Perfumery Principles Practice-1994

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Perfumery
Practice and Principles
Robert R. Calkin
Perfumery Training Consultant
J. Stephan Jellinek
Dragoco, Holzminden, Germany
A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
NEW YORK / CHICHESTER / BRISBANE / TORONTO / SINGAPORE
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This text is printed on acid-free paper.
Copyright © 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada.
Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Section 107 or 108 of
the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful.
Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:
Calkin, Robert R.
Perfumery: practice and principles / Robert R. Calkin, J.
Stephan Jellinek.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-471-58934-9 (alk. paper)
1. Perfumes. I. Jellinek, Joseph Stephan. II. Title.
TP983.C33 1994
668'.54—dc20 93-41844
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4
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CONTENTS
Preface vii
Part I
Basic Skills and Techniques
1 3
What It Takes to Be a Perfumer
2 10
The Student Perfumer Today
3 15
The Technique of Smelling
4 19
Perfumery Raw Materials
5 24
The Learning and Classification of Raw Materials
6 44
The Floral Accords
7 58
The Technique of Matching
Part II
Aesthetics and the Fundamentals of Composition
8 75
The Biological Basis of Aesthetics
9 83
The Structure of a Perfume
10 94
The Use of Bases
Part III
Studies in Fine Fragrance
11 101
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The Descent of Perfumes
12 107
Selected Great Perfumes
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Part IV
Aspects Of Creative Perfumery
13 143
Perfumes for Functional Products
14 177
The Challenge of New Materials
15 180
Constraints to Creation
16 196
The Perfumer and the Market
Part V
Scientific Fundamentals
17 207
The Chemical Structure of Perfumery Materials
18 222
Chemical Reactions in Perfumery
19 234
The Physical Basis of Perfumery
20 243
Psychophysics and Perfumery
Appendixes
A 253
Structural Groups
B 258
The Functional Groups
C 261
The Aldehydes
D 267
The Ionones
269
E
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Glossary of Perfumes, Specialty Raw Materials, and Bases
Bibliography 273
Index of Perfumery Raw Materials and Bases 277
General Index 283
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PREFACE
Some thirty years ago the perfumery profession was shaken by the commercialization of the gas
chromatograph. In lectures, roundtable discussions, and private conversation hot debates centered
around the question whether this analytical tool, by greatly simplifying the separation of complex
mixtures of volatile materials, would make the perfumer redundant.
The initial stir soon calmed down, to be replaced by a feeling that the gas chromatograph, while
highly useful to the analytical chemist and to quality control, would have little or no effect upon the
perfumer's essential job, the creation of perfumes.
Today it is becoming increasingly clear that this business-as-usual second reaction was as misguided
as the panicky initial response had been. For gradually but surely, the gas chromatograph—which
soon expanded its scope of effectiveness by the successive introduction of capillary columns, the
mass spectrometer, and quantitative head-space analysis techniques—has profoundly changed the
perfumer's daily work.
In reviewing the changes, we concentrate upon the most salient ones: the erosion of secrecy and the
intensification of competition, the acceleration of trends and of the trickle-down phenomenon, the
rise of safety and environmental concerns, and the refinement of performance measurement.
Just one generation ago perfumers' work and the operations of the fragrance industry were steeped
in secrecy. Access to the book of
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formulations was limited to a few trusted individuals. Perfumers kept to themselves any insights
about the composition of famous perfumes which they might have acquired by dint of extensive
matching efforts. The notion of giving customers information about the formulation of perfumes
they were buying was anathema.
The fact that anyone armed with good GC/MS equipment and experienced in using this equipment
can today, within days, find out a great deal about the formulation of any perfume has radically
changed this climate. Formulas are still confidential, but the value of this confidentiality has been
greatly diminished by the knowledge that, whenever it is to their advantage, customers and
competitors can analyze most perfumes more or less precisely. The practice of giving formulas to
major customers, either partially open with keys, or in toto in sealed envelopes to be opened under
certain specified conditions, has long since ceased to be shocking.
This erosion of secrecy has logically led to a climate of more intensive competition, with results that
are changing the face of the fragrance industry. Where formerly the industry offered good profit
opportunities even to those companies that operated at less than peak efficiency, and the old artisan
style of operation could survive alongside with the upcoming high technology approach, today only
those fragrance houses are profitable that are either organized for peak efficiency or have
specialized in optimally serving a specific niche of the market. In the brief span of five years (1986
to 1991) the share of world industry turnover accounted for by the ten largest fragrance and flavor
suppliers increased from less than 50% to about two-thirds, and the trend continues. It would be an
oversimplification to say that this development is due entirely to the gas chromatograph, but GC/MS
certainly has played a major part in it.
It goes without saying that the growing pressures for efficiency in the industry are having marked
effects also upon perfumers in their work, limiting their freedom of choosing raw materials (for the
sake of keeping inventories in check), requiring them to accept judgments by evaluation boards or
consumer panels on the quality and market appeal of their creations, and forcing them to make
optimal use of the very tool that has played a major part in bringing about their new working
environment, GC/MS. The task of exploring the composition of successful and trend-setting
products in the market, which formerly occupied a major portion of the time of many perfumers, has
become the work of specialized perfumer-chemist teams who conduct it more efficiently, leaving
the perfumers free—but also forcing them—to concentrate their efforts upon the truly creative
aspects of the job.
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Gas chromatographic analysis today throws an increasingly clear light upon questions regarding the
purity of natural perfumery materials. As a result perfurmers can now, if they are willing to pay the
price, work with reliably pure materials; if they choose to use a commercial grade they know, more
precisely than in the past, the material's degree of purity.
The history of perfumery has always been marked by evolutionary changes. Perfumers studied the
perfumes they admired and built upon them, replacing their structural components by related yet
different newer materials, shifting their center of gravity, introducing new nuances. At the heart of
this process there was the quest for mastering the model perfume, and the modifications were like
commentaries upon a classical text, highlighting certain of their features and showing their
continued relevance in a changing world of fashions and styles. Mirroring the arduousness of the
task of matching the model, the rhythm of this process was slow. When Madame Rochas, a
commentary on Arpège, was launched in 1960, it took its place within an evolution of floral
aldehydic perfumes that had continued without a break since 1921, the year of birth of Chanel No.
5. Fidji (1966) was a direct descendant of L'Air du Temps (1948).
Today the appearance of descendants of important fragrances is a nearly instantaneous process. The
development and launching of mutations of and commentaries upon such perfumes occur at high
intensity within very few years, even months after their launching, affecting not only the world of
fine fragrances but also, thanks to the ubiquitous trickle-down phenomenon, deodorants and other
toiletries, even laundry care and household products. As quickly as the trend has taken off, so
quickly may it die down when the attention of the marketing community shifts to other models.
It would be wrong to attribute this change of pace to the GC/MS technique of matching; its origin
lies, rather, in a transformation of marketing objectives. But in making near-instant matches
possible, the GC/MS technique has provided the technical conditions that have made the dramatic
speedup of derivation and of trickle-down possible.
The role that the gas chromatograph and mass spectrometry, along with a host of other high-
powered new analytical techniques, have played in intensifying public concerns about the effects of
fragrances and fragrance materials upon human health is perhaps not immediately obvious yet
fundamental.
One generation ago public opinion about the wholesomeness of foods was dominated by ideas about
main ingredients: Fresh fruits and vegetables are good for you, candy is not; proteins are good, too
much
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fat is not. The same kind of thinking prevailed in the public mind about what is good or bad for the
skin: Harsh solvents are bad, creams and oils are good. The knowledge that most foods and skin
products contain, in addition to their main ingredients, small amounts of minor components
including additives and trace residues of materials used in crop protection, processing, packaging,
and so on, was confined to a small group of specialists.
Then, due to the rapid advances in analytical techniques, these specialists began finding more and
more potentially harmful impurities even in foods that had been totally beyond suspicion: in fresh
meat and beer, in baby food and milk including mothers' milk, even in the water we drink and the
very air we breathe. It did not take long for these findings to catch the public's imagination and
lawmakers' watchful attention. As a result we live in a climate of opinion today where public
awareness of additives and impurities and their possible harmful effects has been raised to a level
where it often overshadows thinking about the main effects of foods and beverages.
This climate has also colored the way the public perceives the products with which the perfumer
deals: cosmetics and toiletries, detergents, and household products. Here too, additives and
impurities are now seen as serious risk factors. One of the additives that has become salient and a
cause for concern is fragrance. As a result perfumers today must constantly take into account the
manifold and everchanging safety-related requirements of the countries and of the specific
customers for whom they create their fragrances.
In parallel to the awareness of possible health effects, concerns about environmental impact of
materials and impurities have been greatly on the rise. The roots of this development do not lie in
the advances in analytical chemistry but its course has been profoundly marked by these advances.
It too is beginning to have a strong impact upon perfumers' work.
Turning now to the effects of analysis upon the objective quantitative measurement of fragrance
performance, we broach a subject whose outlines are only just beginning to take shape and whose
impact will be felt largely in the future.
Perfumery is the art of creating pleasurable and meaningful odor experiences. The nature of the
experiences elicited by a fragrance in use is the measure of that fragrance's performance. The chain
of events leading from the incorporation of a fragrance into a product to the experiencing of that
fragrance by the product's user is complex and includes diverse chemical, physical, and
neurophysical phenomena. In the past the only way perfumers could get information about what
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went on after they incorporated a perfumery material or a perfume in a product base was by
smelling. Smelling is very imprecise when it comes to measuring intensity, a major aspect of
performance. Moreover, being subjective, it is subject to all kinds of distortions. Since smelling
registers only the mental experience that comes at the very end of the chain of events, it gives no
clues about what went wrong at what point of the chain if performance is unsatisfactory.
Today quantitative head-space chromatography provides a means for monitoring objectively what is
happening at an intermediate point in the chain. Coupled with improved techniques of extraction
and liquid chromatography to identify chemical changes that perfume materials undergo in the
product base, it can make perfumers far more efficient in arriving at highly performing fragrances
than they had been in the past.
The idea for writing this book was the result of the authors' recognition of the profound changes in
the nature of perfumery that are being brought about by recent advances in analytical techniques,
and their awareness that these changes also call for a new approach to teaching perfumery.
One of us (R. R. C.) is daily observing, in his work as a teacher of perfumers, how the detailed
knowledge of the structure of the great perfumes that today, for the first time, is becoming common
knowledge, revolutionizes the teaching and learning of perfumery skills. The other (J. S. J.), who
early in his career explored the physical aspects of fragrance performance and later centered his
interest upon measuring and understanding human responses to fragrance, has seen his fields of
interest similarly affected by the advances in analytical technique.
Writing this book in the midst of a period of rapid change, we are acutely aware that it cannot hope
to offer the last word on any of the many topics it covers. We nevertheless hope that as an extensive
review of an art in progress, it will prove useful not only as a textbook for prospective perfumers but
also as an aid for those workers in the fragrance industry, the fragrance material industry, and the
various industries of perfumed consumer products who want to improve their understanding of
modern creative perfumery.
J. STEPHAN JELLINEK
ROBERT R. CALKIN
HOLZMINDEN, GERMANY
MAY 1994
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writing of this book has been supported in numerous ways by our colleagues at Dragoco and by
the company's management. To them we owe our sincere gratitude. Without wanting to depreciate
the contribution of the others, we should like to give special thanks to Dr. Hans-Ulrich Warnecke
for his critical reading of Chapter 17, and to the perfumers who by their work on the great perfumes
have provided a great deal of the substance of Chapter 12. Our thanks are due to Frank Rittler for
much of the GC information used in the preparation of this chapter. Most of the perfumes mentioned
in the text have also been worked on by the students of the Dragoco Perfumery School, and we are
grateful to them for their enthusiasm in carrying out this work and for providing us with many ideas:
Emily Coelho, Rolf Czyppull, Marc vom Ende, Jan Fockenbrock, Enrique Gomez, Yuko Ikeda,
Veronika Kato, Styx Kwan, Susanne Multhoff, and Thomas Obrocki.
Outside Dragoco, we gratefully acknowledge the helpful exchange of thoughts with Dr. P. Müller
and Dr. N. Neuner (Givaudan-Roure Forschung AG) on odor values, and their permission to use a
chart from their work in Chapter 13, and the help of Birgit Kehmeier in calculating the vapor
pressures for Tables 13.1–13.3 of that chapter.
R. R. C.
J. S. J.
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PART I—
BASIC SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES
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1—
What It Takes to Be a Perfumer
The decision to embark upon a career in perfumery is usually taken between the ages of 23 and 27.
It is a serious decision because the job requires several years of demanding and rigorous training, a
training so specialized as to be nearly useless for anything other than a career in the chosen field.
A basic understanding of creative perfumery is certainly helpful in a great number of other

occupations such as sales, purchasing, production, application technology, quality control, research,
and general management—but only within the rather narrow confines of the fragrance industry or of
small departments within fragrance-using companies such as cosmetics and household products
firms. And the perfumery skills that are useful in these functions are the ones that are learned within
the first half-year of a good perfumery instruction course. Those who continue beyond this point
should be absolutely sure of wanting to make creative perfumery their profession and reasonably
sure of their chances of being successful at it. What qualifications can give them this certainty?
Physiological Prerequisites
Obviously a keen sense of smell is a primary prerequisite for any career in perfumery, yet, contrary
to popular belief, exceptional keenness is not required. Skill in perfumery is related more to what
the brain does with odor perceptions than to the perceptions themselves.
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A given person does not necessarily have a uniformly keen or poor sense of smell. It often happens
that someone is highly sensitive to certain odor notes, while perceiving others relatively poorly or
not at all. This phenomenon is known to physiologists as partial anosmia. Perfumers should not
have too pronounced partial anosmias, although they do not have to be entirely free from the
condition. Some very skillful perfumers are unable to smell certain perfumery materials (usually
musks or woody odorants of high molecular weight) in pure form, yet perfectly capable of noting
the effects of these materials—a strange phenomenon that is familiar to psychophysicists who have
observed that the olfactory threshold for a substance in mixtures is often different than for the same
substance alone.
Olfactory sensibility is subject to change over time, perhaps related in part to hormonal influences.
Many perfumers have moreover found that their sensitivity varies with the time of day, so they
adjust their working habits accordingly. Surprisingly this question has not, to our knowledge, been
systematically investigated; major changes in the course of the day have, however, been well
established in the related field of dosage-response ratios for drugs.
There is some truth to the popular belief that perfumers should not be smokers. The evidence that at
least heavy smokers have reduced sensitivity for at least certain types of odors is now irrefutable
(Gilbert and Wysocki 1987). Nevertheless, a number of the great perfumers of the past have been
heavy smokers. It is often claimed that perfumers, in order to keep their sense of smell in top
condition, must avoid strongly seasoned foods. The experience of individual perfumers appears to
vary rather widely in this respect; every perfumer should find out for him- or herself what foods or
beverages, if any, adversely affect performance.
It has been clearly demonstrated that olfactory sensitivity declines with age and that this decline
becomes particularly pronounced after age 60 (Gilbert and Wysocki 1987). However, not all
perfumers retire at 60. Many have performed successfully throughout their 60s and even in their
70s. Whatever losses in sensitivity they suffered, they compensated by their long experience. Once
more, then: High sensitivity is necessary, but exceptional sensitivity is not.
Discrimination ability, that is, the capability of recognizing small differences in odor quality, can to
some extent be learned. However, there are innate, permanent differences between people in the
extent to which they can acquire this ability, and the perfumer must be very good at it. The
beginning student will come to know his or her own potential ability only after some time.
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The same is true for odor memory, for it can also be acquired or at least trained. There are large
individual differences here, it is certainly more a mental faculty than an attribute of the olfactory
organ. An excellent odor memory is indispensable to the perfumer. The student perfumer who after
six to nine months of training still has difficulties in recognizing the 200 or so main perfumery
materials should seriously question whether it is wise to continue training.
Prerequisites of Personality
Successful perfumers represent a rather wide range of personality types, but is seems fair to say that
a balanced disposition is optimal: (1) a predilection for the patient, persistent, and essentially lonely
effort that the creation of a fragrance requires, balanced by the gregariousness needed for the give-
and-take that is at the heart of a successful team effort; (2) the reliance upon the perfumer's own
aesthetic intuitions in their pursuit of the creative effort, tempered by a sensitivity toward the
expectations of clients and consumers who may have very different tastes; and (3) the high
standards and perfectionism that it takes to create fragrances of exceptional quality, coupled with the
realism needed to live within the limitations inherent in nearly every practical assignment.
An eagerness for recognition and success is important as a motivating force, but it should not be too
central a motivation lest the perfumer get distracted by a quest for facile successes or discouraged
by frequent disappointments. Disappointments are inevitable because of the way major projects are
handled: Nearly always, several perfume suppliers are involved and, within each supplier firm,
several perfumers, but in the end only one can win. The closer one comes to winning, the keener the
disappointment if the perfume is not selected. The fact that the decision is usually based on
undefinable, subjective considerations makes it harder yet to accept.
The person who has the ambition to achieve great things for humankind should not become a
perfumer. Successes in perfumery may yield considerable financial rewards and may lead to
recognition within a small circle of professionals. But from the perspective of human history they
are insignificant.
The person to whom power over people is an important motivator should seriously question whether
perfumery is the right profession. Certainly a perfumer's decision about using or not using a certain
raw material may have major consequences to the supplier of that material.
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Certainly a successful perfumer may become a power to reckon with within his or her firm. But the
moment such power ceases to be a side effect of success and becomes a major motivator, the
perfumer's professional performance suffers.
The good perfumer's strongest motivation is enthusiasm, born out of the sheer joy that he or she
derives from doing the job. The ''appetite that is brought on by the foretaste of discovery" must, in
Stravinsky's (1942) words, be in the perfumer "as habitual and periodic, if not as constant, as a
natural need." The perfumer must know the "pleasure of creation … that is … inseparable from …
the very act of putting [his or her] work on paper" even if this act may entail a great deal of effort,
and even struggle. The joy of creation is the source of the perfumer's persistence in the face of
difficulties, the medicine against the frustrations that are bound to come up time and again and the
secret of the perfumer's enthusiasm. It is also an essential component of creativity.
Prerequisites of Creativity
We have no ambition to enrich the vast existing literature on creativity by yet another contribution.
We prefer to restrict ourselves to a few personal observations with regard to this subject in
perfumery.
Creativity in perfumery, as in any art, has a great deal to do with the ability to make observations
that are spontaneous, direct, and unfettered by any traditional views on how things should be; an
ability to discover new potentials in a material that has already been used a thousand times; to note
the flash of the unexpected that comes from a chance combination, in a certain proportion, of
familiar odors; to recognize a special character in a perfume material that runs counter to what its
chemical structure would have led one to expect. It is perhaps not by chance, then, that many good
perfumers are also good photographers. Both arts involve an aptitude for fresh observation, for
breaking through the crust of traditional viewing patterns.
In apparent contrast to what we have just said, creativity also presupposes a great deal of experience
and knowledge in the chosen field. To turn the spark of an idea into an aesthetically sound perfume
takes a great deal of skill; even conceiving the idea requires a solid base of knowledge. Spontaneity
and enthusiasm alone are not enough. We do not know of any case in which a perfumer with less
than a few years of solid experience has created a truly good perfume.
Inspiration in the sense of a guiding vision prior to the work is not necessary. The creation of a
perfume may well start, to borrow another
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phrase from Stravinsky (1942, p. 55), as a kind of "grubbing about" and the spark, the jolt, or even a
succession of sparks comes only as the work proceeds.
Apart from the creativity that expresses itself in novel odor accords and effects, there is also the
inventiveness that leads to new solutions to such problems as masking the base note of a particularly
unpleasant-smelling functional product or achieving outstanding diffusion and lasting power in a
low-price soap perfume. The question whether the two—we might call them aesthetic and technical
creativity—are different in kind has long divided the perfumery profession. Suffice it to say that
technical creativity is, from a commercial point of view, every bit as valuable as the aesthetic kind.
Aesthetic creativity is not a guarantee for success. Commercial success has to do with sensing how
much newness and unconventionality any given assignment will tolerate. We will discuss this point
in more depth in the chapter on the Perfumer and Marketing.
In summary, we can say that in the perfumer's work, creativity is manifested largely in the power of
imagination that enables one to place the idea of an odor that does not exist yet in the mind's eye, in
the spontaneity of perception that enables one to discover ever new aspects and potentials in long-
familiar perfume materials, in the cleverness to conceive of new approaches to old problems, and in
the dedication and skill that it takes to turn a vision or a discovery into a good perfume.
Educational Prerequisites
A key question is: Should the perfumer have studied chemistry? Some perfumers' reply is a firm and
unequivocal "no." This reaction is found primarily among those who concern themselves largely or
exclusively with "alcoholic perfumery" (i.e., the creation of compositions for perfumes, colognes,
etc.). A prominent exponent of this wing, Edmond Roudnitska, said: "Perfumers are chemists no
more than is the painter who manipulates chemical colors. In itself, composing a perfume has
nothing to do with chemistry" (Moreno et al. 1974, p. 71). ''The Compositeur must not let himself be
influenced by systematic thoughts. Only by considering each odor by itself and in its rapport with
the other odors, without any preconceived idea, will he make the best use of it" (Moreno et al. 1974,
p. 109).
We consider Roudniska's view to be largely true. The perfumer who thinks too "systematically"
might well be blind to or at least underrate
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the vast differences among, for instance, methyl, amyl, hexyl, and benzyl salicylate or between
vetivert oil and vetiveryl acetate. In using rose oxide, the perfumer might limit him or herself too
much to the rose complex, and using citral, to the citrus complex. The total openness with which
perfumers should approach the odor of perfume materials can be constrained by thought patterns
that are too much chemically oriented. Nevertheless, we feel that an understanding of chemical
processes can greatly facilitate the perfumer's job, especially when it comes to perfuming
chemically active functional products, and we therefore strongly recommend that perfumers, except
perhaps those specializing exclusively in alcoholic perfumery, should have a background in organic
chemistry and be familiar with the fundamentals of physical chemistry.
A knowledge of botany enriches the understanding of natural perfume materials and their
production but is not essential to the perfumer's job. An interest in the physiology of olfaction and
the mechanisms of odor detection is intellectually enriching, but at the current state of knowledge
this discipline contributes little to the practice of perfumery.
The study of odor psychology and of what has of late been called "Aroma-chology,"* of human
responses to odors, is a different matter. There is much here that is related to perfumers' work. The
same may be said about the anthropology of odor, the study of the differing roles and meanings of
odors in different cultures. Unfortunately, publications in these fields are dispersed over a great
number of specialized journals that are not readily accessible to perfumers.
In a later chapter of this book, we will attempt to give a glimpse of the information available in the
area of the psychophysics of odor. Psychophysics is the science that seeks to measure the perception
of sensory inputs in a quantitative manner and to arrive at general laws of perception.
As to language skills: We regard fluency in written English as indispensable, for this is the language
of the major international trade literature. Perfumers working for companies that are active in the
international market should be fluent also in spoken English, since this will enable them to enter into
direct exchanges with most foreign customers. To the perfumer with strong interests in fine
perfumery, we recommend proficiency at least in written French, for in this sector French perfumers
and publications in French have always played a key role.
*A service mark of the Olfactory Research Fund.
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Testing for Aptitude
At Dragoco, where a formal perfumery training course has been conducted for some time,
candidates for the course are screened in a test that includes an odor recognition test and a series of
triangle tests. In the odor recognition tests, candidates are asked to identify different odors presented
on a smelling blotter. The odor selections range from fruits, spices, and other food-related odors to
the odors of leather, cigar boxes, and paint thinner. The score is indicative of a basic ability to
perceive and to remember odors as well as odor awareness and articulateness. Women nearly always
outperform men in this test. An exceptionally high score is not a prerequisite for the perfumery
training course, though a very low score may well indicate serious deficiencies that may affect one's
career potential.
The triangle test is a measure of odor discrimination. The candidate is presented, in random order,
with three blotters, of which two are identical and the third is slightly different. The task is to
indicate the odd blotter. This test can be designed to range from easy to very difficult. It is
statistically most powerful if the difference between the paired blotters is such that the odd one is
correctly identified by about 50% of the candidates.
Questions may also be included in which the candidate is asked to pick the best and the poorest out
of a group of, say, lavender or ylang oils or rose bases. Sometimes totally inexperienced candidates
score surprisingly well in this test, which measures innate taste and sense of quality.
In these tests it is not only the numerical score that counts. The candidate's enthusiasm and
involvement in tackling the tasks, the joyful excitement he or she may show when a test odor calls
forth an old memory or when the sample is of a particularly fine material: These are crucial, if
nonquantifiable, indicators of aptitude.
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2—
The Student Perfumer Today
Like any other creative art the art of perfumery depends upon experience and technique as well as
upon inspiration. Experience and technique can only be acquired by an immense amount of patient
study and hard work, frequently beset by disappointment and frustration. Yet for the talented and
enthusiastic student the obstacles are more than offset by the sense of discovery and excitement that
surrounds the work. The training will usually involve either working as an apprentice (often as a
compounder) to a senior perfumer or formal study in one of the perfumery schools. The apprentice
perfumer will probably be required to spend some time gaining firsthand experience in other
departments of the company, in related areas such as production, the application of perfumes in
different functional products, product evaluation and marketing, analytical techniques, and quality
control. There is little room today for the "ivory tower" approach to perfumery; a perfumer is seen
as part of a team of experts working toward the success of a company.
It was frequently the case in the past that a perfumer could enter the profession with little or no
formal training, often having worked first as either a chemist or a laboratory assistant in a related
area of the industry. Perfumery knowledge and experience came through a long and often difficult
period of self-training, with only as much information and help as could occasionally be obtained
from senior colleagues. This approach was rightly based on the principle that there is no substitute
for the hard work that a student must do in order to
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acquire the necessary knowledge of raw materials and basic perfumery formulation to enable him or
her to work successfully on new creations, and to establish a personal perfumery style. However, the
role of the perfumer today, in an industry that has become increasingly technical and market
orientated, demands a breadth of knowledge and experience that can only be achieved within a
reasonable period of time by intense and well-planned instruction.
In the past, details of perfumery formulation were the jealously guarded secrets of perfumers who
had spent a lifetime acquiring them. A student perfumer would be expected to spend many months
working alone, with little help, trying to recreate one of the great perfumes of the past, while doing
hundreds of simple experiments with a handful of traditional raw materials so as to establish the best
relationships between them. Such work is of course still of value in the training and subsequent
work of the perfumer, but modern techniques have made it possible to shorten this method of
training so that the student can progress far more quickly than in the past. (A similar revolution has
taken place in the field of music, where modern teaching methods have resulted in a generation of
young musicians whose technical and interpretive ability is quite astounding.)
One of the factors that has triggered the change in the teaching of perfumery has been the
introduction of gas chromatography. Any company today, for an initial investment of little more
than the annual salary of one perfumer, can obtain a vast amount of information about the
formulation of existing perfumes. It would be foolish to deny the impact that this availability of
information can have on modern methods of perfumery training.
It is here that the experience of the teacher can be of the greatest importance. Too much teaching
and the giving of too much information can be as harmful as too little, for young perfumers must
make their own discoveries and develop their own personalities. Merely to present students with a
bookful of formulas does not make them perfumers. Indeed it is more likely to inhibit their
creativity and spirit of inquiry. Although the teacher may set the course that students should follow,
and give judiciously of his or her experience and formulations, the work of becoming perfumers
must be done by the students themselves.
In perfumery, as in painting, photography, or music, there are no set rules of technique. At best we
may formulate a number of general principles that will guide students in their work and to which
they will continually return. No two perfumers work in precisely the same way, but discipline and
technique there must be if students are to make the progress that will give them a sense of
fulfillment and the determination
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to carry on. In our own experience the most important role of the teacher or senior perfumer in the
training of young perfumers is to maintain their enthusiasm, instilling in them a spirit of inquiry,
while providing them with the discipline and sufficient information to allow them to make the rapid
progress that will fuel their excitement and creative self-confidence.
From the very beginning of their studies and throughout their careers, perfumers must practice the
discipline of olfactory training. Each morning they must set aside time for testing their knowledge
of materials against a number of samples, selected by their teacher, a colleague, or assistant. Even
senior perfumers can find this difficult when faced with a test taken from the entire inventory. As
with any other skill, this expertise requires both practice to achieve and practice to maintain. The
learning of materials will be discussed in more detail in a later chapter.
Good laboratory training is another aspect of young perfumers' education. The proper labeling of
samples, writing of formulas, and maintenance of the laboratory and laboratory equipment must be
established right from the beginning before bad habits become ingrained. Perfumers today must
retain an enormous amount of information and must be able to work fast and under pressure. The
more orderly the recording of information, the freer the perfumer to think creatively. Young
perfumers must be encouraged to have a good intellectual grasp of their work, and this should be
reflected in the way in which they write out their formula. As we will show in a later chapter, a
perfume is not just a random mixture of materials that somehow come together with a beautiful
effect; a perfume has a well-defined structure. This may of course vary from one perfume type to
another, and the past eighty or more years has seen the evolution of a number of different styles.
Students must always be aware of the structural framework within which they are working.
Matching provides one of the best ways of learning perfumery. It is as important for perfumery
students as it is for young musicians to study the works of the great composers. But too much
matching can have a paralyzing effect on the minds of aspiring perfumers. They risk becoming
creatively lazy and dependent, and neither their imaginations nor initiatives are allowed to grow.
Today, however, much of the drudgery has been taken out of matching by the use of gas
chromatography, allowing young perfumers to become familiar with the composition of many of the
great perfumes within a comparatively short period of time. But advanced students must learn to
work with GC information intelligently in order to gain a genuine insight into the way
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in which perfumes have been constructed. They should never concern themselves only with slavish
imitation. The technique of matching will be discussed in greater detail in a later chapter.
Most perfumers today would agree that the foundation of perfumers' training should be in fine
perfumery and in the great perfumes, past and present. All art forms are partly derivative in their
style and technique. Each individual artist is influenced by what has gone before, adding something
new of his or her own creative ideas and personality. Similarly in perfumery one can trace the
development of modern families of perfumes back to the perfumes of fifty or sixty years ago, some
of which are as popular today as when they were first created and will probably outlast many of
their lesser progeny. It is therefore an essential part of the training and repertoire of young
perfumers to work within all the main families of perfumes, to understand their underlying structure,
and to explore the ways in which these can be modified to produce new fragrances, often in types of
application and at a cost far removed from the original. Within this tradition there remains plenty of
scope for students to express their own imagination.
Many of the perfumes for functional products are derived from successful fine fragrances. The
adaptation of these fragrances for different types of products and the creation of original fragrances
for similar applications is a technique that must be learned, following on from the study of fine
perfumery.
In summary, although there are no hard and fast rules in the construction of a perfume, there are
certain principles that need to be adhered to. We will repeatedly refer to these principles in the pages
that follow.
1. A profound knowledge of the raw materials is the basis of perfumery technique and inspiration.
2. A perfume is not just a random collection of pleasantly smelling raw materials. It is the result of a
precise system of structures within the formulation.
3. A perfume's structure is based upon:
a. The precise olfactory relationship between individual ingredients, known as the "perfumery
accord."
b. The relationship between simplicity and complexity.
c. The balance between materials of different volatility suitable for the product for which the
perfume is intended.
4. A perfume needs to fulfill certain technical requirements, such as chemical stability in use.
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In addition students must always remember that perfumery is an evolving tradition. Although they
may ultimately go on to produce great original creations, much of their early work must be spent
mastering the techniques handed down by previous generations of perfumers. Many of these will
serve students well in the creation of their own perfumes.
A word of warning for young perfumers: One of the most difficult things for students is to sustain
enthusiasm and patience over what is inevitably a long and difficult period of study. The work is
both introspective and competitive. All too often students may be faced with disappointment after
months of work. Self-confidence can easily be destroyed, particularly when a student is allowed to
charge ahead without building up the solid foundation in olfactory memory and perfumery
technique on which success is based. If a perfumer ceases to enjoy his or her work, and every new
project carries with it the threat of failure rather than the hope of success, the most likely cause lies
in the insecurity of the technique.
Above all students must learn to enjoy not only their work but the life of a perfumer. Making time
for other creative interests outside of work is equally important, helping one to relax one's mind
between the periods of intense concentration that are needed to achieve success.
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3—
The Technique of Smelling
In perfumery as in all specialized fields good basic techniques are essential. The perfumer should
acquire a correct approach to smelling right from the start. In our remarks on this topic, we will
quote from the views of Paul Jellinek (1954) and Edmond Roudnitska (1962, 1991). Both wrote as
experienced practicians, though with very different backgrounds. Jellinek had worked in the
essential oil industry and dealt with the entire spectrum of perfumery, including the perfuming of
functional products of all kinds. Roudnitska, after initially holding a position in the soap and
detergent industry, established a studio in the hills near Grasse and worked as a free-lance perfumer
nearly exclusively in fine perfumery. Despite their different backgrounds the agreement between the
two authors is remarkable, as is the fact that their remarks, written several decades ago, are still fully
valid today.
The Workplace
On the workplace Jellinek noted: "It is self-evident that smelling in a well-ventilated room is much
easier than in a smelly laboratory or in a place full of soap dust. The perfumer, therefore, should
have at his disposal a separate room, which may house his desk, his books, his formulary, etc., but
from which samples of aromatics or of strongly smelling soap, as well as all laboratory work should
be strictly kept out." Roudnitska had this to say: "An olfactory test should be un-
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dertaken in odorless, tempered air of natural humidity and in quiet surroundings. Perfect
concentration definitely requires solitude and quiet. The substance to be tested is also hard to smell
in excessively cold or dry air, or in a draught."
Yet, despite the last injunction, air conditioning is necessary in hot climates. Where air conditioning
is not needed, adequate air circulation must be provided in the perfumer's working area by a direct
supply of outside air, by creating a slight overpressure in the working area such that the air flows out
from it into the surrounding areas of the building. Short of having Roudnitska's rare chance of
working at a good distance from any manufacturing operations, a certain degree of odor
impregnation of the air cannot be avoided. The casual visitor, highly aware of this background odor,
is surprised that it does not interfere with the perfumer's demanding job. Due to the strange
phenomenon of long-term adaptation, the perfumer does not notice the steady background odor that
has become a habitual part of the working atmosphere; only when the perfumer returns to work
from a lengthy absence does he or she suddenly become conscious of it.
Where outside air quality is a problem, charcoal or other suitable filters must be built into the
ventilation system. Some companies have tried to create ideal conditions for critical smelling by
constructing smelling cabins with metal or glass walls, supplied with air that is deodorized and kept
at constant, optimal temperature and humidity and with a provision for rapid air exchange between
tests. In our experience such cabins were hardly ever used by perfumers. The sterility of the cabin
creates a kind of stress that makes work difficult. The room where the perfumer does his or her
smelling should be functional but furnished and decorated so as to make the occupant feel at ease.
The odor-free cabins usually end up being used for the evaluation of space odorants or detergent and
fabric softener perfumes on the fabric after drying. For such testing, they are ideal.
The Samples
Both Roudnitska and Jellinek advise doing one's smelling with dilute solutions in order to avoid
odor overload and fatigue. Sound as this advise may be in theory, it raises the question what
solvents to use for dilution. For work in alcoholic perfumery, alcohol is the obvious one. Care must
be taken to let it evaporate entirely before bringing the blotter to the nose, since inhaling alcohol
temporarily deadens the sense of smell. For projects related to other product fields, the choice
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of diluent becomes problematic because each diluent affects the odor performance of a perfume
compound in its own way. Ideally a diluent should be chosen that is very similar or identical to the
product base to be perfumed, but in practice this can become extremely laborious. Nearly all
perfumers do smell raw materials and compounds in their neat, undiluted form, avoiding overload
and fatigue by not dipping the blotters too deeply and confining their actual smelling to the brief
span of a few inhalations. This should be conducted with the intense concentration of a karate
fighter. Casual, thoughtless smelling must be avoided at all times.
One should never sniff directly at a bottle, for this inevitably deadens the sense of smell for some
time. Neither should one sniff at a crystalline material in its undissolved form, for the odor of such
materials is often greatly distorted by traces of impurities adsorbed at the surface. Sniffing at finely
powdered materials such as vanillin involves the added risk of inhaling small crystals directly into
the nose, and thus destroying one's ability to smell for a considerable period to come.
Smelling Blotters
Roudnitska recommends blotters 18 cm in length; Jellinek suggests that they be at least 10 cm.
Today blotters are commonly 13 to 15 cm long, and ½ to 1 cm wide. Roudnitska suggests using 1-
cm wide blotters folded lengthwise so that they form a kind of groove and bend less readily; he also
recommends that the blotters be tapered, which facilitates dipping them into small bottle openings
and also minimizes the amount of material to be examined. The paper must be unsized. Roudnitska
recommends a grade of 180 g/sq cm; Jellinek observes that for odor analysis, the thinner the blotter
the better, since ''it allows the different smelling phases to be recognized, as it holds the more
volatile aromatics less tenaciously." For presentation of a finished perfume to a customer, on the
other hand, he recommends heavier, more absorbent paper because "it holds the full composition
better than a thinner one."
Smelling
The nose adapts quickly to unchanging odor. Active smelling is therefore always a race against
time, an attempt to collect the maximum amount of information and of impressions possible in the
brief span
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of time before perception fades. It must always be done with the most intense concentration. The
surroundings should be quiet. The body should be relaxed and comfortable. Closing the eyes helps
to avoid visual distraction. All attention is focused upon the sensation of the odor. If identification is
the objective, Jellinek suggests posing oneself precise questions, to be answered by "yes" or "no," in
the manner of a Twenty Questions game. If, for example, one has recognized a floral note and wants
to identify it, one asks oneself, before bringing the blotter to the nose: "Is it jasmin?" If the answer is
no, one continues: "Is it rose? Lily of the valley? Honeysuckle? Hyacinth?'' and so forth, until an
identification is made. If there is doubt in answering some of these questions, it may be because one
does not remember with sufficient clarity the odor of the flower in question. It then helps to go back
to the shelf and sniff a few good bases of the desired type (not directly from the bottle!) to refresh
one's memory.
Both Roudnitska and Jellinek stress the desirability of keeping written notes of one's odor
impressions. As Jellinek states: "By writing them down [one] is forced to concentration and to
express [one's] sensations in a clear manner. Lucidity of expression demands a clear recognition of
the impression received." Writing down observations not only forces one to concentrate and to smell
with awareness, it also aids in recalling the odor later. Although the memory of an odor that one
really knows stays with one for a lifetime, the mental image of a new odor can fade rapidly, hence,
the importance, emphasized also by Roudnitska, of writing down one's immediate impressions.
To avoid smelling fatigue, the sessions must include rest intervals during which the mucosa can
recover. Jellinek suggests using the break for studying, Roudnitska recommends: "Wherever
possible, the examiner should go into the fresh air and take a brief turn out of doors after each series
of inhalations and before beginning the next one." In an industrial setting this practice may meet
with some raised eyebrows. We have found running up a flight of stairs a good alternative. By
stimulating deep breathing and activating the blood circulation, it seems to help clear the nose.
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4—
Perfumery Raw Materials
The raw materials used in perfumery are traditionally divided, according to their origin, into naturals
and synthetics. Although in reality this division is not nearly as clear-cut as it appears at first, it is a
convenient starting point for this brief review.
Naturals
We designate as natural all materials that are obtained from natural sources by the application of
physical separation techniques such as distillation and extraction. Natural products have been used
for many thousands of years as the raw materials of perfumery. Entire plants, flowers, fruits, seeds,
leaves, as well as woods, roots, and the resins they exude, are all sources of fragrance materials.
Similarly the scent glands of animals such as the civet cat and the musk deer have been used since
early civilization to provide perfume for humans.
Originally in the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Greece fragrant plant material was macerated in
the unguent oils used for softening and perfuming the skin or in wine. In the Middle Ages Arab
scientists developed the technique of steam distillation by which concentrated essential oils could
be prepared by passing steam through moistened plant materials and then cooling and collecting the
distillate. These oils, originally intended and used for medicinal purposes, in time also came to be
used in perfumery.
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A clear distinction between medicine and perfumery was not drawn until around 1800. In the
previous centuries the main purpose of pleasing and beneficial fragrances was seen as warding off
and curing the illnesses caused by noxious emanations. Today steam distillation is still one of the
most important methods of producing natural perfumery materials. Some essential oils, such as
those which occur in the skins of citrus fruits, are more usually produced by direct expression from
the plant material.
In the eighteenth century, concentrated alcohol, prepared by the distillation of fermentation alcohol,
became available. This made possible the preparation of tinctures prepared by the maceration of
plant or animal materials in such alcohol. These played a major role in nineteenth-century
perfumery. Today, for practical reasons and because of the cost involved, their use is entirely
restricted to fine perfumery. They are still used in some of the perfumes that were created in the
early decades of our century.
A breakthrough in the extraction of floral perfumes occurred in the late eighteenth century with the
introduction of the technique known as enfleurage. In this method the flowers were placed either
directly on or in close proximity to a layer of animal fat which absorbed the fragrance. The fats were
then washed with alcohol which was subsequently removed by distillation to produce a concentrated
product known as an absolute, often referred to an absolute from pomade or chassis. Owing to the
very high labor costs involved, the enfleurage method of extraction has almost entirely disappeared,
being used only rarely for the extraction of tuberose.
By the early part of the twentieth century, pure grades of volatile hydrocarbon solvents such as
benzene and hexane became available through progress in petroleum-refining methods. They were
found to be very useful for the extraction of fragrant plants and plant materials. If the plant material
extracted is rich in waxes (as is generally the case with flowers, stems, and leaves), these are also
taken up in the extract. After careful removal of the volatile solvent by distillation, a waxy concrete
remains behind. This is then washed with alcohol to separate the fragrance materials, which are
soluble in alcohol, from the insoluble waxes. An absolute is then produced by the removal of the
alcohol by distillation, usually under reduced pressure. Certain plant materials that contain no water,
such as resins or dried leaves and mosses, may be extracted directly with alcohol. The extracts
obtained—often sticky, viscous, and resiny—are called resinoids.
Recently, owing partly to restrictions in the levels of solvent residues allowed in finished extracts,
particularly for the flavor industry, alter-
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native solvent systems have come into use for extraction. Interesting results are being obtained using
liquid carbon dioxide under high pressure in place of conventional solvents. Materials produced in
this way are quite distinct in character and provide a new challenge for the perfumer.
Many other processes can be applied to concretes, absolutes, resinoids, and essential oils to obtain
products with special characteristics. For example, decolorized products may be obtained by
extraction with appropriate solvents to eliminate highly colored components. Colorless products
may be obtained by fractional molecular distillation under vacuum. Yet another type of product is
obtained by vacuum codistillation using a suitable solvent. Many essential oils, particularly citrus
oils, contain high levels of insoluble terpene hydrocarbons, which can be removed by fractional
distillation or by countercurrent extraction to produce concentrated or terpeneless oils.
With fractional distillation, single aroma chemicals can also be obtained, in more or less highly
purified form, from essential oils. These are designated as isolates. In the days when synthetic
organic chemistry was less versatile and powerful than it is today, this was the only way to obtain
many aroma chemicals. Even today it is in some cases, such as citronellal or cedrol, the most
economical way.
Synthetics
Today there are several thousand synthetically produced aroma chemicals potentially available to
the perfumer. Many of these—for example, vanillin, the rose oxides, and the damascones—were
first discovered in nature and subsequently synthesized. Others are the fruit of a chemist's
imagination and have never been found in nature. Of course not all are of equal value to the
perfumer, and the number that are widely used runs into the hundreds rather than into the thousands.
One of the earliest perfumery materials to be produced industrially was benzaldehyde, prepared
from toluene in 1866. In 1868 coumarin was first synthesized, soon to be followed by heliotropin,
ionone, and vanillin. The first nitro musks appeared in 1888, and amyl salicylate in 1898. Since
then, for the last hundred years, the history of perfumery has been dominated by the creation of new
aromatic chemicals.
For most new aroma chemicals the starting point of synthesis was the hydrocarbons obtained from
petroleum refining or the monoterpenes obtained from turpentine. The synthesis of the aldehydes
provided the inspiration for such perfumes as Chanel No. 5 and Arpège,
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and phenylethyl alcohol became the indispensable rosy material throughout perfumery. Other
milestones include the determination of the structure of farnesol (the basis for the sesquiterpenes) by
the Nobel Prize winner Leopold Ruzicka, working for Chuit & Naef in Geneva, in the early 1920s,
followed by his synthesis in 1928 of cyclopentadecanolide (Exaltolide), the first of the macrocyclic
musks. Closer to our own time, methyl dihydrojasmonate (Hedione) was introduced in the early
1960s, followed by such materials as Galaxolide, Vertenex, Brahmanol, and Iso E super.
The Gray Area Between Naturals and Synthetics
The dividing line between natural and synthetic materials is far from clear-cut. The very basis of the
distinction is questionable, since it assumes that no chemical changes occur in the course of
processes such as steam distillation and extraction. It has long been known that this assumption is
not correct. In addition there are gray areas between the two categories that can best be
demonstrated by a few examples.
Geraniol, a substance of defined chemical structure, may be extracted from a natural source such as
palmarosa oil or produced synthetically from pinene. Rigorous purification of geraniol from either
source will produce the chemically pure substance. Depending upon its origin, this should then be
designated as either natural (from palmarosa) or synthetic (from pinene), although the two grades
can be distinguished only by very sophisticated analysis.
The "perfumery grade" qualities of geraniol from the two sources actually have considerable
differences in odor value because neither is chemically pure. Geraniol from a natural source
contains small amounts of many other materials carried over from the source material. Synthetically
produced geraniol is a reaction mixture, frequently containing a large proportion of nerol and other
substances not found in the natural product.
Either of these "perfumery grade" geraniols can be acetylated to geranyl acetate. The acetates,
having been prepared by a chemical reaction, should be designated as synthetic in either case, yet
the differences between the two grades are as distinct as they are with the two geraniols.
Many natural products such as labdanum, cedarwood, and clary sage are fractionated and
chemically treated (in this or in the reverse order) to produce derivatives of exceedingly complex
composition which, for the perfumer's purposes, behave as naturals. These can be
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refined down to more-or-less chemically pure single materials whose status as natural or synthetic
depends upon whether they are present, in the same form, in the starting material.
Natural materials are frequently "cut" or "touched up" with synthetic materials either to standardize
the quality and the analytical constants between different crops (the explanation usually given) or
simply to reduce the cost. Such products, although frequently and regrettably sold as pure, are in
extreme cases little more than compounds.
One of the salutary effects of the widespread adoption of quality control techniques based on gas
chromatography has been to inject clarity into this formerly somewhat murky area. Thanks to these
techniques, the purchaser is now in a position to know to what extent a so-called natural material is
pure. As a result genuinely and reliably pure essential oils, absolutes and resinoids are again
available in the market today. Synthetic essential oils that are honestly designated as such may be
thought of as quasi-natural materials rather than as bases.
It is part of the perfumer's job to be aware of the differences between such materials and to learn
how different qualities of a given material perform in perfumery compositions. Young perfumers
should begin by knowing pure natural products and high-quality synthetics, and by working with
them before going on to work with the so-called commercial qualities.
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5—
The Learning and Classification of Raw Materials
Building a foundation in perfumery technique begins with a thorough knowledge of the raw
materials. Raw materials are to the perfumer what colors are to the painter, or what words are to the
poet. One can attain mastery of perfumery only insofar as one knows the necessary materials; they
are both the tools of the perfumer's trade and the perfumer's inspiration.
The novice perfumer may well feel daunted by the hundreds of bottles containing strange and often
unpleasant smelling materials that line the laboratory shelves. But for the talented student the task of
learning to identify them is in fact less difficult than it may seem at first. However, this is only the
first step along the way to having a real knowledge of the materials, a knowledge which can only
come by actively working with them over a period of time. The professional perfumer is time and
again presented with new materials coming either from plant products or from the result of chemical
research. On each occasion the perfumer must become acquainted with their odor qualities and their
performance in use.
As in learning a foreign language, the first stage in learning the materials—the vocabulary of
perfumery—necessitates repeated smelling and testing. This task can be made simpler, and in the
long term more effective, if it is approached in a systematic way, namely one based on an
understanding of how human memory works.
Getting to know the raw materials is not a training of the nose or the olfactory receptors (it is
doubtful that the receptors can be trained
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at all), it is the training of the thought processes that provide the link between the perception of an
odor and one's ability to recognize it and give it a name. These processes, as all mental processes,
are based on a complex network of associations. Each new odor learned, like each new word in our
vocabulary, is integrated into an existing framework of meanings and olfactory associations.
Fortunately, the more a student knows, the easier it becomes to add new materials to the existing
memory bank.
The process of recognition of a smell begins from the moment it comes in contact with the receptor
cells of the nasal cavity. Although the precise manner in which these cells respond is not fully
understood, it is generally accepted that the sensory input from an individual chemical is related to
the different aspects of its molecular structure. For instance, all materials with a phenylethyl radical,
within certain limits of molecular size, are related in odor, as are most nitriles and salicylates. The
impulses generated by the structure of the molecule are processed by the brain to produce the
cognitive experience that we call smell. In the case of complicated mixtures such as natural products
and perfumes, the amount of incoming information that needs to be processed is considerable. It is
believed that the initial integration of the olfactory stimulus and its cognitive recognition is carried
out by the right hemisphere of the brain, whereas its name recognition is dependent on the further
activity of the left hemisphere. This may account for the frustrating "tip-of-my-tongue" syndrome—
I know this, but I cannot give it a name. Paul Jellinek's admonition, never to smell a substance
without full concentration, is particularly apt here, since getting to know an odor is mentally
demanding. With practice, the connections between perception, recognition, and naming will be
speeded up for the student to the point where a known material may be identified almost
instantaneously. Even so, it is interesting to note that even to the fully trained perfumer the ability to
give names to visible objects seems to require much less of a mental effort.
Complicated mixtures may sometimes take on an identity which is no more difficult to recognize
than a single chemical. Perfumes such as Anais Anais or Giorgio are as instantly recognizable as
phenylethyl alcohol or anisaldehyde. Similarly lavender oil or geranium have a unique and
memorable identity. Indeed, in our experience, students often can more easily identify these
complicated mixtures than single chemical materials. Just why some perfumes have such strong
identity is not fully understood, but, as will be discussed later, much of the skill of the perfumer lies
in the ability to achieve such an identity in a composition.
Page 26
As we noted earlier, it is important for the novice student to learn the raw materials of perfumery in
a systematic way. The student should first be introduced to no more than about 50 materials selected
by importance but including as wide a range of odor types as possible. (A suggested list is given
later in this chapter). The student should be encouraged to write down some descriptive remarks
about these odors, using whatever associations come to mind. These odors may conjure up
memories from the past, such as the smell of grandmother's cupboards, hot potato pancakes, or
freshly dug-up roots of old trees. Comparisons between different materials should be made and
similarities noted. At this stage such descriptions reflect the individual associations of the student,
and neither the teacher nor fellow students can judge them as being objectively right or wrong. In
this way the student consciously builds up a network of associations to assist in remembering the
odors. Once the 50 materials have been learned the number can gradually be increased over a period
of several weeks to include all the 162 given in the list.
At this early stage students should only be introduced to materials of the highest quality. Both
natural and synthetic materials exist in a number of different qualities depending on their source of
origin, method of production, and purity. It is important for students to acquire a clear olfactory
impression of the finest materials before going on to the use of the more "commercial" qualities.
During the first few months of training students should be encouraged to start making a
classification of odor types. One such system of classification is given here, but it is important for
students to go through the mental process of working out their own classifications, even if the
teacher has to make some later adjustments. Although learning by association and classification is a
useful way for getting to know the materials and to think about them, students must never be
restricted by too rigid a framework of classification. They must be encouraged to open their minds
to all the different facets of a material and to be constantly looking for new associations.
In learning to recognize materials, students should also conduct evaporation tests to see how long
each material retains its characteristic note on the smelling strip. Some materials last no more than a
few hours, while others are still recognizable after several days. Such results should be carefully
recorded, and the records will form the basis for a student's later understanding of the importance of
comparative volatilities in the structure of a perfume.
Students should also be made aware of differences in olfactory strength between various groups of
materials. Many materials, such
Page 27
as the aliphatic aldehydes and some of the animalic products, will be strong even when diluted at
10% or 1%. Others, such as benzyl salicylate, are difficult to smell at all until they become more
familiar. But these differences can sometimes be deceptive, and materials that may not smell
exceptionally powerful on their own can have a significant effect in a composition, even when used
at very low concentrations. The performance of individual odorants, rather than their apparent
strength, is best learned by experiencing their behavior in different types of formulation. Sometimes,
for example, we may use vanillin at 10% in a formula, and yet 0.01% in another may have a
remarkable effect. Young perfumers will often benefit from not "knowing" that a material cannot be
used at more than 1%. Being less inhibited about its use than the more experienced perfumer, they
may come up with something excitingly original.
A further insight into the learning process, and one that is closely related to perfumery, comes from
our experience of learning about wines. Although by drinking them regularly we may learn much
about their individual character, by far the most effective method of becoming a genuine
connoisseur comes from attending wine tastings at which a number of vintages are contrasted and
compared, one against the other. This technique of learning by association, similarity, and contrast
is one that works particularly well in perfumery.
Every morning students should be given unmarked smelling strips of ten or more materials selected
from those to which they have already been introduced. Those that a student fails to recognize
should be discussed with the teacher and fellow students and notes made in the classification. At
times the materials selected by the teacher should be as different in odor type as possible; at other
times they should be taken from the same olfactory group, such as the rose notes, woody materials,
or chemically related materials such as the acetates. Once the basic materials have been learned and
understood, it is easier to add new materials. In this way the intelligent student will even be able to
name materials not previously encountered. For example, the student may identify phenylethyl
phenylacetate from its characteristic rose note combined with the honey note typical of the
phenylacetates.
We have now reached a point at which we can define the three stages of odor familiarity: First, we
identify an odor relatively, then we know it absolutely, and finally we know it actively. In the first
stage of familiarity we are able to identify an odor by our description of it, allowing our minds to
search through our stored-up associations and classification. For example, given a sample of
benzoin, our first impression may simply be "sweet." This in itself doesn't get us very far, since
Page 28
it encompasses far too large a group of odor impressions. From here we may go on to describe it as
''chocolatelike with a touch of incense." Finally, we may distinguish it from tolu in which we would
expect to find a slight leathery character, or from peru balsam which lacks the incense note (an
observant student will probably begin by noting first the differences in color!). Most perfumers, as
well as such people as professional tea tasters and wine experts, have developed highly sophisticated
and differentiated vocabularies to describe these small differences in odor between similar products.
One team of perfumers were able to communicate among themselves the idea of a particular type of
green note by the phrase "smelling like elephant's feet." The language of perfumery is unfortunately
so poor that sometimes we need to invent such metaphors in order to communicate.
We may be said to know a material absolutely when our recognition of it becomes immediate
without our having to think of a description. We recognize the odor like an old and familiar friend.
We recognize benzoin simply because it smells of benzoin. But even an old and familiar friend may
exhibit personality or behavioral characteristics that surprise us. Of course now and then our
memory may not perform too well and we need to allow our minds to go through the partly
conscious and partly subconscious processes of classification and recognition. But once
remembered we can use the material, and the others on the basic list, as a point of departure for
describing and memorizing other materials. When first shown tolu we may think of it as similar to
benzoin, which we know absolutely, but a little more leathery. Phenylethyl formate is seen as
related to phenylethyl acetate but with the typical sharpness that we found in geranyl formate.
Finally, we learn to know a material actively. To continue with our analogy, being able to recognize
someone instantly in the street is not the same as really knowing him or her. You know a person
only if you have observed that person's behavior in different situations. The same is true of
perfumery materials. One really comes to know a material only by actively working with it. For this
reason students should be encouraged to work with materials within a few weeks of beginning their
studies, beginning with simple accords before going on to the floral bases and the work of matching
the great perfumes of the past and present. (This work will be discussed more fully in a later
chapter.) As with people, the adventure of getting to know a material never comes to a close. Even
the experienced perfumer who has worked with a material over decades may discover new
characteristics by using it in new combinations and applications. The more the perfumer keeps an
open mind for such discoveries, the more creative he or she will
Page 29
be. Having an active knowledge of the ways in which materials work in combination and in
different types of formulas is what perfumery is all about.
So far we have considered memory from the point of view of recognition and identification. There is
yet another side to memory that is concerned with recall and mental imagery. Here the perfumer is
at a natural disadvantage when compared to the artist or musician. Most of us have more or less well
developed senses of visual and auditory recall. The ability to see familiar objects in our mind's eye
is one that we put to constant use, and the trained artist can reproduce on paper realistic images from
memory. Similarly a musician can be trained to know precisely the sound that will be produced
from the notes of a musical score, as might be heard in an actual performance. However, the ability
to recall smell is usually much less developed. Can we really recall the smell of a rose in the same
way that we can recall a color or a melody? We may be able to describe the smell and recapture all
the associations that go with it, but can we experience a concrete olfactory image of it in our minds?
What we can do, without too much difficulty, is to compare something that we smell against our
recollection of it, and determine whether or not it is the same. This ability is particularly important
in assessing the quality of raw materials, yet in fact this is just another form of recognition (do we
recognize the sample as being the same as before?). There is no true olfactory imagery where no
external stimulus is involved.
There are good reasons why human beings have failed to develop an ability for olfactory recall
compared with other forms of perception. Auditory recall is an essential part of our ability to use
sound as a means of communication and language, and visual recall, including our ability to see
things as they might be rather than as they are is basic to our purposeful manipulation of objects.
But olfactory recall does not serve such everyday needs, it has no apparent value in the evolution of
our species.
Still many perfumers do claim some degree of olfactory recall, and this ability should be developed
in young perfumers and actively pursued in practice. A useful exercise is to deliberately keep alive
the olfactory impression of a material for as long as possible after ceasing to smell it and then
compare the retained image against the original. Of course this requires great concentration, but it
will help to develop an intuitive sense of how materials work in combination. Some perfumers claim
to have developed their talent for olfactory recall to a point where much of their creative work is
done in their imagination.
Pag
The Basic Raw Materials and their Classification
The following is a list of the 162 natural and synthetic materials that it is suggested students should le
to identify within the first six months of their studies. It is intended to cover a wide range of odor type
These materials are mainly used in fine perfumery. (Materials marked with an asterisk form the list o
materials to be learned first.)
NATURALS
Ambrette seed *Lemon
*Armoise Lemongrass
Basil Lime West Indian
Bay Mandarin
*Benzoin Siam Mimosa absolute
*Bergamot Neroli
Birch tar Nutmeg
Camomile Roman *Oakmoss absolute
Cardamon Olibanum extract
Cassis bourgeons (base) Opoponax extract
*Castoreum Orange sweet
*Cedarwood Virginian *Patchouli
Celery seed Pepper
Cinnamon leaf Peppermint
*Cinnamon bark Peru balsam oil
Cistus oil *Petitgrain Paraguay
Civet Pimento
Clary sage Rose oil
Clove bud Rose absolute
Coriander *Rosemary
Costus (base) Rosewood
Cumin *Sandalwood East Indian
*Estragon Styrax oil
*Galbanum oil Tagete
*Geranium Bourbon Tonka absolute
Guaiacwood Tuberose absolute
Iris concrete Thyme

