIONAL collector-emitter junction point of the two transistors. If this
LAMPS
Vdc were a voltage fed circuit without any series L, the primary
DRIVE would be alternately connected to the positive and negative
CIRCUIT
rails by the alternate transistor switching to produce a
square wave with a peak to peak amplitude of VDC.
T1 However, because this is a current fed resonant circuit, the
- conduction of each transistor will produce a half sine whose
C
T1 average voltage is equal to the D.C. rail voltage.
DRIVE Therefore V(ave) = VDC.
CIRCUIT
By integrating it can be shown that the half sine will have a
peak amplitude of π/2 x its average value.
Therefore V(pk) = π/2 x V(ave) = π/2 x VDC.
587
This voltage appears across the non-conducting transistor, As the transistors are now connected directly to the D.C.
so: rails, their alternate switching will switch the transformer
primary between the D.C. rails only.
VCE(pk) = π/2 x VDC.
Therefore V(max) = VDC.
d) Voltage fed half bridge inverter.
As this voltage appears across the non-conducting
transistor:
+
Vdc
VCE(max) = VDC.
CT1
Transistor selection guide.
CT1
L
This guide lists suitable transistors with maximum
recommended output powers for the different topologies. It
assumes that the ballast’s D.C. rail is obtained from rectified
and smoothed A.C. mains. If boost power factor correction
is included which boosts the D.C. rail voltage to around
CT1 C
400V irrespective of mains voltage, the suggested
-
transistors for 277V mains should be selected.
TOPOLOGY: a) V. fed P.P. b) C. fed P.P. c) C. fed H.B. d) V. fed H.B.

120V BUW84/85 35W BUX87P 13W BUW84/85 25W BUW84/85 15W
BUX84/85 35W BUX85 55W BUX84/85 25W BUX84/85 15W
BUT211 90W BUT11A 140W BUT211 70W BUT211 40W
BUT18A 110W BUT18A 170W BUT18A 80W BUT18A 55W
BUT12A 140W BUT12A 230W BUT12A 110W BUT12A 70W
BUW12A 140W BUW12A 230W BUW12A 110W BUW12A 70W
230V BUX87P 15W BU1706A 230W BUX87P 13W BUW84/85 30W
A.C. BUW85 70W BU1706AX 230W BUW85 55W BUX84/85 30W
SUPPLY: BUX85 70W BU508A 360W BUX85 55W BUT211 80W
BUT11A 170W BUT11A 140W BUT18A 100W
BUT18A 210W BUT18A 160W BUT12A 140W
BUT12A 280W BUT12A 220W BUW12A 140W
BUW12A 280W BUW12A 220W
277V BU1706A 170W BU1706A 260W BU1706A 130W BUW84/85 40W
& most BU1706AX 170W BU1706AX 260W BU1706AX 130W BUX84/85 40W
boosted BU508A 280W BU508A 220W BUT211 100W
designs BUT18A 125W
BUT12A 170W
BUW12A 170W
588
8.1.3 An Electronic Ballast - Base Drive Optimisation
This section investigates the transistor base drive circuit in voltage would need to be such that the transistor ’sees’ a
a current fed half bridge ballast. (Fig. 1 shows the simplified turn-off voltage of around minus 5V. An approximation to
circuit.) The effect on switching waveforms of progressing this drive voltage could be arrived at empirically by
from a simple base drive circuit to the optimised solution increasing the number of auxiliary turns one by one. Any
will be shown. final voltage adjustment, if necessary, can be achieved by
varying the base drive components.
+ Simple base drive.

Vdc L C
DRIVE
In order to meet the requirements of non-saturation and
CIRCUIT
rapid turn-off, the simplest base drive might consist of a
resistor to limit the positive base current and a Schottky
T1
T1 diode in parallel with it to discharge the base as quickly as
possible. See Fig. 2.
DRIVE
CIRCUIT
TO
L ADDITIONAL
T1 LAMPS
- R
Fig. 1. Current fed half bridge ballast.

T1
Base drive requirements. D1
1. Each transistor must not be overdriven and oversaturated

Fig. 2. Simple base drive.
when conducting otherwise excessive base power
dissipation will result. The time will also be increased in A Schottky diode is specified for its fast switching and low
bringing the transistor out of saturation during turn-off, forward voltage drop to best meet the rapid turn-off
leading to increased switching losses. requirements. A 1A 40V device such as the BYV10-40 is
2. The transistor must not be underdriven because this will ideally suited.
result in excessive collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE) during If the resistor is selected empirically so that the transistor
conduction, leading to excessive ON-state losses or is barely saturating, this simple circuit will work, but only for
inability to sustain oscillation. However, because the a given load current, supply voltage, transistor gain and
transistor is unsaturated, there will be less charge to extract base drive voltage from the transformer auxiliary winding.
from the base, resulting in a shorter storage time and faster Altering any of these conditions will either cause
turn-off. underdriving of the transistor and, ultimately, cessation of
3. Reliable and correct circuit operation should be oscillation, or else the transistor will be overdriven, causing
maintained for all expected transistor gains, maximum and increased collector current fall time and excessive
minimum load, maximum and minimum supply voltage and switching losses.
all component tolerances.
For example, the resistor value was optimised for
transistors with low gain limits. Fig. 3 shows the resulting
Base drive optimisation. IC fall at transistor turn-off, while Fig. 4 shows the effect of
The transformer’s auxiliary windings which provide base replacing the transistor with a high gain limit sample. The
drive might contain just one or two turns each. In order to shaded areas bounded by the IC and VCE curves represent
provide rapid transistor turn-off, their peak loaded output transistor power dissipation during switching.
589
Ic (0.2 A/div) D2
Vce (50V/div)
c
R1 R2 b
T1 e
D1
0 Fig. 5. Improved base drive.