Jasmin absolute Vanilla absolute
*Labdanum extract *Vetyver Bourbon
*Lavender Violet leaf absolute
Lavandin *Ylang extra
Pag
SYNTHETICS
Acetophenone *Eugenol
Aldehyde C10 Evernyl
*Aldehyde C11 undecylenic Frambinone
Aldehyde C12 lauric *Galaxolide
*Aldehyde C12 MNA gamma-Decalactone
*Aldehyde C14 (gamma-undecalactone) Geraniol
*Geranyl acetate
Aldehyde C16 Geranyl formate
Aldehyde C18 (gamma-nonalactone) Geranyl nitrile
Greenyl acetate
Allyl cyclohexyl propionate Hedione
Ambroxan Helional
Amyl cinnamic aldehyde Heliotropin
*Amyl salicylate *cis-3-Hexenyl acetate
Anisaldehyde cis-3-Hexenyl salicylate
Aurantiol *Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde
Benzaldehyde *Hexyl salicylate
*Benzyl acetate *Hivertal
Benzyl salicylate *Hydroxycitronellal
Brahmanol *Indol
Calone Ionone alpha
Cashmeran *Isobornyl acetate
Cedramber *Iso butyl quinoline
Cedryl acetate Isoeugenol
Cinnamic alcohol Iso E super
Citral Isogalbanate
Citronellal cis-Jasmone
*Citronellol Lilial
Citronellyl acetate *Linalool
Coumarin *Linalyl acetate
Cyclamen aldehyde Lyral

Cyclopentadecanolide Maltol
Damascone beta *Methyl anthranilate
*Dihydromyrcenol Methyl benzoate
Dimethyl benzyl carbinyl acetate Methyl cinnamate
Methyl chavicol
Diphenyl oxide *Methyl ionone gamma
*Ethyl phenylacetate Methyl napthyl ketone
Ethyl vanillin Methyl octine carbonate
Pag
Methyl salicylate Phenylpropyl alcohol
Musk ketone Rosalva

Musk T Rosatol
Paracresyl acetate *Rose oxide
Phenoxyethyl isobutyrate Sandela
*Phenylacetaldehyde *Styrallyl acetate
Phenylacetic acid *Terpineol
Phenylacetaldehyde dimethyl acetal Tonalid
*Vanillin
Phenylethyl acetate Vertacetal
*Phenylethyl alcohol *Vertofix
Phenylethyl dimethyl carbinol Vetiveryl acetate
Phenylethyl phenylacetate Vertenex (PTBCHA)
Pag
TABLE 5.1 Classification by Odor of 162 Materials

Synthetics and (Ingredients) Class/Specific
Class Naturals of Naturals Class Character
ALDEHYDIC Aldehyde C10 Orange
Aldehydes Aldehyde C11 undecylenic
Aldehyde C12 lauric Soapy

Aldehyde C12 MNA (Pine)
Citronellal Cintronellal
(Nitrile) Geranyl nitrile Citrus
(Alcohol) Rosalva Rose
AMBER
Cistus oil
Labdanum extract Resinous
Cedramber Woody Cedarwood
Iso E Super Woody Patchouli
Ambroxan Woody Dry wood
ANIMALIC (see also
Amber and Musk)
Civet Fecal
Castoreum Leather
Indol Floral Jasmin
Paracresol Floral Narcisse
Phenylacetic acid Floral Honey
Costus Iris Hair
Cumin Spicy Sweaty
ANISIC
Basil Methyl chavicol
Estragon Methyl chavicol
(table continued on next page)
Pag
TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

AROMATIC-HERBAL
(see also Anisic)
Armoise (Thujone) Camphor
Roman camomile Hay
Clary sage Linalool
Thyme
BALSAMIC
Benzoin Siam (Vanillin) Resinous Sweet
Peru balsam oil (Vanillin) Sweet
Styrax oil (Phenylpropyl alcohol) Cinnamic
Cinnamic alcohol Cinnamic Floral
Phenylpropyl alcohol Cinnamic Floral
Methyl cinnamate Cinnamic Floral
Benzyl salicylate Salicylate Floral
CAMPHOR-CINEOL
Armoise (Camphor, thujone) Herbal Aromatic
Cardamon (Camphor) Spicy Seed
Lavandin (Camphor, cineol) Lavender Linalool
Rosemary (Camphor, cineol) Lavender Eucalyptus
CINNAMIC
Cinammon bark (Cinnamic aldehyde) Spice
Cinnamon leaf (Eugenol) Spice
Cinnamic alcohol Floral Balsamic
Phenylpropyl alcohol Floral Balsamic
Methyl cinnamate Floral Balsamic
Styrax oil Balsamic
Amyl cinnamic aldehyde Floral Jasmin
Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde Floral Jasmin
Pag
(table continued from previous page)

CITRUS
Citral Lemon
Lemon (Citral) Fruity Fresh
Lime distilled (Terpineol) Fruity Fresh
Sweet orange Fruity Fresh
Mandarin Fruity Fresh
Bergamot (Linalool, L. acetate) Fresh Linalool
Lemongrass (Citral)
Citronellal Aldehydic Citronella
Geranyl nitrile Aldehydic Lemon
FLORAL
Almond blossom
Anisaldehyde Lilac
Benzaldehyde Almond
Carnation Eugenol Spicy Clove
Isoeugenol
Gardenia Styrallyl acetate Fresh
Hyacinth Phenylacetaldehyde Green Rose
Phenylacetaldehyde dimethyl Green Lilac

acetal
Honey
Ethyl phenylacetate
Phenylethyl phenylacetate Rose
Phenylacetic acid Animalic Rose
Jasmin Jasmin absolute
Benzyl acetate Fresh

Hedione
Jasmal Mushroom
Pag

FLORAL (Continued)
Amyl cinnamic aldehyde Cinnamic
Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde Cinnamic Muguet
Indol Animalic
Ylang extra Linalool
Lilac
Terpineol Household
Anisaldehyde Floral Almond
Heliotropin Sweet
Mimosa
Mimosa absolute
Acetophenone
Muguet
Hydroxycitronellal
Lilial
Lyral
Cyclamen aldehyde
Narcisse-Jonquille Methyl cinnamate Cinnamic
Paracresol Animalic
Neroli-Orange Methyl anthranilate

Blossom
Aurantiol Schiff base
Methyl napthyl ketone
Neroli, Petitgrain Fresh
Rose Rose absolute Phenylethyl alcohol
Rose oil Citronellol

Citonellyl acetate Muguet
Geraniol
Phenylethyl acetate Fresh Fruity
Pag

Class Naturals of ?Naturals Class Character
P.E. dimethyl carbinol Raspberry
DMBCA
beta-Damascone Fruity
Phenoxyethyl isobutyrate Fruity
Rosatol
Phenylethyl phenylacetate Honey
Geranium Minty
Geranyl acetate Fresh
Geranyl formate
Rose oxide Green Metallic
Diphenyl oxide
Trefle (salicylate)
Amyl salicylate
Benzyl salicylate Balsamic
Hexyl salicylate Azalea
cis-3-Hexenyl salicylate Green
Tuberose
Tuberose absolute
Aurantiol
Methyl anthranilate
Methyl benzoate Ylang
Methyl salicylate Wintergreen
Aldehyde C18 Fruity
gamma-Decalactone Fruity
Violet
Violet leaf absolute Green
Methyl octine carbonate Green
Ionone alpha Iris
Methyl ionone Iris Woody
Iris concrete Iris
Heliotopin Sweet Lilac
Ylang
Ylang extra
Methyl benzoate
Pag

FLORAL FRESH
Neroli Orange blossom
Linalool Linalool Woody
Benzyl acetate Jasmin
Citronellyl acetate Rose Muguet
Geranyl acetate Rose Geranium
Phenylethyl acetate Rose Fruity
Styrallyl acetate Gardenia Rhubarb
FLORAL BALSAMIC
Cinnamic alcohol
Phenylpropyl alcohol
Benzyl salicylate Trefle
FRESH (see also Floral
fresh and Citrus)
Bergamot (Linalyl acetate) Citrus Linalool
Petitgrain (Linalyl acetate) Eau de cologne
Linalyl acetate
Isobornyl acetate Pine
Dihydromyrcenol Linalool
Vertenex (PTBCHA) Woody
FRUITY
Citrus oils (see Citrus)
Aldehyde C14 Peach
Aldehyde C16 Strawberry
Pag

Aldehyde C18 Tuberose Coconut
gamma-Decalactone Tuberose Peach
beta-Damascone Rose Apple
Tagete Apple
Allyl cyclohexyl propionate Pineapple
Isogalbanate Green Pineapple
Phenoxyethyl isobutyrate Rose Mirabelle
Helional Watermelon
Frambinone Sweet Raspberry
Cashmeran Musk Sweet
Cassis bourgeons Cats
GREEN
Galbanum Earthy
Hivertal Leafy
cis-3-Hexenyl acetate Cut grass
Isogalbanate Fruity Pineapple
Phenylacetaldehyde Hyacinth Rose
PADMA Lilac Hyacinth
Vertacetal Sweaty Rhubarb
Violet leaf absolute Violet
Methyl octine carbonate Violet
Rose oxide Rose Metallic
HERBAL (see Aromatic,
Anisic, Lavender)
IRIS
Iris concrete Violet
Ionone alpha Violet
Methyl iononee Violet Woody
Vertenex (PTBCHA) Woody Fresh
Costus Animalic
Pag

LAVENDER
Lavender 40/42 (Linalool, Linalyl acetate)
Lavandin (Linalool, Linalyl acetate) Camphor
Rosemary Camphor Eucalyptus
LEATHER
Castoreum Animalic
Birch tar Smoky
Labdanum Amber
Cistus Amber
Isobutyl quinoline Earthy
LINALOOL
Linalool Fresh Woody
Dihydromyrcenol Fresh
(Essential oils containing linalool)
Bergamot (Linalyl acetate) Citrus Fresh
Clary sage Aromatic
Coriander Spicy Seed
Lavender (Linalyl acetate) Lavender
Lavandin (Linalyl acetate) Camphor
Rosewood (Terpineol) Woody
Ylang (Benzyl acetate) Floral
MINTY Peppermint
Geranium Bourbon Rose
MOSSY Oakmoss Algal
Evernyl Dusty
MUSK
Galaxolide
Musk T
Pag

Tonalid
Musk ketone
Cyclopentadecanolide
Ambrette seed (Ambrettolide) Seed
Cashmeran Sweet Fruity
PATCHOULI
Patchouli Pepper
PINE
Isobornyl acetate Fresh
Aldehyde C12 MNA Aldehydic
RESINS
Benzoin Siam Sweet Balsamic
Olibanum extract Insence
Opoponax extract
Labdanum extract Amber Leather
Peru balsam oil Sweet Balsamic
SEEDS
Ambrette Musk
Cardamon Spice Camphor
Celery Terpenic
Coriander Linalool Spice
Cumin Spice Animalic
Pepper Spice Terpenic
SPICY
Cinnamon bark (Cinnamic aldehyde)
Cinnamon leaf
Eugenol Carnation
Clove bud (Eugenol)
Pimento berry (Eugenol)
Pag

SPICY (Continued)
Bay
Nutmeg Terpenic
Pepper Terpenic
Cardamon Camphor Seed
Coriander Linalool Seed
Cumin Seed Sweaty
SWEET (Powdery)
Vanilla absolute (Vanillin)
Vanillin
Ethyl vanillin
Benzoin Siam (Vanillin) Balsamic
Peru balsam oil (Vanillin) Balsamic
Coumarin Hay
Tonka (Coumarin)
Heliotropin Lilac Violet
Frambinone Fruity
Cashmeran Musk Fruity
WATERMELON–
CUCUMBER
Calone Marine
Helional
Violet leaf absolute Green
Mimosa absolute Floral
Pag

WOODY
Cedarwood
Cedarwood Virginian Pencils
Cedryl acetate
Vertofix
Cedramber Amber
Guaiacwood
Guaiacwood Smoky
Rosewood
Rosewood (Linalool) Linalool
Sandalwood
Sandalwood E.I.
Sandela
Brahmanol Musk
Vetyver
Vetyver Bourbon Earthy
Vetiveryl acetate
Woody-Amber Iso E Super
Cedramber Cedarwood
Ambroxan Dry wood
Woody-Iris Methyl ionone Violet
Vertenex (PTBCHA) Fresh
Page 44
6—
The Floral Accords
The floral accords form an essential part of the perfumer's repertoire. They are valuable not only as
building blocks, or bases, in the creation of all types of perfume but also as fragrances in their own
right. With some modification the floral accords can be used as single floral notes for functional
products such as soaps, cosmetics, and household products. They also form an excellent starting
point for student perfumers in the formulation of simple compounds.
The fragrance of flowers, and their association with our sense of aesthetic beauty, has always held a
special place in our appreciation of smell. To faithfully recapture their scents by distillation,
enfleurage, and solvent extraction has been one of the continuing objectives of the fragrance
industry since the Middle Ages. The crude chemical analysis of the resultant products that took
place during the first half of the century gave little information as to their composition that could not
at least be guessed at by an experienced perfumer. A major break-through came as a result of the
introduction of gas chromatography. This resulted in the identification of many hundreds of
components, many of which were previously unknown. However, most extracted products, although
some the most beautiful materials used in perfumery, fail to capture the full character of the natural
flower because of the chemical changes that take place during the extraction process. More recently
head space gas chromatography has made possible the direct analysis of the fragrance as it leaves
the plant, adding considerably to our knowledge of the composition of the fragrance that we
Page 45
actually smell in nature. Many commercially available products now exist based on this information.
Another approach to the reproduction of floral notes has come from the work of the creative
perfumer based on the use of synthetic materials whose olfactory character may be similar in some
respect to that of the flower being copied, whether or not they are known to occur in nature. Many
of the floral bases created in this way, although frequently but pale reflections of the flowers
themselves, have come to be among the most widely used building blocks of perfumery.
The compounding notes that follow provide a guide to the formulation of some of the most
important types of floral bases used in perfumery. The ''basic formula" that is given in each case
contains materials that represent the main olfactory elements necessary for the recreation of the
fragrance. Establishing a balance between these is a useful introduction to understanding the way in
which the various types of floral are composed.
It is important when beginning work on a floral base to start with as simple a formula as possible,
containing only sufficient materials to establish the essential character of the note. This basic accord
can later be embellished by the addition of modifying materials and naturals. The most effective
floral bases, particularly when designed to be used as a major part of a perfume formula, are often
comparatively simple mixtures containing no more than 15, and often fewer materials. More
complicated bases, when used in this way or in combination with other florals, may often be the
cause of "muddiness" and general lack of impact in the final product.
Having arrived at their own preferred proportions within the accord, in keeping with the target floral
type, students may then experiment with other materials or alternatives from within the main
categories, initially restricting themselves to a maximum of two or three from each. At this stage it
is important to be as adventurous as possible in the choice of materials. Not every trial will be
successful, but with imagination and courage interesting and original formulas will result. To make
a rose with 50% of phenylethyl alcohol is no problem, but to begin with 20% of diphenyl oxide is
something of a challenge.
Many floral notes overlap in the types of material from which they can be made. The same eight
materials—phenylethyl alcohol, hydroxycitronellal, benzyl acetate, phenylactaldehyde, citronellol,
hexyl cinnamic aldehyde, terpineol, and indol—mixed together in different proportions can produce
either a jasmin, a lilac, a muguet, or a hyacinth. The list also includes three materials that occur in
nearly all rose compounds. If used together in a formula, bases that contain only
Page 46
such generally used materials are liable to lose their identity giving merely a nondescript floral
character with little or no personality. It is important therefore, when working on a floral note, to
include as large a proportion of highly characteristic materials as possible, which will carry the note
through into the final product. However pleasing and well balanced a base may smell on its own, if
it fails to hold together and perform in a composition, it is of little value.
Many hyacinth compounds are particularly disappointing in this respect, with the fine floral
character being reduced to no more than a "green" effect when used in combination with other floral
notes in the finished perfume. The most successful accords, whether they be those that are found in
floral bases or those on which the great perfumes are founded, seem to be virtually indestructible
wherever they occur. With experience students will learn the ways in which the various types of
floral base perform in different types of composition. Most perfumers choose to work with only a
limited number of bases, whose performance they are thoroughly familiar with and understand.
An exception to the rule of simplicity may sometimes be made in the creation of a base designed to
duplicate, at a lower price, the effect of the natural flower extract. Such bases, many of which
benefit from the results of analysis, are frequently used as auxiliary products to bring a "natural"
character to the composition, rather than as part of the basic structure.
It is not unusual in the composition of a perfume to use not only an individual floral material such as
phenylethyl alcohol as part of the main structure of the formula but to back this up by a more
complex rose base as well a little of the natural flower product. This principle of simplicity within
the main structure of the perfume, and increasing complexity within the lesser components, is one to
which we will return in later chapters.
Pag
Rose—Compounding Notes
BASIC FORMULA SELECTED VARIANTS AND MODIFIERS

Phenylethyl alcohol and esters
Phenylethyl alcohol
Phenylethyl acetate
Phenylethyl esters
Phenoxyethyl isobutyrate
Rose alcohols and esters
Citronellol Rhodinol
Geraniol
Nerol
Geranyl acetate Geranyl esters
Citronellyl esters
Tetrahydrogeraniol
Rholiate
Other rose chemicals
Rose oxides
Isodamascone
Damascones
Orthomethoxy benzyl ethyl ether
Floral modifiers
Ionone alpha Beta ionone
Linalool
Lyral
Hedione
Green notes
Phenylacetaldehyde Phenylacetaldehyde dimethyl acetal
Methyl heptine carbonate
Violet leaf absolute
cis-3-Hexanol and esters
Hivertal
Isocyclocitral
Nonadienal
Methyl cyclo citrone
Vertral
Aldehydic notes
Aldehyde C11 undecylenic Aldehyde C8
Aldehyde C9
Rosalva
Alcohol C10
Muguet aldehyde
Pag

Citrus notes Citral
Geranyl nitrile
Agrunitile
Spicy notes
Eugenol
Clove
Cinnamon
Pepper
Carbinols and their esters
Rosatol Phenylethyl dimethyl carbinol
Dimethyl benzyl carbinyl acetate
Dimethyl benzyl carbinyl butyrate
Honey notes
Ethyl phenylacetate Methyl phenylacetate
Citronellyl phenylacetate
Eugenyl phenylacetate
Phenylethyl phenylacetate
Phenylacetic acid
Cire d'abeille absolute
Additional base notes
Diphenyl oxide
Cassione
Frambinone
Musk T
Ambrettolide
Naturals
Geranium Camomile bleue
Camomile Roman
Palmarosa
Carrot seed
Guaiacwood
Sandalwood
Iris concrete
Mimosa absolute
Benzoin Siam
Blenders
Nerolidol
Farnesol
Pag
Jasmin—Compounding Notes
BASIC FORMULA 1 BASIC FORMULA 2 SELECTED VARIANTS

(CLASSIC) (ABSOLUTE TYPE) AND MODIFIERS
Benzyl acetate
Benzyl acetate Benzyl acetate Benzyl propionate
Benzyl valerianate
Benzyl isobutyrate
Dimethyl benzyl acetate
Phenylethyl alcohol Phenoxyethyl alcohol
Phenylethyl acetate Phenylethyl butyrate
Hydroxycitronellal
Hydroxycitronellal Lilial
Lyral
Linalool
Linalool Linalool Linalyl acetate
Floral modifiers
Geraniol Geraniol Citronellyl lactone
DMBCA
Ionone alpha
Isobutylbenzyl carbonate
Eugenol Isoeugenol
Green notes
cis-3-Hexenyl acetate
cis-3-Hexenyl benzoate
Floral cinnamic derivatives
Amyl cinnamic aldehyde Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde Cinnamic alcohol
Benzyl cinnamate
Other jasmin chemicals
Hedione Dragojasimia
cis-Jasmone
Dihydro jasmone
Pag
BASIC FORMULA 1 BASIC FORMULA 2 SELECTED VARIANTS

(CLASSIC) (ABSOLUTE TYPE) AND MODIFIERS
Anthranilates and Schiff bases

Aurantiol Methyl anthranilate Other Schiff bases
Indolic
Indol Indol Scatol
Indolal
Indolene
Lactoscatone
Paracresol and esters
Paracresol Paracresyl acetate
Paracresyl
phenylacetate
Fruity
Aldehyde C14 Aldehyde C18
Aldehyde C16
Gammadecalactone
Maltol Frambinone
Cycloamylone
Naturals
Ylang extra Cananga
Roman camomile Foin absolute
Celery seed Immortelle absolute
Mimosa absolute
Benzoin siam
Blenders
Benzyl alcohol Benzyl alcohol Nerolidol
Benzyl benzoate Isophytol
Pag
Muguet—Compounding Notes

Hydroxycitronellal
Hydroxycitronellal Lyral
Lilial
Additional aldehydic notes
Cyclamen aldehyde Muguet aldehyde
Dupical
Aldehyde C7
Aldehyde C10
Oncidal
Linalool
Linalool Ethyl linalool
Rosewood
Tetrahydrolinalool
Dimetol
Linalyl acetate
Phenylethyl alcohol
Phenylethyl alcohol Phenylethyl methylethyl carbinol
Phenylethyl isobutyrate
Phenylethyl formate
Rose alcohols
Citronellol Rhodinol
Geraniol
Citronellyl acetate
Floral modifiers
Benzyl acetate Hedione
Ionone alpha
Isoeugenol
Green notes
Phenylacetic aldehyde Phenylacetaldehyde dimethyl acetal
cis-3-Hexanol and esters

Hivertal
Phenylacetaldehyde glyceroacetal
Acetaldehyde diphenylethyl acetal
Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde Amyl cinnamic aldehyde
Linalyl cinnamate
Cinnamic alcohol
Cinnamyl acetate
Phenylpropyl alcohol
Phenylpropyl acetate
Pag

Sweet floral
Heliotropin
Indolic
Indol Indolal
Civet
Naturals
Sandalwood
Jasmin absolute
Rose absolute
Blenders
Benzyl benzoate Farnesol
Pag
Lilac—Compounding Notes

Phenylethyl alcohol
Phenylethyl alcohol Phenoxyethyl isobutyrate
Phenylethyl formate
Terpineol
Terpineol
Ylang
Ylang extra Benzyl acetate
Linalool
Methyl paracresol
Methyl benzoate
Muguet notes
Hydroxycitronellal Lilial
Lyral
Cyclamen aldehyde
Citronellol
Geraniol
Green notes
Phenylacetaldehyde Phenylacetaldehyde dimethyl acetal
Syringa aldehyde
para-Tolyl aldehyde
Methyl acetophenone
Cuminic aldehyde
Anisic notes
Anisaldehyde Anisic alcohol
Anisyl acetate
Acetanisol
Sweet floral
Heliotropin Vanillin
Cinnamic alcohol Phenylpropyl alcohol
Phenylpropyl acetate
Amyl cinnamic aldehyde
Isoeugenol
Isoeugenol Methyl isoeugenol

Indolic
Indol
Naturals
Cinnamon bark
Petitgrain
Styrax oil
Blenders
Benzyl alcohol
Pag
Carnation—Compounding Notes

Ylang
Ylang extra Ylang no. 2
Cananga
Benzyl acetate
Rose notes
Geraniol Citronellol
beta Damascone
Rose oxide
Geranium
Citronellyl acetate
Phenylethyl alcohol
Orthomethoxy benzyl ethyl ether
Floral modifiers
Linalool
Isobutyl benzoate
Hedione
Spicy notes
Eugenol Isoeugenol
Methyl eugenol
Isoeugenyl acetate
Benzyl isoeugenol
Honey
Eugenyl phenylacetate
Isobutyl phenylacetate
Cinnamic alcohol Phenylpropyl alcohol
Cinnamyl acetate
Methyl cinnamate
Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde
Salicylate
Benzyl salicylate Amyl salicylate
Hexyl salicylate
cis-3-Hexenyl salicylate
Vanilla-Sweet
Vanillin Ethyl vanillin
Heliotropin
Naturals
Clove Carrot seed oil
Pepper Guaiacwood
Rose oil Cedarwood
Iris concrete Citronella
Pag
Hyacinth—Compounding Notes
BASIC FORMULA SELECTED VARIANTS

Phenylethyl alcohol
Phenylethyl alcohol Phenylethyl acetate
Phenylethyl formate
Benzyl acetate
Benzyl acetate Benzyl propionate
Benzyl formate
Green notes
Galbanum oil Galbanum resin
Hydratropic aldehyde dimethyl acetal Hydratropic aldehyde

Phenylacetaldehyde
Phenylacetaldehyde dimethyl acetal
Vertral
cis-3-Hexanol, acetate
Floral modifiers
Linalool
Cyclamen aldehyde
Lilial
Rosatol Heliotropin
Cinnamic alcohol Phenylethyl cinnamate
Phenylpropyl alcohol Styrax

Salicylate
Amyl salicylate Phenylethyl salicylate
Benzyl salicylate
Eugenol
Eugenol Methyl eugenol
Indolic
Indol Indolene
Indolal
Pag
Violet—Compounding Notes

Ionones
Methyl ionone
Ionone alpha Ionone beta
Phenylethyl alcohol Phenoxyethyl propionate
Green notes
Methyl octine carbonate Methyl heptine carbonate
cis-3-Hexenyl methyl carbonate
Nonadienal
Parmavert
Liffarome
Fiorivert
Anisic
Anisaldehyde
Jasmin notes
Dragojasimia
Isojasmone
Benzyl phenylacetate
Sweet floral
Heliotropin Cassione
Frambinone
Woody
Iso E super
Naturals
Sandalwood Cedarwood
Geranium
Rose
Cassie
Iris
Blenders
Benzyl benzoate
Pag
Neroli-Orange Blossom—Compounding Notes

Phenylethyl alcohol
Phenylethyl alcohol
Linalool
Linalool Ethyl linalool
Dimetol
Fresh
Petitgrain Sweet orange
Linalyl acetate Ethyl linalyl acetate

Green notes
Acetophenone Cortexal
Hivertal
Rose alcohols and esters
Geraniol Nerol
Geranyl acetate Neryl acetate

Geranyl acetone
Citronellol
Anthranilates and Schiff bases
Methyl anthranilate
Aurantiol Meaverte
Orange flower chemicals
Methyl napthyl ketone Nerolin bromelia
Nerolin yara yara
Honey notes
Phenylethyl phenylacetate Linalyl phenylacetate
Benzyl phenylacetate
Phenylacetic acid
Aldehydic notes
Aldehyde C10 Aldehyde C8
Alcohol C12
Indolic
Indol Indolene
Blenders
Benzyl alcohol Nerolidol
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7—
The Technique of Matching
When student perfumers have familiarized themselves with the basic raw materials and mastered
some of the most important floral accords, they may well feel that they are ready to start creating
new perfumes of their own. There is certainly no harm in occasionally giving their creative impulses
free reign, and perhaps, through luck or talent, they will discover interesting novel accords even at
this early stage. However, although this can be an exciting and highly motivating experience, it will
usually end in frustration when what initially seems to be an interesting idea fails to take on the
form of a well-balanced and aesthetically pleasing perfume (despite the enthusiastic comments from
well-meaning friends and relations to whom the first results are presented). Having learned that the
creation of a new fragrance is far more difficult than they had imagined, they will now be ready to
embark upon one of the most important parts of their early training: the imitation or matching of the
great perfumes of the past and present.
Matching as a Method of Learning
Learning from the work of the great masters is important in the study of all the arts. This is the
reason why art students copy paintings in museums and why the young Richard Wagner copied,
note for note, the scores of Beethoven's symphonies. The aesthetic laws of perfumery, the laws of
harmony and contrast, of unity of impression and
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memorability, of depth and impact, cannot be fully expressed in words, but they are
embodied in the great perfumes. The best way to learn these laws is to recreate, that is, to
match these perfumes.
Until a few years ago the matching of a perfume was a tedious and often frustrating exercise
involving a long series of painstaking trials, usually ending up with a not very good likeness
of the original—although occasionally with a quite passable new perfume. Even with the
help of senior colleagues it could take many years to acquire a working knowledge of the
most basic repertoire of fragrance types. Today, however, with the availability of detailed
analytical information from gas chromatography (GC), it is possible for students to learn
much more quickly and to achieve results that were unobtainable by an earlier generation of
perfumers. Herein, however, also lies a danger: Too much information can frequently be as
harmful to the development of student perfumers as too little can be frustrating. Simply to
give students a number of formulas does not turn them into masters of their profession. The
hard work of matching is an essential part of the training process, not only in teaching the
important skill of olfactory analysis but also in being one of the best ways of learning,
through continual trial and error, the ways in which materials work together in various
combinations.
Most student perfumers today work within reach of GC information. But it should be part of
the job of the senior perfumer responsible for their training to ration out the information in
such a way as to ensure that they learn the necessary skills of olfactory analysis, learning to
recognize the accords that make up the structure of a perfume and discovering for themselves
the level at which each material works best in the final composition. At the same time the
judicious giving of information will allow students to make sufficiently rapid progress to
maintain their interest and excitement.
While studying in this way students must at all times be encouraged to have an intellectual
grasp of the formula on which they are working by trying to enter into the mind of its
original creator. A student who finishes the work with little understanding of the way in
which the perfumes are put together will never go on to create successful perfumes of his
own.
In working on a perfume students should be constantly looking for the important accords
within the formula and the often surprising effects of these accords. Students may find, for
example, that a certain combination of ionone, benzyl acetate, and vanillin produces a
raspberry like effect in a perfume that one might at first expect to come from a single
chemical. Students should look for similarities between
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structures of different perfumes and learn to recognize the basic accords that make up the
major families. But above all they must maintain a continual curiosity toward the perfumes
on which they are working, trying not only to arrive at as close a match as possible but also
to understand the significance of each material found to be present.
A final reason why mastering the technique of matching is essential is because there is a
form of imitation involved in true creation. Whenever perfumers write down or modify a
formula with the intention of achieving a specific imagined effect, they ''match" their mental
image of what they want to achieve. The skills that they have learned in matching the work
of other perfumers enables them to realize their own creative ideas.
Although gas chromatography has become indispensable in the matching of perfumes, we
will begin by considering the techniques of matching purely as they relate to the perfumer's
most valuable piece of analytical equipment—the one that needs the most practice—the
human nose.
The Analytical Smelling Technique

Everything that was said in Chapter 3 about the general techniques of smelling applies also
to the analytical smelling of mixtures. The suggestion, to observe the odor of a new material
at its various stages of evaporation, acquires new importance in the case of blends. Due to
their different vapor pressures, mixture components evaporate at different rates and hence
make themselves felt to different degrees at the various stages of evaporation. The most
volatile components are most readily apparent during the early stages of evaporation, while
the most tenacious components of the blend can best be observed at the final stages, when all
the other components have faded away. Studying the dry-out note is particularly useful, since
many of its components, such as the musks or benzyl salicylate, may be relatively difficult to
detect in the top note of the perfume.
Smelling with total concentration is, if anything, even more important when analyzing blends
than when studying single materials. In time students will naturally acquire the ability to scan
a composition focusing on different components in sequence. They will learn to ask
themselves directed questions such as Does the perfume contain salicylate? or Does the spicy
character come from one of the sweet spices containing eugenol, such as clove or pimento, or
could it be eugenol itself in combination with some other material? Focused smelling also
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entails the ability to put aside mentally a component that one has clearly recognized and
smell around it to detect others. A trick, suggested by Paul Jellinek, is to saturate your nose
with a component that is definitely present to make it more sensitive to the other ones. This
principle is important also as a match comes closer to the perfume being copied. Materials
that we may have failed to detect at an earlier stage begin to show up by contrasting the
incomplete copy with the original. Another such technique is to compare two smelling strips
of the same perfume at two different stages of its evaporation to make the components that
have faded on the older smelling strip stand out more clearly on the fresher one.
Roudnitska recommends, as an aid to analytical smelling, that a drop of the perfume to be
matched be allowed to fall on a smelling paper wide enough for the solution to spread
without reaching the edges. This results in a degree of physical separation of the components,
as in paper chromatography, a principle which was used as the basis for gas chromatography.
Smelling in Patterns
Even when smelling a complicated blend of materials experienced perfumers are readily able
to recognize the presence of certain natural ingredients. They do not need to think of the
hundreds of possible individual components each may contain. The specific combinations
form an olfactory pattern that perfumers are immediately able to identify as, for instance,
patchouli, geranium, or tolu balsam.
This ability to "smell in patterns" can also be applied to the smelling of complete perfumes.
Perfumers learn to recognize the patterns that are characteristic of the classic perfume types.
On first smelling a new men's fragrance of the Fougere family, for example, a perfumer does
not first perceive lavender and patchouli, oakmoss and coumarin, and then say: "Aha, that's a
Fougere." To the perfumer, the order is reversed. He or she recognizes the Fougere pattern
and then may say, "Since this is a Fougere, it should contain lavender, etc.,'' and smelling
into it further, the perfumer looks for these components. The perfumer then focuses attention
on those features that make it stand out from the conventional Fougere pattern, and mentally
"setting aside" the customary components, he or she will detect nuances such as an anisic
note or a fruity green character.
As will be discussed in a later chapter, most perfumes fall into well-defined and gradually
evolving families. Recognizing the group to
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which a perfume belongs, and its relation to other perfumes within the group, will
immediately give the well-trained perfumer an idea of much of the formula.
The ability to perceive in patterns is something that the human brain (and indeed the brains
of most animals) is particularly good at. We can instantly pick out individual words in a
room full of chattering people, or listen to a solo violin amid a complete orchestra. Our
ability to read and to identify everyday objects from among a mass of incoming visual
information is also based on pattern recognition. This is something that the brain continues to
do much better than even the smartest computer.
Like all skills pattern recognition can be greatly enhanced by practice. Specialized areas of
perception are what distinguishes the expert from the ordinary person, whether it be in the
game of chess, in medical histology, in perfumery and GC analysis, or in any other field.
Because smelling in patterns is an essential part of the perfumer's skill, the perfumer's
training centers around complexes, both those which occur in nature and those created by
perfumers.
Matching by Nose
As has already been mentioned, much of the work of matching is nowadays carried out in
conjunction with gas chromatography. But for the moment let us forget that the GC exists
and continue with our discussion of matching using only the nose as a guide.
Let us return to the sample to be matched. After having smelled it analytically and related it
to other perfumes who structure is already known, we may begin to make a blend, in
proportions that seem reasonable, of those components that have been recognized. This is
done cautiously. "If in doubt, leave it out" is a good precept, for it is much harder to remove
a wrong component from an attempted match than it is to add a missing one.
Because of the trouble that may result in having the "wrong" components in a match, it is
generally better to adopt a "linear" technique of composition, that is, to work with single-
aroma chemicals and naturals rather than with bases. A classical, widely used base may,
however, be used when clearly identified by its characteristic olfactory pattern within the
overall perfume. Bases may also be used to give the finishing touch to a nearly completed
match or when the aim is not so much a close match as a composition ''inspired by" the
original.
The art of matching also entails the skill of comparative smelling. Again and again, the
perfume to be matched is compared with the
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samples that represent the successive attempts at matching. Although at first it is best to
compare only two samples—the original and the latest match—it is always important to go
back to earlier ones to make sure that we haven't strayed somewhere along the way. To be
totally honest with ourselves when asking the question "which of these experimental blends
is closest to the original" is often difficult; we always prefer to think that the latest attempt is
the best. This is particularly true at the end of the day or on a Friday evening when we like to
go home feeling that real progress has been made, only to discover in the cold light of the
following day or week that we still prefer an earlier trial.
One of the difficulties in comparative smelling stems from the fact that the sample that is
smelled second is strongly affected by our perception of the first, especially if the two are
smelled in quick succession. Adaptation causes the first sample to appear stronger than the
second. In addition a carry-over effect may occur in which a clearly perceived note in the
first appears also to be present in the second, even if this is not the case. To minimize such
effects, it is best not to dwell too long on either sample before going on to the other.
However, the pause must not be too long since the recall of complex notes quickly loses its
sharpness.
Once you think you have identified a distinct point of difference between the two samples
(e.g., the original contains patchouli, while the match does not), test your hypothesis by
switching the two smelling strips between the hands inattentively, until you no longer know
which is which. Now try to identify the original using only your new hypothesis as a guide.
If you find this easy, your hypothesis was probably correct.
Another technique that is useful in testing a hypothesis is to hold a smelling strip of the
material that you think should be added close to the one with the trial match, in such a way
that you smell the two simultaneously. This amounts to a tentative (though imprecise)
addition of the component considered.
Now compare the samples again, concentrating this time on other aspects of the fragrance
such as the nature of the floral accord, the aldehydes, or the animal notes. To take a complete
inventory of a complex perfume and its match may take considerable time and effort. It
involves comparing the samples over and over again, at all stages of evaporation, from the
first top note to the dry-out.
Just how far to carry on the comparison between the original and the match before making up
a further trial is a question of judgment and experience. There is always the temptation to
rush ahead, adding
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ever more ingredients usually without stopping to consider those that should be discarded. In
so doing, the formula may become overcomplicated, making it impossible to sort out the
good ideas from the bad. A golden rule in matching (as in creation) is to repeatedly go back
to the basic structure of the perfume, simplifying wherever possible before proceeding with
the decorative nuances that surround it.
"Tunnel Smelling"
One of the difficulties in matching is the tendency to be, at first, overly pleased with what
one has just made. In smelling our new experimental blend, we are apt to find it marvelously
close to the original. But there is often a certain amount of "wishful smelling" involved in
this phenomenon. We smell what we expect and hope to smell. In other words, what is at
work is something that we might call "tunnel smelling."
In smelling a complex fragrance, we do not always grasp it in its full complexity. Our
perception is dominated by those features that strike us most powerfully, and if we manage to
match these features reasonably closely, we may feel that we have come a long way toward
matching the perfume. Indeed we may have done so, but someone else whose attention has
been struck by other features of the original, which we may have more or less overlooked,
may immediately detect discrepancies and be far less impressed by the closeness of our
match.
Simply letting time pass and coming back to the perfume on the following day helps a great
deal in overcoming tunnel smelling. Taking samples home to smell is also useful, since we
tend to smell differently in different environments. A car often provides an excellent
environment for smelling, though we would not recommend smelling on the way home from
work with one hand on the steering wheel and the other holding a number of smelling strips!
An obvious way to overcome the subjectivity of tunnel smelling is to ask colleagues for their
opinions. Whether this is helpful depends on the personalities of the colleagues whose advice
we seek. Some people seem constitutionally unable not to find anything wrong, and we may
go away merely discouraged by their dismissive remarks. The student learns quickly whom
to go to for advice. Here the role of the sympathetic teacher is of great importance in
providing constructive criticism and encouragement. Among senior perfumers, or between
groups of students, much will depend on the working atmosphere within the department.
Where each perfumer is judged by his or her individual success, a spirit of competition is
fostered, and constructive
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criticism of each other's work can become the exception rather than the rule. For this reason
students should be encouraged from the beginning to learn to work together in friendly
cooperation, sometimes working in pairs, as well as in competition.
The Uses of Gas Chromatography

The gas chromatography has been called a "super blotter," or "smelling strip." The smelling
strip separates a blend, over a fairly long time span, roughly into groups of the most volatile,
less volatile, and most tenacious components. The gas chromatograph accomplishes the same
not only more quickly (the entire analysis of a perfume normally takes about 90 minutes) but
also far more thoroughly. In the hands of a skillful operator, the perfume can be nearly
completely separated into its individual components, which leave the exit port one after
another.
Many excellent books have been written on the theory of gas chromatography so we will not
discuss the subject in detail in the present context. Briefly it is based on the differences in the
energy required for each component of a mixture to pass from the surface of a liquid phase,
onto which it has been adsorbed, back into the vapor phase.
This rather complicated idea can be better understood by looking at what actually happens in
a gas chromatograph. The sample to be analyzed is vaporized as it is injected into a stream of
inert carrier gas, the mobile phase. The gas moves through the heated column, where it
passes over the surface of the stationary phase, which consists of a liquid adsorbed onto the
surface of an inert carrier. The individual components are separated as they pass through the
column owing to the different speeds at which they are repeatedly adsorbed and desorbed
across the surface of the stationary phase. The components are each detected electronically as
they leave the exit port and recorded as a series of peaks on a moving chart, the
chromatogram. The height of an individual peak, or more accurately the area beneath it, is
roughly proportional to the amount of the material being recorded. The characteristic time
taken for a component to go through the column, under given conditions such as temperature
and the flow rate of the carrier gas, is called its "retention time". In addition to the detection
of the components by electronic means, they may be smelled and identified by a perfumer as
they leave the exit port. This requires a special kind of experience because materials can be
perceived as having rather different odors when emerging in a stream of hot gas than when
smelled on a smelling strip.
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In the early days of gas chromatography glass columns were used, packed with granules of
the stationary phase material. For most purposes these have now been replaced by capillary
columns, often up to 60 meters in length, which are coated on the inside with the stationary
phase material. These columns allow the injection of a much smaller amount of the mixture
to be analyzed and achieve very much more efficient separation. Materials can be detected
that represent less than 0.01% of the total mixture.
A number of different materials can be used to act as the stationary phase. The most widely
used materials in perfumery analysis are the so-called polar materials (carbowaxes or their
equivalents). Polar columns separate the components in much the same way as the perfumer
is used to smelling them as they evaporate from a smelling strip. By using two different types
of columns—one polar and one nonpolar—it is possible to obtain more information than
from just one. Sometimes two or more materials will, under certain conditions, have identical
retention times, resulting in "hidden peaks" on the chromatogram. By using the different
types of columns or by changing the temperature programming, these components can be
made to separate on the chromatogram. Nonpolar columns can often be run at higher
temperatures than polar columns, making it possible to identify some of the higher boiling
materials, such as Schiff bases, which do not appear when polar columns are used.
Besides the traditional type of chart recorder, chart integrators, or "printer-plotters" as they
are often called, may be used. Printer-plotters automatically calculate the percentage of each
component in the total mixture and print this out in the form of a list of retention times and
percentages. But, unless a correction factor is applied to each component, these values,
which are based on the characteristic response of the detector, are not normally accurate to
within more than a 10–20% variation.
As a further development, the GC machine can now be connected to a mass spectrometer
(MS) and a computer, which are able to give a positive identification of the various
components. In effect the perfumer can be given a list of all identified materials, often
comprising some 95% of the compound, together with their approximate percentages. Often
a hundred or more materials will be identified in this way. Since any natural materials are
broken down into their individual components, along with the rest of the perfume, many of
these ingredients will be included in the printout.
To convert all this information into the form of a perfume formula requires considerable
experience on the part of the GC analyst and
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perfumer. Some perfumers learn to specialize in this work, combining their perfumery skills
with a knowledge of GC technique. Such a perfumer working alongside the GC/MS is often
able to produce results unobtainable by a straight reading of the analytical printout.
The first step in the reconstruction of the original fragrance is to produce a trial formula
based on all the main components given in the analysis. The experienced perfumer will also
be able to spot the presence of specific natural materials by the characteristic patterns of
peaks that they produce on the chromatogram, and will know at a glance the approximate
percentage of the compound that these represent. The "fingerprints" of certain materials such
as geranium, patchouli, armoise, sandalwood, and ylang and even their different qualities, are
more easily recognized by the experienced human eye than by reading through the analytical
information, coming from the integrator, or by the use of a computer. (This is another
example of the ability to perceive patterns discussed earlier.) Even amounts of such natural
products down to as little as 0.1% can easily be seen on a well-produced chromatogram. The
presence of other more "difficult" naturals may be suggested by the MS identification of one
or more highly characteristic materials, for example, as by the presence of myristicene in
nutmeg oil or of styrene in styrax. However, some materials, including naturals such as
galbanum and juniper berry, and trace amounts of very strong materials, are most easily
detected and identified olfactorily by smelling their components as they leave the exit port of
the GC machine.
The first trial compound, containing all the major ingredients that have been positively
identified, is then compared to the original, both by smelling and by further GC analysis. A
comparison of the two chromatograms, that of the original perfume and the first trial copy,
will give an immediate indication of adjustments to be made and gaps to be filled. The
perfumer then will use his or her skills in analytical smelling to suggest the presence of other
materials that show up more clearly by contrasting the two samples. Confirmation of these
materials may be searched for in the analysis, or among the components smelled as they
come off the end of the column.
The perfumer will also look for combinations of materials, often in trace amounts, that
suggest the presence of bases within the composition. These can often be reconstructed from
within the analysis and compounded separately rather than incorporated individually into the
formula. Well-known bases can be recognized by the presence of their major constituents in
the characteristic proportions. For example, the presence together of phenoxyethyl
isobutyrate and dimethylbenzyl car-
Page 68
binyl butyrate would suggest a particular type of fruit base. Here the perfumer would try to
read the mind of the original creator of the perfume, thinking of how the structure of the
perfume could have been put together rather than just of its individual components.
Several trial compounds may have to be made before a reasonably close analytical match is
obtained. One of the problems that arises at this stage is sorting out the contribution that
various components can make to the total quantity of a single ingredient found in the
analysis. If citronellol is present, it may be because it occurs as a specified component in the
formula, because it comes from a number of different essential oils, or because it is included
in one or more bases. Many of the terpenes, such as d-limonene, are present in numerous
essential oils, any number of which may be present. Trying to get back to the original
formula requires considerable deductive powers and ingenuity on the part of the perfumer.
It is advisable when trying to match a perfume to obtain as fresh a sample as possible, since
an older sample may have undergone chemical changes that make the analysis more difficult.
Schiff bases may have formed in the presence of methyl anthranilate, and in alcoholic
fragrances aldehydes will have been progressively converted to their diethyl acetals.
Oxidation of some of the terpenes may have taken place, changing their relative proportions.
From what has been said so far, it might be assumed that the GC/MS provides the complete
answer to the task of matching. Occasionally indeed a perfume may, if sufficiently simple in
structure, be reconstructed quite accurately in this way with little recourse to the human nose.
But more often than not, even a duplication that closely follows the analysis of the original
will require some additional work by the perfumer. Many natural materials are difficult to
detect when present in very small amounts, yet in combination they can add enormously to
the richness of the perfume. Resinous materials, owing to their high boiling points, may not
always pass through the column, although some of their constituent ingredients may give an
indication of their presence. Such materials can only be found by analytical smelling of the
original perfume. Sometimes a material unknown to the MS data bank will be found. This
material may be smelled as it leaves the exit port, and if possible a replacement would be
used to obtain a similar effect in the end product.
So far we have considered only the analysis of either perfume compounds or perfumes in
alcoholic solution that may be injected directly into the GC. Frequently, however, the
perfumer will be asked to match the perfume of a functional product such as a soap or fabric
condi-
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tioner. Most companies have now developed techniques for the extraction of perfume
ingredients from most types of bases. However, some degree of selectivity can take place in
the extraction process, and the resultant compound may be quantitatively different from the
original. In such cases perfumers need to rely rather more upon their own analytical smelling,
using the GC/MS analysis as a guide rather than as the source of precise information.
Although perfumers will sometimes try to produce as exact a duplication of a perfume as
possible, and much can be learned by doing so, the most common application of the GC/MS-
plus-perfumer analyses has been for the rapid development of approximate matches. The
formulations of these matches are then used for the creative development of modifications,
adaptations for different media, and so on, or even as the inspiration for genuinely original
creations.
Some have viewed the rise of the GC/MS-plus-perfumer approach as a threat to the
traditional role of perfumers in the sense that it makes their function obsolete. This view is
unfounded, since GC/MS analysis is a technique of matching, not for creation. Nevertheless,
this technique is in the process of revolutionizing the perfumery industry. It is making
matching, once an important part of the daily work of most perfumers, the province of small
teams of specialists. Consequently it both enables and forces perfumers to concentrate their
efforts on creation.
GC/MS analysis is contributing to the piercing of the veil of secrecy that in former days
surrounded perfume formulations. This opening up of information has also affected the
economic structure of the industry. The revolution continues.
Briefings Involving Matches

When a client requests a match of an existing perfume, he or she may be pursuing one of
three goals.
Having noticed the continuing success of a certain type of perfume on the market, or one that
is becoming trendy, the client may wish the intended product to take advantage of this
success. In such a case what the client is looking for are proposals "in the direction of" or "in
the family of" the type indicated.
The situation is different if the client, having noticed that a certain product is successful in
the marketplace, intends to launch a product that is perceived by the public as being very
similar to the successful product. In this case the client selects a product appearance, product
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name, and a package design that are as close to the model as ethics or regulations permit, and
looks for the same degree of closeness in the fragrance.
A different situation again prevails if the client already has a product on the market and
decides, for any one of a number of reasons (a change in import regulations, unhappiness
with the current supplier, economy, etc.) to replace its fragrance without that change being
noticed by the product's users.
"In the Family" Matches
The practice of composing new fragrances that lie "within the family" of well-known
existing ones is an integral part of the culture of perfumery. It is at the root both of fragrance
trends and of the fact that we can speak, within a given market and a given time frame, of
typical shampoo notes, typical household cleaner odors, and so on.
To create perfumes that are "within the family" of given models, the perfumer need not have
a precise imitation of the model but must be familiar with its basic characteristic accord.
Actually the perfumer must have such knowledge of the leading perfumes within a market
even if the objective is to create a distinctly new perfume. Consumers do not usually like
perfumes that depart too far from what they have come to regard as normal within a given
category. Successful revolutions are as rare in perfumery as in other applied arts.
Close Matches
Calls for matches that go beyond family resemblance and aim at closeness to a specific
model entail technical, practical, and ethical problems. The technical problem lies in the fact
that even with the help of GC/MS, far more effort is involved in creating a close rather than
an approximate match. The difficulties are multiplied if the character of the perfume is
considerably modified by the components of the product base and if, as is usually the case,
the cost limits are well below the cost of the original fragrance.
The practical problem stems from the fact that briefings calling for close matches are often
based on a fundamental misconception. In thinking that they can capture the model's success
for their own product by closely matching the model's physical features and perfume, the
manufacturers and marketers of imitative products overestimate the
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effect of these features on the overall acceptance of the product and underestimate the
importance of such features as package, distribution, and pricing. This is particularly the case
in alcoholic perfumery, but it holds also for all other product categories.
The hopes of the producers of imitative products are therefore often disappointed. Where
such products are successful in the marketplace, it is not because of the closeness of their
perfume to that of the original but simply because the product offers good value for money.
The perfumer's time would have been better spent, and the client's interest better served, had
the perfumer expended time and effort in making a perfume "in the family of" that delivers
optimal performance and optimal value for money in the customer's product base.
The situation is different in cases where the client aims at closely imitating not just a model
product's physical features but also its packaging in all aspects, including the product name.
We are then in the realm of counterfeit products. There is no need to expand upon the ethical
and legal problems associated with being an accomplice to the manufacture of products of
this kind.
A special category of imitative products are the so-called copycat perfumes. Here no attempt
is made to imitate the model's name or package. The selling proposition is: Just as nice a
fragrance, at a much lower price. The ethical problems involved here are subtle and open to
argument. It is established practice among most reputable suppliers that the supplier who has
created the original will not, using his or her knowledge of the formula, create copycat
versions. The position here has become less well-defined recently, owing to the ability of
most companies with GC/MS to make close countertypes of successful products coming on
to the market. The supplier of the original perfume may well feel aggrieved if he or she is the
only one unable to make further use of a personal creative idea. It becomes a question of
judgment as to how close the perfumer may go to the original.
Replacement
What is demanded here is not just a fragrance which to the general public appears similar to
the original. The match must not be recognized as being different by the most demanding
judges of all, the product's regular users. Practical considerations, as well as the ethics of
customer-supplier relationships, dictate that assignments of this type should, where possible,
be given to the fragrance house that created the original.
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The ethics of giving briefings of this type to other suppliers depend on the details of the
situation. The case is straightforward if using the original supplier is no longer possible, for
instance, because the supplier has gone out of business or because of newly imposed import
restrictions. Where alternative suppliers are called upon in order to put pressure upon the
original supplier, there are major problems, both ethical and practical.
The ethical problems touch upon the interests not of the marketer but of the supplier industry.
The economic basis of this industry rests upon profit margins sufficient to recover, within a
reasonable time period, the expenses incurred in the development of fragrances. The practice
of looking for lower-priced replacements from other suppliers denies such margins to the
original supplier.
The practical problems arise from the fact that briefings of this type are of questionable value
to the alternative supplier. They demand a great deal of effort while offering, by their very
nature, slim profit margins. Moreover the business gained by winning such a brief is usually
short-lived because there is no natural limit to the customer's desire for lower costs.
Where briefings to alternative suppliers are prompted by dissatisfaction with the current
supplier or by fear that the current supplier may not, in the future, be able to satisfy the
customer's requirements (e.g., for reasons of limited production plant or uncertain access to
raw materials), they fall in a gray area and should, in each case, be judged upon their
individual merits.
Although it does not lie within the intentions of this book to promulgate ethical precepts for
the fragrance industry, the perfumer should be aware that any personal esteem gained and
even success in the profession depend to a considerable degree both upon his or her personal
ethics and upon those of the company for which the perfumer works.
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PART II—
AESTHETICS AND THE FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPOSITION
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8—
The Biological Basis of Aesthetics
Although this book is primarily concerned with creative perfumery, in this chapter we will be
looking briefly at the function of smell in nature and the implications that this can have for
the work of the perfumer. Smell is the most primitive of the senses, and our response to
certain odors is deeply embedded in the subconscious mind. Much of what we know to be
true, from our experience as perfumers, can be related to the origins of our olfactory sense
and the part that it has played in the evolution of our species.
Smell, or the process of olfaction, is a chemical sense. Unlike the senses of hearing and
vision which are stimulated by energetic phenomena, it depends upon the detection of
airborne molecules coming in contact with specialized chemoreceptive cells.
Although evolution has taken place over many millions of years, nature has been surprisingly
conservative in the development of the olfactory mechanism. The basic type of receptor cell
found in primitive animals has changed very little during the course of evolution, remaining
much the same in groups of animals as diverse as insects, birds, fish, and mammals. What
has evolved, however, is the ability of the brain to make use of the incoming information
from the environment: through the innate recognition and preference for certain types of
smell, and through the ability to learn and to associate them with successful behavior patterns
such as the sourcing of food or the escape from danger.
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In humans the olfactory receptor cells lie in the mucous membrane at the top of the air
passages on either side of the nasal septum. They occupy a total area of about 2 cm, which is
small compared with most other mammals. Evidence from both anatomy and embryology
shows that the development of the olfactory tissue is closely linked to that of the pituitary
gland which lies at the base of the brain. Among other functions the pituitary plays a key role
in the coordination of sexual activity and reproduction. This ancient association between the
sense of smell and the reproductive process is one that has important implications for work
of the perfumer.
From the receptor cells nerves pass through the olfactory lobes at the front end of the brain
direct to the central basal region, the part known as the ''limbic system." This forms part of
our deep-seated unconscious mind, being associated with the control of emotion and sexual
activity, as well as with feelings of pleasure. In evolutionary terms it is also the oldest part of
the brain, providing evidence of the early and continuing importance of the sense of smell in
animal behavior.
Only after entering the limbic system does the olfactory message pass to the cerebral
hemispheres, which form the major part of the human brain, where cognitive recognition
occurs and the ability to associate the smell with its name. By this sequence of events our full
awareness of a smell takes place only after the deepest parts of the unconscious have been
activated. As a result, even without conscious recognition, smell can be the most evocative of
our senses, linking us to past experiences and stirring our emotions at a level that we find
hard to explain.
Compared with other mammals and even with our closest relatives, the apes, the sense of
smell in humans is exceptionally poor. Nevertheless, it continues to play a significant role
not only in our conscious lives but also, as we will see later, in our subconscious awareness.
If we define a smell as being any material or group of materials that is capable of being
detected by the process of olfaction, then we may divide the smells that occur in nature into
two groups: those that are produced by the general processes of the environment and those
that are used as a form of communication between living organisms, both between individual
animals, either of the same or of different species, and between plants and animals. The first
group consists of simply chemicals that exist whether or not there is an animal with a sense
of smell capable of detecting them; the second is the result of millions of years of natural
selection and evolution. The results of evolution are there because they have a clear adaptive
advantage to the organism
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involved. The smells that have evolved are not just random in their composition, they have
evolved alongside the ability to smell, selected for their ability to stimulate the olfactory
mechanism, and to convey a message to which there will be a behavioral response. They are
nature's perfumes, the structure of which may be a guide to the perfumer.
The chemical sense as a means of communication between separate organisms first assumed
biological importance with the evolution of sexual reproduction. Aquatic organisms, long
before the development of sight or hearing, needed to locate and correctly identify members
of their own species for pairing. This was achieved by the release of specific chemical
materials by one individual which directly affected the behavior of another, resulting in the
synchronized release of gametes and fertilization. Such chemical messengers, or
pheromones, occur in almost all animals, from unicellular organisms to insects and higher
mammals, and play an important part in the mating process along with visual and vocal
displays. They have a direct influence on the nervous system of the individuals at which they
are directed, affecting their behavior and leading to successful mating. They are either single
materials or simple mixtures to which the animal's response is genetically predetermined.
There is no process of learning involved. They are for the animal concerned quite literally
"what turns it on."
Apart from chemicals that act directly as pheromones in the reproductive activity of higher
animals, there are many other associated materials, sometimes coming from animal
excrement, that cause an arousal of interest and act as innate recognition factors between
animals within a species, or as a warning to others. Some of these, as we will see later, have
an important function in perfumery.
This link between the sense of smell and reproductive activity not only goes back to the most
primitive organisms but is also deeply embedded in the unconscious mind of all higher
animals including humans. Research into human biology has shown that if the neural link
between the nasal receptor cells and the pituitary is broken, sexual interest and function may
be greatly impaired.
However, at some stage in our evolution the sense of smell became greatly diminished. This
may have come about partly because of the adoption of an upright bipedal position which
distanced the human nose from many of the sources of smell. At the same time pheromones
ceased to be the irresistible sexual turn-ons that they were to our prehuman ancestors. In his
book The Scented Ape, Michael Stoddart (1990) regards the desensitization of the olfactory
system that occurred in humans as having played a key role in our evolution, protecting the
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pair-bonding between man and wife within a gregarious community and thus allowing for a
long period of training for the young within a stable family situation.
Pheromones are still produced and undoubtedly play some part in our unconscious behavior
patterns. It is possible, for example, that our "gut reaction" to the people we meet, whether
we like them or not, has something to do with our subconscious awareness of the
pheromones they produce.
Despite this switching off of the importance of pheromones other types of human odor
continue to play an important role in the bonding between individuals: between mother and
child, between man and woman, and between members of a family. Although our ability to
recognize people by their odor is very much less than, say, that of a dog, it is clear that each
of us has his or her own unique smell.
The olfactory desensitization that took place in our evolution coincided with the development
of the higher brain, the neocortex. Behavior patterns and preferences, including those linked
to our sense of smell, became increasingly learned by experience rather than being based on
a circuitry of nerves hard-wired at birth.
Newborn humans have few olfactory preferences; most of the wiring has to be put in place
during the early years of development, though we continue to learn and acquire odor
preferences throughout our lives. The cultural implications of this and its relation to
perfumery are of course immense, since each of us is able to learn and respond to an
enormous range of odorous materials rather than only to those dictated by a genetically
predetermined system of behavioral responses.
The Importance of Animal Smells in Perfumery

Although human odor forms a natural part of our social environment, it has become a
fundamental principle of civilized society that human beings should not smell of human
beings. Much of this has come about through social development and the conditioning that
we receive as children, based on hygiene and sexual modesty. But the neural pathways
connecting the sense of smell to our deepest centers of pleasure remain, and humans have
from the earliest times delighted in the use of perfumes rich in products of animal origin—of
any animal, that is, except the human being. In ancient times, and through to the Middle
Ages, natural civet and musk were used in their own right as perfumes, employed not only
for their supposedly aphrodisiac properties but also
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to cover the even less desirable smell of their wearers' own unwashed bodies! Today these
materials would be rejected for their animalic character, unless incorporated into a perfume
at levels where the mental associations induced by them remain in the unconscious mind.
Intensely animalic materials of natural origin, as well as their synthetic counterparts, fecal
notes such as indol and scatol, are widely used at acceptably low levels in perfume
compositions of every type. Many plant products also have associations with animal notes
and probably have an unconscious erotic effect. Costus has a smell associated with the
sebacious glands of the hair, cumin has an intense smell of sweat, ambrette seed and angelica
contain powerful musk like constituents. The recent introduction of cassis bourgeons into
many modern perfumes may be connected to its resemblance to the sexually related odor of
the male cat. The consumer must of course be quite unaware of this association.
However, there are also many synthetic materials, and materials of plant origin, that resemble
natural animal odors such as musk and ambergris without having the intense fecal or urinous
overtones that require them to be hidden within a composition at a level where their presence
cannot be consciously recognized. These materials may be quite different chemically to the
natural product, but to us their odor and effect are similar. Included in this category are the
amber notes derived from labdanum and clary sage, as well as the numerous synthetic musk
materials such as galaxolide and musk ketone.
The use of a great variety of musk and ambergris notes in the composition of perfumes is of
great significance in perfumery. When smelled as part of a perfume they are capable of
producing a sense of pleasure associated with ancient neural pathways without the perceiver
being aware of the true nature of the stimulus. They form an important part of nearly every
successful perfume.
The Olfactory Relationship Between Plants and Animals