0.5 us/div
Simple base drive.
Fig. 3. Low hFE. IC fall with VCE.
Ic (0.2 A/div) Ic (0.2 A/div)

Vce (50V/div) Vce (50V/div)
0 0
0.5 us/div 0.5 us/div
Simple base drive. Improved base drive.
Fig. 4. High hFE. IC fall with VCE. Fig. 6. Low hFE. IC fall with VCE.
Ic (0.2 A/div)
Improved circuit. Vce (50V/div)
What is required is a means of providing enough base drive
under worst case conditions of maximum load current,
minimum supply voltage, minimum transistor gain and
minimum base drive voltage, while avoiding excessive
saturation in the opposite condition. This can be achieved
by diverting excess positive base drive current into the
collector path when the transistor is fully turned on. This
0
requirement is partly met by a Baker Clamp arrangement
as shown in Fig. 5. 0.5 us/div
When the transistor is fully conducting, VCE will be at a Improved base drive.
minimum. This will bring VC close to VB so that any excess Fig. 7. High hFE. IC fall with VCE.
base drive will then flow through anti saturation diode D2
to the collector. As a first approximation, the single resistor
R is divided equally into two and D2 taps its voltage from With regard to the base waveforms, where the simple circuit
the mid point. Figs. 6 and 7 show the resulting IC fall produces more base drive current than is necessary, as
waveforms. Considerably reduced transistor saturation is shown in Fig. 8, the improved circuit reduces this to that
evident. shown in Fig. 9.
590
To ensure correct operation under all conditions, base drive

Ib (0.1 A/div) can be optimised by adjusting the ratio of the two resistors
to vary the amount of tap-off voltage. With the base resistor
0 divided equally into two, this particular circuit suffered from
a lack of base drive at low supply voltage. Too much drive
had been diverted away from the base. This was corrected
by moving the tap-off point to the right to split the resistor
two thirds to one third to reduce the amount of diverted base
10 us/div
drive. Referring to Fig. 5, R1 becomes 2/3 x R and R2
becomes 1/3 x R.
Fig. 8. Simple base drive.
High hFE. IB. Figs. 11 and 12 show the optimised IC fall waveforms. A
few cycles of the switching waveforms with optimised base
Ib (0.1 A/div)
drive are shown in Fig. 10.
0
Ic (0.2 A/div)
Vce (50V/div)
10 us/div
Fig. 9. Improved base drive.

High hFE. IB.
Optimised base drive. 0

0.5 us/div
Vce (100 V/div)
Optimised base drive.
Fig. 11. Low hFE. IC fall with VCE.
Ic (0.2 A/div)
Vce (50V/div)
0
10 us/div
Ic (0.2 A/div)
0
0.5 us/div
0 Optimised base drive.
10 us/div Fig. 12. High hFE. IC fall with VCE.
Ib (0.1 A/div)
Startup circuit.
0
The half bridge circuit as described so far cannot start of
its own accord. Both transistors are off and will remain off
when power is applied until one of them is artificially turned
on to draw current through the transformer primary. This
10 us/div will then induce a voltage in the auxiliary windings which
will provide the necessary base drive to maintain self
Optimised base drive. oscillation. Startup is usually achieved using a diac such
Fig. 10. High hFE. VCE, IC and IB. as the BR100/03. The circuit is shown in Fig. 13.
591
When power is first applied, oscillator start-up is achieved D4 and D5 provide reverse current protection for Q1 and
as follows: Q2.
Transistors Q1 and Q2 are initially non conducting. Resistor
R4, whose value will be several hundred kilohms, provides
a high impedance path between Q2’s collector and the + L D3
positive rail to ensure that Q2 has the full D.C. rail voltage
across it prior to start-up. D4
R1 Q1
R4
Capacitor C charges up via R1 until the breakover voltage R2 R3
of the diac D8 is reached. The diac breaks over and dumps
T1
the capacitor’s charge into the base of Q2 to turn it on. Q2 D1
D2
draws current through the transformer primary. From now D6
TO T1
on, oscillation is maintained by the voltages induced on the D8
PRIMARY
auxiliary base drive windings.
D5
Diode D1 discharges C every time Q2 turns on, thereby Q2
preventing the diac’s breakover voltage being reached C

R5 R6
during normal circuit oscillation. This avoids repeated L T1

-
triggering of the diac when it is not required, so preventing D7
oversaturation of Q2. (The length of time for C to charge to

the diac’s breakover voltage is much longer than the time Fig. 13. A classic startup arrangement. (Part of current
between ON periods of Q2.) fed half bridge circuit.)
592
Preface Power Semiconductor Applications
Acknowledgments
We are grateful for all the contributions from our colleagues within Philips and to the Application Laboratories in Eindhoven
and Hamburg.
We would also like to thank Dr.P.H.Mellor of the University of Sheffield for contributing the application note of section 3.1.5.
The authors thank Mrs.R.Hayes for her considerable help in the preparation of this book.
The authors also thank Mr.D.F.Haslam for his assistance in the formatting and printing of the manuscripts.
Contributing Authors
N.Bennett D.J.Harper J.Oosterling

M.Bennion W.Hettersheid N.Pichowicz
D.Brown J.v.d.Hooff W.B.Rosink
C.Buethker J.Houldsworth D.C. de Ruiter
L.Burley M.J.Humphreys D.Sharples
G.M.Fry P.H.Mellor H.Simons
R.P.Gant R.Miller T.Stork
J.Gilliam H.Misdom D.Tebb
D.Grant P.Moody H.Verhees
N.J.Ham S.A.Mulder F.A.Woodworth
C.J.Hammerton E.B.G. Nijhof T.van de Wouw
This book was originally prepared by the Power Semiconductor Applications Laboratory, of the Philips Semiconductors
product division, Hazel Grove:
M.J.Humphreys D.Brown L.Burley

C.J.Hammerton R.Miller
It was revised and updated, in 1994, by:
N.J.Ham C.J.Hammerton D.Sharples