Floral notes are also among the most widely used in perfumery. To the human psyche they
are the most beautiful of smells and a constant source of inspiration to the perfumer.
The sense of smell in animals and their behavioral response to the presence of certain types
of molecule has been exploited by plants in the evolution of their own reproductive
processes. Many plants produce smells that mimic either the pheromones of insects or
olfactory
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materials associated with animal excrement in order to attract insects to their flowers for the
purpose of pollination. Indol, which is a characteristic ingredient of the feces of many
animals, occurs widely as a component of many flower oils such as jasmin, orange blossom,
muguet, and lilac. Although most of the animals that pollinate flowers are insects, some
small animals including rodents and bats are similarly used by plants, attracted by the means
of odors which to the animal concerned have a genuinely erotic association.
Even in fungi the exploitation of animals for the purpose of spore dispersal has produced
some remarkable relationships. Pigs have for centuries been used in the search for truffles,
toward which they have an insatiable curiosity. The fungus that produces its fruiting body
underground is now known to contain substantial quantities of a pheromone produced by the
male boars for attracting sows. By digging up the truffle and breaking it into pieces, the pig
is actually aiding in the dispersal of its spores. The fact that we also regard the truffle as so
great a delicacy is no doubt linked to our own unconscious awareness of its link with animal
pheromones.
But many plants went on from this relationship based on the mimicking of single erogenic
materials to evolve vastly more complicated fragrances in order to advertise their presence to
animals such as bees and other insects. Flowers were evolved that offered a reward of food to
a visiting insect in return for a service to the plant, that of transferring pollen from one flower
to another. Plants are in effect using the wings of insects to carry pollen from one flower to
another, providing them with fuel by way of nectar.
This coevolution between plants and animals for their mutual benefit has not only resulted in
the complex and individual fragrances that they produce but in the wonderful color and
structure of flowers themselves. We do not know whether insects such as bees can smell
precisely the same range of materials as ourselves or whether their olfactory world differs
from ours in the same way as does their vision. Bees are able to "see" ultraviolet, and the
patterns of flowers that guide the bee toward the source of food appear quite different to the
bee than they do to us. But, since we are able to smell most constituents of essential oils, it is
probably fair to assume that our range of smell is quite similar. Perhaps bees have a much
clearer idea of the smell of benzyl alcohol, which occurs in many flowers, than do most
perfumers. How it would actually smell to them we cannot imagine any more than we can
imagine the color of ultraviolet.
But let us consider the development of this relationship between insects and flowers in a little
more detail, since there are some im-
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portant implications to be found for the perfumer. Not all plants are pollinated by insects or
other animals, and many species such as grasses rely on wind pollination. But once the
distribution of pollen by insects had been established within the plant world the evolutionary
pressure to achieve the maximum efficiency became enormous. Plants competed with each
other in advertising their presence to insects by the evolution of more and more wonderfully
specialized floral structures and scents; insects in their turn became increasingly specialized
for the feeding on nectar and pollen. Not only were the plants dependent on insects, but
insects became dependent on plants. Each had a vested interest in the survival of the other.
The greatest efficiency was to be achieved by ensuring that an insect should feed only on one
species of flower at a time, so avoiding the wasteful distribution of pollen to other flowers.
Some insects developed an innate ability to memorize a particular odor as being associated
with a ready supply of food. Bees returning to the hive are able to pass on to their coworkers
information as to the direction and distance at which a source of nectar is to be found
together with its associated scent. Programmed in this way, the bee will then visit only this
particular type of flower.
What is interesting from the point of view of the perfumer is that this coevolution between
animal and plant has resulted in the synthesis by plants of complex fragrances, often made up
of many hundreds of materials, rather than being based on just one or two materials as in the
case of pheromones.
Distantly related plants, such as rose, jasmin, and lavender have quite independently gone
down this road of complexity, based on different groups of chemical constituents. We may
conclude, therefore, that complexity of odor has evolved as being the most effective way of
evoking a desired response from an animal with the ability to smell and the ability to
memorize odor. What is remarkable is that the particular combinations of materials that
individual flowers produce to make up their fragrance have, to our own sense of smell, an
identity far greater than a random mixture of as many ill-assorted chemicals. Perhaps we may
infer from this, in view of the similarity of our receptor cells, that the balance of materials is
as important to the olfactory mechanism of the bee as it is to our own in producing a sense of
identity and aesthetic pleasure.
If we look further into the chemical makeup of fragrances produced by flowers, taking rose
as a typical example, we find that the oil is usually made up of perhaps no more than four of
five materials that represent the main bulk of the product, with frequently hundreds of other
materials making up the balance. If we mix together in the
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laboratory only those materials that make up the bulk of the product, although smelling of
rose, the composition has little of the true character, strength, or aesthetic appeal of the
flower itself. It is the combination of all the other materials, mostly in trace amounts, that
results in the fragrance that is uniquely rose.
This balance between simplicity and complexity also plays an important part of the structure
of a well-made perfume, and is a subject to which we will return in the next chapter.
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9—
The Structure of a Perfume
A perfume is a blend of odiforous materials, which is perceived as having its own unique and
aesthetically appropriate identity. It is a carefully balanced blend based on a definite structure
in which each material plays its part in achieving the overall fragrance. What it is not is just a
mixture of pleasantly smelling materials.
Apart from having a well-defined identity a perfume must meet a number of technical
requirements. It must be sufficiently strong, it must be diffusive (which is not quite the same
thing), it must be persistent, and it must retain its essential character throughout its period of
evaporation. A well-constructed fine fragrance will still be recognizable many hours after it
is applied to the skin. Perfumes designed for functional products must have a degree of
persistence appropriate to the use for which they are intended. They must also be chemically
stable in the end product.
The technique by which this is achieved is an essential part of the perfumer's art, and it needs
many years of dedicated work to arrive at the level of experience necessary to formulate
perfumes that are not only original but also well made.
No two perfumers work in exactly the same way any more than do painters or musicians.
There are styles in perfumery as there are in any other art, and the techniques that are used by
perfumers can be seen to have changed enormously over the past hundred years, reflected in
perfumes as different in their structure as Shalimar, L'Air du Temps, and Trésor. These
perfumes can be seen to epitomize three
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different approaches to perfumery technique that are typical of the era in which they were
created. They are as different in their own way as are the paintings of classical French art in
the 17th century, the impressionist movement and cubism.
All art depends upon form and structure. The satisfaction which we get from looking at a
great painting by Monet, or from listening to a symphony by Mozart is in large part due to
the structure around which the artist or composer has arranged his ideas. Most of these
structures have been discovered by intuition and experiment; we do not have to understand
why they work, but only that they do. They are part of the tradition and experience that make
up the history of an art form. Once a successful structure has been discovered it can provide
the inspiration for an infinite number of variations and need not be the preserve only of its
creator. The symphony was largely the creation of Haydn, but nearly all the great composers
since his time have used it as a vehicle for their own creative work. Similarly perfumers
continue to build their perfumes around the great classical forms, such as the chypre, floral
aldehydic, and oriental accords (these are discussed in chapter 12), to produce what to the lay
consumer are new and original fragrances. In recent years, as in many of the other arts, there
has been a move away from many of these classical structures with the invention of new
styles of formulation and technique.
Perfumery in the western world can be said to have begun with the invention of such
products as Eau de Cologne, Hungary Water (a product based on herbs such as rosemary and
thyme), and Lavender Water. These were made up of comparatively simple mixtures of
distilled and expressed essential oils diluted in alcohol. To these were added, as "fixatives,"
tinctures of animal products such as musk, ambergris, and civet; balsamic materials such as
benzoin and myrrhe; and sweet materials such as vanilla and tonka. The washings from floral
pommades were also used. Toward the end of the nineteenth century the synthesis of
chemical odorants, together with the technique of solvent extraction from plant material, saw
the beginning of a gradually evolving sequence of styles and techniques that led to the world
of perfumery as we know it today.
Initially, at the beginning of the present century, the traditional structure of the earlier
perfumes was for the most part retained. "Fresh" natural materials such as bergamot and
lemon, in combination with other essential oils, formed a large proportion of the
composition, supported by animal and balsamic fixatives. To these were added the newly
discovered synthetic and derived materials such as vanillin, coumarin, hydroxycitronellal,
vetiveryl acetate, and methyl ionone, to-
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gether with the newly developed floral absolutes. Such materials provided perfumers with a
whole new palette of odorants with which to work, and they were to be the inspiration behind
a new generation of perfumes. Shalimar survives as a wonderful example of a perfume
formulated in this way.
Gradually synthetics, including the aliphatic aldehydes and the many floral notes created
around the turn of the century, came to play an increasingly important role in perfumery,
providing the main inspiration for the creation of new types of fragrance. Natural materials
continued to be used but more as modifying notes and to provide richness to the composition.
Working with defined chemical products allowed perfumers to study systematically the
relation between materials of differing volatility in the building up of perfumes which were
aesthetically satisfying and performed well in use. This approach led to the type of technique
generally associated with the great perfumer Jean Carles. Carles constructed his perfumes on
a basis of carefully selected empirical accords within a structure formulated around a base
note, which included materials of low volatility, a middle or modifying note, which included
materials of medium volatility, and a top note, which included the materials of the greatest
volatility. Such perfumes as Canoe, Ma Griffe, L'Air du Temps, and Cabochard reflect this
type of structure, the influence of which is seen in many surviving and recent perfumes. All
of these perfumes have a wonderful transparency of texture, an almost three-dimensional
quality that seems to lead us into the heart of the fragrance.
During the past 20 years there has been a gradual move away from this style of perfumery
toward a new generation of perfumes based on a quite different type of structure, a style very
much associated with the work of Sophia Grojsman. In this comparatively few materials,
sometimes as few as four or five, are used in a simple accord which represents up to 80% of
the formula. Around this simple structure are arranged a number of other materials including
bases and naturals, which provide the richness and complexity necessary to complete the
identity of the perfume. Perfumes created in this way may lack something of the aesthetic
quality of earlier perfumes but have the advantage of remaining more-or-less unchanged in
odor from their initial impact until after many hours on the skin.
A typical example of such a perfume is Trésor, in which 80% of the formula is made up of
four ingredients: methyl ionone, Iso E super, Hedione, and Galaxolide, all materials that
seem to lend themselves particularly well to this type of formulation. Frequently in such
perfumes the traditional fresh top note is entirely missing, being replaced
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by trace amounts of intensely powerful materials. This type of structure allows the essential
character of the fragrance to come through immediately on application to the skin, rather
than having to wait for the top notes to begin to evaporate. This is an important requirement
in a perfume that has to be selected from a number of others in a busy department store or
airport.
Examining the structure of a perfume in more detail, we may conveniently consider the main
components under three separate headings: the perfumery accord; the relation between top,
middle, and base notes; and the balance between simplicity and complexity.
The Perfumery Accord

One of the most useful exercises that student perfumers can do is to take two materials,
beginning with those of similar volatility, and blend them together in every proportion from
9:1, 8:2, 7:3, to 1:9 selecting the mixture that seems to them to be the most aesthetically
pleasing—usually the one in which the two materials are smelled in equal intensity, in which
neither one predominates. Sometimes the experiment will produce nothing very interesting,
but occasionally something remarkable occurs: The mixture takes on a character of its own
which is distinct from its component parts. Such ''accords," for example, as between
patchouli and hydroxycitronellal, or between eugenol and benzyl salicylate, are used over
and over again by perfumers and have the remarkable ability to retain their character within
complicated blends of other materials.
From here students may go on to make accords between three or four materials, or between
materials of different volatility, guided by their own intuitive sense, so as to arrive at an
aesthetically pleasing balance. For example, ylang may be added to the combination of
eugenol and benzyl salicylate to produce the basic note of carnation that occurs in L'Air du
Temps.
In his articles entitled "A Method of Creation in Perfumery" Carles (1961) recommended the
systematic study of important materials such as oakmoss, patchouli, and methyl ionone by
making combinations of them with a great variety of products, both defined synthetic
materials and naturals as well as bases and specialities, beginning with two or three materials
and then going on to five or six. Much of the work was purely empirical, done by combining
the materials in a number of mathematical proportions, for example, 1:1:1, 3:1:1, or 3:3:1,
before allowing the inspiration and originality of the student to select and
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modify the final accord. The results of these experiments needed to be learned and
memorized. Carles himself claimed to have carried out over a thousand such experiments
with oakmoss alone. However, useful though this method can be as a learning exercise and
as a way of finding new and often surprising relationships between materials, it is a mistake,
when creating a finished perfume, to be bound too rigidly by such proportions, since by
adding further materials to the accord we may need to modify the original balance. When we
reach the full complexity of a perfume, we need increasingly to be guided by intuition and
further experiment to arrive at the most aesthetically pleasing balance within the formula. It
was the great perfumer Arturo Jordi-Pey, a man of enormous experience and culture, who
used to describe perfumery as "the art of the intuitive accord."
We must admit that our repeated use of the expression "aesthetically pleasing" is something
of a descriptive cop-out, for we do not know exactly what causes this synergism among
olfactory materials. Nor is it easy to describe, but materials working together in a finely
balanced accord seem to produce an olfactory resonance as harmonically satisfying to our
sense of smell as the sound of a perfectly balanced orchestra is to our ears.
That this olfactory synergism exists is equally well-known in the world of taste. The
combinations between certain wines and cheeses, or between saffron and seafood, are a
constant source of pleasure and surprise. Incidentally, most perfumers are also connoisseurs
of fine food, and many are excellent cooks.
Thought of in this way a perfume may be seen as an accord between all its ingredients, which
come together to produce its unique identity. One of the most exciting moments for a
perfumer is when the composition on which he or she is working begins to take on such a
personality, which can then be developed and refined into a finished perfume. To reach this
stage, the perfumer will frequently bring together a number of lesser accords as building
blocks in the final composition. At the heart of most successful perfumes is what we may
think of as the main structural accord which defines the essential character of the fragrance,
whether it be a chypre or an oriental, or a modern perfume based on an accord of four
materials. To this framework are added modifying materials and other accords, often in the
form of preblended bases. All are fitted together to form the closely knit structure that
represents the final perfume. Sophia Grojsman has aptly described the process as being like
the coming together of the squares of a Rubik's cube.
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The Relation Between Top, Middle, and Base Notes

Perfumery materials differ widely in their volatility, from those that last only a few minutes
on a smelling strip to those that are still there after several weeks. It is usual therefore
(Poucher 1955; Carles 1961) to divide materials into three groups: the base notes which are
the most long lasting; the middle notes, or modifiers, which are of medium volatility; and the
top notes which are the most volatile. The balance between these three groups of materials in
a formula is of great importance to the way in which the perfume diffuses during its
evaporation and to its aesthetic quality.
Diagrammatically Carles represented the structure of a perfume in the form of a triangle
divided horizontally into three sections representing the top, middle, and base notes, with the
proportions between them as shown in Figure 9.1. A perfect example of a perfume
formulated in this way is L'Air du Temps.
The division into top, middle, and base is of course somewhat arbitrary depending on where
we draw the line between the three types of product. There is also considerable difference of
opinion between perfumers as to the interpretation of evaporation tests carried out on
smelling strips. Helmut Führer (1970), for example, places benzyl salicylate and methyl
ionone among the top notes, while Carles (rightly in our opinion) includes them among the
base notes. The curious placing of benzyl salicylate by Führer may perhaps be explained by
its apparent weakness of odor particularly after any trace impurities have evaporated. Methyl
ionone we would place near the top of the base
Figure 9.1
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notes working in many perfumes as a bridge between these and the middle notes. Many
natural products are also difficult to place because of the varying volatility of their
constituents. It is usual with these to consider only the tenacity of the most characteristic note
of the product. This again is open to a wide range of interpretation. Ylang oil, for example,
contains constituents that work throughout the evaporation of a perfume. Generally speaking,
most of the traditional fresh notes such as the citrus oils, linalool, linalyl acetate, and
lavender are placed among the top notes, together with more modern materials such as
dihydromyrcenol, rose oxide, and cis-3-hexanol. Middle notes include the majority of floral
notes such as terpineol, the rose alcohols, and many of the most important chemicals used in
the compounding of muguet and jasmin. Eugenol, the essential ingredient of carnation as
well as of many spicy oriental notes, comes somewhere near the bottom of the middle notes,
as do amyl and hexyl cinnamic aldehyde. Often it is more convenient to think of these
materials as base notes. Among the undisputed base notes are oakmoss, patchouli, most of
the woody materials, the musks, and vanillin.
In a well-constructed fine fragrance the heart of the perfume needs to be contained within the
lower part of the composition, since this part will remain on the skin for many hours after
application. Many of these long-lasting materials, as pointed out by Carles, are rather
unpleasant when smelled initially and it is part of the function of the modifiers and finally the
top notes to subdue and round off the character of these products in the final accord.
It is useful to note that the retention times of materials determined by gas chromatography,
using a carbowax-type polar column, give a fair indication of their relative volatilities within
a compound. However, most perfumers develop their own way of thinking about volatility
based on their personal experience and method of work. Too much of a scientific approach
can be misleading, and the student perfumer will, in the words of Carles, "soon attain
unexpected proficiency by forgetting any technical information he may have, and by
establishing 'his' classification for himself."
The relation between top, middle, and base notes is one that can be applied to all perfume
formulation, though the actual proportions given in the triangle of Figure 9.1 would apply to
a perfume to be diluted in alcohol at between 12% and 18%. Owing to the effect of the
alcohol itself, the optimum dosage for a perfume compound is not necessarily the same for
every compound, and this needs to be established by trial and error. In men's fragrances,
which are usually diluted at a lower level, there is frequently a much higher proportion of the
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more volatile materials, necessary to give the freshness that is required in such products. As
we have already noted, in many modern perfumes the proportion of the top note has been
greatly diminished by the use of much smaller amounts of intensely strong materials. In
functional products such as soaps and cosmetic creams the product base can equally play an
important role in influencing the most appropriate balance between the components of the
perfume. The special problems relating to such products will be discussed more fully in
Chapter 13. As always in perfumery, the perfumer must ultimately be guided by experience
and aesthetic judgment. The "rules" are there as a guide rather than to impose a fixed method
of working.
We have already noted in passing that certain types of odor tend to be represented more
heavily in one of the three groups than in the others. This can be explained by the
relationship, on the one hand, between molecular structure and volatility and, on the other,
between molecular structure and odor. Acetates, for example, are generally more volatile
than their equivalent alcohols and also fresher in character. Most typically fresh and green
notes fall within the upper part of the spectrum, while woody, sweet, and animalic notes tend
to fall within the lower half. One of the challenges to the perfumer is to achieve a harmony
between the different levels of the perfume in which the character of the perfume is carried
through from one part to another. This is particularly difficult in the type of men's product
that contains a high proportion of fresh and comparatively volatile materials. Eau Sauvage is
a wonderful example of the way in which such a problem has been solved, with the fragrance
maintaining its essential character throughout its evaporation.
The Balance Between Simplicity and Complexity

As we saw in an earlier chapter, many of the most beautiful fragrances that occur in nature,
for example, those of flowers, are made up of a combination of hundreds of individual
ingredients. Of these comparatively few make up the main structure of the oil, while all the
other ingredients make up the small remaining part. This balance between simplicity and
complexity appears also to play an essential part in the structure of a well-made perfume that
has both identity and that indefinable something we think of as quality. Again we do not
need to understand why this should be (although it may be interesting to speculate); it is
something that we know from experience and that has become part of well-established
perfumery technique.
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The English perfumer and writer W. A. Poucher used to tell his students that there were only
three rules in perfumery: simplicity, simplicity, and again simplicity. Of course he was
working at a time when it was not unusual to use a large proportion of flower products in the
composition of a perfume, and it was these, each containing hundreds of ingredients, that
brought the necessary complexity to the composition. Poucher was also a fine landscape
photographer and applied the principle of simplicity equally to the composition of his
pictures, allowing the detail and texture to provide the quality that was the hallmark of his
work.
Another of the most valuable exercises that a student can do, and one for which we are
grateful to our colleague Martin Gras, is to recreate the essential character of a perfume from
no more than 10 or 12 materials. This teaches not only the underlying accords that go to
make up the perfume but also shows what can be achieved with comparatively few materials.
This technique is also invaluable when trying to simplify a new formula or trial match that
has become overcomplicated and unworkable—to go back to the essential structure and to
start again from there.
Although a well-made perfume needs to be constructed around a strong and comparatively
simple accord, it is the presence of a multitude of other materials that completes the full
character of the fragrance, giving it the roundness and aesthetic quality. Of course we are not
advocating complexity for its own sake, and the perfumer who continues to add more and
more materials in the hope that they will somehow cover up the imperfections of his or her
original accord is more than likely to be disappointed. The complexity of a perfume must be
related to its overall structure with no material added just for the sake of complexity. Each
one must be there for a purpose, making a contribution to the final accord that makes up the
finished perfume. The perfumer should know how each material in the formula works in
relation to a creative idea—or leave it out.
There is a marvelous, and authentic, moment in the film Amadeus when the Emperor,
struggling to make some sort of informed comment at the end of one of Mozart's operas, is
prompted by the composer's rivals to complain that there had been "too many notes!"
Mozart, with the sublime assurance of the truly gifted, replies in astonishment that there were
just as many notes as were needed: not too many and not too few. The ability to judge the
appropriate balance between the decorative complexity of a composition, whether it be in
music, painting, or perfumery, and its underlying structure is one of the marks of true
creative greatness.
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Figure 9.2
This relation between simplicity and complexity in perfumery may be represented by the
diagram in Figure 9.2 which shows that each material not only plays its part in forming the
overall character of the perfume (at the outside of the circle) but also contributes to its
internal structure and harmony.
Complexity in a perfume can often best be achieved by the use of bases, or subcompounds,
and by the use of natural products. The different types of base and their use are discussed
more fully in the following chapter, but they may be thought of in the present context in the
same way as essential oils. A good base is one that introduces into a composition a particular
character that makes a contribution to the overall accord. At the same time it makes a
contribution to the richness and complexity of the fragrance, often by introducing trace
materials, which because of their olfactory strength cannot conveniently be added to the
formula individually. It is not unusual for certain types of base, such as green, fruity, and
animalic accords to be made up in solution before adding them to the composition. This has
the additional advantage of making the perfume virtually uncopyable.
However, a perfumer needs to justify the complexity of a formula and the use of bases
against the demands of his or her company in keeping compounding costs to a minimum. To
include in a formula half a dozen or more bases, all of which contain many of the same
materials is quite unjustified from the point of view of production. The perfumer should try,
wherever possible, to use existing bases rather than trying to work only with bases of his or
her own making. Much
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will depend on the importance and likely offtake of the project. A company is much more
likely to be tolerant of the use of specially created bases in a major perfumery success than in
a compound for which the demand is less than 100 kg a year.
Some companies, in order to keep manufacturing costs to a minimum, adopt a policy of
rewriting, or "exploding," the perfumer's formula into a single linear form to get rid of the
bases. A cutoff level is then applied removing any material of below a certain percentage.
This is a procedure that needs to be used with discretion, depending upon the type of product
for which the perfume is destined, and the final formula should always be under the control
of the perfumer.
Much of what we think of as quality in perfumes is associated with the complexity that
comes from the use of natural products, and in particular with those derived from flowers.
Jean Carles used to describe jasmin absolute as being to perfumery what butter is to haute
cuisine: The effect of margarine is never quite the same. We may formulate inexpensive
fragrances which are instantly recognizable as being, for example, a Chanel 5 or L'Air du
Temps type, but without the addition of rose and jasmin absolutes the perfumes lack the
quality and aesthetic appeal of the originals. Of course few perfumers today can afford to use
such materials in the quantities found in the great perfumes of the past. But naturals remain
an indispensable part of those perfumes that we associate with beauty of fragrance and
quality. Even in the formulation of fragrances for use in functional products, the use of small
amounts of natural materials, such as lavandin and geranium, can have a remarkable effect
on the performance.
The complexity that comes from natural products plays an important part in the composition
of all fine perfumes. Although the underlying structure needs to be simple, it is the
complexity that gives a perfume that aesthetic quality admired by the discerning consumer.
However, to end this chapter on a rather sad note, the average consumer of today is
frequently more concerned with performance, in terms of strength and staying power, than
with the beauty and subtlety of a perfume.
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10—
The Use of Bases
Bases may be thought of as the prefabricated building blocks of perfumery. They may be as
simple as an accord between three or four materials or nearly as complicated as a complete
perfume. A base should have a well-defined character, since it is an essential structural
element of the perfume's composition.
Perfumers vary widely in the extent to which they use bases in the creation of their perfumes.
Some regard the making of bases as one of the most important aspects of their creative work.
They embody in their bases their most original ideas, building them into the otherwise
classical structure of their perfume to provide much of its essential character. Michel Hy
used to tell his students that it could take him a year to make a good base, but once complete
he could use it to make a perfume in a week. And sometimes he would do it in less.
Other perfumers prefer to work on perfumes with "open" formulas, using bases only to give
special effects such as a green or fruity note. Many modern perfumes would appear to be
constructed in this way with most of the formula made up of simple materials.
Many of the earliest bases, some of which are still widely used, date from the early part of
this century, when raw material supply houses were less involved than they are today in the
formulation of finished fragrances. Often the new synthetic materials produced by such
companies would first become available to perfumers, working independently or employed
by the fashion houses, wrapped up in the form of speciality bases. In this way the exclusivity
of such materials was pre-
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served, while providing perfumers with a whole new palette of olfactory notes with which to
work. Specialities such as Parmantheme based on nonadienal, Florizia based on allyl ionone,
and Mousse de Saxe based on isobutyl quinolene all date from this period. This practice still
continues today, not so much to hide the identity of the captive material (which can usually
be revealed by analysis) but as a means of selling the material in a way that can be more
readily incorporated into a formula. Among more recent introductions are Vertralis based on
Vertral, Cassis 281 based on Buccoxime, and Dorinia based on beta damascone.
The availability of new synthetic materials during the first decades of the century also
provided the inspiration for the creation of bases that attempted to duplicate the fragrance of
flowers, many of which were already used in perfumery. One of the first to be imitated in
this way was lilac, based on a combination of terpineol, heliotropin, and cinnamic alcohol.
Benzyl acetate, amyl cinnamic aldehyde, and indol were used as the basis of jasmin; the
ionones made possible the recreation of violet; hydroxycitronellal formed the starting point
for muguet; while eugenol, cinnamic alcohol, vanillin, and benzyl salicylate formed the basis
for the duplication of carnation. The use of such floral bases and their more modern
descendants still forms an indispensable part of the perfumer's technique in the building of
perfume creations. Compounding notes for many types of floral base have already been
given in Chapter 6.
More recently the great advance that has been made in chemical analysis and the synthesis of
complex organic molecules has made possible a much closer approximation to the actual
composition and odor of natural flower products. Even so, few of these reconstructed
naturals, invaluable though they are, can provide a full replacement for the genuine product.
They may best be thought of as specialized bases resulting from a collaboration between the
chemist and creative perfumer.
A technique occasionally used in the production of floral bases is to process the compound
over the natural product. For example, a neroli compound may be added to the flowers
before distillation or a jasmin may be distilled over the spent waxes after making the absolute
from the floral concrete. Such surfleurs products have a naturalness that cannot be obtained
by the compound alone.
Many of the important perfumery accords, first discovered during the first half of the
century, were also embodied in some of the famous bases created at that time. A number of
these are still available and widely used. The Ambreine and Mellis bases, which we will be
dis-
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cussing in connection with the oriental perfumes, are examples of such accords, as are many
of the animalic bases built around the combination of paracresyl derivatives, phenylacetates,
and cedarwood.
Some of the most successful bases contain quite simple accords of only two or three
materials, perhaps dressed up with a number of auxiliary products. The combination of
phenoxyethyl isobutyrate and dimethyl benzyl carbinyl acetate, used in many fruity notes,
produces an unmistakable character that survives even when used in trace amounts in a
finished perfume. Similarly an ambergris base, made from a simple combination of
labdanum, olibanum, and vanilla, brings an unmistakable effect. Such bases, which the
perfumer may create for him- or herself, are not only valuable building blocks in the creation
of a perfume but are a convenient way of introducing trace amounts of materials that in
combination make a special contribution to the character of the final composition.
Another technique much used in the past, though less popular today, was to take well-known
products such as methyl ionone, vetiveryl acetate, or hydroxycitronellal—materials that
themselves could often form 10–20% of a finished perfume—and decorate them with a
number of other synthetic and natural materials to form a base with much of the complexity
and ''roundness" of a finished perfume. Many such bases, for example, Althenol and Selvone
(used in Ma Griffe), were created by Carles to be used not only by himself but also by client
perfumers who lacked perhaps the same level of technical proficiency.
One of the most valuable uses of bases today is as a means of introducing into a perfume
intensely powerful materials that in isolation can give an unacceptably harsh effect. Many
green notes fall into this category. But, by combining them in a carefully worked accord,
they can in fact bring a naturalness to a perfume, and one that is also very difficult to
duplicate. Fruit bases are another example of this technique. Combinations of powerful fruity
materials, often using products such as phenoxyethyl isobutyrate or hexyl cinnamic aldehyde
as a carrier, combine to give an effect unobtainable by formulating with single materials.
Trace amounts of fruit bases are some of the most widely used in perfumery today.
Yet another type of base is that in which the essential character of an existing perfume is
recreated without developing the full complexity of the original. This can then be used to
give a twist to the character of a new creation or as the starting point for a "within the area"
match. Such bases, even if written out into the final formula, can be of special value in the
creation of hybrid fragrances, such as between Anais Anais
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and Paris, or between Calandre and Rive Gauche, which are frequently used for deo-
colognes and other toiletry products.
A similar technique that can be used by a perfumer working with GC information is to
extract a number of identified materials that make up one aspect of a perfume—for example,
all the rose notes—and bring them together in the form of a base. Occasionally the perfumer
may in fact be recreating the actual base used in the original.
Some perfumers, less commendably than those who create genuine bases with which to
work, will extract a "heart" from their finished composition, in the form of an artificial base
for the purpose of secrecy, concealing important aspects of the composition from
compounders, or from other perfumers who may get a glimpse of the formula. This practice,
especially when several such pseudobases are involved, can cause enormous problems when
it comes to production or to the modification of the perfume for other applications. Some
companies legitimately use this system of hearts when transfering formulas to branch
companies, but it is a practice that should not be encouraged in perfumers.
Perfumery style today, demanding a greater initial impact based on a simpler type of
formulation, has reduced the use of the type of base that represents a high proportion of the
finished composition. But floral bases and those that bring a strong positive character to a
perfume are still widely used, and a knowledge of them is an important part of a perfumer's
training.
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PART III—
STUDIES IN FINE FRAGRANCE
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11—
The Descent of Perfumes
There is an old English proverb that says that a bride should include in her wedding attire
"something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue." If we use the word
"blue" in its somewhat erotic sense, then this is not a bad description of the attributes of most
successful new perfumes. Few perfumes that come on the market today are entirely original,
and if they were, it is unlikely that they would be accepted by the consumer. They are
derived from earlier perfumes that have a proven record of market success, and the
successful launch of a major perfume is likely, within a very short time, to be the inspiration
behind numerous other fragrances that are more or less closely related to it. Some may be
equally prestigious, while many will be adaptations for a lower-price area of the market. The
same process can be seen at work in the world of fashion. What is new in Paris one year is
likely to find its way into the chain stores the next.
This is not to suggest that perfumers are any less creative than artists working in other
disciplines. The history of all forms of art can be thought of in terms of evolution: the
derivation of what is new from what has gone before, a process of gradual change
interspersed by the occasional great leap forward of imaginative inspiration. Without Haydn
the symphonies of Beethoven would not have been written, nor without these the symphonies
of Brahms. Without the paintings of Cézanne there would have been no Picasso—or not the
one with whom we are familiar. All artists are influenced by the period in which they work,
drawing upon the past while responding to the cultural
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changes that surround them. We may see, in retrospect, a continuity of influence stretching
back over many generations of creative work. Similarly in perfumery we can trace the
origins of many of today's formulas back to the perfumes created at the beginning of the
century. The driving force behind this evolution can be seen to have been the interaction
between the availability of new materials, the genius of the creative perfumer, and the
changing demands of the marketplace.
There is also a parallel to be drawn between the evolution that has taken place in perfumery
with the evolution of living things by the process of variation and natural selection. The
emergence of modern perfumery may be said to have been made possible at around the turn
of the century by the work of the organic chemist. There were new materials to work with,
new ideas to be explored, and a marketplace largely unconditioned by anything that had gone
before. Into this environment, as at the dawn of natural evolution (in the so-called Cambrian
explosion), there appeared a great diversity of types. Some were perfumes of startling
inventiveness, aimed at a highly specialized market dominated by the fashion-conscious elite
of society. Many of these perfumes disappeared without trace, or have survived as living
reminders of a bygone age, but from among them emerged certain combinations of materials
(the genetic material of perfumery) that proved more successful in competing for a market
share than others. Not only were they successful in themselves, but they were also capable of
being adapted, by the introduction of new materials and ideas, to the changing conditions of
the market environment. In the natural world it was the success of their underlying structures
that gave rise to such groups as the molluscs, insects, and vertebrates. In perfumes it was to
be the chypre, oriental, and floral-aldehydic accords, among others. Through a combination
of creative variation and consumer selection, they came to dominate the market, producing
whole families of perfumes that could be adapted to a number of different product types and
radiate out into every niche in the fragrance market.
Because of this evolutionary pattern in the development of perfumery, it has become usual
within recent years to classify perfumes in the form of a genealogy, or family tree. Such
genealogies are designed to show the relatedness of perfumes based on their underlying
accords. We may trace, for example, the descent of many modern floral-oriental perfumes
from L'Heure Bleue and L'Origan, through Oscar de la Renta and Vanderbilt, to such
perfumes as Poison and Loulou. All these are based on a characteristic accord between ylang
and eugenol (carnation), Schiff bases (orange blossom or tuberose), methyl ionone (with the
exception of Poison), and vanillin, with heliotropin and cou-
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marin. The actual relatedness of perfumes can vary from one of being a "me-too" copy,
through one of clear descent (the relationship of Fidji to L'Air du Temps), or to a largely
original perfume that falls within an existing family (Ysatis as a modern interpretation of the
chypre accord). Occasionally it is possible to see the influence of an existing fragrance on a
new perfume in a different family. In Obsession, a modern oriental perfume descended from
Shalimar, the top note has clearly been borrowed from Alliage, a fruity-green chypre
perfume. Totally new perfumes, apparently unrelated to what has gone before are rare
indeed. Eau Sauvage, although stemming from the classic Eau de Cologne accord, can be
seen in retrospect as having been the starting point for a new family of "fresh" perfumes; one
of the great imaginative leaps forward. Similarly Coriandre with its emphasis on patchouli,
with hedione and rose as the dominant floral notes, can be thought of as the beginning of a
new family within the chypre area, leading on to such perfumes as Aramis 900, Paloma
Picasso, and Knowing. The composition of many of these perfumes will be discussed in
greater detail in the following chapter.
It is not unusual to find the introduction of a new perfume that relates back to one from a
much earlier period, as in the relationship between Oscar de la Renta and L'Origan.
Perfumery fashion tends to go in cycles. Families may remain dormant for a considerable
time before being reintroduced, often by the creation of a perfume inspired directly by a
model from the past but using many of the new materials that have become available within
the years that separate the two.
Many of the greatest masterpieces of perfumery draw upon the construction of earlier
perfumes. Even the great Jean Carles based much of his work on the already well-established
chypre and fougere accords, introducing into them a degree of originality rarely found in
modern perfumery. Few perfumes today can match the astounding use of materials found in
Canoe or Ma Griffe. The study of such creations, seen in the context of their place in the
evolution of perfumery families is one of the most worthwhile exercises that a young
perfumer can undertake.
Modern methods of analysis have not only made it possible for students to acquire a greater
knowledge of the perfumes of the past but have also brought about a much greater emphasis
on the creation of clearly derivative perfumes, both those that genuinely bring something
new and those that are little more than me-too copies. The combination of market forces and
GC analysis has resulted in an explosive acceleration of the rate at which the perfumery
evolution is taking place.
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This is not to deny that many great and largely original perfumes have been produced over
the past 20 or 30 years. Among these must be included many of the perfumes of Estee
Lauder, such as White Linen and Alliage, as well as such perfumes as Diorella, Eternity, and
Samsara. Such perfumes are often difficult to classify or relate directly to any one perfume of
the past. Sometimes such a perfume will represent a one-off, falling outside the mainstream
of perfumery descent. Occasionally however, it will be seen in retrospect to have been the
beginning of a genuinely new direction, starting a whole new family line. Among recent
perfumes, Trésor, representing a new style in perfumery technique, can already be seen as
the inspiration behind a number of subsequent introductions including Escape, Dune, and
Volupté.
Although the genealogical approach to the classification of perfumes is widely accepted by
perfumers as a valid way in which to interpret some of the creative influences under which
they work, it is a mistake to be too categorical in trying to draw up what amounts to a family
tree of supposed relationships. Some perfumes, although we cannot think of them as among
the great originals, are almost impossible to place in such a classification. Ombre Rose may
be thought of as related to Chanel No. 5, as a floral-oriental, or even as being close to, and
perhaps inspired by, Johnson and Johnson's famous Baby Powder.
Apart from the fine fragrances that have been mentioned so far in this chapter, there exists an
enormous market for perfumes designed for toiletry products such as deo-colognes. Many of
these are more-or-less copies of successful fine fragrances adapted for a particular market
and price. Very often, however, they can be seen to be hybrids between two closely related
perfumes, for example, between L'Air du Temps and Fidji or between Anais Anais and Paris.
Such fragrances, although not very original, fit the market profile in having an assured
acceptance with just sufficient individuality to give it product identity. Trying to create
hybrids between perfumes belonging to unrelated families is rarely successful. But, as we
have seen in the relationship between Obsession and Alliage, it is sometime possible to
borrow some of the auxillary notes, such as a special green or fruity accord.
A difficulty that the student perfumer faces when examining some of the older perfumes is
knowing the degree to which many of these have been altered since their original
introduction. Sadly, some of the great perfumes of the past are no longer what they used to
be. The cost and availability of raw materials may have necessitated adjustments to the
formula. The changing quality of raw materials has been
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one of the most insidious ways in which many of the great perfumes have degenerated into
shadows of their former glory.
Sometimes a perfume will be relaunched using a deliberately reformulated compound
designed to adjust to market prices, and to bring the fragrance more into line with current
requirements without sacrificing too much of the original character or quality. Others have
been marginally changed over the years with the introduction of small amounts of new
synthetic products, such as jasmin, sandalwood, and musk materials, so as to reinforce the
character of the original and to give some of the strength demanded by the current market—
but, no doubt, with some eye to a bit of incidental cost cutting.
Occasionally the fragrance of an old perfume will be radically changed, possibly because of
problems with the availability of raw materials or sometimes simply because sales of the
original perfume have declined. Je Reviens, a unique survivor of an earlier style of
perfumery, and one of the best loved among its committed users, has sadly undergone such a
change. It is now unlikely to please either its established customers or to win any new
converts. A great loss to perfumery.
Besides the genealogical approach to the classification of perfumes, which is particularly
relevant to the theme of this chapter, a number of other classifications exist based on
different criteria and with other areas of usefulness. The Classification des parfums,
published by the Société Technique des Parfumeurs de France (STPF) in 1984, deliberately
avoids the genealogical approach, preferring simply to group together perfumes that fall
within the same generalized area as defined by their odor description. This approach, which
is also followed by Haldimann and Schuenemann in the Dragoco Hexagon of Perfumes
(1988), is widely used at a marketing level within the industry to demonstrate perfumery
trends or, as in the case of the STPF, simply as a catalogue. Frequently the results of such a
classification follow closely those of the genealogical approach. One area of difference often
lies in the placing of many of the so-called green perfumes. Because of their very individual
character such perfumes are frequently grouped together under the title "green-floral." In the
STPF classification this brings together Fidji, a direct descendant of L'Air du Temps,
Alliage, which is at least arguably a floral-chypre, and Chanel 19, a perfume belonging to its
own genealogical family of intensely woody floral-green perfumes. These three perfumes
have little in common except their green character, and even this is based on different
combinations of materials. Beautiful, on the other hand, while reputedly derived
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from Chanel 19, fits much more readily into the descriptive type of classification, since it has
little of the green character that lies at the heart of its forebear, and rather more in common
with powdery floral notes such as Eternity.
Another approach, adopted by J. S. Jellinek (1992) in his Map of Perfumes, is to classify
perfumes on the basis of consumer perception. Consumer perception in many cases differs
considerably from that of either the perfumer or fragrance specialist within the industry. Such
a classification is valuable in the positioning of new perfumes being launched onto the
market.
In the following chapter we will consider the compositions of some great perfumes of the
past and present, looking in particular at the relationship between perfumes belonging to the
same generally recognized families. Such comparisons, whether or not they reflect the actual
derivation of the perfumes involved, are invaluable to the student perfumer in understanding
the technical basis of creation and formulation. In other cases, where a perfume does not
belong to any clearly recognized line of descent, we will adopt the purely descriptive
approach to classification.
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12—
Selected Great Perfumes
Not so many years ago it would have been impossible to discuss, in writing, the detailed
composition of the great perfumes. The actual formulas were, and still are, in the hands of
their creators or the companies for which they work. Although such formulas have
occasionally found their way into other hands, the information they contain continues, quite
rightly, to be regarded as confidential.
One could of course learn a great deal about their composition through the painstaking effort
of making a more-or-less close olfactory match. But one could never be quite sure how
faithfully the formula of the match actually reproduced the original. Moreover the match
itself represented such a large investment in time and effort that no one would think of
publishing the information it contained.
Today, however, with the ready availability of modern methods of analysis, extensive
information has become the common knowledge of perfumers. A good GC-MS printout can
provide not only the main structure of a fragrance but also detailed insights as to most of its
constituents, both natural and synthetic. Using this as a starting point, an experienced
perfumer can go a long way toward reconstructing the formula as originally conceived by its
creator.
One can never be sure, of course, as to what went on in the mind of the creator. Such is the
nature of art that even if one were to ask him or her, one might not get a very coherent reply.
The creator is often quite unaware of the experiences that influence his or her work. We
might, on analyzing a perfume, find it to be related structurally to
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Madame Rochas or to Calandre. If we were to point this out to the perfumer who made it, his
or her response might quite genuinely be one of surprised acknowledgment.
Different perfumers have different ways of looking at perfumes, and no doubt some of our
readers will disagree with many of the ideas set out in this book. Perhaps the creators of
some of the perfumes discussed will be among them. We would accept such disagreement
with equanimity, for it is not our purpose to promulgate the idea of a one and only true
family tree of perfumes. Rather, we want to use these perfumes, which can be smelled and
worked on by students, as a starting point for a discussion of the use of materials and to
provide insights into the techniques and creative methods used by the great perfumers, past
and present.
The information given on the following pages is based on data coming from GC analysis
combined with further work carried out in conjunction with our students. Most perfumes
exist in more than one form, being sold not only as a concentrated extrait, usually referred to
as the ''perfume," but also in more dilute versions such as "toilet water" and "eau de parfum."
Such products are frequently based on rather different formulas from those of the original
perfume; more modern and less expensive ingredients are used to recreate the same idea, but
in a way that is more commercial and more suitable to the lower concentration. With this
variation between the formulas of different line products, and the changes that have taken
place in the formulas of many older perfumes, it is not always possible to talk of the one-and-
only formula for a particular fragrance. Although most of the information on which we have
based our studies comes from the analysis of the extrait versions as they exist today, in the
older perfumes some of the ideas are based on what we believe to have been the intentions of
the original perfumer. In other cases we have also used information derived from the analysis
of the more dilute versions.
It has not been our intention to provide complete reconstructions, or indeed formulas, for the
perfumes under discussion. To do so would be of little value to the serious student wishing to
develop an ability as a perfumer, or to learn from the work of matching. Nor would we wish
that such formulas be used for the unethical marketing of copycat, or at worst, counterfeit
products. It remains for the individual perfumer or student, who wishes to do so, to carry out
the work of reconstruction and to arrive at his or her own interpretative formulas for the great
masterpieces of perfumery. Where percentages are given, these should be regarded only as
guidelines to the main structure of the perfume and as a starting point for further work.
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In the selection of perfumes to be discussed, we have concentrated on the perfumes that are
at the origin of the major families as well as other outstanding representatives of those
families. We have chosen to restrict our discussion largely to feminine perfumes.
The Floral Salicylate Perfumes: L'Air du Temps, Fidji, Anais Anais, Paris
In this group we will be looking at four perfumes, predominantly floral in character, based on
salicylates in combination with woody notes and musk. This underlying accord has proved to
be one of the most successful in perfumery, providing the starting point for many varied and
wonderful creations.
L'Air du Temps of Nina Ricci must be regarded as one of the most important perfumes ever
made. Not only has it enjoyed a great and enduring commercial success, but its influence can
be seen behind the creation of a number of subsequent perfumes, such as Fidji, Charlie,
Chloe, Anais Anais, and Paris, which can be thought of as forming a more-or-less well-
defined family. It has also been the inspiration behind innumerable trickle-down fragrances,
particularly for toiletry products and cosmetics.
L'Air du Temps
Created in 1948, L'Air du Temps is a perfect example of a perfume belonging to what we
have described as the middle period of perfumery, formulated around a structure composed
of well-defined top, middle, and base notes. Its extraordinary simplicity, relying on natural
products to give complexity and richness, not only makes it one of the most distinctive of
perfumes but also a natural starting point for many derivative and often much more complex
types of formula.
During the early years of the century a number of successful perfumes had been made based
on salicylates, usually on a combination of amyl and benzyl salicylate. Among these were
floral-aldehydic perfumes such as Quelques Fleurs and Fleurs de Rocailles with a dominant
lilac note, and Je Reviens based on narcisse and jonquille. Many of these perfumes also
contained a combination of eugenol and isoeugenol as part of a carnation complex, and it
was these in combination with benzyl salicylate which were to form the inspiration for the
creation of L'Air du Temps.
Salicylates, as part of the "mellis" accord (discussed later in this chapter), had also been used
in perfumes such as Blue Grass and
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Moment Supreme, in combination with jasmin, rose, eugenol, clove, coumarin, and vetiveryl
acetate, and with oakmoss in fougeres such as Fougere Royal, and Canoe. Few of these
perfumes have survived in their original form, and amyl salicylate has largely fallen out of
favor as a major structural component in fine perfumery, its place having been taken by the
more elegant cis-3-hexenyl salicylate.
At the heart of L'Air du Temps lies the classic accord, 4½:1, between benzyl salicylate (15%)
and eugenol. The large proportion of these two materials together with ylang and isoeugenol
provide the essential carnation character that dominates the perfume throughout its
evaporation.
The base note also contains the important accord between methyl ionone (10%), vetiveryl
acetate, sandalwood, musk ketone, and originally musk ambrette. These materials together
with the carnation make up the immediately recognizable central character of the perfume.
The middle part of the perfume is a bouquet of floral notes reduced to their simplest
components. Terpineol for lilac, styrallyl acetate for gardenia, phenylethyl alcohol for rose,
hydroxycitronellal (10%) for muguet, and benzyl acetate and amyl cinnamic aldehyde for
jasmin.
The top note (14%) is a classic mixture of bergamot and rosewood, together with their
naturally occurring ingredients linalool and linalyl acetate.
Although the essential character of the perfume is built around the ingredients already
mentioned, most of its richness and quality comes from the use of jasmin and rose absolutes.
By the addition of these two materials many hundreds of individual ingredients are added
that envelop and decorate the main structure of the perfume. Here we have a perfect example
of classical simplicity combined with the complexity that comes from the use of fine natural
materials.
In addition to the products mentioned so far, which form the essential structure of the
formula, we may add a number of auxiliary materials that, despite being present in only trace
amounts, have a remarkable effect on the performance and aesthetic quality of the fragrance.
Aldehyde C11 undecylenic brings additional impact, blending perfectly with the styrallyl
acetate and acting as a bridge between the top notes and the rest of the perfume. A further
demonstration of the importance of trace materials is seen in the completion of the carnation
character by the addition of trace amounts of vanillin, heliotropin, and orris. The use of such
materials in this way is an important part of the know-how of perfumers in giving finish and
elegance to their creations.
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Vanillin is one of the most important, but also one of the most difficult materials to use in
perfumery. In an oriental perfume it may frequently form 10% or more of the formula,
whereas in another type of perfume as little as 0.5% can totally obscure an otherwise finely
balanced accord. But used with discretion, it can have the effect of smoothing out the
roughness of a composition, and adding a touch of sweetness, without greatly altering the
essential character. When using vanillin in this way, as an auxiliary material rather than as
part of the main structural accord, it is advisable more-or-less to complete the work of
composition before adding it, carrying out several trials to establish the most effective level.
It should never be used just to cover up the faults of a badly put together perfume: Once
vanillin has been added, it is often difficult to assess the balance between the other materials.
Vanillin would appear, like many of the animal notes, to act as a trigger to our awareness of
smell. Trace amounts in a formula will not only bring out the character of a perfume but raise
its level of impact. It appears to work in a perfume in very much the same way as a pinch of
salt in cooking. Most dishes, even those that we do not immediately think of as being salty,
benefit by its use, but too much can be a disaster. As an ingredient of most carnation bases,
as well as of amber notes, it finds its way into nearly every perfume.
Similarly orris, when used even in minute quantities, can have a remarkable effect both on
the lift and finish of an already well-composed formula.
Fidji
During the period that elapsed between the creation of L'Air du Temps and Fidji in 1966
there had been an enormous increase in the number of synthetic materials available to the
perfumer. New materials frequently provide the inspiration for creative work, and
companies, not surprisingly, encourage their perfumers to use such products in their
formulas. Even if we had never examined the composition of Fidji before, we could be
confident of dating it to within a few years of its creation just by looking at the materials it
contains. Although it is not always possible to see any one perfume as being directly derived
from another, the link between Fidji and L'Air du Temps is generally accepted by perfumers
as being one of direct descent. Throughout the main structure that we saw in L'Air du Temps
there has been a deliberate replacement of old materials, either completely or in part, by new.
But the balance between the various types of material, allowing
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for their different comparative strengths, remains almost unchanged. Fidji may be thought of
as a L'Air du Temps in which the dominant floral character of carnation has been largely
replaced by a "green" hyacinth-jasmin complex. This shift of emphasis is reflected
throughout the structure of the perfume.
Among the most important of these structural differences are the introduction of cis-3-
hexenyl salicylate (6%) replacing part of the benzyl salicylate, and the replacement of
hydroxycitronellal by Lyral (8%). Both changes are in keeping with the green, floral
direction of the perfume. The woody and musk notes have also been modified and
augmented by the introduction of newer materials such as Vertofix (3%) and ambrettolide.
The synthesis of Vertofix (acetyl cedrene) from cedarwood in the early 1960s marked a
major step forward in perfumery chemistry, providing perfumers with a fine woody material
at a reasonable price, which could be used not only to replace the very much more expensive
vetiver derivatives but also had an excellent performance in many functional products such
as soaps and shampoos. It is interesting also to find in Fidji a small amount of PTBCHA
(Vertenex), another relatively new material at that time, and one more frequently associated
with functional products. Here it acts as a link between the woody notes and the fresh green
top note.
Ambrettolide, although one of the most expensive of the synthetic musks, when used in trace
amounts has a wonderful effect in "rounding off" the character of a perfume, working as
much in the top note as in the base.
The main ingredients of the carnation that we found in L'Air du Temps have all been reduced
and a corresponding increase made in the jasmin note by the introduction of hexyl cinnamic
aldehyde (5%). No doubt if hedione had been available to the creator of Fidji, it would have
been used, and Fidji would have been a different, though not necessarily a better, perfume. In
keeping with the rest of the perfume, greater freshness has been given to the rose aspect by
the introduction of geranyl acetate.
If we examine that part of the composition that corresponds directly to L'Air du Temps, we
find the general character to be little changed from the original. What is new are the green
and fruity notes, hyacinth, and a slightly mossy character.
Green notes are some of the most important in perfumery, finding their way into almost
every type of perfume. But because of their frequent strength they are also some of the most
difficult to use. Of the natural products available to the perfumer, galbanum is of out-
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standing interest because it has wonderful "naturalness" of odor in contrast to many of the
synthetic green materials such as phenylacetaldehyde, cis-3-hexanol and its esters, Triplal
and Vertral, which are intensely powerful and "chemical" in character.
The green note of Fidji is one of exceptional complexity. By using a great many individual
materials, in trace amounts, a naturalness can in fact be achieved in which no one "chemical"
note predominates. In all probability, these materials are added in the form of several
subcompounds or bases, including a hyacinth and a narcisse. Natural narcisse and violet leaf
may also be used.
The relation between green and fruity notes is a very important one. Trace amounts of the
lower fruity esters such as amyl acetate or ethyl acetoacetate can modify the harshness of
many green materials. For the same reason mandarin is widely used in green perfumes, as it
is here, particularly in those containing galbanum. Many of the "aromatic" essential oils,
such as armoise, Roman camomile, basil, and estragon also have a valuable modifying effect
on green notes.
For the mossy character small amounts of oakmoss or foin absolute work well and bring
further naturalness to the composition. Other auxiliary products are civet, vanilla, and
aldehyde C14.
Many derivative and trickle-down fragrances have been derived from Fidji. Its light, green,
floral character together with the tenacity of the salicylates and musk make it particularly
suitable for use in toiletry products, especially for shampoos and hair conditioners.
Anais Anais
Although less closely related to L'Air du Temps than Fidji, we may think of Anais Anais
(Cacharel 1979) as a perfume created within the same tradition. Again its character is
essentially floral, in this case a combination of "white flowers," including jasmin, muguet,
lilac, magnolia, tuberose, honeysuckle, and carnation, with a complex of woody notes,
musks, and salicylates (6%).
What we notice immediately on examining the composition of the perfume is the almost
complete absence of the classical fresh top note that we saw in the earlier perfumes, and the
dominance of two materials, hedione (10%) and hexyl cinnamic aldehyde (12%), which with
the musks make up some 30% of the formula. This is moving toward the type of structure
that we associate with many of the modern linear perfumes. Anais Anais is a fragrance that
remains comparatively unchanged throughout its evaporation.
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Otherwise, apart from the greater emphasis on floral notes, the general structure remains very
similar to that of Fidji. A different combination of musks is used, including
cyclopentadecanolide (4%), and cedryl acetate is incorporated into the woody complex. The
woody notes are further emphasized by the use of an intensely powerful amber note—a
"captive" material that is not generally available. Although the carnation-salicylate accord is
again less than in L'Air du Temps, it continues to play an important part in the overall
fragrance.
Another important innovation is the introduction of a honey note which includes the use of
phenylethyl phenylacetate. This can be backed up by the addition of cire d'abeilles (beeswax)
absolute. Although cire d'abeilles varies considerably in quality, it is an excellent material for
providing a natural character to an otherwise synthetic floral compound.
The green side of the perfume which is less pronounced than in Fidji, and more floral, is
based on phenylacetaldehyde and cis-3-hexenyl acetate with perhaps a trace of galbanum.
Narcisse absolute may also be used. Other materials that add to the building up of the white
flower character are Lilial and cyclamen aldehyde in addition to the hydroxycitronellal and
Lyral. The tuberose character can be given by the use of the Schiff base derived from methyl
anthranilate and Helional, or by the direct addition of methyl anthranilate. The mossy side of
the perfume is represented by Evernyl.
Finally, we should note the use of a relatively large amount of aldehyde C14 (0.3%) which
brings to the white flower character of the perfume a touch of exotic fruit.
Anais Anais is another perfume that has been widely adapted for use in many types of
functional product including soaps and fabric conditioners. Many of its components such as
the salicylates, musks, woody notes, and aldehyde C14 are among the most substantive to
cloth, while the floral notes are ideally suited to bring a natural and gentle quality to such
products.
Paris
In Paris there is again a close similarity to the structure of L'Air du Temps, but in this case
with violet and rose as the dominant florals.
An important innovation has been the use of Iso E Super (6%) as the main woody material,
forming an accord with the musk complex and methyl ionone (10%). Methyl ionone is one of
the most versatile materials used in perfumery. Although it occurs in a number of different
isomeric forms (see Appendix D), the qualities most widely
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used today are either the gamma (iso-alpha) form or a mixture of isomers in which this
predominates. In odor it lies somewhere between floral, woody, and iris, working in a
perfume as a bridge between the middle and base notes. It blends with almost every type of
material, taking its place as a structural component in many of the great perfume families.
Whereas in L'Air du Temps it is the woody-iris character of the methyl ionone that develops
in combination with the vetiveryl acetate, in Paris it forms the basis of a violet accord, with
Iso E Super as the woody note. Iso E Super, one of the most important of the newer
synthetics, is another chameleon-type product combining woody and amber aspects with
some of the character of methyl ionone. Used in Paris as part of the L'Air du Temps
structure, it forms a natural link between the other materials and the violet accord.
When creating a perfume, many perfumers like to think in terms of building blocks, working
on the violet note, for example, or the green notes, in the form of bases that are then brought
together in the final accord. Other perfumers prefer to work with "open" formulas, putting in
the individual components that contribute to the various aspects of the perfume's character.
(Perfumers who spend too much time working with GC information tend to think exclusively
in this way.) Thinking of Paris in terms of building blocks, and we would suspect it to have
been created in this way, there is, besides the very beautiful violet accord, a rose complex
(10%) reminiscent of the one used in White Linen. The use of DMBCA (2.5%) at an
unusually high level in both perfumes is of particular interest. As part of the rose note it
works well in conjunction with the underlying woody character.
Hedione, cis-3-hexenyl salicylate, and benzyl salicylate (6%) are again important, with
Galaxolide (5%) introduced as part of the musk complex in conjunction with musk ketone,
cyclopentadecanolide, and Tonalid. It is common practice among perfumers today to use a
combination of synthetic musk materials, usually of chemically different types, rather than
just one. As with the green notes this complexity gives a more natural and interesting effect.
Paris also contains fruity notes, including alpha damascone and gamma-decalactone, which
contrast with the green side of the violet accord. Violet and raspberry, both of which can
contain ionones, form a natural association, and a trace of Frambinone can also work well in
this context.
Because of the chemical stability of many of the constituents of the violet note, as well as of
fruity notes and musks such as Galaxolide, in acid media, fragrances somewhat reminiscent
of Paris can be found
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in household products such as lavatory cleaners. This should in no way detract from our
appreciation of Paris itself—a very beautiful perfume.
The Floral Aldehydic Perfumes: Chanel No. 5, Arpège, Madame Rochas, Calandre,
Rive Gauche, White Linen
The description "floral aldehydic" is usually applied to the group of perfumes whose origins
go back to two of the most successful perfumes created in the 1920s, Chanel No. 5 and
Arpège. All contain significant amounts of aliphatic aldehydes in combination with floral,
woody, and animalic notes. The earlier perfumes in the group mostly contained a
combination of bergamot, linalool, and linalyl acetate in the top note, with ylang leading into
the floral notes. These were dominated by rose, muguet, and jasmin, often with lesser
amounts of lilac, carnation, or natural tuberose. The base notes included woody materials,
such as vetiver and sandalwood, methyl ionone, the nitromusks, and amber. The group may
conveniently be divided into two families, depending on whether or not they contain a
significant amount of vanillin.
Chanel No. 5 and Arpège
Although the aliphatic aldehydes had been used in a number of earlier perfumes, their
dominance (a total of nearly 1%) in Chanel No. 5 marked a milestone in the history of
perfumery, and the combination of materials that make up the central accord of the perfume
remains one of the most unmistakable, being used also for the perfuming of many types of
functional products, from toiletries to room fresheners, where the relative chemical
instability of the vanillin (or ethyl vanillin) and the aliphatic aldehydes does not present too
much of a problem.
The creation of Chanel No. 5 was based on the bold imaginative use of then available aroma
chemicals in combination with fine natural products. Rose and jasmin absolutes were
probably used at levels of around 4% or 5%, which would not have been unusual at the time
when the perfume was created. In addition there would have been natural musk, ambergris,
and civet.
The top note of the perfume contains the traditional combination of bergamot, linalool
(rosewood), linalyl acetate, and neroli, with ciste oil as part of the amber note bringing a
natural radiance in contrast to the chemical harshness of the aldehydes. A good quality ylang
oil is also important in softening the aldehydic character and forms an
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important 1:1 combination with methyl ionone (8%). The muguet part of the accord is
represented simply by hydroxycitronellal (10%), cinnamic alcohol, and styrax. Rose alcohols
with a small amount of phenylacetaldehyde add to the floral character. At the base of the
fragrance is a combination of woody notes including vetiveryl acetate and sandalwood,
isoeugenol, vanillin (1.5%), and coumarin (5%), with a little over 10% of nitromusks.
In Arpège (Lanvin 1927) the floral aspect of the fragrance was further developed by the use
of compounded floral bases. Greater emphasis was also placed on the woody notes, including
vetiveryl acetate, and on the animalic character, with a corresponding reduction in the
vanillin and coumarin.
Although a number of other great perfumes, including L'Interdit (Givenchy 1957) and
Topaze (1959), one of the most successful of the early Avon perfumes, can be thought of as
being more or less closely related to Chanel No. 5, its very individuality seems to have
limited its potential as the begetter of a widely evolved family. In Arpege, however, the
influence of vanillin and coumarin within the accord had been greatly reduced, and it was
this trend that was to lead to the creation of many of the greatest masterpieces within the
group, such as Caleche (Hermes 1961), Madame Rochas, Calandre, Rive Gauche, and White
Linen.
Madame Rochas
When comparing Madame Rochas (Rochas 1960) with earlier perfumes such as Chanel No.
5, we are immediately struck by the development that has taken place in the composition of
the floral notes as a result of an increased reliance on the use of synthetic materials. A
muguet base (15%) using hexyl cinnamic aldehyde and phenylacetaldehyde glyceroacetal
has been introduced to augment the hydroxycitronellal (a further 15%), and a special type of
rose, here using the absolute made from beeswax, brings added individuality to the perfume.
The floral aspect also contains lilac and carnation. Carnation bases, used as auxiliary notes,
find their way into a great many perfumes. Containing both eugenol and vanillin, they are a
convenient way of adding trace amounts of these materials, both of which have the ability to
bring a measure of sweetness and "finish" to a composition. The coumarin is here backed up
by heliotropin, rather than vanillin, which complements both the lilac and carnation notes, as
well as being an ingredient of certain types of muguet. The combination of ylang and methyl
ionone is again present.
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As in Arpège the woody note is dominated by vetiveryl acetate (10%), here in combination
with a large amount of sandalwood (8%). When using vetiveryl acetate, it was the usual
practice to put back some of the unprocessed vetiver oil so as to give greater naturalness to
the product, while preserving the fine quality associated with the derived acetate. The woody
note is further augmented by the use of cedarwood and by guaial acetate, which, with
guaiacwood itself, works especially well in combination with the rose notes. The presence of
oakmoss as a major component in the structure of the perfume can be seen as a new direction
within the family, influencing such later creations as Calandre and Rive Gauche.
The amber notes used in many of these perfumes are highly complex and frequently difficult
to identify. In this case the famous speciality Ambrarome, which was previously used in
Arpège, also works well.
Although natural flower absolutes are less important than in Chanel No. 5 and Arpège in
establishing the essential character of the fragrance, rose, jasmin, and tuberose may be added,
together with tonka, to back up the coumarin (1.5%), and a trace of natural vanilla. A trace
also of ambrette seed can give a wonderful smoothness to the composition, working
particularly well as part of the rose accord.
Madame Rochas has been the inspiration behind a number of important fragrances used in
functional products. The highly successful Camay soap launched in the mid 1950s, although
predating Madame Rochas, and often described as an Arpège type, had been built around
much the same type of floral, woody, aldehydic complex, also with oakmoss, coumarin, and
musks. Vertofix was here introduced as the main woody material with Vertenex (PTBCHA),
a comparatively fresh volatile material, reinforcing the methyl ionone, woody, and floral
notes. Lavandin was used to reinforce the linalool and linalyl acetate, and the good quality
soap base allowed the quantity of aldehydes (similar to those in Chanel No. 5) to play a
dominant role. This theme, now generally thought of as a ''Madame Rochas" type, continues
to be widely used in functional perfumes.
Calandre and Rive Gauche
Calandre was created in 1968 to reflect the metallic theme used at that time by Paco Rabanne
in his fashion designs. Although it follows the same general pattern as Madame Rochas, both
the rose and muguet notes show interesting developments. The use of rose oxide and
diphenyl oxide in combination with geranium, nerol, and geranyl acetate as part of the rose
complex provides much of the "metallic" character.
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Although the comparatively simple representation of the muguet aspect of the perfume is
along the same lines as the one used in Madame Rochas, the greater emphasis on the green
notes, using Lyral (4%) as well as hydroxycitronellal, and a significant amount of
phenylacetaldehyde, fits also with the metallic theme. The essentially synthetic effect of
these green and metallic notes is made acceptable by the use of natural rose oil, one of the
most beautiful and irreplaceable products used in fine perfumery.
Although falling into the so-called floral aldehydic family of perfumes, Calandre is one of
the least aldehydic, containing a combination of aldehydes C10 and C12 lauric, which
together make up about 0.2% of the total formula. Also incorporated into the structure are
two important materials, Hedione (6%) and Helional (1%), both of which only became
generally available after the creation of Madame Rochas. These two products, previously
used together in Eau Sauvage and Diorella, form an important accord. Helional had also been
used together with Glycolierral and phenylacetaldehyde glyceroacetal in Printenyl, a
speciality base possibly used as such in the creation of Calandre. The accord between
hedione and hexyl cinnamic aldehyde (8%) is another that has gone on to play an important
role in the creation of many modern perfumes. This combination of synthetic floral notes is
rounded off by the use of natural jasmin (3–4%), styrax oil, and additional indol.
The woody part of the perfume is again based on vetiveryl acetate with vetiver (6%) and
sandalwood. The oakmoss is backed up by a small amount of Evernyl, a synthetic material
created as a result of the study of natural oakmoss, and one that has come to play an
increasingly important role in modern perfumery. Coumarin is again present with a trace of
vanillin, and cyclopentadecanolide backs up the musk ketone.
Although lacking some of the impact required by today's standards, Calandre remains one of
the most beautifully made perfumes. The combination of green, floral, and woody notes has
made it the starting point for a number of successful fragrances used in toiletry and cosmetic
products.
The comparison between Calandre and Rive Gauche (St. Laurent 1970) is an interesting one.
Whereas Calandre had been created for the traditionally elite couturier market in Paris, Rive
Gauche deliberately broke new ground in looking toward the younger culture of the Left
Bank. Although the structure of the two perfumes is remarkably similar, Rive Gauche has a
far greater immediate impact, lacking the subtlety and perfectly rounded character of its
forebear.
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The floral aspect of the perfume is dominated by a rose complex similar to that used in
Calandre but with a greater emphasis being placed on the geranium and aldehydic notes.
Cyclamen aldehyde is here used as part of the muguet, with hedione and hexyl cinnamic
aldehyde again making up some 15% of the formula. Much of the impact of the perfume
comes from the woody character which is here augmented by the use of cedarwood (2%) and
Kephalis (3%), a woody amber material of great tenacity, and by a number of other materials
in trace amounts. Coumarin and musk ketone are again present.
White Linen
Although Rive Gauche may be thought of as having brought to an end the fashion for
classically formulated floral aldehydic perfumes, White Linen (Lauder 1978) further
revolutionized the genre with a structure that looks forward to many of today's monolithic
perfumes. Although having links to Madame Rochas and Calandre, it follows also the
intensely aldehydic character of Chanel No. 5, with nearly 1% of aldehydes but without the
modifying influence of bergamot and ylang, or the sweetness of coumarin and vanillin. The
simplicity of the idea is truly amazing, using bold blocks of materials in a perfectly balanced
accord. The place of vetiveryl acetate, as the main woody material of the earlier perfumes,
has been taken by Vertofix (20%), with Galaxolide (20%) coming in as the dominant musks
in combination with musk ketone, cyclopentadecanolide, and ethylene brassylate. These
materials, together with vetiver, Hedione, and hydroxycitronellal make up some 75% of the
formula.
The smell of Galaxolide has become very much associated with its use as a major component
of many washing powders and fabric conditioners and its use here in conjunction with a high
proportion of aldehydes may have been used deliberately to give the character of freshly
washed white linen—or perhaps it was the fragrance that inspired the name.
The dominant floral character is again a fine quality rose note, using an unusually high
proportion of nerol, reminiscent of Calandre. As previously noted in our description of Paris,
DMBCA forms an important link between the rose notes and the woody materials. A fresh
green character is introduced into the muguet aspect by the use of Liffarome backed up here
by the more long-lasting acetaldehyde diphenylethylacetal.
The largely synthetic composition of the perfume again makes it important to use a natural
rose oil, as part of the rose complex, in
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order to bring complexity and aesthetic quality. As in so many perfumes small amounts of
carnation materials add depth and finish to the perfume. The typical floral aldehydic
combination of aldehydes, floral notes, woody notes, and musk is completed by the addition
of a powerful amber note.
The Floral Sweet Perfumes: L'Origan, Oscar de la Renta, Poison, Vanderbilt

Lying somewhere in character between the florals and orientals are a group of perfumes
whose origins go back to a style characteristic of the first decade of the century. At that time
many new floral aromatic chemicals were in the process of being discovered. These were
used for the creation of compounded floral bases, including such master-pieces as Jasmin
231, Dianthine, and Fleur D'Oranger—all introduced by the Swiss company Firmenich at
around that time. These floral bases in turn were used by perfumers, many of whom worked
independently from the supply houses, as the starting point and inspiration for the creation of
new perfumes. In L'Origan, created by Coty in 1905, floral bases such as these were
combined with methyl ionone, and an "ambreine" note based on vanillin, coumarin, and
civet, with vetiveryl acetate, heliotropin, and the nitromusks as additional base notes.
Together with a traditional top note of bergamot, orange, neroli, and ylang, this created a
style of fragrance that was to influence the composition of such modern masterpieces as
Oscar de la Renta, Vanderbilt, Poison, and Loulou. Many of these perfumes also include a
mossy character similar to that of Mousse de Saxe, based on isobutyl quinoline.
Oscar de la Renta and Poison
Although a similar idea to L'Origan had been used in the creation of L'Heure Bleue (Guerlain
1912), few other surviving perfumes in the genre were created until the style was revived in
1976, by the introduction of Oscar de la Renta.
Despite the 70 odd years that separate the two perfumes Oscar de la Renta shows a
remarkable similarity in its overall conception to that of L'Origan. Whether or not it was
originally formulated, as was L'Origan, around the use of bases, we may conveniently
describe its composition along the same lines. At the heart of the perfume is a similar
combination of methyl ionone, an ambreine note, carnation, and or-
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ange blossom in the approximate proportions of 2:1:1:1. Heliotropin (7.5%), coumarin, and
musk ketone add to the powdery sweet, semioriental character, with resins such as benzoin
and opoponax. Vertofix (5%) is used rather than vetiveryl acetate as the main woody note,
with a small amount of sandalwood.
Apart from carnation and orange blossom, the floral part of the perfume is dominated by a
traditional jasmin complex to which has been added Hedione (8%) and Jessemal. Rose notes
are also present as well as a small amount of hyacinth. The dominant sweetness of the
perfume is lightened by a fresh top note made up of bergamot, orange, and mandarin, with a
large amount of linalyl acetate (some 10% including that from the bergamot), and linalool.
Ylang and basil, which contains a high proportion of estragol, lead in to the sweet floral and
powdery notes.
Three other notes are important in completing the composition of this unusually complex
perfume: orris, probably in the form of the resin, a fruity note built around the accord
between phenoxyethyl isobutyrate and dimethyl benzyl carbinyl butyrate, and a mossy note
reminiscent of Mousse de Saxe.
Two of the most important constituents of Oscar de la Renta, which give the perfume much
of its character are the eugenol, contained in the carnation accord, and the Schiff bases
(including methyl anthranilate) coming from the orange blossom. In Poison (Dior 1985) this
combination was again used, with heliotropin, coumarin, and vanillin, but with even greater
emphasis on the methyl anthranilate. This material, as well as the Schiff bases derived from
it, forms the starting point for the creation of both orange blossom and tuberose notes, and in
Poison it is the tuberose direction that has been taken, with the addition of aldehyde C18 (so-
called), gamma-decalactone, and methyl salicylate.
Although best thought of in terms of its individual components rather than as a perfume
constructed around the use of bases, the general structure of the perfume can clearly be seen
to be related to that of Oscar de la Renta, the most obvious difference being the almost
complete absence of methyl ionone. In its place the heavy floral character of the perfume has
been reinforced by the introduction of a large amount of Lyral (10%). This material, being an
aldehyde, also forms a Schiff base with the methyl anthranilate, as do two other floral
aldehydes present in the formula, Canthoxal and Lilial. The musk element is greatly
emphasized with Galaxolide (5%) and Celestolide reinforcing the musk ketone, and adding
further to the overwhelming sweetness of the perfume.
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In line with many other modern perfumes the fresh top note has been largely eliminated. It is
replaced here by the somewhat narcotic effect of cypress oil, with significant amounts of rose
oxide, and alpha and beta damascone adding to the fruity floral character—an effect that we
also saw used in Paris. The combination of mandarin and geranium, which brings a welcome
touch of freshness to the top note, occurs also in Giorgio, another predominantly tuberose
perfume, though one belonging more to the floral salicylate family.
Much as we admire the technical excellence of Poison, we must admit to finding it a difficult
perfume to live with—or to sit too close to in the theater or concert hall! For a perfume to
intrude so ostentatiously upon other people's space can at times become irritatingly offensive.
In later perfumes, such as Loulou (Cacharel 1987), the oriental and tuberose notes are further
developed along the lines of Oscar de la Renta to give what may be thought of as a hybrid or
"floriental" effect.
Vanderbilt
Another perfume that may be included in the sweet floral family, and that has enjoyed great
success in the United States, is Vanderbilt, created in 1981. Built around a combination of
fresh citrus top notes, orange blossom, and tuberose, Hedione, methyl ionone, heliotropin,
vanillin, and musk ketone, with iso E super coming in as the woody note, it lacks much of
the heavy floral sweetness of the other perfumes in the group, lacking most of the eugenol
with little or no ylang or coumarin.
Of particular interest here is the use of allyl amyl glycolate and allyl cyclohexyl propionate,
combining to give a fruity green note, which may be thought of as replacing the fruit and
hyacinth notes in Oscar. A honey note gives added character to the orange blossom aspect of
the perfume. As we saw in White Linen, there is an admirable economy in the structure of
the perfume, made remarkable by the subtle use of contrasting nuances.
The Oriental Perfumes: Shalimar, Must de Cartier, Obsession, Youth Dew, Opium,
Coco
The oriental perfumes may conveniently be divided into two distinct groups. The first, which
includes such perfumes as Shalimar, Must de Cartier, and Obsession is based on the classic
"ambreine" accord be-
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tween bergamot, vanillin (or ethyl vanillin), coumarin, and civet, usually with woody and
rose notes. The second, to which Youth Dew, Opium, and Coco belong, has evolved around
the relationship between benzyl salicylate and eugenol which we saw in L'Air du Temps, but
here used in combination with patchouli and hydroxycitronellal (another important accord),
spices, woody notes, and coumarin. This combination, which for convenience we will refer
to as the "mellis" accord, had also been used as the basis for a number of important speciality
bases such as Melysflor and Pimenal, which were used in the creation of such perfumes as
Blue Grass and Moment Supreme.
All contain sweet balsamic notes—such as benzoin, tolu and opoponax—amber notes based
on labdanum, and castoreum, with rose as the dominant floral.
Shalimar
Shalimar, created in 1925 by Guerlain, remains, in our opinion, one of the greatest and most
aesthetically satisfying perfumes ever made. In structure it looks back to a style of perfumery
reminiscent of the nineteenth century, based on a large proportion of expressed and distilled
essential oils to which animalic and balsamic materials have been added as fixatives. Into
this classical structure have been introduced two of the most important synthetic materials to
have been discovered at around the turn of the century, ethyl vanillin (3%) and coumarin
(9%). Ethyl vanillin is usually regarded as being approximately four times as strong as
vanillin, so that it is not unusual to find as much as 10% or 12% of vanillin being used in
perfumes of this type. The top note is dominated by some 30% of bergamot as well as other
citrus oils, neroli, and rosewood. Making up the rest of the ambreine accord are patchouli
(4%), sandalwood, civet, and vetiver.
Castoreum is of particular importance in Shalimar, forming the basis of the leather aspect of
the perfume, which may be further developed by the use of a leather base, such as a classic
Cuir de Russie. The same idea was used by Guerlain in Mitsouko, one of the earliest of the
chypre perfumes to contain also a fruity note based on aldehyde C14 (undecalactone).
Cinnamon bark oil, which forms part of the spicy aspect of the perfume, fits in perfectly with
the leather. Other spices that work well are coriander, nutmeg, and clove.
The orientals in this group are some of the least floral of perfumes, relying mainly upon a
small amount of rose, usually including both the natural oil and absolute, as well as a number
of synthetics. In a perfume created at the time of Shalimar, the qualities of citronellol
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and geraniol used in the perfume would have been of natural origin, rhodinol from geranium,
and geraniol from palmarosa. These products, because of the numerous trace materials
retained from the starting material, have a quality and performance in the end product that is
almost impossible to achieve using their purely synthetic counterparts.
At the time when Shalimar was made it was customary to use a high proportion of the
alcoholic tinctures made from natural products, rather than the concentrated absolutes and
resins. These would have included such products as vanilla, benzoin, and tonka to give
naturalness to the ethyl vanillin and coumarin, as well as tinctures of civet, castoreum,
ambergris, and musk. Such products retain more of the most volatile components of the
starting material, giving a wonderful quality and life to the finished product.
Must de Cartier
Must de Cartier was created in 1981. The 70 years that separate it from Shalimar saw a
revolution in perfumery style as well as in the availability of new synthetic materials.
Although most of the structure of a classic oriental remains in place, to this has been added
an accord based on approximately equal amounts of Hedione, sandalwood, and Galaxolide.
These materials, together with vanillin, which replaces the ethyl vanillin in Shalimar, make
up some 40% of the formula. Coumarin is again a major component, with cedryl acetate
coming in to support the sandalwood. A small amount of a fruity-green accord based on
Triplal and aldehyde C14 has been added to the top note. To this may also be added a trace
of thyme—an idea that is again reminiscent of Mitsouko.
Obsession
A further development along these lines can be seen in Obsession (Calvin Klein 1985) in
which the fruity-green and aromatic herbal notes have been emphasized even more, in a way
reminiscent of Alliage (Lauder 1972). The classic combination of armoise, galbanum, and
methyl chavicol (the major constituent of basil and estragon) that makes up part of this
character is one that we shall see again in a chypre context, going back to perfumes such as
Bandit and Cabochard. The use of tagete is particularly interesting for the natural, almost
applelike nuance that it brings to the fruity-green character coming from small amounts of
Triplal and allylamyl glycolate. Also contributing to this effect is Helional which acts as a
link to the Hedione, used here in the same way as in Must de Cartier.
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Otherwise, in general construction the perfume follows closely that of a classical oriental,
with citrus oils (making up some 25%), lavender, sandalwood, patchouli, vanillin, coumarin,
castoreum, and rose. The general sweetness of the perfume is further enhanced by the choice
of musk materials, Galaxolide (5%), Tonalid, ethylene brassylate, and musk ketone, as well
as by the use of Cashmeran, an intensely sweet fruity musk material associated with the
synthesis of Galaxolide.
As in so many perfumes the placing of the amber notes is one of the most difficult tasks to
accomplish well. Although many of these are based on ciste-labdanum, the total number and
olfactory variety of such products is immense, and whether creating or working within the
area of an established fragrance, the perfumer needs great skill and experience in their
selection and use. On account of their relatively high boiling points the identification of
labdanum products, as well as of other resins and balsamic materials, is largely beyond the
range of GC analysis, and the student wishing to recreate the great perfumes of the past,
which contain these materials, must again rely upon his or her purely olfactory skills.
Youth Dew
Youth Dew, originally launched by Estee Lauder in 1952 as a bath additive, is one of the few
western fine fragrances not diluted in ethanol. Although as much criticized as admired for its
sheer impact and lack of aesthetic subtlety, it remains one of the most original and influential
of perfumes. Its enormous success, particularly in the United States and Great Britain, can be
seen in retrospect to have opened the way for a demand for the style of perfumery that has
now come to dominate the market.
The mellis accord, which makes up an important part of the fragrance here incorporates amyl
salicylate in addition to benzyl salicylate, with the patchouli and woody aspect being
accentuated, using cedryl acetate rather than the more traditional products derived from
vetiver. Vertofix had yet to be discovered. The dominant spices, in combination with
eugenol, are clove and cinnamon.
Although the mellis accord provides a framework for the structure of the perfume, it is the
sweet balsamic materials, sandalwood, oakmoss, labdanum, vanillin, and animalic notes, in
combination with the spices, that give the perfume its overwhelming character. Benzoin,
styrax, tolu, and peru are all important, with castoreum and nitromusks contributing to the
animalic aspect of the perfume. An animalic com-
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plex based on the esters of paracresol in combination with phenylacetates and cedarwood is
probably also used.
Opium
Although the influence of Youth Dew can be seen in Dioressence (1970), it was not until
1977, with the launch of Opium by Yves St. Laurent, that the oriental theme was further
developed in a perfume of major importance, which was in turn to provide the inspiration for
the creation of a number of subsequent fragrances within the genre.
In Opium the two types of oriental, represented by Youth Dew and Shalimar, are brought
together by the combination of the mellis and ambreine accords. Again there is an emphasis
on castoreum, and on the spicy and balsamic notes, with the rose aspect being more fully
developed than in either of its forebears.
In the top note, which in Shalimar was dominated by bergamot, there is a combination of
citrus oils—orange, lemon, mandarin, and bergamot—together with linalool and linalyl
acetate, and lavender. The typical mellis accord is built around a combination of benzyl
salicylate (12%), eugenol with clove and pimento, patchouli (8%), hydroxycitronellal (10%),
Vertofix, and coumarin (2.5%). The coumarin can be seen as acting as a link between the
mellis and the ambreine accord, which is here based on a combination of both vanillin and
ethyl vanillin. A combination of balsamic and resinous materials, including benzoin, styrax,
opoponax, and tolu contribute to the overall oriental effect.
As we would expect in a perfume as distantly related in time as Opium is to both Shalimar
and Youth Dew, a number of more modern materials have been introduced. The cis-3-
hexenyl salicylate backs up the benzyl salicylate, and Lyral, the hydroxycitronellal. A small
amount of Hedione is also included. There have been important developments to the rose
aspect of the perfume with the addition of phenylethyl dimethyl carbinol (3%) and
Centifolyl. The fresh character of the rose derives from the use of geranyl acetate. Unlike the
earlier oriental perfumes there is also an important aldehydic note.
Coco
Coco, launched by Chanel in 1984, follows much the same pattern as Opium but with a
greater emphasis on the floral notes. Hedione is here a major constituent, and Lyral has now
replaced hydroxycitro-
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nellal as part of the mellis accord. These materials, together with the salicylates, eugenol, and
patchouli, make up some 45% of the formula. Again we see the use of a strong structural
accord at the heart of a modern perfume.
To the floral side of the perfume has been added ylang, bringing out the carnation aspect of
the eugenol-salicylate accord. This, with the jasmin and rose components, gives a more floral
effect reminiscent of some of the older mellis-based perfumes such as Moment Supreme. The
presence of methyl ionone also tends in this direction. The woody side of the accord is
predominantly a combination of Iso E super and sandalwood.
The renaissance of the oriental theme over the past 25 years can be seen as the starting point
for a number of new directions in perfumery. One of these, which we saw in the creation of
Must de Cartier, has been toward a group of dominantly sandalwood perfumes. Many
valuable sandalwood synthetics are now available, including Brahmanol, Sandranol,
Madranol, and Sandalore, and these synthetics have been used in conjunction with natural
sandalwood in the creation of such perfumes as Joop and Samsara. Another important
direction has been toward the so-called floriental perfumes, such as Loulou, which combine
the sweetness of an oriental perfume with a floral complex usually based on tuberose. This
type of perfume can be seen as a link between the true orientals and the sweet floral
perfumes discussed in the previous section.
The Patchouli Floral Perfumes: Diorella, Aromatics Elixir, Coriandre, Knowing,