Preface Power Semiconductor Applications
Preface
This book was prepared by the Power Semiconductor Applications Laboratory of the Philips Semiconductors product
division, Hazel Grove. The book is intended as a guide to using power semiconductors both efficiently and reliably in power
conversion applications. It is made up of eight main chapters each of which contains a number of application notes aimed
at making it easier to select and use power semiconductors.
CHAPTER 1 forms an introduction to power semiconductors concentrating particularly on the two major power transistor
technologies, Power MOSFETs and High Voltage Bipolar Transistors.
CHAPTER 2 is devoted to Switched Mode Power Supplies. It begins with a basic description of the most commonly used
topologies and discusses the major issues surrounding the use of power semiconductors including rectifiers. Specific
design examples are given as well as a look at designing the magnetic components. The end of this chapter describes
resonant power supply technology.
CHAPTER 3 describes motion control in terms of ac, dc and stepper motor operation and control. This chapter looks only
at transistor controls, phase control using thyristors and triacs is discussed separately in chapter 6.
CHAPTER 4 looks at television and monitor applications. A description of the operation of horizontal deflection circuits is
given followed by transistor selection guides for both deflection and power supply applications. Deflection and power supply
circuit examples are also given based on circuits designed by the Product Concept and Application Laboratories (Eindhoven).
CHAPTER 5 concentrates on automotive electronics looking in detail at the requirements for the electronic switches taking
into consideration the harsh environment in which they must operate.
CHAPTER 6 reviews thyristor and triac applications from the basics of device technology and operation to the simple design
rules which should be followed to achieve maximum reliability. Specific examples are given in this chapter for a number
of the common applications.
CHAPTER 7 looks at the thermal considerations for power semiconductors in terms of power dissipation and junction
temperature limits. Part of this chapter is devoted to worked examples showing how junction temperatures can be calculated
to ensure the limits are not exceeded. Heatsink requirements and designs are also discussed in the second half of this
chapter.
CHAPTER 8 is an introduction to the use of high voltage bipolar transistors in electronic lighting ballasts. Many of the
possible topologies are described.
Contents Power Semiconductor Applications
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Power Semiconductors 1
General 3
1.1.1 An Introduction To Power Devices ............................................................ 5
Power MOSFET 17
1.2.1 PowerMOS Introduction ............................................................................. 19

1.2.2 Understanding Power MOSFET Switching Behaviour ............................... 29
1.2.3 Power MOSFET Drive Circuits .................................................................. 39
1.2.4 Parallel Operation of Power MOSFETs ..................................................... 49
1.2.5 Series Operation of Power MOSFETs ....................................................... 53
1.2.6 Logic Level FETS ...................................................................................... 57
1.2.7 Avalanche Ruggedness ............................................................................. 61
1.2.8 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Considerations .......................................... 67
1.2.9 Understanding the Data Sheet: PowerMOS .............................................. 69
High Voltage Bipolar Transistor 77
1.3.1 Introduction To High Voltage Bipolar Transistors ...................................... 79

1.3.2 Effects of Base Drive on Switching Times ................................................. 83
1.3.3 Using High Voltage Bipolar Transistors ..................................................... 91
1.3.4 Understanding The Data Sheet: High Voltage Transistors ....................... 97
CHAPTER 2 Switched Mode Power Supplies 103
Using Power Semiconductors in Switched Mode Topologies 105
2.1.1 An Introduction to Switched Mode Power Supply Topologies ................... 107

2.1.2 The Power Supply Designer’s Guide to High Voltage Transistors ............ 129
2.1.3 Base Circuit Design for High Voltage Bipolar Transistors in Power
Converters ........................................................................................................... 141
2.1.4 Isolated Power Semiconductors for High Frequency Power Supply
Applications ......................................................................................................... 153
Output Rectification 159
2.2.1 Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diodes for use in High Frequency Rectification 161
2.2.2 Schottky Diodes from Philips Semiconductors .......................................... 173
2.2.3 An Introduction to Synchronous Rectifier Circuits using PowerMOS
Transistors ........................................................................................................... 179
i
Design Examples 185
2.3.1 Mains Input 100 W Forward Converter SMPS: MOSFET and Bipolar
Transistor Solutions featuring ETD Cores ........................................................... 187
2.3.2 Flexible, Low Cost, Self-Oscillating Power Supply using an ETD34
Two-Part Coil Former and 3C85 Ferrite .............................................................. 199
Magnetics Design 205
2.4.1 Improved Ferrite Materials and Core Outlines for High Frequency Power
Supplies ............................................................................................................... 207
Resonant Power Supplies 217
2.5.1. An Introduction To Resonant Power Supplies .......................................... 219

2.5.2. Resonant Power Supply Converters - The Solution For Mains Pollution
Problems .............................................................................................................. 225
CHAPTER 3 Motor Control 241
AC Motor Control 243
3.1.1 Noiseless A.C. Motor Control: Introduction to a 20 kHz System ............... 245
3.1.2 The Effect of a MOSFET’s Peak to Average Current Rating on Invertor
Efficiency ............................................................................................................. 251
3.1.3 MOSFETs and FREDFETs for Motor Drive Equipment ............................. 253
3.1.4 A Designers Guide to PowerMOS Devices for Motor Control ................... 259
3.1.5 A 300V, 40A High Frequency Inverter Pole Using Paralleled FREDFET
Modules ............................................................................................................... 273
DC Motor Control 283
3.2.1 Chopper circuits for DC motor control ....................................................... 285

3.2.2 A switched-mode controller for DC motors ................................................ 293
3.2.3 Brushless DC Motor Systems .................................................................... 301
Stepper Motor Control 307
3.3.1 Stepper Motor Control ............................................................................... 309
CHAPTER 4 Televisions and Monitors 317
Power Devices in TV & Monitor Applications (including selection

guides) 319
4.1.1 An Introduction to Horizontal Deflection .................................................... 321

4.1.2 The BU25XXA/D Range of Deflection Transistors .................................... 331
ii
4.1.3 Philips HVT’s for TV & Monitor Applications .............................................. 339

4.1.4 TV and Monitor Damper Diodes ................................................................ 345
TV Deflection Circuit Examples 349
4.2.1 Application Information for the 16 kHz Black Line Picture Tubes .............. 351
4.2.2 32 kHz / 100 Hz Deflection Circuits for the 66FS Black Line Picture Tube 361
SMPS Circuit Examples 377
4.3.1 A 70W Full Performance TV SMPS Using The TDA8380 ......................... 379
4.3.2 A Synchronous 200W SMPS for 16 and 32 kHz TV .................................. 389
Monitor Deflection Circuit Example 397
4.4.1 A Versatile 30 - 64 kHz Autosync Monitor ................................................. 399
CHAPTER 5 Automotive Power Electronics 421
Automotive Motor Control (including selection guides) 423
5.1.1 Automotive Motor Control With Philips MOSFETS .................................... 425
Automotive Lamp Control (including selection guides) 433
5.2.1 Automotive Lamp Control With Philips MOSFETS .................................... 435
The TOPFET 443
5.3.1 An Introduction to the 3 pin TOPFET ......................................................... 445

5.3.2 An Introduction to the 5 pin TOPFET ......................................................... 447
5.3.3 BUK101-50DL - a Microcontroller compatible TOPFET ............................ 449
5.3.4 Protection with 5 pin TOPFETs ................................................................. 451
5.3.5 Driving TOPFETs ....................................................................................... 453
5.3.6 High Side PWM Lamp Dimmer using TOPFET ......................................... 455
5.3.7 Linear Control with TOPFET ...................................................................... 457
5.3.8 PWM Control with TOPFET ....................................................................... 459
5.3.9 Isolated Drive for TOPFET ........................................................................ 461
5.3.10 3 pin and 5 pin TOPFET Leadforms ........................................................ 463
5.3.11 TOPFET Input Voltage ............................................................................ 465
5.3.12 Negative Input and TOPFET ................................................................... 467
5.3.13 Switching Inductive Loads with TOPFET ................................................. 469
5.3.14 Driving DC Motors with TOPFET ............................................................. 471
5.3.15 An Introduction to the High Side TOPFET ............................................... 473
5.3.16 High Side Linear Drive with TOPFET ...................................................... 475
iii
Automotive Ignition 477
5.4.1 An Introduction to Electronic Automotive Ignition ...................................... 479

5.4.2 IGBTs for Automotive Ignition .................................................................... 481
5.4.3 Electronic Switches for Automotive Ignition ............................................... 483
CHAPTER 6 Power Control with Thyristors and Triacs 485
Using Thyristors and Triacs 487
6.1.1 Introduction to Thyristors and Triacs ......................................................... 489

6.1.2 Using Thyristors and Triacs ....................................................................... 497
6.1.3 The Peak Current Handling Capability of Thyristors .................................. 505
6.1.4 Understanding Thyristor and Triac Data .................................................... 509
Thyristor and Triac Applications 521
6.2.1 Triac Control of DC Inductive Loads .......................................................... 523

6.2.2 Domestic Power Control with Triacs and Thyristors .................................. 527
6.2.3 Design of a Time Proportional Temperature Controller ............................. 537
Hi-Com Triacs 547
6.3.1 Understanding Hi-Com Triacs ................................................................... 549

6.3.2 Using Hi-Com Triacs .................................................................................. 551
CHAPTER 7 Thermal Management 553
Thermal Considerations 555
7.1.1 Thermal Considerations for Power Semiconductors ................................. 557

7.1.2 Heat Dissipation ......................................................................................... 567
CHAPTER 8 Lighting 575
Fluorescent Lamp Control 577
8.1.1 Efficient Fluorescent Lighting using Electronic Ballasts ............................. 579

8.1.2 Electronic Ballasts - Philips Transistor Selection Guide ............................ 587
8.1.3 An Electronic Ballast - Base Drive Optimisation ........................................ 589
iv
Index Power Semiconductor Applications
Index
Airgap, transformer core, 111, 113 Bridge circuits
Anti saturation diode, 590 see Motor Control - AC
Asynchronous, 497 Brushless motor, 301, 303
Automotive Buck-boost converter, 110
fans Buck converter, 108 - 109
see motor control Burst firing, 537
IGBT, 481, 483 Burst pulses, 564
ignition, 479, 481, 483
lamps, 435, 455 Capacitance
motor control, 425, 457, 459, 471, 475 junction, 29
resistive loads, 442 Capacitor
reverse battery, 452, 473, 479 mains dropper, 544
screen heater, 442 CENELEC, 537
seat heater, 442 Charge carriers, 133
solenoids, 469 triac commutation, 549
TOPFET, 473 Choke
Avalanche, 61 fluorescent lamp, 580
Avalanche breakdown Choppers, 285
thyristor, 490 Clamp diode, 117
Avalanche multiplication, 134 Clamp winding, 113
Commutation
Baker clamp, 138, 187, 190 diode, 164
Ballast Hi-Com triac, 551
electronic, 580 thyristor, 492
fluorescent lamp, 579 triac, 494, 523, 529
switchstart, 579 Compact fluorescent lamp, 585
Base drive, 136 Continuous mode
base inductor, 147 see Switched Mode Power Supplies
base inductor, diode assisted, 148 Continuous operation, 557
base resistor, 146 Converter (dc-dc)
drive transformer, 145 switched mode power supply, 107
drive transformer leakage inductance, 149 Cookers, 537
electronic ballast, 589 Cooling
forward converter, 187 forced, 572
power converters, 141 natural, 570
speed-up capacitor, 143 Crest factor, 529
Base inductor, 144, 147 Critical electric field, 134
Base inductor, diode assisted, 148 Cross regulation, 114, 117
Boost converter, 109 Current fed resonant inverter, 589
continuous mode, 109 Current Mode Control, 120
discontinuous mode, 109 Current tail, 138, 143
output ripple, 109
Bootstrap, 303 Damper Diodes, 345, 367
Breakback voltage forward recovery, 328, 348
diac, 492 losses, 347
Breakdown voltage, 70 outlines, 345
Breakover current picture distortion, 328, 348
diac, 492 selection guide, 345
Breakover voltage Darlington, 13
diac, 492, 592 Data Sheets
thyristor, 490 High Voltage Bipolar Transistor, 92,97,331
MOSFET, 69
i
dc-dc converter, 119 ESD, 67