Paloma Picasso
The ability of Hedione to combine successfully with many of the most important perfumery
materials has been one of the major influences in perfumery over the past 30 years. Nowhere
is this better seen than in a group of perfumes based on its relationship with patchouli.
Although sometimes classified as chypres, the dominance of floral notes and patchouli, and
the comparative lack of musk and animalic notes, other than castoreum, justifies the placing
of them in a separate group.
Patchouli oil is one of the most widely used and valuable of perfumery materials, coming
from the dried leaves of a plant that grows in Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries.
Most of the production is distilled locally, often in old-fashioned equipment from which the
oil picks up a considerable amount of iron. As will be
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discussed in a later chapter, the presence of iron can have a disastrous effect on the stability
of a perfume compound, and this needs to be removed either chemically or by means of
redistillation in more modern equipment. Finer qualities of the oil are produced by the initial
distillation being carried out under modern conditions, and large quantities of the dried
leaves are imported into Europe for this purpose. A further rectification can also be carried
out by molecular distillation, and it is these qualities produced in modern equipment that are
most widely used in fine perfumery. A good quality patchouli has a character partly
reminiscent of bitter chocolate and pepper.
Diorella
The original use of Hedione was in Eau Sauvage, created by Edmund Roudnitska in 1966, a
predominantly citrus-fresh fragrance containing a number of aromatic herbs, such as thyme,
basil, and armoise, with a background of jasmin, patchouli, Helional, eugenol, methyl
ionone, woody notes, and coumarin. Many of these materials were again used in the creation
of Diorella (Dior 1972), a unique and brilliantly conceived perfume, built around the accord
between patchouli, Hedione, Helional, and eugenol.
The top note of Diorella is again dominated by lemon, verbena, bergamot, linalool, and
linalyl acetate, with lavender and estragon. Apart from a small amount of rose the floral side
of the perfume consists mainly of an intense jasmin note including Hedione (10%), cis-
Jasmone (2%), hexyl cinnamic aldehyde, benzyl acetate, and indol, with aldehyde C14
providing the fruity aspect. As in Eau Sauvage, Helional (5%) and eugenol make an accord
with the Hedione, carrying the essential character into the heart of the perfume in
combination with the patchouli (6%), methyl ionone, vetiver, and a colorless oakmoss. The
richness of the perfume comes from the use of jasmin absolute and trace amounts of other
natural products. Petitgrain citronnier and cardamon both work well in an olfactory
reconstruction of the perfume.
The ''watery" character of Helional which plays an important part in the character of both
Eau Sauvage and Diorella has subsequently been used both in the creation of cool fruity
notes such as Calyx, and in modern "marine" notes based on Calone, such as New West and
Escape.
Aromatics Elixir
In the same year that Diorella was launched another perfume, Aromatics Elixir, based on the
combination of patchouli and Hedione,
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came on the market. Although in many ways quite different than Diorella, containing
salicylates and with little of the citrus top note, many of the base notes such as methyl ionone
and vetiver are again present with small amounts of eugenol, Lilial, and Helional. A further
important difference is the very much greater emphasis on rose in combination with the
jasmin. Hydroxycitronellal, remarkable for its absence in Diorella, is also present, forming
another important accord with the patchouli.
This combination of patchouli, hedione, rose, hydroxycitronellal, methyl ionone, and woody
notes has been used in a number of subsequent perfumes including Coriandre, Aramis 900,
Paloma Picasso, and Knowing, which can be thought of as forming a small but characteristic
family.
Coriandre and Knowing
In Coriandre (Couturier 1973) the top note is of coriander, ylang, styrallyl acetate, and
undecylenic aldehyde, with geranium as part of the rose note. The type of rose base, which
probably makes up some 10% of the formula, is a classic combination of phenylethyl
alcohol, citronellol, geraniol, geranyl acetate, honey notes such as ethyl phenylacetate and
phenylethyl phenylacetate, phenylacetaldehyde, rosatol, camomile, and violet leaf. Apart
from hydroxycitronellal, Lyral, and phenylacetaldehyde glyceroacetal add to the muguet
character.
Although we have described the perfumes in this family as being based on Hedione, in
Coriandre the material used is Magnolione, a closely related material with a very similar
though rather more jasminic olfactory character. This makes up some 20% of the formula
with 10% of patchouli. Methyl ionone, vetiveryl acetate, cedryl acetate, Vertofix, and
sandalwood make up the woody aspect of the fragrance, with a small amount of Galaxolide
as the musk.
Knowing (Lauder 1988), although launched 15 years after Coriandre follows a very similar
pattern, and the two perfumes are closely related in odor. In Knowing there is the addition of
a fruity-tuberose character and heliotropin, with the woody side dominated by vetiver and a
small amount of Iso E super. A number of other trace auxiliary notes have also been added.
Paloma Picasso
All the main elements that we have seen in the other perfumes in the group are again brought
together in Paloma Picasso (Picasso 1984),
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though with the four major components, patchouli, Hedione, rose, and hydroxycitronellal in
the approximate ratio of 2:1:2:2. On the same scale the main woody material, in this case
Vertofix, is 2 and Lyral 1. Methyl ionone is again important, with castoreum providing the
sweet leathery note. Of the perfumes discussed in this group Paloma Picasso is the most
chypre in character having a pronounced mossy character.
What we frequently find in a perfume that shows descent through a number of previous
perfumes is that the original idea, which may have been quite simple, has been greatly
developed, both by the introduction of an increasing number of auxiliary notes, sometimes in
the form of bases, and by single materials being replaced by complex mixtures. Paloma
Picasso is a case in point, lacking perhaps some of the clarity of either Aromatics Elixir or
Coriandre. Sometimes a simple reinterpretation of the original idea is needed to give new life
to an old and overworked family.
The Classical Chypre Perfumes: Ma Griffe, Femme, Miss Dior, Cabochard

The word "chypre" derives from the island of Cyprus, which for many centuries was the
meeting point between East and West for the trade in aromatic materials. During the
nineteenth century it became famed for the production of perfumes combining the citrus oils,
floral pomades, and labdanum of the Mediterranean region, with resins and gums, such as
styrax, incense, opoponax, and myrrh, imported from Arabia. Animal products such as civet
from Ethiopia and musk from the Himalayas were also among the most valued commodities.
Originally, therefore, the word "chypre" would have been used to describe a style of
perfumery associated with the island from which it came. Today, however, it refers rather
more specifically to a group of perfumes whose origins can be traced back to the great
Chypre of Coty created in 1917, a perfume based on oakmoss in combination with bergamot,
jasmin, labdanum, and animal notes including civet and musk. To these may be added woody
notes such as vetiveryl acetate, methyl ionone, and usually patchouli, to give the
characteristic structure of most of the great chypre perfumes. Into this combination may also
be introduced a variety of materials such as aldehydes, green notes, fruity notes, and leather,
emphasizing different aspects of the chypre accord, to give a number of distinct subfamilies.
The great diversity of chypres has led some perfumers to classify
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perfumes under three headings: florals, orientals, and all the rest, which may be generally
described as chypres. Certainly the widespread use of the materials that make up the typical
chypre accord, in all types of perfume, gives some support to this view, and the nonperfumer,
or even the perfumer, when faced with the sometimes unnerving task of commenting upon a
new perfume for the first time, can usually get away with the description (unless the perfume
is clearly an oriental) "floral with chypre aspects."
Today the classic chypre perfumes and their descendants are no longer much in fashion. In
the United States consumer preference has moved in the direction of the sweet powdery
floral notes, and in Europe, the former stronghold of the chypre style, the oriental and
floriental notes have come to dominate the market. The trend in America has been linked to
the widespread use of Johnson's Baby Powder, and the conditioning effect that this has had
on consumer preferences. In European countries, where fresh Eau de Cologne type products
are used in baby care, the oriental theme, which includes at least a vestige of fresh notes, has
continued to be successful, while satisfying the demands of the all-important American
market for warmth and sweetness. In Ysatis (Givenchy 1984), one of the few successful
chypres of recent years, a more modern effect has been obtained by greatly developing both
the jasmin and musk aspects of the accord with some 20% each of Hedione and Galaxolide.
Indeed, with Evernyl being used in place of natural oakmoss, the overall effect is of a floral
musk rather than of a true chypre.
Ma Griffe
To do justice to this, one of the most extraordinary of perfumes, we will break our self-
imposed restriction on attribution by mentioning its creator, Jean Carles, by name, since the
perfume reflects so completely every aspect of his art. Carles was also a talented conjuror
who kept his pupils amused with the tricks he performed with cards as well as with those he
performed with perfumery materials.
As we would expect the perfume is clearly composed around a classical structure of top,
middle, and base notes. Apart from all the essential elements of a chypre there is the bold use
of strong materials such as citronellal (1%), the aliphatic aldehydes (1%), styrallyl acetate
(4%), and styrax in an accord that gives the perfume its enormous individuality. It was also
part of Carles's technique to take structural materials such as vetiveryl acetate, methyl
ionone, and hydroxycitronellal and dress them up with a number of natural and synthetic ma-
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terials to produce bases that could then be used, rather than the individual materials, in the
creation of his perfumes. The resultant complexity gave a wonderful velvety quality to the
end product, which is difficult to duplicate by the normal processes of analysis and matching.
It is probable that Ma Griffe was built up in this way using such bases as Selvone, Aldehone
Alpha (based on hydroxycitronellal), and Muguet Invar, some of the great Roure specialities
of that period.
Apart from the materials already mentioned the top note contains a simple mixture of
bergamot and orange. The middle note is dominated by a traditional jasmin base, with
muguet (hydroxycitronellal 10%), and rose. At the heart of the perfume is the classical
chypre accord between vetiveryl acetate (10%), methyl ionone, oakmoss, aldehyde C14,
coumarin, sandalwood, patchouli, musk ketone, and amber. The amber note can be
reproduced by the simple but effective combination of labdanum, olibanum, and vanilla.
Small amounts of other animalic notes such as civet may also be used.
The large amount of aliphatic aldehydes, together with the citronellal, make the perfume
difficult to assess when first put into ethanol. A considerable period of maturation is needed
for the aldehydes to "go in" with the formation of their hemi-acetals (see Chapter 18).
Unfortunately, the use of citronellal in insecticides, and as an ingredient of many household
cleansers, has given Ma Griffe a superficial association that is less than it deserves as one of
the all-time great classics.
Femme
One of the earliest perfumes to use undecalactone (so-called aldehyde C14) was Mitsouko,
created by Guerlain in 1919. This marvelous chypre still survives as one of the great artistic
masterpieces of perfumery. As with many perfumes created around that time lilac played an
important part in the floral side of the composition, and this, with the fruity notes and
opoponax, was again used in the creation of Femme (Rochas 1942).
Reminiscent of an earlier style of formulation, Femme contains a relatively high proportion
of fresh top notes based on bergamot and lemon, as well as petitgrain citronnier. At the heart
of the underlying chypre accord is a fruity jasmin note (a jasmin benzol type may here be
used), oakmoss, methyl ionone, patchouli, and labdanum, with small amounts of woody
materials. The fruity note in Femme is probably introduced in the form of a base, such as the
famous Prunol of de Laire, containing aldehyde C14. The underlying warmth comes from
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balsamic materials and from spices such as cumin and cardamon supported by a carnation
based on eugenol, isoeugenol, heliotropin, and ylang.
Miss Dior
The versatility of the chypre type of formulation, in providing the starting point for the
creation of perfumes of remarkably different character is nowhere better seen than in Miss
Dior, created in 1947. Although the central chypre accord of bergamot, jasmin, oakmoss,
patchouli, vetiveryl acetate, labdanum, and animalic notes comprises some 60% of the
formula, the perfume, at the time of its launch, was one of startling originality. Even today it
remains one of the most easily recognized, both when smelled on a smelling strip as well as
in use.
Two years earlier Vent Vert had been created by Balmain, based on the use of galbanum oil,
in combination with geranium, both at unusually high levels. (Sadly, the extreme character of
this beautiful perfume has now been modified so as to appeal to a wider market.) This
emphasis on green notes was again taken up in Miss Dior, combining galbanum with the
accord between the aldehydes (C11 undecylenic and C10), styrallyl acetate, and a styrax
note, found in Ma Griffe. In addition there is a dry spicy note based on pepper and coriander,
as well as lavender, and neroli. This extraordinary balancing act between contrasting
materials has always made Miss Dior one of the most admired perfumes among perfumers
themselves.
A conventional jasmin base again provides the main floral aspect of the perfume. In more
modern versions, for example, as in the Eau de Toilette, Lyral is used to replace part or all of
the hydroxycitronellal. The styrax note may be reinforced by the use of phenylpropyl
alcohol, one of its major constituents. The base note, in many ways similar to that of Ma
Griffe, differs in the very much higher level of patchouli (10%).
Contrasting with the somewhat harsh top note of the perfume are warm amber and animalic
notes, and the powdery softness of orris and vanillin. Natural jasmin and tuberose may be
used to give richness to the perfume. A trace of celery seed oil also forms an interesting
accord with tuberose.
At the time when Miss Dior was created most natural tuberose was obtained by the
traditional enfleurage process (see Chapter 4). Today, partly because of high labor cost but
also because of the religious restriction on the use of animal fats in producing countries such
as
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India, most tuberose absolutes are obtained by solvent extraction. The two types of product
are very different in olfactory character, with the more modern product being greener and
lacking much of the "jammy" richness of the original, which was so important in many of the
earlier perfumes.
Apart from its influence on a number of other fine fragrances, Miss Dior types have found
their way into many functional products, being particularly valuable in soap perfumery. The
combination of green notes, lavandin, styrallyl acetate, and the aliphatic aldehydes; a floral
character made up of ylang, fruity jasmin notes, and rose; PTBCHA, methyl ionone, and
Vertofix; with a mossy amber background formed the basis of the famous Lux fragrance,
created in the 1960s, and still the model for numerous subsequent brands.
Cabochard
In 1944, two or three years before the creation of Ma Griffe and Miss Dior, another very
great and original chypre perfume, Bandit, had been launched by Piguet. Based on the use of
isobutyl quinoline, this perfume was to become the inspiration for Cabochard, a softer and
more commercial reworking of the same idea.
Although, in Cabochard, all the typical ingredients of a classical chypre are present, many
important additions have been made. Yet despite the resulting complexity the perfume has a
marvelous unity built around the various accords based on isobutyl quinoline.
Its somewhat earthy character blends perfectly with the top note combination of armoise
(2%), galbanum, and basil. As in many modern perfumes containing green notes, mandarin is
used as part of the fresh note, together with the traditional bergamot, linalool and linalyl
acetate. Styrallyl acetate (2%), which in Bandit had formed part of a fully developed
gardenia complex, is again important, and as in so many perfumes is combined with
undecylenic aldehyde.
As would be expected in a chypre, the floral aspect of Cabochard is again dominated by
jasmin and hydroxycitronellal (15%), but here with a small amount of hyacinth to back up
the galbanum, and a fresh rose note given by geraniol. The jasmin is no longer the classic
type found in Ma Griffe and Miss Dior but one based on benzyl acetate, Jessemal (4%), and
hexyl cinnamic aldehyde (6%).
Compared with other types of chypre, Cabochard contains a relatively large amount of
sandalwood (6%). Perhaps the use of this in combination with hexyl cinnamic aldehyde was,
in another context, to influence the creation a year later of Madame Rochas. The same com-
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bination was again used in Aramis, a men's fragrance closely related to Cabochard, and one
that was eventually to establish the quinolinechypre accord firmly within the masculine area.
Another important relationship used in the creation of both Cabochard and Aramis is that
between isobutyl quinoline and musk ambrette. Now that this material can no longer be used,
for reasons of safety, it is difficult to find an alternative musk that gives the same olfactory
effect. Another musk used in Cabochard is ambrettolide, a very beautiful but expensive
macrocyclic compound, which we also noted in connection with Fidji—a very different but
not entirely unrelated perfume.
The typical chypre base note contains patchouli (6%), methyl ionone (the beta form was used
in Aramis), vetiveryl acetate, cedryl acetate, oakmoss, and animalic notes. It is interesting
also to find aldehyde C18 being used in a similar way to that of aldehyde C14 in many of the
earlier chypres. An important part of the amber character comes from the use of Dynamone,
a speciality material derived from cistus, difficult to use, but of great diffusion and
persistence.
Other aspects of the perfume are its balsamic notes such as benzoin which, with castoreum
and a costus note (the natural product can no longer be used), combine with the isobutyl
quinoline to give the leather character. As we have seen before, spices such as cinnamon and
clove work well with leather notes, and these are again present, backed up by a carnation
accord of eugenol, heliotropin, and vanillin.
Cabochard is a perfume that repays a considerable amount of study, since it is full of
interesting relationships between materials. Sadly, however, it is today more-or-less out of
fashion, partly due the family having been hijacked by the male market but also because of
its lack of many of the attributes required of a modern perfume. It is not monolithic in
structure, sweet, powdery, or dominantly floral. Someday, when chypres again come back
into fashion it may perhaps be reworked using modern materials such as Iso E super,
Timberol, and Hedione, with perhaps a violet note, as in another of the older quinoline
chypres, Jolie Madame.
Chanel 19
Chanel 19, created in 1971, is the archetype of a small number of green perfumes that cannot
be said to belong to any of the families or groups of perfumes that we have so far considered.
Although all of its structural elements are among those that we have come across before, they
are here brought together in an original way, to produce one of the
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great aesthetic masterpieces of traditional French perfumery—made even more remarkable

for having been launched at a time when perfumery was moving more in the direction of
lifestyle fragrances such as Rive Gauche and Charlie.
The perfume is perhaps as special for what it does not contain as for what it does. There are
little or no aldehydes, synthetic musks, salicylates, patchouli, or vanillin. Although the floral
and woody notes are reminiscent of some of the floral aldehydic perfumes, the green and
mossy notes, together with the large amounts of orris and of Hedione, take it in an entirely
different direction.
The top note of the perfume is dominated by galbanum with bergamot, lemon, and ylang. A
trace of amyl acetate works well here in "topping off" the harshness of the galbanum. Rose
notes including natural rose absolute, which make up some 15% of the composition, and a
muguet complex (20%) similar to that used in Madame Rochas provide most of the
traditional floral part of the perfume, together with a small amount of an "absolute" type
jasmin speciality.
Apart from its green character the perfume is immediately characterized by the use of orris as
a major component, rather than as a modifying note as in the majority of perfumes in which
it occurs. Over the past few years the price of this already costly material has risen
dramatically and to find the right quality for such a perfume becomes increasingly difficult.
Although synthetic irone, its major ingredient exists, the performance of the natural material
is hard to emulate. Methyl ionone (6%) provides a perfect link between the orris and woody
materials.
The dominant woody aspect of the perfume is made up of Vertofix (12%), vetiver notes,
cedryl acetate, and sandalwood, with guaiacwood supporting the rose. The mossy character
comes from oakmoss and a complex based on isobutyl quinoline reminiscent of Mousse de
Saxe. There is also a small amount of a spicy carnation note including one of the sweet
spices such as clove or pimento. The wonderful richness of the perfume suggests the addition
of numerous other materials in very small amounts, and it is probable that in the creation of a
perfume such as this tinctures of musk, ambergris, and civet would also have been used.
Taking the top, middle, and base notes as we have described them so far, we have what can
be thought of as a classically formulated perfume, similar in its structural proportions to
perfumes such as Madame Rochas. But in addition to this, there has been added, as if by a
stroke of perfumery genius, some 20–25% of Hedione, working throughout the perfume,
giving life and diffusion to the whole, and a
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wonderful floral character. Smelled on its own Hedione seems to have little to recommend it.
For this reason perfumers took some time to realize its true potential, but its ability to form a
number of important olfactory accords and to raise the performance of a perfume has made it
one of the most widely used materials today.
Unfortunately, few perfumes that are as green as Chanel 19 have a wide commercial appeal
outside of the couturier market. However, one perfume that is clearly related to it and that
has found some success is Silences by Jacomo (1979). Here the galbanum has been modified
by the introduction of a cassis note to produce a perfume of outstanding individuality and
beauty. So often we find this combination of green and fruity notes in successful modern
perfumes. Most of the structure is very close to that of Chanel 19, though with the addition of
benzyl salicylate giving a slightly more floral character.
Another perfume reputedly inspired by Chanel 19 is Beautiful of Estee Lauder (1986).
Although much of the floral and woody aspects are certainly similar, the absence of green
and mossy notes takes it into a different area. The addition of fruity and powdery notes to the
remaining structure has produced a typically American perfume of considerable originality
and character.
A New Style of Perfumery: Eternity, Trésor, Spellbound, Dune, Casmir, Amarige

Over the past ten years the tendency toward the creation of monolithic perfumes, rather than
those with a classic type of structure based on top, middle, and base notes, has seen the
emergence of a new style of perfumery technique, which finally came of age with the
creation of such perfumes as Trésor (Lancome 1990), Casmir (Chopard 1991), Dune (Dior
1991), and Spellbound (Lauder 1991). This technique has provided the inspiration—no doubt
with the aid of information coming from GC analysis—for the launch, in quick succession,
of a new generation of perfumes, which amounts to a revolution in the world of creative
perfumery.
Although the initial stages in the progress toward this type of formulation were largely an
American phenomenon, reflecting a consumer preference for strong, sweet, floral, and
immediate smelling perfumes that can be relied upon to fulfill their initial promise in use—
representing good value for money; its influence can now be seen even in the more
traditional markets such as France and Spain.
Typical of the perfumes that immediately preceded this new wave of products is Eternity, a
powdery sweet floral perfume built around
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a combination of benzyl salicylate and Iso E super, which together make up some 25% of the
formula. In many ways the style of composition resembles that of a luxury soap fragrance,
based on large amounts of comparatively inexpensive materials such as Lilial, Lyral,
linalool, terpineol, eugenol, ionone beta, heliotropin, and Galaxolide. To these has been
added a rich Osmanthus complex, possibly including the natural absolute, giving a fine floral
and fruity character, together with the necessary feeling of quality.
The technique that has evolved to meet the demand for this new type of perfume revolves
around the use of a comparatively small number of synthetic materials, all of which tend to
be long-lasting and capable of being used at very high levels, of up to 25% or more, without
the harshness associated with some of the older materials and naturals. Additional materials
in the formula can be thought of as developing the character of the central accord, and
providing decoration, rather than as being required partly to bring aesthetic harmony to an
otherwise unrounded accord, such as in a conventional chypre based on oakmoss, vetiver,
and patchouli.
Trésor is perhaps the most typical of the new type of formulation, being based on
approximately equal amounts of Hedione, Iso E super, Galaxolide, and methyl ionone which
make up some 80% of the formula. Around this massive construction, probably in the form
of bases, are a combination of green, fruity, muguet, violet, and woody notes, many of them
reminiscent of those used in Paris, together with heliotropin and vanillin. Precisely the same
combination of four materials is again used in Spellbound, but here in combination with
some of the carnation and tuberose aspects of Poison. Some slight relief to the overall
sweetness is given by linalyl acetate.
In Casmir the same technique is used but in an oriental context. The formula is constructed
around large amounts of Hedione (20%), Galaxolide and ethylene brassylate, a combination
of Iso E super and Vertofix, and vanillin (14%), which together make up some 80% of the
formula. In deference to the oriental character linalool and linalyl acetate are present to
provide a top note with traces of rose, vetiver, and patchouli, in the background. A strong
fruity note, characteristic of many modern American perfumes, is also included.
Another semioriental perfume dominated by the combination of Hedione and Galaxolide is
Dune (Dior 1991). This may be seen as having some of the character of Obsession, with a
fresh fruity-green top note, a combination of rose and jasmin notes in the middle, with
sandalwood, patchouli, and vanillin (though less than in Obsession)
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in the base. Hedione and Galaxolide make up some 50% of the formula. The perfume is
distinguished by a significant amount of orris.
A more traditionally floral perfume is Amarige (Givenchy 1991). Here the dominant accord
is between Hedione (30%), benzyl salicylate (25%), and a combination of Iso E super and
Trimofix. Around this structure are added a number of fruity notes, together with a rich floral
background including ylang, tuberose, narcissus, jasmin, violet, and cassie.
Few of these perfumes fit easily into the generally accepted genealogy of perfumes; they
represent a genuine break with the past. It is as if perfumers have discovered a whole new
world in which to dream their dreams based on a new style of creation. Perhaps the future
will see, as in the 1920s, a great flowering of new types of fragrance, based on this
technique, with a few of the more successful being seen in retrospect as having been the
inspiration behind whole new families of perfumes. The consumer will decide.
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PART IV—
ASPECTS OF CREATIVE PERFUMERY
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13—
Perfumes for Functional Products
The word ''functional" in the title of this chapter may be thought of as redundant. One might
argue that everything produced by humans, and certainly everything that is commercialized,
has a function. Perfumers employ the expression "functional products" in a special way, that
is, to denote all perfumed products other than alcoholic fragrances. The distinction is useful,
and we will adopt it here.
In alcoholic fragrances, fragrance rules. The solvent system is part of the fragrance; the
container and the delivery system are selected or designed to present the scent to its best
advantage and to preserve it in its optimal state for as long a time as possible. In all other
products, whether they be soaps or detergents, toiletries or household products,
considerations other than optimizing fragrance performance take precedence. Soaps,
shampoos, household cleansers, and detergents are formulated primarily to clean; in
moisturizing creams and hair conditioners, the skin or hair care properties are more important
than perfume performance. Even products such as bath foams and air fresheners, in which
fragrance undoubtedly plays a central role, must meet requirements that may be in conflict
with optimal fragrance performance. Bath foams must have a certain viscosity and must
produce ample and stable foam; air fresheners must be inexpensive and easy to use.
As a result the creation of perfumes for "functional products" always involves considerations
both of aesthetics (how should the product
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smell?) and of technique, of making the perfume appropriate to the product formulation or,
as is often said, to the "product base."
In most perfumery textbooks, functional products have been dealt with on a product-by-
product basis. Today the range of product types and product formulations that are perfumed
has become so extensive and subject to so frequent changes as to make this approach
impractical. We have therefore decided to deal with perfumes for functional products in a
general manner, concentrating on principles of general validity. We will address the
questions of fragrance aesthetics first and then review the technical considerations.
Aesthetic Considerations
Masking
The bases of most functional products possess more-or-less undesirable odor qualities. In
creams, soaps, and detergent-based products, it is the greasy or waxy note of fatty acids and
their derivatives; in cold-wave lotions, depilatories, and insecticides, the pungent smell of
active agents; in window cleaners and nail polish removers, the sweet "chemical" odor of
organic solvents.
The severity of the problem depends a great deal upon the purity of the raw materials
employed. The first and most fundamental step in eliminating off-odor problems is the use of
the purest and least odorous grades of raw materials that are available and affordable. Where
odor problems are caused by the breakdown of product components over time—such as the
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids which causes rancid off-notes, or the hydrolysis of the
sequestering agent EDTA used in laundry detergents which results in a vinegar off-note—
they are best eliminated by product reformulation or the selection of more suitable packaging
materials.
Sometimes undesirable odors arise during or after a product's use: The wet laundry odor in
washing machines or the hot hair scent generated by hair driers are typical examples. In
personal deodorants and air fresheners, diaper products and toilet cleaners, masking external
odors is a primary reason for the products' very existence.
Any odor can be covered by any other odor, provided that the covering odor is sufficiently
powerful. Covering by drowning out may be a satisfactory approach in cases where the odor
to be masked is faint. However, whenever this odor is distinctly noticeable, the drowning out
is likely to result in an overall odor intensity that is in itself
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unpleasant. The art of masking is the art of removing the unpleasantness of a given odor at
the lowest possible total intensity level.
A drowning-out perfume might be compared to the ritual masks, totally covering the face,
worn by the actors at native ceremonies. An elegant masking perfume is like the small black
masks worn at masked balls that cover only a small area around the eyes, just sufficient to
make the wearer unrecognizable. The trick of masking at minimal intensity consists in using
the odor to be masked as a component of the total odor or, to put this in another way,
supplying a context within which the odor to be masked is no longer perceived as unpleasant.
Fatty odors, for example, are effectively masked by citrus notes, especially orange. This is so
because the C8 to C12 fatty alcohols and aldehydes, with their distinctly fatty character, are
natural components of citrus oils. It is not by chance that cod liver oil, administered to
children in former days as a rich source of oil-soluble vitamins, was commonly flavored with
orange, and that citrus oils are major components of the Eaux de Cologne used to mask the
fatty components of perspiration odor. Synthetic citrus oils in which the fatty aldehydes and
alcohols have deliberately been left out are even more effective masking agents.
Perspiration often also has a pungent component. A similar odor is found as a component of
neroli oil and, to a less extent, of oil of petitgrain. Both oils are common ingredients of citrus
colognes, the former today in the form of synthetic replacements. These same oils, for
similar reasons, are also effective in masking the characteristic odor of lanolin.
A good masking odor should be as similar as possible to the odor to be masked in its time-
intensity curve. Fleeting off-odors can be masked by volatile masking agents, but a long-
lasting off-note needs an equally tenacious masking note. Protein hydrolysate odors are so
tenacious as to be difficult to mask over time.
Theoretically odors that actually counteract a given off-odor in the sense of decreasing its
intensity, if possible to zero, would be even more ideal masking agents. In practice such
annihilating odors have never yet been found. A few rare instances have been recorded
where the addition of a second component results in reduced total intensity. But this
phenomenon always involves a rather precise ratio of the two components, and it has as yet
not been possible to put it to practical use.
Some components of product bases cause a stinging sensation in the nose that is not actually
an odor but a response of the trigeminal nerve, a pain response. This sensation is faintly
noticeable in poor grades of
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alcohol, more pronounced in acetic acid (vinegar), and very pronounced in ammonia and in
formaldehyde. It cannot be masked in any way.
Sometimes off-odor problems appear more serious to the chemist who has developed the
product than they are to the consumer. This is especially likely to occur in traditional
products where the consumer through habituation has come to accept, and perhaps to expect,
the base odor as part of the natural odor of the product. Such an example occurred in
Germany in the late 1950s. For tax reasons, hair tonics and other aqueous alcoholic products
had been formulated with isopropyl alcohol rather than ethyl alcohol. Isopropyl alcohol has a
characteristic, somewhat sickly sweet odor. When the tax laws changed and manufacturers
were able to use ethyl alcohol again, many consumers actually missed the familiar isopropyl
alcohol note, and perfumers were asked, in some instances, to find ways of putting this note
back into the products.
In window cleaners traditionally based on dilute ammonia, removing the ammonia sting does
not necessarily lead to improved consumer acceptance. Consumers in some markets have
come to expect the sting and regard it as a signal of product performance. On the other hand,
cases have also occurred where off-odors that appeared insignificant to the experts caused a
considerable drop in consumer acceptance.
A good general approach in the case of presumed malodor problems is to urge the client to
conduct exploratory consumer research to find out whether the odor is truly perceived as
objectionable by the consumer and, if so, at what stages of product use—for example, when
opening the bottle, during product use, or after use. A clear definition of the problem, in
consumer terms, places the perfumer in the best possible condition to solve it.
Evaluating the masking efficacy of a perfume is fairly straightforward if the odor to be
masked occurs in the product base, although complications arise if the base odor changes
markedly upon product aging. It is more difficult where the task of the perfume is to mask
odors originating elsewhere, as in the case of deodorants, detergents, air fresheners, and toilet
cleaners. Standard malodors simulating the odor to be masked are often used in evaluation
tests conducted during the developmental stages. The definitive tests of masking
effectiveness should involve actual in-use situations.
Pleasing
Whenever a functional product is perfumed, the main reason is quite simply to make it more
pleasing to the consumer. A pleasant fragrance
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in a product is like the smile on a person's face: It is a signal of friendliness, an

encouragement for closer contact, and one of the little joys that sweeten everyday life. As in
the interaction between people, there are different stages in the encounter between the
consumer and the product. The perfume comes into play in all of them. To illustrate this
point, let us examine a shower foam.
Odor first comes into play during the shopping trip. The consumer has presumably decided
beforehand that he or she needs some shower foam. If he (let us, for the sake of readability,
take the proviso "or she" as given) has not yet firmly made up his mind which particular
brand or variant to buy, opening a bottle that catches his attention and sniffing at the contents
may well be the leading factor in this decision. The perfume must, at this stage, mask the
odor of the plastic bottle and the fatty odor of the product base that have collected in the head
space. It should in addition please the shopper both as an immediate sensation and as an
indication of the odor to expect when he uses the product under the shower.
The second phase of the encounter takes place when the product, greatly diluted with water,
is used under the shower. The user expects a pleasurable fragrance burst at this point,
perhaps even a fragrance that pervades the bathroom.
Finally, there is the odor that lingers upon the skin after rinsing and drying. Depending upon
the market for which the shower foam is intended and upon its advertising platform, a faint
and rather neutral odor may be called for at this stage or a scent that is characteristic and
distinctly noticeable.
This simple example points up the fact that in functional products, top, heart, and base notes
of a perfume are not necessarily a continuum. They come to the fore during different phases
of the product experience and play different roles in each. The demands are highly product
specific. In a dishwashing detergent, for example, it is the top note that counts; no lingering
afterodor must remain on the dishes. In a fabric softener, on the other hand, the odor
remaining on the fabric after drying is essential. In an air freshener for prolonged use, top
note, heart note, and base note should be as similar to each other as they can possibly be,
both in character and in intensity.
The perfumer must not only be aware of consumer expectations at each phase of product
evaluation, he or she must also know, as intimately as possible, the conditions under which
the product will be used. Populations for whom toilet soap is the only regularly used
fragranced product have quite different expectations regarding its ability to perfume the skin
than consumers accustomed to daily use of alcoholic fragrances and deodorants. In countries
where fabric soft-
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eners have high market penetration, the lingering power of a detergent perfume is less crucial
than in countries where softeners are a rare luxury, and the demands placed upon a detergent
perfume's heart note are different in societies where people wash their laundry in the river
than in markets where washing machines are common. Space fragrances used in the non-air-
conditioned taxicabs of tropical countries have different demands placed upon them than
those used in the rooms of five-star hotels.
In the context of fragrance aesthetics of functional products, it is useful to divide these
products into two categories. One group consist of products in which fragrance plays a major
role from the consumer's point of view, such as deodorants, soaps, bath products, fabric
softeners, and air fresheners. In the other group we find products such as shampoos and hair
conditioners,* moisturizers and hand lotions, laundry detergents, and household cleaners in
which fragrance is rarely seen by consumers as a key reason for using one brand rather than
another, although it may actually have a considerable effect upon consumer acceptance.
Fragrance here plays a more hidden, subliminal role.
Let us consider the latter category first. Although few people will consciously buy a product
because of its odor, they may well reject it if they dislike its scent. Hence the tendency in
these categories is to go for safe "nonpolarizing" fragrances, fragrances that may not be very
exciting but that are disliked by few people. The safest fragrances are those that are
reminiscent of the odor of the major established products in the market. These fragrances
"stand for" high and reliable quality because the consumer has come to associate them with
the category leaders that set the standard for quality in the market. Moreover they were
probably selected in the first place because of their good performance in consumer tests. An
extreme case of a category leader setting the fragrance standard for a category is the baby
products market in the United States. For at least half a century, no product had a chance in
this market unless its fragrance emulated, more or less closely, the traditional scent of the
Johnson & Johnson baby line. There may nevertheless be reasons even in markets of this
kind to depart from the established fragrances of market leaders. These will be discussed in
Chapter 16.
*
In Japan and other Pacific countries, fragrance is actually a major consideration in hair products.
The role of fragrance in a given category may differ from market to market.
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In the other group of products, where fragrance is a more overt reason for brand choice, odor
types are a great deal more diverse and innovative. Here, a major force in fragrance evolution
has come from alcoholic perfumery in what has been called the "trickle-down" phenomenon.
The Trickle-Down Phenomenon
There is a hierarchy among fragranced products, a hierarchy in terms of luxury and expense.
Fine fragrances in limited distribution occupy the top position. In recent decades there has
been a great deal of "trickling down" of fragrance types that were first introduced in fine
fragrances into applications such as personal, laundry care, and even household products. We
find Chloé-type fragrances in shampoos, Trésor types in fabric softeners, Drakkar Noir types
in car air fresheners.
Turning to fine fragrances for inspiration has several advantages for the perfumer. Of all
branches of perfumery, fine fragrance perfumery is most directly tied to fashion and life
style. Innovations in tune with the spirit of the time first turn up here. Moreover it is often
desirable to lend functional products an aura of luxury and elegance. What could be more
effective in conveying such an aura than a note reminiscent of a popular fine fragrance?
Not all luxury fragrances are equally good candidates for trickledown. Some are too
polarizing, appealing strongly to a small group but finding little acceptance among the
population at large. Some crucially depend upon materials that are technically unsuitable or
unaffordable for many functional products.
Moreover trickle-down is often more apparent to the perfumer and to the product manager in
the finished goods house than to the consumer. Few nontrained people recognize fragrances
in their original form, let alone in the modified forms in which they are present in functional
products. What comes across to the consumer is usually no more than a diffuse sense that the
product smells feminine, fashionable, or stylish. For the perfumer using the trickle-down
approach, it is therefore more essential to give a perfume optimal performance in the
particular end product than to maintain maximum fidelity to the fine fragrance which was the
source of inspiration.
We must qualify this last statement in the case of assignments that are related to but not
identical with trickle-down: the line extensions of fine fragrances. When perfumes have to be
developed for a soap, a body lotion, deodorant, or shower gel that are to be sold alongside a
fine fragrance carrying the same name, closeness to the original
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becomes a far more important consideration, and compromises with respect to performance
must sometimes be accepted for the sake of maintaining this closeness.
Both line extension assignments and the trickle-down approach involve the art of perfume
adaptation, of replacing components of the original composition by others that are
technically more suitable for the application in point, or less expensive. We will deal with the
problems of adaptation in a later section of this chapter.
Communication
The observation that trickle-down fragrances often convey a sense of luxury and style points
to an aspect of perfumes that is of key importance in the perfuming of functional products:
The scent of a product connotes specific product qualities to the user. This is obvious when a
lemon perfume is used in a dishwashing detergent advertised as containing lemon juice or in
a sanitary cleaner based on citric acid, or when a herbaceous perfume is used in a herbal bath
foam. But it also occurs in most if not all other uses of fragrance where the message is less
specific.
Odors are a primary system of communication in the animal kingdom, and it is probably fair
to say that humans also, consciously or not, interpret every odor as a communication about
its source or carrier, as a signal of more or less specific characteristics (Jellinek 1991). Here
again, we might compare the odor of a product to the expression on a person's face.
The product characteristic signaled by the fragrance depends a great deal upon the specific
nature of the odor and upon the context. One type of lemon odor may suggest gentle
freshness, another powerful cleaning action. A herbaceous accord may suggest active
masculinity in a men's cologne and health benefits in a herbal bath.
Often the message is also culture dependent. The sweet powdery floral scent of Johnson &
Johnson's baby powder conveys the protected safety of infancy to Americans, while it may
well convey mature femininity in countries with a different scent tradition in baby products.
Lavender in colognes is quite acceptable in Latin countries but considered old-fashioned in
Germany.
The perfumer should generally beware of assuming that specific odor notes evoke the same
associations for the public at large as they do for him or her. This is particularly but not
exclusively true for the perfumer in an international fragrance house working on projects for
different markets. Consumer research, designed and interpreted with
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Figure 13.1
understanding, can yield a great deal of information about what qualities people associate
with what odors. We strongly advise the perfumer to use market research information of this
kind if available.
The odor effects diagram of Paul Jellinek (1954) gives useful general guidance in this area. It
was developed for fine fragrances, but in Figure 13.1 we have adapted it for functional
products. Jellinek's diagram was based both on psychological reasoning and on empirical
experience, and it was validated, many years after its publication, in a number of consumer
studies (Jellinek 1994). For the original labels "erogenic" and "antierogenic" we have
substituted "rich" and "fresh,'' using the latter term despite the fact that perfumers often find
it difficult to comprehend what it means to consumers, simply because we know of no more
suitable word. The original "narcotic" and "stimulating" we have replaced by "gentle" and
"active."
The floral and fruity notes span a wide range from cool, fresh accords such as violet,
geranium, apple, and cassis to rich ones such as orange blossom, tuberose, peach, and raisin.
For the sake of clarity, not the entire spectrum of possible notes is shown in the diagram.
Eucalyptus, pine, and camphoraceous notes belong in the upper right fresh-active segment;
aromatic and spicy notes are on the far right, active side; mossy, leathery, and amber notes
are on the lower right, active tending to rich; civet and honey notes are at the lower left, rich
tending toward gentle; the fatty aldehydes are on the upper left, fresh-gentle. Most perfumes
contain components of several or all of the classes shown in
Page
the diagram. A perfume's dominant message is that of its predominating components.
Technical Considerations
Performance
The term "performance" is generally used to denote a perfume's ability to make its presence noticed. I
crucial in the perfuming of functional products because the objective is always, for both economic an
technical reasons, to achieve maximum odor effect at the lowest possible perfume dosage.
The question whether the performance of a perfume depends only upon the performance of its individ
components, or whether the art of composition is also a major contributor to performance, has been li
explored even though it really is basic to perfumery. In any case the skill to forge harmonious accords
from individually highly performing materials is an essential part of modern perfumery technique.
Depending on time and location, different aspects of performance can be distinguished:
Near the Source At Some Distance