Depletion region, 133 see Protection, ESD
Desaturation networks, 86 precautions, 67
Baker clamp, 91, 138 ETD core
dI/dt see magnetics
triac, 531
Diac, 492, 500, 527, 530, 591 F-pack
Diode, 6 see isolated package
double diffused, 162 Fall time, 143, 144
epitaxial, 161 Fast Recovery Epitaxial Diode (FRED)
schottky, 173 see epitaxial diode
structure, 161 FBSOA, 134
Diode Modulator, 327, 367 Ferrites
Disc drives, 302 see magnetics
Discontinuous mode Flicker
see Switched Mode Power Supplies fluorescent lamp, 580
Domestic Appliances, 527 Fluorescent lamp, 579
Dropper colour rendering, 579
capacitive, 544 colour temperature, 579
resistive, 544, 545 efficacy, 579, 580
Duty cycle, 561 triphosphor, 579
Flyback converter, 110, 111, 113
EFD core advantages, 114
see magnetics clamp winding, 113
Efficiency Diodes continuous mode, 114
see Damper Diodes coupled inductor, 113
Electric drill, 531 cross regulation, 114
Electronic ballast, 580 diodes, 115
base drive optimisation, 589 disadvantages, 114
current fed half bridge, 584, 587, 589 discontinuous mode, 114
current fed push pull, 583, 587 electronic ballast, 582
flyback, 582 leakage inductance, 113
transistor selection guide, 587 magnetics, 213
voltage fed half bridge, 584, 588 operation, 113
voltage fed push pull, 583, 587 rectifier circuit, 180
EMC, 260, 455 self oscillating power supply, 199
see RFI, ESD synchronous rectifier, 156, 181
TOPFET, 473 transformer core airgap, 111, 113
Emitter shorting transistors, 115
triac, 549 Flyback converter (two transistor), 111, 114
Epitaxial diode, 161 Food mixer, 531
characteristics, 163 Forward converter, 111, 116
dI/dt, 164 advantages, 116
forward recovery, 168 clamp diode, 117
lifetime control, 162 conduction loss, 197
operating frequency, 165 continuous mode, 116
passivation, 162 core loss, 116
reverse leakage, 169 core saturation, 117
reverse recovery, 162, 164 cross regulation, 117
reverse recovery softness, 167 diodes, 118
selection guide, 171 disadvantages, 117
snap-off, 167 duty ratio, 117
softness factor, 167 ferrite cores, 116
stored charge, 162 magnetics, 213
technology, 162 magnetisation energy, 116, 117
ii
operation, 116 Heat sink compound, 567

output diodes, 117 Heater controller, 544
output ripple, 116 Heaters, 537
rectifier circuit, 180 Heatsink, 569
reset winding, 117 Heatsink compound, 514
switched mode power supply, 187 Hi-Com triac, 519, 549, 551
switching frequency, 195 commutation, 551
switching losses, 196 dIcom/dt, 552
synchronous rectifier, 157, 181 gate trigger current, 552
transistors, 118 inductive load control, 551
Forward converter (two transistor), 111, 117 High side switch
Forward recovery, 168 MOSFET, 44, 436
FREDFET, 250, 253, 305 TOPFET, 430, 473
bridge circuit, 255 High Voltage Bipolar Transistor, 8, 79, 91,
charge, 254 141, 341
diode, 254 ‘bathtub’ curves, 333
drive, 262 avalanche breakdown, 131
loss, 256 avalanche multiplication, 134
reverse recovery, 254 Baker clamp, 91, 138
FREDFETs base-emitter breakdown, 144
motor control, 259 base drive, 83, 92, 96, 136, 336, 385
Full bridge converter, 111, 125 base drive circuit, 145
advantages, 125 base inductor, 138, 144, 147
diodes, 126 base inductor, diode assisted, 148
disadvantages, 125 base resistor, 146
operation, 125 breakdown voltage, 79, 86, 92
transistors, 126 carrier concentration, 151
carrier injection, 150
Gate conductivity modulation, 135, 150
triac, 538 critical electric field, 134
Gate drive current crowding, 135, 136
forward converter, 195 current limiting values, 132
Gold doping, 162, 169 current tail, 138, 143
GTO, 11 current tails, 86, 91
Guard ring d-type, 346
schottky diode, 174 data sheet, 92, 97, 331
depletion region, 133
Half bridge, 253 desaturation, 86, 88, 91
Half bridge circuits device construction, 79
see also Motor Control - AC dI/dt, 139
Half bridge converter, 111, 122 drive transformer, 145
advantages, 122 drive transformer leakage inductance, 149
clamp diodes, 122 dV/dt, 139
cross conduction, 122 electric field, 133
diodes, 124 electronic ballast, 581, 585, 587, 589
disadvantages, 122 Fact Sheets, 334
electronic ballast, 584, 587, 589 fall time, 86, 99, 143, 144
flux symmetry, 122 FBSOA, 92, 99, 134
magnetics, 214 hard turn-off, 86
operation, 122 horizontal deflection, 321, 331, 341
synchronous rectifier, 157 leakage current, 98
transistor voltage, 122 limiting values, 97
transistors, 124 losses, 92, 333, 342
voltage doubling, 122 Miller capacitance, 139
Heat dissipation, 567 operation, 150
iii
optimum drive, 88 Ignition

outlines, 332, 346 automotive, 479, 481, 483
over current, 92, 98 darlington, 483
over voltage, 92, 97 Induction heating, 53
overdrive, 85, 88, 137, 138 Induction motor
passivation, 131 see Motor Control - AC
power limiting value, 132 Inductive load
process technology, 80 see Solenoid
ratings, 97 Inrush current, 528, 530
RBSOA, 93, 99, 135, 138, 139 Intrinsic silicon, 133
RC network, 148 Inverter, 260, 273
reverse recovery, 143, 151 see motor control ac
safe operating area, 99, 134 current fed, 52, 53
saturation, 150 switched mode power supply, 107
saturation current, 79, 98, 341 Irons, electric, 537
secondary breakdown, 92, 133 Isolated package, 154
smooth turn-off, 86 stray capacitance, 154, 155
SMPS, 94, 339, 383 thermal resistance, 154
snubber, 139 Isolation, 153
space charge, 133
speed-up capacitor, 143 J-FET, 9
storage time, 86, 91, 92, 99, 138, 144, 342 Junction temperature, 470, 557, 561
sub emitter resistance, 135 burst pulses, 564
switching, 80, 83, 86, 91, 98, 342 non-rectangular pulse, 565
technology, 129, 149 rectangular pulse, composite, 562
thermal breakdown, 134 rectangular pulse, periodic, 561
thermal runaway, 152 rectangular pulse, single shot, 561
turn-off, 91, 92, 138, 142, 146, 151
turn-on, 91, 136, 141, 149, 150 Lamp dimmer, 530
underdrive, 85, 88 Lamps, 435
voltage limiting values, 130 dI/dt, 438
Horizontal Deflection, 321, 367 inrush current, 438
base drive, 336 MOSFET, 435
control ic, 401 PWM control, 455
d-type transistors, 346 switch rate, 438
damper diodes, 345, 367 TOPFET, 455
diode modulator, 327, 347, 352, 367 Latching current
drive circuit, 352, 365, 406 thyristor, 490
east-west correction, 325, 352, 367 Leakage inductance, 113, 200, 523
line output transformer, 354 Lifetime control, 162
linearity correction, 323 Lighting
operating cycle, 321, 332, 347 fluorescent, 579
s-correction, 323, 352, 404 phase control, 530
TDA2595, 364, 368 Logic Level FET
TDA4851, 400 motor control, 432
TDA8433, 363, 369 Logic level MOSFET, 436
test circuit, 321
transistors, 331, 341, 408 Magnetics, 207
waveforms, 322 100W 100kHz forward converter, 197
100W 50kHz forward converter, 191
IGBT, 11, 305 50W flyback converter, 199
automotive, 481, 483 core losses, 208
clamped, 482, 484 core materials, 207
ignition, 481, 483 EFD core, 210
ETD core, 199, 207
iv
flyback converter, 213 safe operating area, 25, 74

forward converter, 213 series operation, 53
half bridge converter, 214 SMPS, 339, 384
power density, 211 solenoid, 62
push-pull converter, 213 structure, 19
switched mode power supply, 187 switching, 24, 29, 58, 73, 194, 262
switching frequency, 215 switching loss, 196
transformer construction, 215 synchronous rectifier, 179
Mains Flicker, 537 thermal impedance, 74
Mains pollution, 225 thermal resistance, 70
pre-converter, 225 threshold voltage, 21, 70
Mains transient, 544 transconductance, 57, 72
Mesa glass, 162 turn-off, 34, 36
Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV), 503 turn-on, 32, 34, 35, 155, 256
Miller capacitance, 139 Motor, universal
Modelling, 236, 265 back EMF, 531
MOS Controlled Thyristor, 13 starting, 528
MOSFET, 9, 19, 153, 253 Motor Control - AC, 245, 273
bootstrap, 303 anti-parallel diode, 253
breakdown voltage, 22, 70 antiparallel diode, 250
capacitance, 30, 57, 72, 155, 156 carrier frequency, 245
capacitances, 24 control, 248
characteristics, 23, 70 - 72 current rating, 262
charge, 32, 57 dc link, 249
data sheet, 69 diode, 261
dI/dt, 36 diode recovery, 250
diode, 253 duty ratio, 246
drive, 262, 264 efficiency, 262
drive circuit loss, 156 EMC, 260
driving, 39, 250 filter, 250
dV/dt, 36, 39, 264 FREDFET, 250, 259, 276
ESD, 67 gate drives, 249
gate-source protection, 264 half bridge, 245
gate charge, 195 inverter, 250, 260, 273
gate drive, 195 line voltage, 262
gate resistor, 156 loss, 267
high side, 436 MOSFET, 259
high side drive, 44 Parallel MOSFETs, 276
inductive load, 62 peak current, 251
lamps, 435 phase voltage, 262
leakage current, 71 power factor, 262
linear mode, parallelling, 52 pulse width modulation, 245, 260
logic level, 37, 57, 305 ripple, 246
loss, 26, 34 short circuit, 251
maximum current, 69 signal isolation, 250
motor control, 259, 429 snubber, 276
modelling, 265 speed control, 248
on-resistance, 21, 71 switching frequency, 246
package inductance, 49, 73 three phase bridge, 246
parallel operation, 26, 47, 49, 265 underlap, 248
parasitic oscillations, 51 Motor Control - DC, 285, 293, 425
peak current rating, 251 braking, 285, 299
Resonant supply, 53 brushless, 301
reverse diode, 73 control, 290, 295, 303
ruggedness, 61, 73 current rating, 288
v
drive, 303 Power MOSFET

duty cycle, 286 see MOSFET
efficiency, 293 Proportional control, 537
FREDFET, 287 Protection
freewheel diode, 286 ESD, 446, 448, 482
full bridge, 287 overvoltage, 446, 448, 469
half bridge, 287 reverse battery, 452, 473, 479
high side switch, 429 short circuit, 251, 446, 448
IGBT, 305 temperature, 446, 447, 471
inrush, 430 TOPFET, 445, 447, 451
inverter, 302 Pulse operation, 558
linear, 457, 475 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), 108
logic level FET, 432 Push-pull converter, 111, 119
loss, 288 advantages, 119
MOSFET, 287, 429 clamp diodes, 119
motor current, 295 cross conduction, 119
overload, 430 current mode control, 120
permanent magnet, 293, 301 diodes, 121
permanent magnet motor, 285 disadvantages, 119
PWM, 286, 293, 459, 471 duty ratio, 119
servo, 298 electronic ballast, 582, 587
short circuit, 431 flux symmetry, 119, 120
stall, 431 magnetics, 213
TOPFET, 430, 457, 459, 475 multiple outputs, 119
topologies, 286 operation, 119
torque, 285, 294 output filter, 119
triac, 525 output ripple, 119
voltage rating, 288 rectifier circuit, 180
Motor Control - Stepper, 309 switching frequency, 119
bipolar, 310 transformer, 119
chopper, 314 transistor voltage, 119
drive, 313 transistors, 121
hybrid, 312
permanent magnet, 309 Qs (stored charge), 162
reluctance, 311
step angle, 309 RBSOA, 93, 99, 135, 138, 139
unipolar, 310 Rectification, synchronous, 179
Mounting, transistor, 154 Reset winding, 117
Mounting base temperature, 557 Resistor
Mounting torque, 514 mains dropper, 544, 545
Resonant power supply, 219, 225
Parasitic oscillation, 149 modelling, 236
Passivation, 131, 162 MOSFET, 52, 53
PCB Design, 368, 419 pre-converter, 225
Phase angle, 500 Reverse leakage, 169
Phase control, 546 Reverse recovery, 143, 162
thyristors and triacs, 498 RFI, 154, 158, 167, 393, 396, 497, 529, 530,
triac, 523 537
Phase voltage Ruggedness
see motor control - ac MOSFET, 62, 73
Power dissipation, 557 schottky diode, 173
see High Voltage Bipolar Transistor loss,
MOSFET loss Safe Operating Area (SOA), 25, 74, 134, 557
Power factor correction, 580 forward biased, 92, 99, 134
active, boost converted, 581 reverse biased, 93, 99, 135, 138, 139
vi
Saturable choke Storage time, 144