Soon after application Impact Diffusion
After some time Tenacity Volume
Impact refers to the efficacy of a perfume during the first moments of product experience, for examp
when sniffing at the bottle or applying the product to the skin. Diffusion is a measure of the distance
over which the fragrance is noticeable soon after application. High diffusion is desirable, for example
the case of a bath foam or a dishwashing detergent where the consumer often looks for an immediate
burst of scent.
Tenacity refers to the long-term effectiveness of the fragrance in the perfumed product (as in a soap b
or an extended action room freshener) or on the surface to which the product has been applied, for
example, upon the skin after use of a toilet soap. In former days it was believed that tenacity depende
upon the use of so-called fixatives (evaporation-retarding agents) in composing a perfume, today the
opinion pervails that it is simply the resultant of the tenacity of the individual odorants used (Jellinek
1978).
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Substantivity refers to the ability of a perfume or a perfume material, applied in a diluted dispersion
in water, to attach itself to a solid surface such as the skin (in the case of toilet soap and bath and
shower products), the hair (in shampoos and conditioners), or textile fibers (in detergents and fabric
softeners). It may refer also to their ability to stay on the surface when this is moistened (as in
deodorants or water-proof sun protection products).
Volume is the effectiveness over distance, some time after application. The difference between
tenacity and volume often lies at the root of misunderstandings between the perfumer and the client.
The perfumer, accustomed to examining fragrances at close range, measures the lasting power of his
or her creations by their tenacity; the consumer and the marketing manager look for volume.
The Three Approaches
In the evaluation of performance, three approaches are possible: empirical, semiempirical, and
systematic.
The empirical approach involves testing each perfume in the product base in which it is to be used
and observing all relevant aspects of its performance during the essential phases of product use. The
empirical approach makes no assumptions and answers precisely the crucial question: How does this
perfume perform in this base?
This is the approach evaluation boards use when selecting perfumes for submission. It can, however,
give perfumers only limited guidance in their creative efforts, since it consists in testing after a
perfume has been completed. The empirical approach must therefore be supplemented by the
semiempirical approach. Here the perfume materials are tested individually in the product base,
again checking for all aspects of their performance. The assumption is that perfumes composed
largely or exclusively of materials that perform well in the product base will also perform well.
The tests on individual perfumery materials are usually run prior to any specific projects. Even
where they are conducted in the context of a specific project, they must be completed at an early
stage of the project, when the exact composition of the product base is usually still in doubt.
Consequently they are normally not run using the exact formulation of the finished product but a
"standard formulation" that is typical of an entire finished product category. Therefore the
semiempirical approach usually involves a second assumption of which we know that it is rarely
entirely true: the assumption that the perfume will perform in each specific finished product
formulation in the same
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way in which it performed in the standard formulation. Obviously it is important that the "standard
formulations" used in the tests be as realistic as possible.
Considering the perfumer's palette of several thousand perfume materials and the large and ever-
increasing number of formulations of functional products of all kinds, pretesting all materials in all
bases is an enormous, costly, and time-consuming undertaking. The magnitude of the effort is
multiplied by the fact that several panel members usually take part in the evaluation, since
judgments of odor performance are to a certain extent subjective.
In the late 1950s several perfumers and perfume chemists proposed that fragrance performance, in
all media and applications, is largely dependent upon the rates of evaporation of the individual
perfume materials under the specific conditions in which the fragrance is evaluated (Pickthall 1956;
Sfiras and Demeilliers 1956; Jellinek 1959). They stressed the importance of knowing the vapor
pressures of perfume materials (Appell 1964). They suggested that differences in the performance of
a given odorant in different media are caused by the attraction forces between odorant and product
base, and that these forces could be understood and predicted from the chemical structures of the
materials involved (Jellinek 1961; Dervichian 1961).
They proposed a systematic approach to perfumery, an approach that draws upon general laws and
observations relating the various aspects of performance of odorants to their physical and
psychophysical properties and that relates these in turn to their chemical structure. If our knowledge
of these relationships were complete, we could dispense with laborious empirical testing altogether.
But even with incomplete knowledge, the systematic approach can, in theory, be of great service in
limiting the effort of empirical testing by focusing it upon the materials most likely to give positive
results.
Although the techniques of vapor-phase gas chromatography were still rudimentary at the time, it
was recognized that this technique could provide essential data for the study of odorant performance
in solution (Jellinek 1961), in soaps (Sfiras and Demeilliers 1964, 1966, 1974), in talcum powders
and detergents (Schiftan and Feinsinger 1964), and on human skin (Jellinek 1964). These early
suggestions were carried further in the 1970s by Roehl and Knollmann (1970), Saunders (1973), and
Burrell (1974).
Unfortunately, the complexities at all levels (physical, psychophysical, and chemical) are enormous,
and our abilities for prediction of performance are accordingly limited and fragmentary. This
limitation, coupled with the fact that the necessary data are laborious to gather
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and hard to find in the literature, has discouraged many perfumers from considering the systematic
approach as a useful aid to their practical work.
We believe, however, that the time is approaching when the perfumery profession will pay more
attention to this approach. Today the rapid development of chromatographic techniques has enabled
data to be more easily obtained than in the past. The measurement of odorant concentration in the
vapor phase of the perfume compound, of the perfumed finished product, and even of treated
products such as wet and dry textile fibers is now becoming a standard technique (Neuner-Jehle and
Etzweiler 1991; Müller, Neuner-Jehle, and Etzweiler 1993), and water solubilities of highly
insoluble perfume materials can also be more easily established than in the past.
To be sure, the economic pressures on the perfumery industry are becoming such that we can no
longer afford not to use all approaches that can make our work more efficient, even those that are,
like the systematic prediction of performance, far from perfect at present. We will therefore briefly
present this approach here, outlining its principles and giving some practical examples in this
chapter, and providing basic theoretical background in Chapters 16 through 18.
The Basic Systematic Approach
To get some preliminary idea of how a certain perfume material is likely to perform, we should
know its volatility and its solubility in water.
Measures of Volatility
The volatility of a perfume material determines its staying power. The more volatile materials are
the ones that evaporate more quickly; they tend to dominate the top note of a perfume and to be
evident, for example, when sniffing at a freshly opened bottle or jar of a perfumed product or when
examining the material on a freshly dipped blotter. The least volatile materials are the ones that stay
around, even on fabrics after washing with a perfumed detergent; they are most noticeable in the
base note of a complex perfume. Limonene and benzyl acetate, for example, have high volatility;
synthetic musks and benzyl salicylate have low volatility.
Perfumers determine volatility by observing the behavior of perfume materials on the smelling
blotter. All of the traditional classifications of volatility (Jellinek 1954; Poucher 1955; Carles 1961),
and at least one more recent one (Sturm and Mansfeld 1975), are based on this approach. However,
the process of evaporation from a paper strip
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involves complex physical interactions between the paper and the perfume material, and hence the
paper strip is not a good model for physically different systems such as a soap, a body lotion, or
even the human skin.
A more general measure of volatility, which has the added advantage of not being dependent upon
individual judgments of intensity, is the vapor pressure at normal ambient temperature. The vapor
pressures at 20°C of some common aroma chemicals are given in Tables 13.1 through 13.3. In
Table 13.2 the materials are listed in order of increasing vapor pressure, and this is particularly
useful for our purposes.
At this point, some critical remarks are in order. The tables are short, and many important materials
are not listed. Absent are all the naturals, and 20°C is a rather arbitrarily selected temperature: at the
skin surface 30°C would be more appropriate. What is more, compared to such readings as "it
persists on the blotter for more than two weeks" which has some recognizable meaning, the values
of vapor pressure, such as 0.00008 micron, are very abstract. Let us briefly address these objections.
The shortness of the list is due to the paucity of published data and to the fact that establishing vapor
pressure data requires painstaking experimentation. However, once the value of the data is generally
recognized it will not be long before more complete listings will be available within individual
companies and hopefully also in the literature.
The naturals are omitted because they are mixtures of different components, each with its distinct
vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of an individual component is the parameter of interest, and not
that of a mixture. The problem with naturals in the classical blotter observation test is that their odor
character changes during the observation, and not just their intensity.
Of course, the relevant temperatures will differ according to the circumstances: 20°–25°C is the
customary room temperature for sniffing at products in the jar or bottle; it is about 30°C for sniffing
at the skin surface, about 35°C for the bath, and 60°C or higher when opening a washing machine.
Although the absolute values of vapor pressures are quite different at, say, 35°C than at 20°C, we
are here concerned only with relative values, and these do not change significantly over the range
from 20° to 35°C. For products subjected to washing machine temperatures of 60°C, special
calculations would be necessary.
Since we are concerned with relative rather than absolute values, the actual vapor pressures are
rather meaningless. The perfumer does not have to know precisely what 0.12 for vanillin means, but
should
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TABLE 13.1 Vapor Pressure and Water Solubility of Some Odorants in Alphabetical Order
Vapor Pressure Water Solubility
Substance (microns at 20°C)a (ppm)b
Aldehyde C11 77.40000 20
Aldehyde C12 lauric 48.00000 20
Aldehyde C12 MNA 1
Ambroxan 1
Amyl cinnamic aldehyde 0.76000 40
Amyl salicylate 3.00000 6
Benzaldehyde 800.00000 3300
Benzyl acetate 87.00000 1700
Benzyl salicylate 0.08600 1
Cedrol 15
Cinnamic alcohol 13.00000 6000
Citronellol 163.00000 450
Coumarin 3.40000 1900
Cyclopentadecanolid 0.25000 <1
Decalactone, gamma 5.35000 750
Ethyl vanillin 0.07700 2900
Eugenol 9.85000 2200
Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde 10
Indole 9.20000
Ionone, alpha 10.00000 190
Isoeugenol 2.90000 1400

Lilial 50
Limonene 1540.00000 50
Linalool 230.00000 2000
Linalyl acetate 68.00000 160
Lyral 19.60000 7400
Maltol 0.00008 12,000
Methyl anthranilate 10.60000 2700
Methyl ionone 50
Methyl ionone, gamma 60
Musk ketone <1
Musk xylol 0.00534 <1
Phenylacetaldehyde 270.00000 2600
Phenylacetic acid 2.90000 18,000
Phenylethyl alcohol 36.00000 20,000
Phenylpropyl alcohol 15.00000 9900
Pinene, alpha 2900.00000 2
Terpineol, alpha 23.00000 2900
Tonalid 0.00050 <1
Vanillin 0.12000 10,000
Vertofix coeur 10
aObtained by extrapolation from published vapor pressures at other temperatures.
bObtained by gas chromatography of saturated aqueous solutions of the substances, using benzyl alcohol as an internal
standard.
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TABLE 13.2 Vapor Pressure and Water Solubility of Some Odorants in Order of Increasing Vapor Pressure
Substance (micron at 20°C)a (ppm)b
Maltol 0.00008 12,000
Tonalid 0.00050 <1
Musk ketone 0.00100 <1
Vanillin 0.12000 10,000
Phenyl acetic acid 2.90000 18,000
Coumarin 3.40000 1900
Indole 9.20000 2900
Eugenol 9.85000 2200
Phenyl propyl alcohol 15.00000 9900
Lyral 19.60000 7400

Phenyl ethyl alcohol 36.00000 20,000
Aldehyde C12 Lauric 48.00000 50
Aldehyde C11 77.40000 20
Linalool 230.00000 2000
Limonene 1540.00000 50
standard.
observe that this value is a great deal larger than 0.00008 (maltol) and a great deal smaller than 3.4 (coumarin).
Practical Implications of Vapor Pressures
As Jean Carles (1961) already knew, the best perfumery accords are those involving materials of comparable vapor pressure.
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TABLE 13.3 Vapor Pressure and Water Solubility of Some Odorants in Order of Increasing Water Solubility
Substance (micron at 20°C)a (ppm)b
Musk ketone 0.00100 <1
Tonalid 0.00050 <1
Ambroxan 1
Aldehyde C12 MNA 1
Vertofix coeur 10
Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde 10
Cedrol 15
Aldehyde C11 77.40000 20
Aldehyde C12 lauric 48.00000 20
Lilial 50
Methyl ionone 50
Limonene 1540.00000 50
Methyl ionone, gamma 60

Coumarin 3.40000 1900
Linalool 230.00000 2000
Eugenol 9.85000 2200
Indole 9.20000 2900
Lyral 19.60000 7400
Phenylpropyl alcohol 15.00000 9900
Vanillin 0.12000 10,000
Maltol 0.00008 12,000
Phenylethyl alcohol 36.00000 20,000
standard.
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Maltol and benzaldehyde are examples of materials that are difficult to use in perfumes because
their vapor pressures are outside the range of most common materials.
In a study of the stability of perfume materials in soaps and laundry detergents, Burrell (1974) found
that loss by evaporation was a major cause of odor change.
In studies of the substantivity of nine aroma chemicals in a fabric softener application, head-space
gas chromatography showed that benzyl salicylate, aldehyde C12 MNA, lilial, musk ketone, and the
synthetic musk Fixolide were lost to a far lesser extent upon drying than were alpha ionone,
eugenol, or linalool (Müller, Neuner-Jehle, and Etzweiler, 1992) (Figure 13.2). This result
corresponds to the relative vapor pressures of these materials, except for aldehyde C12 MNA which
is a special case.
Practical Implications of Water Solubility
The water solubility of a perfume material comes into play in a number of ways. For one thing,
highly water-soluble materials tend to perform disappointingly in water-based products such as
moisturizing gels or fabric softeners. This is a pity because they are exactly the ones that give the
least problems of solubility in such bases.
Perfume materials of relatively high water solubility also appear not to be very effective when
applied to water-friendly surfaces; this is noticeable, for example, when fabric softener and
detergent perfumes are examined upon cotton fabric after drying (Müller et al. 1992). In addition
they tend to be lost as fabric, skin, or hair is rinsed with water. In oil-based products, on the other
hand, and on more oil-friendly surfaces they may perform well.
Water solubility is of course also an essential predictor of the clarity of perfume solutions, be they
alcohol-water based or oil based and, as will be explained below, it also plays an important role in
the stability of odorants in different media.
Actually what comes into play in perfume applications is not so much the solubility of an odorant in
water as its distribution between water and other media or surfaces, for instance, between water and
air (in the surface over a fabric softener solution), between water and oil (in a cream or in a rinse-off
sitution on the skin surface), or between water and fabric fibers (in the use of a fabric softener or a
detergent).
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Figure 13.2
However, water solubility is a reasonably good indicator of such distributions in most cases.
In the above-mentioned study of the substantivity of odorants in a fabric softener (Müller et al.
1992) the practical consequences of water
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solubility were clearly apparent (Figure 13.2). The three materials with high water solubility
(phenylethyl alcohol, coumarin, and benzyl acetate) lost their odor effectiveness nearly entirely as
the fabric softener was dissolved in the rinse water, and they contributed practically no odor to the
laundry. All of the other odorants remained clearly noticeable at least on the wet laundry. Along the
same line, an earlier investigation (Jellinek and Warnecke 1976) had shown that amyl cinnamic
aldehyde was adsorbed four times more effectively on a polyester-cotton (65:35) fabric than the far
more water-soluble cinnamic aldehyde.
The water solubilities of selected odorants are given in Tables 13.1–13.3, with Table 13.3 presenting
the odorants in order of increasing solubility. Table 13.4 (page 164) indicates for the most important
functional products whether perfume materials or high or low vapor pressure and water solubility
are more advantageous in each particular case, considering both impact upon examination of the
perfumed product in its container and retention after product application. In addition special
chemical and other considerations relevant to the applications are indicated.
Taken together, Tables 13.1 through 13.4 represent a step toward a systematic approach in the
perfuming of functional products. Let us emphasize once again that the data should be used only as
general indications of the likelihood of satisfactory performance. Because of the complexity of the
systems involved, they must be always checked by empirical observation.
Inherent Odor Strength, Odor Value and Odor Volume
Next to volatility and water solubility, two additional parameters of odorants greatly affect their
performance in application: inherent odor strength and odor volume. They are not included in Table
13.4 because they are nearly always desirable. Odor volume may be more or less relevant in
different applications, but it is hardly ever undesirable (except in the residual odor of dishwashing
detergents); inherent odor strength may be considered to be the basic measure of an odorant's value
in terms of intensity. They were not included in Table 13.4 also because few reliable data have been
published regarding either of them. Since they depend on the reproducible measurement of human
responses, their determination is laborious and fraught with pitfalls.
What inherent odor strength means can perhaps best be explained by an example. When first
examining a perfume of the Shalimar family
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on a blotter or on the skin, the odor impression is dominated by the citrus oils. Soon, however,
components such as vanillin and ambergris and musk odorants begin to dominate the picture. At this
stage their actual concentration in the head space is still considerably less than that of the limonene,
linalool, and other components of the citrus oils, but they dominate because they have greater
inherent strength.
The theoretical intensity of an odorant under any specific set of conditions can be roughly expressed
in terms of its odor value under those conditions, which is defined as
Odor values are only approximate relative measures of intensity and performance; the reasons for
this are explained in Chapter 20. A more realistic but still rough measure of intensity is the adjusted
odor value OV' which we define as
OV' = OV0.35
We can define the inherent odor strength of a perfumery material as its adjusted odor value in its
undiluted state at room temperature. Table 13.5 provides such values for a few selected materials.
An illustration of the use of odor values as measures of performance in a specific application is

given in Fig. 13.2. The ten odorants were all present at the same level (3.6%) in the model mixture
that was incorporated in the fabric softener. However, their odor values in the head space over the
fabric softener differ, from the most effective (Aldehyde C12 MNA) to the least effective
(phenylethyl alcohol), by a factor of several thousand. The differences are even more pronounced in
the wet, the dry, and the rewetted laundry.
As a rough indication of relative cost effectiveness in a given application, the ''cost per unit of
adjusted odor value" may be calculated. Table 13.6 shows these costs for the ten odorants in the
example shown in Figure 13.2, both for the odor over the fabric softener, which comes into play
when a prospective buyer sniffs at the product before deciding whether to buy it, and for the
headspace over the rewetted laundry,
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TABLE 13.4 Perfumery Materials for Functional Products

Desirable Physical Characteristics
Product Category Stagea Vapor Pressure Water Solubility Special Considerations
Skin Products
Deodorants Application + 0 In sticks, watch for discoloration
LT – –
Antiperspirants Application + 0 Must be stable to acids
LT – –
Creams, lotions (emulsified) Application + 0
LT – –c
Gels (aqueous) Application + –d May need solubilizers
LT – –
Lotions (aqueous-alcoholic) Application + –d May need solubilizers in low-
alcoholic formulations
LT – –
Skin, massage oils Application + + Select solvents for oil solubility
(e.g., BB, IPM)
LT – –
Powders Application – 0 Must be stable to air oxygen
LT – 0
Depilatories Application + – Must be stable to thioglycollate and
alkali
LT – +
Lipstick Application + +
(LT) + +
Toilet soap, beauty bars Application + – Watch for discoloration
LT – –
Foam bath, shower foam Application + – If acidified to pH ≤ 5, esters may be
hydrolyzed
LT – –
Bath salts Application + – Package must be impermeable to
water vapor
LT – –
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Desirable Physical Characteristics

Product Category Stagea Vapor Presssure Water Solubility Special Considerations
Hair Products
Shampoos, rinses Application + – If acidified to pH ≤ 5, esters may be
hydrolyzed
LT – –
Setting foams, lotions, sprays, Application + –
gels
LT – 0
Cold wave, hair straighteners Application + – Stable to thioglycollate and alkali
LT – –
Laundry Products
Detergents, fabric softeners During washing + – Dependent upon specific
formulation
On wet laundry + –
On dry laundry – –
Household Products
Hard surface cleaners Application + –
LT – –
Dishwashing liquids Application + –
(LT) + 0
Automatic dishwashing Application + – Stable to alkali, peroxides (air)
detergent
(LT) + 0
Scouring powders Application + – Stable to air
LT – –
Air freshener, wick type LT ±e –f
Air freshener, gel type LT ±e ?
Air freshener, spray type Application + 0
aLong-term fragrance performance (LT) is relevant only where desired. Products where residual fragrance is undesirable are marked by "LT"
b"+ " means that a high value of the characteristic in question is desirable for optimal performance at this stage, "–" means that a low value is
desirable, and "0" means that the characteristic is irrelevant to performance at this stage.
cParticularly relevant if the treated skin is likely to come in contact with water, such as in hand lotions and sun care products.
dHigh hydrophylicity (water solubility) favors solution but reduces performance.
eVolatility must be neither too high nor too low. It should be roughly equal for all components of the fragrance.
fLow substantivity to the wick fabric is important.
Page
TABLE 13.5 Odor Values of Selected Substances at 20°C

Substance CAS-Number OV OV'
Phenylacetic acid 103-82-2 3,000 16
Citral 5392-40-5 8,000 23
Bornyl acetate 5655-61-8 10,000 25
Styrallyl acetate 10522-41-5 10,000 25
Cinnamic aldehyde 104-55-2 30,000 37
Citronellal 106-23-0 60,000 47
Aldehyde C10 112-31-2 200,000 72
Aldehyde C11 undecylenic 112-45-8 200,000 72
Nonadienal 6750-03-4 3,000,000 185
Note: The vapor pressures used in the calculation of these values were obtained by extrapolation from literature data on
boiling points at various pressures. The thresholds were taken from Devos et al. (1990).
which roughly represents what may be perceived when the laundered and dried garment is being iron
or worn. The data show that Aldehyde C12 MNA, the synthetic musk Fixolide, and Lilial, although the
are among the most expensive of the set in terms of $/kg, are the most cost effective on the rewetted
laundry. All the others, having essentially no odor effect at this stage, have an infinitely high effective
cost.
Odor volume at first glance appears to be similar to inherent strength, but there is a difference. Let u
again think of an example. When comparing undiluted benzyl acetate and alpha ionone on blotters,
benzyl acetate appears to be the stronger one; yet when using the two in perfume formulations, low
levels of alpha ionone usually make a great deal more difference, and are more effective than
comparable levels of benzyl acetate. Benzyl acetate loses its effectiveness more quickly upon dilution
than does alpha ionone; it has a lower odor volume. Materials that combine high odor volume with hi
inherent
TABLE 13.6 Cost Effectiveness of Selected Materials in Fabric Softener

OV' units $/OV' unit
Price
Substance $/kg FS LR FS LR
Linalool 10.00 16 0 0.60 ∞
Benzyl acetate 2.00 8 0 0.25 ∞
Phenylethanol 6.00 50 0 0.12 ∞
Aldehyde C12 MNA 18.00 60 6 0.30 3.00
alpha-Ionone 38.00 12 0 3.20 ∞

Eugenol 5.00 5 0 1.00 ∞
Lilial 14.00 11 2 1.30 7.00
Coumarin 12.00 12 0 1.00 ∞

Fixolide 22.00 5 5 4.50 4.50
Note: FS = fragranced softener, LR = laundry rewetted.
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strength are diffusive, in that they can be smelled at a great distance and are very effective at the
dry-out stage. In Chapter 20 odor value will be explained more fully.
Stability
Modern branded products must be unvarying in their quality. At each new purchase the consumer
expects to find a product that is indistinguishable from the one bought the last time. Translated into
a specification for perfumes, this means that the perfume must be stable in the product or, to put it
more precisely, it must undergo no noticeable change, not in odor character nor in intensity nor in
color, during the entire shelf life of the product.
This operational definition contains two qualifications. We do not say that the perfume must not
undergo any changes whatever but only that these changes must not be noticeable to discerning
regular users of the product. Nor must the odor be changeless forever, but only during the period
after production during which the consumer is likely to find the product on a retail store shelf, plus
some reasonable time of use thereafter. Since a manufactured product does not usually appear on
retail shelves until some two weeks after its production, the changes in odor character and intensity
that are often inevitable during the "maturing" period of the product do not present a problem,
provided the odor has stabilized after at most two weeks. How long the normal shelf life of the
product is at the far end depends upon the distribution channels through which it is sold. Today we
usually deal with maximum shelf lives of 18 to 24 months.
In this section we will consider in a general way some factors that affect the stability of perfume
materials in products. Since most changes in odor during product storage are due to chemical
interactions between perfume materials and components of the product base, we will look at these
interactions first. Color changes will be covered in a separate subsection. Finally, we will look
briefly at perfume changes caused by physical factors.
Chemical Stability
The chemical stability of any perfume material in any base depends upon its chemical structure and
the composition of the base. General observations about the chemical stability of perfume materials
as related to their chemical structure are to be found in Chapter 16.
The stability of many perfume materials is impaired in product bases
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whose pH lies outside the neutral range of about 6 to 8. Esters are especially affected: They tend to
be split (hydrolyzed) into their constituent acids and alcohols. This leads not only to a gradual loss
of their characteristic note, it also causes, in products with pH below 6, the odor of the acid to
appear. Thus acetates may generate a vinegar off-note, and butyrates a rancid butter note. The
degree of instability differs widely among esters. Streschnak (1991) mentions allyl amyl glycolate
and linalyl acetate as being particularly prone to hydrolyze and suggests replacing the latter by
terpinyl acetate in difficult media. Burrell (1974) found all formates to be extremely unstable in
soap; methyl heptine carbonate also exhibited limited stability. Among the acetates, benzyl acetate
showed poorest retention in soap but here, the problem may be one of volatility. Among the
aldehydes, phenylacetaldehyde and benzaldehyde had extremely poor stability; hydratropic
aldehyde was also rather poor; citral and cinnamic aldehyde were intermediate; and amyl cinnamic
aldehyde, hydroxycitronellal, and undecylenic aldehyde showed good stability. There is here an
indication of an inverse relationship between stability and water solubility; only hydroxycitronellal
which has a rather high solubility is an exception. Acetals are also unstable in acid media, being
split into the aldehyde and the alcohol from which they were derived.
Among the product bases whose pH usually lies outside the neutral range are acid and alkaline
household cleaners; cold wave lotions, hair straighteners, and depilatories (alkaline, pH > 10); and
antiperspirants (acid, pH < 5). Fabric softeners are acidic, with pH values between 3 and 5. Machine
dishwashing detergent powders are alkaline and contain perborates, which are oxidizing agents.
Bath salt tablets are also usually alkaline. The so-called neutral pH skin care products are usually
acidified to pH 5 to 5.5 (the natural pH of the skin) and may therefore cause some hydrolysis of
esters.
Oxidation is another rather frequent cause of perfume instability. It may be caused by oxidizing
agents that are part of the product formulation (e.g., the hypochlorites in bleaches and in automatic
dishwasher detergents, sodium perborate or percarbonate in heavy duty detergents and in laundry
pretreatment powders) or by air in the case of powders such as talcum or scouring powder, where
the perfume is distributed over the large surface of the powder particles. The unsaturated terpenes
contained in citrus oils and in pine needle and other coniferous oils are particularly likely to undergo
air oxidation, leading to a turpentinelike odor. The oxidizing agents contained in laundry and
household cleaners also attack other perfume materials, especially those containing double bonds.
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Oxidation is also the main cause of perfume instability in poor-quality toilet soaps; here it is caused
by the fatty acid peroxides formed at the stage of incipient rancidity. Perfumes may to some extent
be protected against oxidation by the incorporation of 1% to 2% of an antioxidant such as BHT
(butylated hydroxy toluene) into the perfume oil.
The enzymes contained in some laundry detergents and prespotting agents may also cause perfume
stability problems. They usually include esterases that destabilize esters and oxidases that attack
double bonds. This, however, is not normally a serious situation, the more since in modern
detergents enzymes are usually incorporated in encapsulated form.
The reactions that cause the breakdown of perfume components all take place in the aqueous phase
of products. In dry products such as powdered dishwashing detergents, scouring powders and bath
salt tablets, this means that perfume stability problems are much reduced as long as the products
remain absolutely dry. Therefore packaging that effectively prevents absorption of moisture from
the air can help a great deal in preventing perfume breakdown, and poor packaging can be a major
contributor to perfume instability.
For the same reason the addition of an oily phase to water-based products can help considerably in
promoting perfume stability. Most perfume materials are far more readily soluble in fats and in oils
than in water, and to the extent that the product formulation provides an oil or fat phase into which
they can escape, they are sheltered from the attack by the hydroxy ions of bases, the hydrogen ions
of acids, the oxidizing agents and enzymes—all of which operate only in the water phase. Hence
cloudy cold wave lotions, which contain emulsified oil, are easier to perfume than clear ones, cream
depilatories cause less severe problems than fat-free formulations, and so on.
This effect of physically shielding unstable perfume components from contact with the water phase
may perhaps be provided also by the stable components of the perfume compound itself, provided
that the latter are present in sufficient excess. This would account for Paul Jellinek's observation
(1954, p. 116) that "the presence of a soap-resistant aromatic delays the decomposition of
compounds which are unstable to alkali, and may prevent it altogether," and for the common
observation that unstable but powerful perfumery materials such as methyl heptine and octine
carbonates which are normally used at very low levels exhibit better stability in practice than tests of
their stability in pure form would have indicated.
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Color Stability
In addition to instability manifested by odor changes, there is also perfume instability that results in
color changes. These are particularly bothersome in light-colored soap bars but may also cause
problems in products such as creams and lotions, deodorant sticks, and shampoos. Usually they
involve a progressive darkening from colorless through yellow to brown tones, although instances
of reddish discolorations are also known (e.g., by indole). The most important perfume materials
that often cause discoloration in soap are listed in Chapter 18; they may cause problems in other
media as well.
One cause of such color changes is the reaction of aldehydic perfume materials with amines that are
present in the perfume compound itself (usually in the form of methyl anthranilate) or in the product
base. The more common cause, however, is the complex formation of a phenolic perfume material
with Fe2+ (iron) or other metal ions present in the base or in the perfume oil itself. Patchouli oil is a
frequent cause of iron in perfume oils but oak moss, cananga oil, or in fact any phenol-containing
essential oil kept in iron containers may also be involved. Geranium oil may be rich in copper ions,
which may also cause discolorations. Since the metal-phenol interactions occur in the water phase,
they take place less rapidly in formulations containing an oil phase in which the perfume is nearly
entirely dissolved and thus shielded. This effect explains Streschnak's (1991) observation that
discoloration problems are less severe in superfatted than in nonsuperfatted soaps. The addition of
chelating agents such as citric acid or EDTA, which bind metal ions, to the water phase can also
alleviate the problem. The problem of soap discoloration by perfumes has been thoroughly
discussed by Pickthall (1974).
Discoloration is also sometimes observed in alcoholic perfumes in clear glass bottles. Here the
problem involves the action of light and air upon sensitive perfume materials. It can sometimes be
alleviated by the addition of a sunscreen to the finished perfume. Sunscreens should not be
incorporated directly in perfume oils since they may contribute to instability.
The Need for Testing
The majority of the reactions leading to perfume instability are known and understood. Hence the
degree of stability of a given perfume in a given medium is, in theory, predictable. In practice,
however, a great deal of hard-to-foresee factors may intervene due to the chemical and physical
complexity of perfumes and of product bases. Therefore consideration of the chemistry involved is
helpful in pinpointing likely
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points of trouble, but no firm predictions of stability can usually be made on the basis of theoretical
considerations.
Practical aging tests of the finished perfume in the finished product base must be conducted to
ascertain perfume stability in each concrete case. These tests are normally conducted at elevated
temperatures (40°–45°C), since chemical reactions take place more quickly at higher temperatures.
A practical rule of thumb is that the rate of change doubles with every 10° rise in temperature.
However, stability tests are rarely run at temperatures exceeding 50°C, since too drastic deviations
from normal storage conditions cause distortions in the predictions of stability.
Other Causes of Odor and Color Changes
Although the perfume oil is usually the first suspect whenever odor or color changes occur in a
finished product, it is not always the culprit. Odor and color changes in the product base itself may
occur due to oxidation, hydrolytic breakdown, complex formation, bacterial decomposition, or other
causes. Sometimes the causes for instability are hard to track down, as in a case in the experience of
one of the authors, where an off-odor in a cream was due to microbial breakdown that was made
possible by absorption and inactivation of the preservative by the plastic container. It is always
advisable to conduct a stability test of the unperfumed product along with the test of the perfumed
product.
Compatibility
Compatibility with the Product
Compatibility is, in a sense, the reverse side of stability. While stability is a question of the effects
of the medium on the perfume, compatibility has to do with the effects of the perfume upon the
medium. Ideally the perfume has no effect whatsoever upon the product base. Special care in
perfume formulation may be required to achieve or approach this ideal. In products containing
inherently unstable oxidizing agents such as hypochlorites or peroxides, perfume components may
accelerate the breakdown of these agents and thus deactivate the product. Dyes used in coloring
products may be decolorized or otherwise affected by perfume materials.
These are examples of chemical effects of perfume materials. Most cases of perfume
incompatibility, however, involve physical effects. The most common one is the clouding of clear
products, caused by insufficient solubility of the perfume in the medium. This is most likely to
occur in aqueous-alcoholic products, especially where alcohol grades
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of 75% or lower are used. The problem is aggravated at low temperatures. Since materials, once
they have dropped out of solution, often do not readily dissolve upon warming, problems of
clouding are most likely to occur during cold weather if the perfumed product is stored out of doors.
The culprits often but not always are resinoids, essential oils that contain high levels of terpene
hydrocarbons such as citrus and conifer oils, and high melting crystalline perfume materials. In
borderline cases the problem may be eliminated by replacing such materials by more readily soluble
substitutes (e.g., resinoids by absolutes, the essential oils by their deterpenated counterparts) and by
replacing any phthalates or other solvents the perfume oil contains by dipropylene glycol. The
problem should be attacked, in addition, by adjusting the method of preparation of the final product.
The perfume compound should first be dissolved in the alcohol; then the water should be added
gradually, with vigorous stirring.
Whenever such remedies do not suffice and the solubility of the perfume in the medium is
insufficient to provide the desired odor intensity, recourse must be sought in solubilization of the
perfume. This is achieved by blending the perfume oil with a suitable surface active agent
(surfactant). Nonionic surface active agents are usually used for this purpose; ethoxylated fatty
alcohols based on C12 to C18 alcohols and seven to nine ethoxy units, available under a variety of
trade names in different countries, have proved very useful, as have surfactants based on
ethoxylated castor oil. The amount of solubilizer required depends on the nature both of the product
base and of the perfume; any component of the base that aids perfume solution (e.g., ethyl alcohol)
and any perfume components that have high water solubility (see Table 13.3) lower the amount of
solubilizer needed by raising the proportion of the perfume that goes into actual solution and does
not need to be solubilized. For the same reason dipropylene glycol should be used as the solvent in
the perfume formulation rather than phthalates or other solvents with low water solubility. A ratio of
surface active agent to perfume of 3 to 1 often suffices to provide clear solutions. By fine-tuning a
specific formulation, testing different surface active agent blends and different surfactant-to-
perfume ratios, lower ratios can usually be achieved. This is advantageous both in terms of cost and
of perfume effectiveness (Bell 1985) but is the application chemist's rather than the perfumer's task.
Another form of clouding that may be caused indirectly by the perfume is sometimes observed in
water-detergent systems such as foam baths, shampoos, or dishwashing detergents. This,
paradoxically,
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often becomes apparent at elevated temperatures and tends to disappear upon cooling.
Occasionally perfume oils may also cause clouding in water-free, oil-based formulations such as
bath oils or massage oils, especially if these contain high proportions of mineral oils. The problem
can usually be eliminated by limiting the levels of resinoids, high-melting crystalline perfume
components and perfume materials with very high water solubility in the perfume formulation and
by replacing any glycols or phthalates that it may contain by isopropyl myristate or another
branched-chain fatty acid ester.
Perfumes may give rise to changes in the viscosity of detergent–water-based systems such as foam
baths and shower foams, shampoos and liquid detergents. This is particularly apt to occur in
formulations that contain relatively high levels of water and that are thickened by the addition of
salt. The changes may be toward higher or lower viscosity, they are very much dependent upon the
exact product formulation, and they are hard to predict. Sometimes water-miscible solvents such as
dipropylene glycol, used in the perfume oil, are the cause of a lowering of viscosity.
Occasionally perfumes may cause destabilization of emulsions. This is an indication of inherent