triac, 523 Stored charge, 162
Schottky diode, 173 Suppression
bulk leakage, 174 mains transient, 544
edge leakage, 174 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
guard ring, 174 see also self oscillating power supply
reverse leakage, 174 100W 100kHz MOSFET forward converter,
ruggedness, 173 192
selection guide, 176 100W 500kHz half bridge converter, 153
technology, 173 100W 50kHz bipolar forward converter, 187
SCR 16 & 32 kHz TV, 389
see Thyristor asymmetrical, 111, 113
Secondary breakdown, 133 base circuit design, 149
Selection Guides boost converter, 109
BU25XXA, 331 buck-boost converter, 110
BU25XXD, 331 buck converter, 108
damper diodes, 345 ceramic output filter, 153
EPI diodes, 171 continuous mode, 109, 379
horizontal deflection, 343 control ic, 391
MOSFETs driving heaters, 442 control loop, 108
MOSFETs driving lamps, 441 core excitation, 113
MOSFETs driving motors, 426 core loss, 167
Schottky diodes, 176 current mode control, 120
SMPS, 339 dc-dc converter, 119
Self Oscillating Power Supply (SOPS) diode loss, 166
50W microcomputer flyback converter, 199 diode reverse recovery effects, 166
ETD transformer, 199 diode reverse recovery softness, 167
Servo, 298 diodes, 115, 118, 121, 124, 126
Single ended push-pull discontinuous mode, 109, 379
see half bridge converter epitaxial diodes, 112, 161
Snap-off, 167 flux swing, 111
Snubber, 93, 139, 495, 502, 523, 529, 549 flyback converter, 92, 111, 113, 123
active, 279 forward converter, 111, 116, 379
Softness factor, 167 full bridge converter, 111, 125
Solenoid half bridge converter, 111, 122
TOPFET, 469, 473 high voltage bipolar transistor, 94, 112, 115,
turn off, 469, 473 118, 121, 124, 126, 129, 339, 383, 392
Solid state relay, 501 isolated, 113
SOT186, 154 isolated packages, 153
SOT186A, 154 isolation, 108, 111
SOT199, 154 magnetics design, 191, 197
Space charge, 133 magnetisation energy, 113
Speed-up capacitor, 143 mains filter, 380
Speed control mains input, 390
thyristor, 531 MOSFET, 112, 153, 33, 384
triac, 527 multiple output, 111, 156
Starter non-isolated, 108
fluorescent lamp, 580 opto-coupler, 392
Startup circuit output rectifiers, 163
electronic ballast, 591 parasitic oscillation, 149
self oscillating power supply, 201 power-down, 136
Static Induction Thyristor, 11 power-up, 136, 137, 139
Stepdown converter, 109 power MOSFET, 153, 339, 384
Stepper motor, 309 pulse width modulation, 108
Stepup converter, 109 push-pull converter, 111, 119
vii
RBSOA failure, 139 Thermal characteristics

rectification, 381, 392 power semiconductors, 557
rectification efficiency, 163 Thermal impedance, 74, 568
rectifier selection, 112 Thermal resistance, 70, 154, 557
regulation, 108 Thermal time constant, 568
reliability, 139 Thyristor, 10, 497, 509
resonant ’two transistor’ model, 490
see resonant power supply applications, 527
RFI, 154, 158, 167 asynchronous control, 497
schottky diode, 112, 154, 173 avalanche breakdown, 490
snubber, 93, 139, 383 breakover voltage, 490, 509
soft start, 138 cascading, 501
standby, 382 commutation, 492
standby supply, 392 control, 497
start-up, 391 current rating, 511
stepdown, 109 dI/dt, 490
stepup, 109 dIf/dt, 491
symmetrical, 111, 119, 122 dV/dt, 490
synchronisation, 382 energy handling, 505
synchronous rectification, 156, 179 external commutation, 493
TDA8380, 381, 391 full wave control, 499
topologies, 107 fusing I2t, 503, 512
topology output powers, 111 gate cathode resistor, 500
transformer, 111 gate circuits, 500
transformer saturation, 138 gate current, 490
transformers, 391 gate power, 492
transistor current limiting value, 112 gate requirements, 492
transistor mounting, 154 gate specifications, 512
transistor selection, 112 gate triggering, 490
transistor turn-off, 138 half wave control, 499
transistor turn-on, 136 holding current, 490, 509
transistor voltage limiting value, 112 inductive loads, 500
transistors, 115, 118, 121, 124, 126 inrush current, 503
turns ratio, 111 latching current, 490, 509
TV & Monitors, 339, 379, 399 leakage current, 490
two transistor flyback, 111, 114 load line, 492
two transistor forward, 111, 117 mounting, 514
Switching loss, 230 operation, 490
Synchronous, 497 overcurrent, 503
Synchronous rectification, 156, 179 peak current, 505
self driven, 181 phase angle, 500
transformer driven, 180 phase control, 498, 527
pulsed gate, 500
Temperature control, 537 resistive loads, 498
Thermal resonant circuit, 493
continuous operation, 557, 568 reverse characteristic, 489
intermittent operation, 568 reverse recovery, 493
non-rectangular pulse, 565 RFI, 497
pulse operation, 558 self commutation, 493
rectangular pulse, composite, 562 series choke, 502
rectangular pulse, periodic, 561 snubber, 502
rectangular pulse, single shot, 561 speed controller, 531
single shot operation, 561 static switching, 497
Thermal capacity, 558, 568 structure, 489
switching, 489
viii
switching characteristics, 517 gate requirements, 492

synchronous control, 497 gate resistor, 540, 545
temperature rating, 512 gate sensitivity, 491
thermal specifications, 512 gate triggering, 538
time proportional control, 497 holding current, 491, 510
transient protection, 502 Hi-Com, 549, 551
trigger angle, 500 inductive loads, 500
turn-off time, 494 inrush current, 503
turn-on, 490, 509 isolated trigger, 501
turn-on dI/dt, 502 latching current, 491, 510
varistor, 503 operation, 491
voltage rating, 510 overcurrent, 503
Thyristor data, 509 phase angle, 500
Time proportional control, 537 phase control, 498, 527, 546
TOPFET protection, 544
3 pin, 445, 449, 461 pulse triggering, 492
5 pin, 447, 451, 457, 459, 463 pulsed gate, 500
driving, 449, 453, 461, 465, 467, 475 quadrants, 491, 510
high side, 473, 475 resistive loads, 498
lamps, 455 RFI, 497
leadforms, 463 saturable choke, 523
linear control, 451, 457 series choke, 502
motor control, 430, 457, 459 snubber, 495, 502, 523, 529, 549
negative input, 456, 465, 467 speed controller, 527
protection, 445, 447, 451, 469, 473 static switching, 497
PWM control, 451, 455, 459 structure, 489
solenoids, 469 switching, 489
Transformer synchronous control, 497
triac controlled, 523 transformer load, 523
Transformer core airgap, 111, 113 transient protection, 502
Transformers trigger angle, 492, 500
see magnetics triggering, 550
Transient thermal impedance, 559 turn-on dI/dt, 502
Transient thermal response, 154 varistor, 503
Triac, 497, 510, 518 zero crossing, 537
400Hz operation, 489, 518 Trigger angle, 500
applications, 527, 537 TV & Monitors
asynchronous control, 497 16 kHz black line, 351
breakover voltage, 510 30-64 kHz autosync, 399
charge carriers, 549 32 kHz black line, 361
commutating dI/dt, 494 damper diodes, 345, 367
commutating dV/dt, 494 diode modulator, 327, 367
commutation, 494, 518, 523, 529, 549 EHT, 352 - 354, 368, 409, 410
control, 497 high voltage bipolar transistor, 339, 341
dc inductive load, 523 horizontal deflection, 341
dc motor control, 525 picture distortion, 348
dI/dt, 531, 549 power MOSFET, 339
dIcom/dt, 523 SMPS, 339, 354, 379, 389, 399
dV/dt, 523, 549 vertical deflection, 358, 364, 402
emitter shorting, 549 Two transistor flyback converter, 111, 114
full wave control, 499 Two transistor forward converter, 111, 117
fusing I2t, 503, 512
gate cathode resistor, 500 Universal motor
gate circuits, 500 back EMF, 531
gate current, 491
ix
starting, 528
Vacuum cleaner, 527
Varistor, 503
Vertical Deflection, 358, 364, 402
Voltage doubling, 122
Water heaters, 537
Zero crossing, 537

Zero voltage switching, 537

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Lighting Power Semiconductor Applications

8.1 Fluorescent Lamp Control

Fluorescent Lamp Control

8.1.1 Efficient Fluorescent Lighting using Electronic Ballasts

This section provides a general background to fluorescent

PHOSPHOR COATING CATHODE

The fluorescent lamp. Fig. 1. A fluorescent tube.

Lamp efficacy (%)

The energy-saving benefits of electronic ballasts have Electronic ballast topologies.

CORRECTION OPTIONAL FEEDBACK

Fig. 4. Electronic ballast block diagram.

No separate ballast inductor is required, since the only

Fig. 5. A boost converter for active power factor R

Blocking oscillator. 12V DC

theoretical VCE of 2 x D.C. rail voltage. + T1 ADDITIONAL

CIRCUIT Fig. 8. Current fed parallel resonant push pull ballast

+ Popular topologies for low cost electronic ballasts have

8.1.2 Electronic Ballasts - Philips Transistor Selection Guide

c) Current fed half bridge inverter.

L The transformer primary is driven from one end by the

TOPOLOGY: a) V. fed P.P. b) C. fed P.P. c) C. fed H.B. d) V. fed H.B.

8.1.3 An Electronic Ballast - Base Drive Optimisation

+ Simple base drive.

Fig. 1. Current fed half bridge ballast.

1. Each transistor must not be overdriven and oversaturated

0 Fig. 5. Improved base drive.

Ic (0.2 A/div) Ic (0.2 A/div)

To ensure correct operation under all conditions, base drive

Fig. 9. Improved base drive.

Optimised base drive. 0

preventing the diac’s breakover voltage being reached C

during normal circuit oscillation. This avoids repeated L T1

oversaturation of Q2. (The length of time for C to charge to

N.Bennett D.J.Harper J.Oosterling

M.J.Humphreys D.Brown L.Burley

It was revised and updated, in 1994, by:

N.J.Ham C.J.Hammerton D.Sharples

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Power Semiconductors 1

1.1.1 An Introduction To Power Devices ............................................................ 5

1.2.1 PowerMOS Introduction ............................................................................. 19

High Voltage Bipolar Transistor 77

1.3.1 Introduction To High Voltage Bipolar Transistors ...................................... 79

CHAPTER 2 Switched Mode Power Supplies 103

Using Power Semiconductors in Switched Mode Topologies 105

2.1.1 An Introduction to Switched Mode Power Supply Topologies ................... 107

Output Rectification 159

Design Examples 185

Magnetics Design 205

Resonant Power Supplies 217

2.5.1. An Introduction To Resonant Power Supplies .......................................... 219

CHAPTER 3 Motor Control 241

AC Motor Control 243

DC Motor Control 283

3.2.1 Chopper circuits for DC motor control ....................................................... 285

Stepper Motor Control 307

3.3.1 Stepper Motor Control ............................................................................... 309

CHAPTER 4 Televisions and Monitors 317

Power Devices in TV & Monitor Applications (including selection

4.1.1 An Introduction to Horizontal Deflection .................................................... 321