borderline stability of the emulsion system and should be remedied, wherever possible, by a change
in the product formulation. Where this is out of the question, the only remedy is a laborious trial-
and-error reformulation or replacement of the perfume compound. If high levels of phenylethyl
alcohol or benzyl alcohol occur in the perfume, they may be the cause of the problem.
Compatibility with the Container
In the experiments by Burrell (1974) with superfatted soap and laundry detergent it was apparent
that although chemical instability was observed in some instances, a far more general cause of odor
loss in products whose packaging is odor permeable is the evaporation of perfume components. The
vapor pressures given in Tables 13.1–13.3 can serve as a general indicator of the risk of loss by
evaporation.
Burrell actually measured the retention of perfume materials applied to a commercial detergent
powder (Persil Automatic) in cardboard containers. Table 13.7 is extracted from his paper. With all
of the materials examined, loss in a glass container over the same periods at room temperature was
nil, indicating that there was no loss due to chemical breakdown. The odorant loss from cardboard
was much greater at elevated temperature (37°C/70% rh). The rather inconsistent results comparing
the loss after 12 and 24 weeks are hard to explain.
Page
TABLE 13.7 Loss of Perfume Materials From a Detergent Powder after Storage at Room Temperature in a
Cardboard Container
Percentage of Material
Present after
Material 12 Weeks 24 Weeks
alpha-lonone 86 78
Dihydrojasmone 92 72
Phenylethyl alcohol 66 52
Citronellyl acetate 65 31
Linalool 38 27
Phenylethyl amyl ether 35 23
Benzyl acetate 18 13
Benzyl amyl ether 40 12
Linalyl acetate 32 12
Phenylacetaldehyde 20
Citral (cis and trans) 40
Source: Burrell (1974).
Odor loss by diffusion of perfume materials can also occur in products packaged in plastic containers
Its rate depends on the following factors:
1. The thickness of the plastic. The diffusion rate is inversely proportional to the plastic's thickness.
2. The nature of the plastic. The relative diffusion rates through low-density polyethylene (LDPE) to
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) to polypropylene (PP) are roughly as 100:10:1. For polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), the diffusion rate may be 100–200 times less than for polypropylene.
3. The nature of the product base. Here the relationship is complex. On the one hand, diffusion is far
greater from nonpolar solvents such as hydrocarbons and, presumably, fatty acid esters than from pol
solvents such as alcohol because the nonpolar solvents cause the plastic to swell, thus increasing its
permeability. On the other hand, product bases such as oil-free aqueous systems tend to favor the
migration of perfume materials with very low water solubility into the plastic.
4. The nature of the perfume material. Molecules with a large molecular diameter diffuse far less read
than smaller ones, and polar materials (with relatively high water solubility) less readily than nonpola
ones (compare Table 13.8).
Although odor-impermeable packaging materials are usually preferable since they prevent perfume lo
a certain amount of package
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TABLE 13.8 Diffusion Constants of Some Perfume Materials Through High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
from a Methanol Solution at 23°C
Diffusion Constant (D)
Substance in cm2/s × 1010
Camphor 0.22
Citronellol 0.35
Dimethyl benzyl carbinol 0.45
Menthol 0.57
Linalyl acetate 0.82
Eugenol 1.30
Phenylethyl alcohol 2.30
Diphenyl methane 3.50
Diphenyl oxide 3.90
Limonene 5.70
cis-3-Hexenol 15.00
Source: Becker, Koszinowsky, and Piringer (1983).
permeability to small volatile molecules may actually be helpful if the base generates off-odors due
to small molecules (i.e., acetic acid). For this reason packaging materials that permit ''breathing" are
greatly preferable to completely impermeable ones for soaps and talcum powders.
Interactions between the perfume oil and the plastic are possible. Fortunately the instances of such
interactions are rare, but when they occur, most likely in water-based, oil-free products with high
perfume levels such as gel or liquid air fresheners or rim blocks, they can be quite annoying, since
they may lead to the leaking of containers, the clogging of valves, and so on. Esters are particularly
likely to interact with the more commonly used plastics. The problem may sometimes be remedied
by replacing any esters used as solvents in the perfume compound by dipropylene glycol and by
formulating the perfume to provide the desired intensity at the lowest possible perfume level.
Discoloration of white plastic is usually caused by the same perfume materials that cause
discoloration in white soaps (see Chapter 16).
Compatibility with Encapsulation Process
The encapsulation of perfumes normally involves a coacervation process in which water is the
external phase. High levels of components with high water solubility cause problems. The use of
water-miscible solvents such as dipropylene glycol must be avoided.
Adaptation
Creative assignments such as trickle-down exercises or developing fragrances for line extensions
involve the adaptation of a fragrance for-
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mulation that had been developed for one type of product (usually alcoholic products) for use in
other product categories. Adaptation may be thought of as a two-step process. In the first step,
components of the formulation that are not suitable for the new base are replaced by similar-
smelling and more suitable materials. In the second step, the formulation obtained in this way is
rebalanced and optimized for the new medium.
The primary reasons for the replacement of components are chemical instability, discoloration
problems, problems of fragrance incompatibility with the product base (e.g., solubility problems),
problems of incompatibility with the packaging, and demands of costing. The subsequent necessity
to rebalance the formulation may also arise from several reasons:
1. The materials used to replace the original ones may have greater or lesser intensity than the
original ones.
2. The relative performance of the different components may change greatly as a result of the switch
to a different product base (e.g., from an oil-free to an oil-containing product; Jellinek, 1959;
Saunders, 1973).
3. The aesthetic requirements of the new application may demand greater or lesser emphasis on the
top note or the base note.
Examples of case 3 are the adaptation of an alcoholic fragrance for use in body lotions, skin creams,
or room fragrances. In all three cases both top and base note should be deemphasized in favor of the
heart note. In an extended use room fragrance, in particular, the range of volatility of the
components should be reduced as much as possible in order to achieve constancy of odor character.
Additional adjustments may be necessary in the case of product bases that pose masking problems.
Adaptation assignments rarely represent challenges of creativity, but they may place considerable
demands upon the perfumer's skill.
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14—
The Challenge of New Materials
For a perfumer a rare and great challenge is to be confronted with a new material, one that has as yet
no known history of perfumery use. It may be a newly synthesized aroma chemical or a material
derived from a not commercially cultivated plant.
The perfumer using a known material is like someone promenading in a well-tended park. The paths
are clearly marked, one knows where they lead. The scope that is left to one's imagination lies in
wandering off the beaten path, exploring a thicket off to the right or finding, in a certain season and
under certain conditions of light, an unexpected view of rare beauty.
The perfumer faced with an entirely new material is like a scout confronting a virgin forest. The
chemical structure (or, in a natural material, its main components), and whatever information the
perfumer has regarding the material's occurrence in nature serve, like a compass and a crude survey
map, to give him or her some direction, but there are no paths and there is no assurance of finding
anything but weeds and chaos. It takes a brave person to venture in, a skillful one to detect the
obscure intimations of passages, a lucky one to stumble upon spots of beauty, and a creative one to
recognize the potential value of such spots. Only a perfumer endowed with a sense of adventure and
with dogged persistence has a chance of being successful, of clearing a path or two and of emerging
from the forest with a map that he or she can pass on to others.
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Not all new materials are entirely new. Many are, in their odor character, reminiscent of familiar
ones; the very first perfumer who smelled Lyral, for example, must have recognized its similarity to
hydroxycitronellal. Others resemble familiar ones not only in their odor but also in the chemical
structure; cis-3-hexenyl salicylate was bound to find its place, if it had any at all, within the general
area of the earlier known salicylates.
With such materials, the perfumer's path of exploration is marked in advance. The perfumer must
find out whether the new material possesses any significant positive differences compared to the
familiar ones, differences that make the material worthy of being added to the standard repertoire;
these may be differences in odor qualities such as character, tenacity, or volume, or advantages in
application characteristics such as stability, cost, or skin compatibility.
No matter whether a new material is radically novel or reminiscent of familiar ones, its exploration
requires imagination and an excellent gift of observation, and it is beset by uncertainties: Will its
odor quality be precisely reproducible in large-scale synthesis or (in the case of novel natural
materials) commercial cultivation? Will it not turn out to be too expensive to be useful? Will it be
commercialized at all?
It is not surprising that few perfumers chose to engage in this effort and that most are far more
willing to use the new materials marketed by reputable fragrance houses that come with at least a
rudimentary set of directions and with the badge of established usefulness that is implied by their
commercialization.
What is surprising is that the perfumers who are the explorers and discoverers rarely get the
recognition they deserve, even within their profession. The survey of the contributions of new
synthetic materials to the history of perfumery which was prepared by the Technical Commission of
the Société des Parfumeurs de France* names, for each of some 50 materials cited, the chemists who
first synthesized it. The perfumers who first incorporated these materials in a successful perfume are
named in less than ten cases.
One instance provides an exception to this pattern of obscurity: the use by Edmond Roudnitska of
Hedione in Eau Sauvage. This instance was remarkable not only for the success of Eau Sauvage
itself and of Hedione which within 20 years became one of the most widely used of all perfumery
materials, being used at levels exceeding 20% in some recent perfumes. It is remarkable because the
odor of Hedione on the blotter, weak and vaguely like a jasmin tea, is so unexciting that a
*Comité Français du Parfum, Classification des Parfums, Paris 1990, pp. 36–43.
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number of experienced perfumers (how many they were will never be known) who had a chance to
evaluate methyl dihydro jasmonate before it was used in Eau Sauvage failed to recognize its
potential.
There is a lesson here: The worth of a material is often not apparent upon examination on the
blotter. This is particularly true of materials with low vapor pressure and with a low slope of the
psychophysical function. These are the materials that appear weak on the blotter in their undiluted
form but that may exhibit unsuspected powers of performance in compositions, upon the skin or on
laundered fabrics. To improve the chances of recognizing the worth of such materials, one should
examine all new aroma chemicals in the form of 10%, 1%, and occasionally even more dilute
solutions, even if they do not appear particularly strong in their neat state.
There is yet another important principle exemplified by the use of Hedione in Eau Sauvage. The
synthesis of methyl dihydro jasmonate occurred within the context of a study of jasmin, and
Hedione, in its odor, represents an aspect of the jasmin complex. The idea to use it to make better
jasmin bases is obvious. Its incorporation in a herbaceous citrus composition certainly was not.
Creative breakthroughs come from nonobvious uses.
The importance of Hedione was in the possibilities it offered for creating novel odor effects. This is
not always the case for important new aroma chemicals. Some are valuable because they permit
familiar odor effects to be achieved at lower cost than was previously possible, with better stability
in certain media, more favorable skin safety properties or for other "secondary" attributes, attributes
other than odor itself.
One final observation in closing: We have remarked that it is perfectly human for perfumers to be
more motivated to work with materials with an established record of production and provided with
the badge of usefulness implied by commercialization than to experiment with laboratory samples of
unexplored materials. Yet in companies that maintain research departments, such experimentation
with unexplored materials—and the occasional discovery of the potentials for creative advance that
may slumber in such materials—is one of the most valuable contributions a perfumer can make to
an employer. The creative leading edge that is the main purpose of maintaining research
departments within the fragrance industry can become reality only through an intensive and
imaginative collaboration between the perfumer and the research chemist.
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15—
Constraints to Creation
Commercially used, perfume compositions become part of widely and freely sold consumer
products. This fact imposes major constraints upon the perfumer's work. Above and beyond being
aesthetically pleasing and technically sound, perfumes must not endanger the health of the people
who use the products or who are engaged in their production; their detrimental effects upon the
environment must be minimal; they must respect prevailing opinions about what is good or bad,
right or wrong; and they must be in accord with the demand for value-for-money which is always
alive at the level of the manufacturer of consumer products and ultimately with the consuming
public.
Over time these constraints become part and parcel of the perfumer's work. They are embodied in
the range of materials that the perfumer can use: they are tacitly implied in every briefing and
naturally and universally respected by perfumers. To exemplify the point by a dramatic example: the
extract from the skin of young women used by the hero in Patrick Suskind's novel The Perfume may
be a wonderful perfumery material, but no perfumer considers him- or herself handicapped by the
impossibility of using this extract.
However, in times when constraints are tightening, the new limitations have not yet achieved the
status of a quasi law of nature, and perfumers, having to deal with them with deliberation, are much
aware of being constrained in their creative work. Today we live in a period of distinct tightening of
constraints in at least four areas. Public awareness of possible health hazards of trace materials
including perfumes
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has dramatically increased; for the first time ever we are becoming cognizant of possible
environmental effects of the manufacture, use, and disposal of products; the issue natural-versus-
synthetic has acquired a new edge; and the economic pressures that come to bear upon the
perfumers' daily work even in the world's rich countries are steadily increasing. In this chapter, we
will consider the ways in which these changes affect creative perfumery.
Health Considerations
Consumer-Related Constraints
The constraints that all responsible members of the worldwide fragrance industry observe today are
spelled out in the guidelines issued by the International Fragrance Research Association (IFRA).
These guidelines are regularly revised and updated as conditions demand. Because of their
importance, they are summarized in the table below, along with the current versions of the
Introduction and of a statement by IFRA regarding Application of the Guidelines.
Introduction (Version of December 1992)

These Guidelines deal exclusively with the use of substances and materials as fragrance ingredients. IFRA
advises against the use of fragrance ingredients under conditions which may produce harmful effects. In
pursuing this goal, the Technical Advisory Committee reviews scientific data produced by the Research
Institute for Fragrance Materials—RIFM—as well as proprietary results and all other relevant data brought to
its attention.
The recommendations of the Technical Advisory Committee of IFRA are based on data at present available.
These recommendations will continually be updated as necessary when further data become available.
Recommendations for the quantitative restriction of ingredients are expressed in percentage of the fragrance
compound. All ingredient restrictions are based on a use level of the fragrance compound of 20% in a
consumer product. A fragrance compound formulated in this way is in accordance with the IFRA Guidelines; if
a fragrance compound is to be used at more than 20% in a consumer product, the maximum limits of any
restricted ingredient it contains must be lowered proportionally.
Unless otherwise stated in the ingredient recommendations, a fragrance compound which will be used at less
than 20% in a consumer product
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may contain proportionally higher levels of restricted ingredients. In this case, fragrance suppliers should
inform users that because of the presence of materials restricted by IFRA, this compound should be only used
in appropriate concentration for well-defined applications. Such uses can then be considered in compliance
with the IFRA Code of Practice. It is understood that the necessary information to be given to fragrance users
does not include disclosure of fragrance formulas.
For non-skin contact consumer products (see footnote below) recommendations may allow higher limits for
some restricted ingredients. In this case also, users should be informed that the fragrance compound should
only be used in this specific type of products.
If combinations of phototoxic fragrance ingredients are used, the use levels have to be reduced accordingly.
The sum of the concentrations of all phototoxic fragrance ingredients, expressed in % of their recommended
maximum level, shall not exceed 100.
The fact that the Committee recommends not to use a certain fragrance ingredient does not exclude the use of a
natural fragrance material, containing that ingredient, providing there are sufficient data supporting the safe use
of that natural material.
Footnote on Non-Skin Contact Products
For the purpose of complying with the IFRA Guidelines, the following consumer products are
considered as non-skin contact products:
• Solid substrate air fresheners
• Plug-in air fresheners
• Membrance delivery air fresheners
• Insecticides (mosquito coil, paper and electrical)
• Toilet blocks
• Joss sticks and candles
• Plastic articles (excluding children's toys)
• Fuels
In contrast, the products given hereafter may involve skin contact and are excluded from the above:
• Household cleaning products
• Aerosols
• Detergents
• Shoe polishes
• Pot-pourri
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• Carpet powders
• Liquid refills for air fresheners
Application of the Guidelines (Version of April 1989)
In order to apply effectively the Code of Practice of the International Fragrance Association (IFRA) t
the manufacturing and handling of all fragrance materials, fragrance manufacturers should take
measures so that all fragrance compounds offered for sale are in full compliance with the "Industry
Guideliness to Restrict Ingredient Usage" as issued by IFRA. In cases where a subsequent change to
these Guidelines changes the status of a fragrance compound, the manufacturers should so inform the
purchasing party and provide all possible information in order to enable themto judge whether the
fragrance compounds can be used in accordance with these Guidelines. If it does not conform to the
Guidelines, then the manufacturer should furnish the purchasing party with an alternative fragrance
compound prepared in accordance with these Guidelines.
IFRA Industry Guidelines to Restrict Ingredient Usage1

Maximal
Recomm.
Substance Dosage2 Reason for Restrictio
Acetylenic alcohols and their esters 03 EEC directive
Acetyl ethyl tetramethyl tetralin (AETT) 0 neurotox.
5 Acetyl 1,1,2,3,3,6 hexamethylindane (Phantolid) 10% phototox.
Acetyl isovaleryl 0 sensitiz.
Allantroot oil 0 sensitiz.
Allyl heptine carbonate 0.01% sensitiz.
Allyl thiocyanate (mustard oil) 0
Amyl cyclopentenone 0.5% sensitiz.
Amyl vinyl carbinyl acetate 1.5% sensitiz.
Angelica root oil 3.9% photosensit.
Anisylidene acetone 0 sensitiz.
Asarone, cis and trans 0 biol. effects
Balsam Peru 0 sensitiz.
Balsam Peru oil, distillate 2% sensitiz.
Benzene 10 ppm carcinogen
Benzylidene acetone 0 sensitiz.
Bergamot oil 2% phototox.
Bitterorange oil expressed 7% phototox.
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Maximal
Recomm.
Butyl hydrocinnamic aldehyde, p-tert (Bourgeonal) 3% sensitiz.
Butyl phenol, para tert 0 sensitiz.
Cade oil, crude 0
Cassia oil 1% sensitiz.
Chenopodium ambrosioides oil 0 EEC directive
Cinnamic alcohol 4% sensitiz.
Cinnamon bark oil 1% sensitiz.
Cinnamylidene acetone 0 sensitiz.
Citrus oils containing 5-methoxypsoralen 75 ppm4 phototox.
Collophony 0 sensitiz.
Costus root oil, absolute, concrete 0 sensitiz.
Cumin oil 2% phototox.
Cyclamen alcohol 0 sensitiz.
Damascenones 0.1% sensitiz.
Damascones 0.1% sensitiz.
Diethyl citraconate 0 sensitiz.
Diethyl malate 0 sensitiz.
Dihydro coumarin 0 sensitiz.
6,7 Dihydrogeraniol 0 insuff. info.
Dihydro safrol 0 EEC directive
2,4 Dihydroxy 3 methyl benzaldehyde 0 sensitiz.
Dimethyl anthranilate 50% phototox.
4,6 Dimethyl 8 tert-butyl coumarin 0 photosensit.
Diphenyl amine 0 sensitiz.
Ethyl acrylate 0 sensitiz.
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether 0 sensitiz.
Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether 0 sensitiz.
Ethyl heptine carbonate 0.01% sensitiz.
Fig leaf absolute 0 phototox.
Furfurylidene acetone 0 insuff. info.
Grapefruit oil expressed 20% phototox.
Heptenal, trans 2 0 sensitiz.
Hexahydro coumarin 0 sensitiz.
Hexenal, trans 2 0.01% sensitiz.
Hexenal diethyl acetal 0 sensitiz.

Hexenal dimethyl acetal 0 sensitiz.
Hydro abiethyl alcohol (Abitol) 0 sensitiz.
Hydroquinone monoethyl ether 0 depigment.
Hydroquinone monomethyl ether 0 depigment.
Hydroxy citronellal 5% sensitiz.
Iso eugenol 1% sensitiz.
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Maximal
Recomm.
6-Isopropyl 2 decalol 0 sensitiz.
Iso safrol 0 EC regulation
Juniperus sabina L. oil 0 EEC directive
Lemon oil, cold pressed 10% phototox.
Lime oil, expressed 3.5% phototox.
Marigold (Tagete) oil, absolute 0.25% photosensit.
Menthadienyl formate 0.5% sensitiz.
7 Methoxy coumarin 0 sensitiz.
photosensit.
Methyl benzyl ketone 0 insuff. info.
6 Methyl coumarin 0 photosensit.
7 Methyl coumarin 0 photosensit.
Methyl crotonate 0 sensitiz.
p-Methyl dihydro cinnamic aldehyde 0 sensitiz.
4 Methyl 7 ethoxy coumarin 0 sensitiz.
Methyl heptadione 0.01% sensitiz.
Methyl heptine carbonate 0.01% sensitiz.
Methyl methacrylate 0 insuff. info.
Methyl N-methyl anthranilate (Dimethyl anthranilate) 50% phototox.
3 Methyl 2(3) nonene nitrile 1% sensitiz.
Methyl octine carbonate 0.01% sensitiz.
Musk ambrette 0 phototox.
neurotox.
photosensit.
Mustard oil 0
Non-2-inic acid esters5 0 insuff. info.
Oak moss absolute 3% sensitiz.
Oct-2-inic acid esters5 0 insuff. info.
Orange oil, bitter, expressed 7% phototox.
Pentylidene cyclohexanone 0 sensitiz.
Perilla aldehyde 0.5% sensitiz.
Phantolid 10% phototox.
Phenyl benzoate 0 sensitiz.
Propylidene phthalide 0.05% sensitiz.
Pseudo ionone 0 sensitiz.

Pseudo methyl ionone 0 sensitiz.
Rue oil 3.9% phototox.
Sade tree oil 0 acute tox.
Safrol6 0 EC regulation
Tagete (marigold) oil, absolute 0.25% photosensit.
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Maximal
Recomm.
Tea absolute 0 sensitiz.
Tree moss extract, absolute, resinoid 3% sensitiz.
Verbena absolute 1% sensitiz.
Verbena oil 0 sensitiz.
Worm wood oil 0
1. Status as of April, 1993.
2. Based on a use level of the fragrance compound of 20% in a consumer product.
3. Substance with max. rec. level 0 must not be used in fragrances at all.
4. Total bergapten (5-methoxy psoralene) level in the fragrance compound.
5. Except the listed esters with established limits.
6. Essential oils containing safrol are limited at 0.05%.
Additional Specific Ifra Guidelines

A number of fragrance materials must be used only together with other materials:
Carvone oxide with spearmint oil (1:1)

Cinnamic aldehyde with eugenol (1:1) or d-limonene (1:1)
Cinnamic aldehyde–Methyl anthranilate Schiff base with eugenol (2:1)
Citral with d-limonene, mixed citrus terpenes or α-pinene (3:1)
Phenyl acetaldehyde with phenyl ethyl alcohol or dipropylene glycol (1:1)
The reason for these Guidelines lies in the ''quenching" phenomenon: the sensitizing potential of these materials is
absent in the presence of their companion materials. The proportions given are by weight and indicate the maximum
proportion of the restricted material in the mixture.
IFRA provides specifications for purity regarding the following fragrance materials: Allyl esters, Cade oil rectified,
Farnesol, Hexylidene cyclopentanone, Nootkatone, Sclareol, and Oils of the Pinacea species.
IFRA specifies admissible methods of production for the following fragrance materials: materials from opoponax
and from storax, acetylated vetiver oil.
A number of finished goods houses have issued additional restrictions that supplement the IFRA
guidelines. There are also a few countries, notably Japan, that have issued additional restrictions.
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Worker-Related Constraints
To protect the safety of the operators who handle perfume oils in bulk, most countries have issued
directives for labeling such oils. These usually include information regarding flammability and
toxicity hazards. They do not normally affect perfumers in their task of creating perfumes.
Environmental Considerations
Until quite recently the notion that the ecological impact of perfume oils presented an issue to be
reckoned with was held by only a fringe group of environmentalists. Although perfumes are part of
a great many products that are used daily by people in households throughout the world,
quantitatively speaking they make up only a minute portion of most of these products. The
worldwide annual consumption of aroma chemicals, including those used in the flavoring of foods,
in 1990 has been estimated at 88,000 metric tons (SRI 1992). On a percapita basis, this amounts to
0.05 g per day, which scarcely seems to warrant grave concern.
Moreover roughly 60% of this is accounted for by products that also occur in nature, in amounts that
in most cases dwarf their use in synthetic fragrances, leaving only 0.02 g/person/day that could even
potentially be problematic in the econological sense. Fragrance certainly occupies a very low
position in any listing of ecological hazards. However, fragrance by its very nature is part not only
of the material, quantifiable world but also of the world of images and of the communication of
benefits. From this perspective the demand that the fragrance satisfy whatever ecological demands
are placed upon the product as a whole has its merits.
At time of this writing, it is impossible to estimate the future impact of environmental

considerations upon the practice of perfumery. Many of the scientific questions raised, such as
biodegradability and the reactions that perfume materials in the vapor phase may undergo or trigger
in the atmosphere, still await exploration. We can do no more than outline the issues and their
possible impact upon the perfumer's work.
The questions regarding the environmental impact of perfume materials may be broken down into
those that concern their origin and production, those that concern their use, and those that have to do
with their disposal.
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Production of Perfume Materials from Renewable Resources
A key environmentalist demand is that we must, in the production of energy and raw materials,
avoid wherever possible the use of resources that are not naturally renewable within a reasonable
time span. Among the perfume materials, those that are directly obtained from plants by distillation
or extraction obviously comply with this demand. Those that are synthesized starting from plant
chemicals—be they simple derivatives such as vetiveryl acetate or the products of more complex
reactions such as the many materials that can be synthesized starting from the components of
turpentine—are also beyond reproach, although ecologists may insist that the reagents required for
their synthesis (e.g., the acetic acid used in producing vetiveryl acetate) must also be obtained from
renewable resources. However, a great many perfume materials today are produced starting from
raw materials derived from the refining of crude oil and from natural gas. These do not fulfill the
criterion of "renewability."
Should the demand for "renewability" become a common one in fragrance briefings, it would cause
a switch, wherever possible, from oil- and natural gas-derived aroma chemicals to turpentine-
derived ones. Demands that a high proportion of the components of perfumes be derived from
renewable resources would not constitute a very severe constraint upon perfume creation, but
demands that all or nearly all components be so derived would necessitate a radical reorientation
including, say, the abandonment of all synthetic musks known today.
Environmental Impact of Aroma Chemical Manufacture
The demand that the actual and potential impact of chemical manufacturing plants upon the air, the
groundwater, and the soil must be minimized already is law in the industrialized world. It does not
directly affect perfumers in their work. It does, however, have the long-term effect of driving out
most of the small- and medium-sized chemical manufacturers who cannot afford the steadily
mounting environmental protection investment required by regulation.
Traditionally the several thousand aroma chemicals used by perfumers have included many for
which aggregate world demand is on the order of a few tons per year or less. These were produced
primarily by the small specialty manufacturers that are now disappearing. The range of aroma
chemicals available for perfume creation is bound to shrink. Already many of the materials
described in Arctander's standard book Perfume and Flavor Chemicals (1969) are no longer ob-
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tainable. Also the laws of competitive advantage indicate that the current concentration process
within the aroma chemicals industry will favor a corresponding development among the customers
of this industry, the fragrance houses—a development that is now in full swing.
Volatile Organic Chemicals
The discovery of the effect of fluoro chloro hydrocarbons upon the ozone layer of the atmosphere
has had a profound impact not only upon the aerosol industry and the producers of propellants but
also upon public and scientific thinking about the whole issue of atmospheric pollution. One of the
consequences of this reorientation has been the introduction, in some American states, or regulations
designed to control the use of all volatile organic chemicals (VOCs); these are organic chemicals
that enter the atmosphere through evaporation. By their very nature all perfume materials fall into
this class.
Already the VOC concern is prompting some manufacturers of household products such as air
fresheners and window cleaners to change their formulations, thereby creating new challenges with
respect to perfume solubility. It is impossible to estimate at this time to what extent in the future this
concern will confront the perfumer with additional questions and challenges at the international
level.
Biodegradability
The natural cycle of chemical substances involves a constant process of synthesis and breakdown of
more or less complex structures. Living organisms, for example, ingest molecules of moderate
complexity such as hydrocarbons and fats, and highly complex substances such as proteins. In
metabolism they submit these to chemical transformations, which result partly in the synthesis of the
molecular structures of which the organisms are made up (quite complex structures for the most
part) and partly in the formation of extremely simple molecules such as carbon dioxide and water.
After their death these organisms become themselves the substrate of the metabolism of other living
organisms such as predators or microorganisms.
Before the dawn of synthetic chemistry the natural cycle had resulted in a fair degree of stability in
the chemistry of the earth's surface, although in certain ecological niches, massive buildups of
substances that would not break down (in those niches) have occurred, most notably in the deposits
of mineral oil, natural gas, and carbon.
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The development of chemical industry has provided us with the means to produce, on an
ecologically significant scale, chemicals that interfere with the natural cycles of synthesis and
breakdown either because they accelerate or slow down large-scale natural processes (e.g., the
fluoro chloro hydrocarbons which accelerate the breakdown of ozone by sunlight) or, more
commonly, because they resist breakdown themselves (e.g., certain synthetic polymers). This has
become a matter of grave and widespread concern and has resulted in regulations and voluntary
measures to restrict or prohibit the manufacture and use of materials that interfere with the natural
cycles. This concern is particularly acute in those cases where this interference has direct or indirect
adverse effects upon human health (as in the case of the fluoro chloro hydrocarbons), but it exists
also where massive accumulation occurs without known health hazards (as in the case of the too-
stable synthetic polymers).
Perfume materials have not been involved in any known cases of health hazards through
accumulation in the environment. They are not a serious cause for concern regarding accumulation
as such (without toxicity effects) because of the relatively small amounts in which they are produced
and used. Nevertheless, for the reasons already discussed, the perfumer is sometimes faced with a
demand for proposing fragrances with a high degree of biodegradability.
Natural microbiological degradation of complex materials down to water, carbon dioxide, inorganic
salts, and bacterial "biomass" is a slow process that may require weeks, months, or even years for its
completion. Its rate depends upon the conditions under which it takes place. To be meaningful, a
specification for biodegradability must therefore be stated in terms of the proportion of the
substance or mixture concerned that is broken down under specific conditions within a given time
span. A widely accepted specification for "ready biodegradability" today states that 60% breakdown
should occur within 28 days under the conditions of the "Closed-Bottle-Test OECD 301D" (OECD,
no date).
As this book is being written, little public information is available regarding the biodegradability of
individual perfume materials. This is due in part to a lack of agreement about appropriate
specification. It is to be hoped that agreement will be reached on an internationally uniform basis
and that, once this has been achieved, the testing of perfumery materials will be conducted as a joint
effort by the fragrance industry in the same way as toxicity information is being gathered today.
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In the absence of detailed information the following rule of thumb regarding biodegradability may
serve to give general guidance:
Straight chain > Branched chain > Alicyclic > Aromatic
Straight chain compounds are most readily degraded, and aromatic compounds are most resistant to
degradation.
Consumer Concerns
Natural Origin
Ever since 1828, when Friedrich Wöhler succeeded in synthesizing urea, chemists have held that the
properties of materials, including their biological effects, were determined entirely by their chemical
constitution and had nothing to do with their origin: All of the properties of a synthetic material are
precisely the same as those of a naturally derived material with the same structure. The evidence for
the correctness of this tenet that has been accumulated in the intervening 165 years is massive and
irrefutable. Nevertheless, the feeling that natural materials are somehow fundamentally different
from synthetic ones has never been dispelled among nonchemists.
Along with the growth of concern about technology going rampant and turning against humanity,
the feeling has become widespread in the second half of our century that materials of natural origin
are not only fundamentally different from synthetic ones, they are better: safer, more gentle, and
richer. The marketers of consumer products have been quick to pick up this ground swell of popular
feeling and have sought, wherever possible, to associate their products with nature rather than with
chemistry. Many of the product categories that contain fragrance have also been affected by this
trend. Shampoos have appeared on the market that are "free from harsh synthetic detergents," the
claim "contains no artificial (or synthetic) colors" is widespread, and recently sun protection
products "free from chemical sunscreens" have made their appearance.
In many cases marketers would also like to claim "free from synthetic perfume," but this desire is
usually frustrated by the fact that for most popular odor types it simply is not possible to compose
allnatural fragrances of good consumer acceptability at a reasonable price. What is possible is to
create good perfumes of a wide range of odor types that contain a high level of natural components,
say, more
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than 50% or 60%. If "nature identical" perfume materials, namely synthetic materials identical in
their structure to naturally occurring ones, are also admitted, an even wider range, and more
reasonable prices, become feasible.
From a practical point of view this is all that can and need be said about the subject. The remarks
that are about to follow are of interest only to perfumers who would like to dig deeper, and to
prepare themselves for discussions on the "synthesis-versus-nature" subject. We regret that they are
full of provisos and apparent contradictions. In any debate this makes it very hard for the
differentiated view to hold its own against the sweeping view, "nature is good, chemistry is bad."
While it is true that materials of identical chemical structure have the same odor qualities and are
indistinguishable in their effect upon the skin irrespective of their origin, it is also true that very
often synthetic and natural perfume materials that have the same name are not really identical in the
chemical sense. Rhodinol from geranium oil consists of a different mixture of optical isomers than
synthetic rhodinol. Eugenol from clove leaf oil is accompanied by different impurities than synthetic
eugenol. Hence the natural and synthetic materials do differ in their odor quality, and they may
differ in their effects upon the skin.
Although the essential oils, absolutes, resinoids, and so on, are universally regarded as natural
perfume materials, we know today that their isolation from the plant tissue is accompanied by
chemical changes, so that they are not really natural in the strict sense. The most gentle technique
available for isolating essential oils from plant material is cold pressing; ironically, the two most
widely used cold-pressed oils in perfumery, bergamot and lime, are not safe and must be treated
before they can be used in perfumes.
Many dermatologists prefer synthetic perfume materials over natural ones. This is because the
chemical constitution of the synthetics is totally known (provided they are free from impurities or
we know what the impurities are), that of the naturals is not. Moreover, most naturals are mixtures
of a great many different materials (e.g., more than 400 in the case of rose oil)—and the greater the
number of materials in a mixture the greater the likelihood, statistically speaking, of having one or a
few amongst them that can trigger an allergic reaction. In fact, among the perfume materials that
have been restricted in their use, or eliminated altogether, for reasons of safety, there are a number
of naturals: Balsam Peru, Oakmoss absolute, Costus oil, oil of Rue. On the other hand, there is the
curious phenomenon of "quenching" whereby some materials that are irritating when used
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singly are no longer so when used together with other materials by which they are accompanied in
the natural occurrences. For example, citral when used by itself has a greater potential for skin
irritation than when it is used along with limonene. In lemon oil and other citrus oils, citral always
occurs along with limonene.
Aided by chemical analysis, we have learned to produce close synthetic matches of many natural
perfume materials; yet the last fine points still elude us, and we have never yet managed fully to
reproduce the naturals, in all of their radiance and fullness. On the other hand, head space
chromatography has enabled us to reproduce the odor of living flowers more faithfully than we ever
could before; but these faithful reproductions of natural odors involves the use of materials that are
not present in the "natural" essential oils or absolutes.
The progressive replacement of natural materials by their synthetic counterparts in contemporary

perfumery is motivated in part by economic considerations, but there are other reasons as well:
• Availability: until recently, there was no known way to obtain, at any cost, the natural odor
concentrates of muguet, lilac, gardenia and a great deal of other flowers; we do not know how to
raise the whale population that would be needed to satisfy our demand for ambergris odor.
• Creative freedom: our modern perfumes contain rose and jasmin bases that smell like no rose or
jasmin blossom has ever smelled, and the same goes for all other nature-inspired notes in perfumes.
It is not just a matter of odor quality; we could never achieve the intensity and lasting power of
today's perfumes using only naturals.
• Sometimes, we use synthetic materials out of regard for nature. The prime example are the
synthetic musks which have saved the musk deer from extinction.
Fortunately, this rather confusing story has a simple moral: let us pay a great deal of attention to the
odor effects of the materials we use, and let us worry a great deal about their safety upon the skin;
but let us not give too much thought to their origin—and let us try to persuade our customers to see
things the same way.
Animal Origin
Animal protection groups and consumers sympathetic to their cause are becoming increasingly
vociferous in their demand that consumer products should not contain ingredients obtained by the
killing or
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mistreating of animals. This concern, most widespread in the United Kingdom, applies also to
cosmetic products and toiletries. It leads to a demand also for fragrance compounds free from
materials of animal origin.
The requirement to avoid natural musk and ambergris places little or no strain upon current
perfumery practice. Castoreum plays a minor role in perfumes for skin care products and toiletries
and can easily be avoided. Whether the production of civet involves maltreatment of civet cats is a
matter of debate. If it must be avoided, good synthetic substitutes are available.
Price
Value for Money
Today, looking back at 1953 home prices and apartment rents, hotel guides and restaurant menus,
price lists for cars and for car repairs, we are inclined to smile wistfully. Until we remind ourselves
of how much lower incomes were then, the era of the two dollar steak, the two hundred dollar city
apartment rent, and the two thousand dollar car looks like a golden age indeed. Yet over the 40-year
time span in which prices for most consumer goods and services have multiplied manifold, the raw
material cost of an ounce of perfume and the cost of perfuming a kilo of detergent or any other
personal or household product has remained essentially the same.
This has not been caused by a general lowering of quality. In fact, demands upon perfumes have
definitely increased during this period, if not in terms of aesthetic quality then certainly in terms of
human and environmental safety. Rather, the avoidance of cost increases has resulted from the
conjunction of several technical and economic developments: lower raw material prices due to
improved manufacturing processes and economies of scale, the lowering of import duties, more
performing fragrances due to new aroma chemicals and the exacting demands of evaluation boards
and clients, and sharper competition due to gas chromatography.* Taken together, these
developments have resulted in an upward spiral of value for money that has continued unabated
during the past four decades even if it cannot continue forever.
Four decades of essentially constant prices for fragrance compounds have created a climate of
expectations on the part of the fragrance-
*A fuller explanation of this point is given in the Preface.
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using industries that puts very high pressures upon the skills of the perfumer. Only the truly
professional perfumer has a chance today of being successful over an extended period.
$/Odor Value Unit Compared to $/kg
The fragrance industry has always, and rightly, sought to convince its customers that in buying
perfume compounds, not the cost per kilogram perfume compound counts but the cost of perfuming
one kilogram or one ton of finished product. Much the same logic applies to perfumers when they
examine raw materials to use in creating fragrances for an assignment. Not the cost per kilogram
counts but the cost involved in achieving a certain odor effect in the finished product. Saccharin is
far more costly than sugar on a per-kilogram basis, but in terms of achieving a specific degree of
sweetness it is less expensive.
The best way of quantifying the performance of perfume materials in finished products available
today is through the adjusted odor value units discussed in Chapter 13. Tables of such units are only
now beginning to be constructed. Experienced perfumers, however, have tables of this kind, based
upon extensive practical experience, in their heads. These mental tables may be imprecise and
nonexplicit, they are nevertheless an essential tool in the perfumer's work.
Availability
Availability of raw materials in the quality and quantity required is not usually a constraint facing
perfumers. It may, however, become one under certain circumstances including the following:
• Experimentation that includes naturals from noncultivated plants.
• Projects of such magnitude that the amounts of certain components needed add up to a significant
proportion of world production. When Downey fabric conditioner was launched, with a fragrance
containing a fairly high proportion of patchouli, the world supply of patchouli was temporarily
strained. With rare natural essences, shortages may arise due to far smaller projects.
• Projects that depend upon the manufacture of perfume oils in countries with import restrictions.
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16—
The Perfumer and the Market
The commercial success of a perfumer depends to a great extent upon an understanding of the
market for which he or she creates perfumes. Perhaps we should say markets rather than market
because most perfumers are called upon, in the course of their career and sometimes within the span
of a single working day, to create perfumes for very different markets.
When we refer to markets in this context, we mean markets both in a geographic sense and in the
sense of product categories. The shampoo market of Scandinavia is quite different in terms of odor
preferences from that of Indonesia, and quite different from the Scandinavian household products
market. Within Indonesia, there are actually two distinct soap markets, one dominated by
international brands, and the other by traditional domestic products.
For the perfumer, a ''market" is defined by a set of fragrance traditions, consumer expectations, and
odor meanings. All of these are closely interrelated. Unless perfumers intimately know and
intuitively understand the specific traditions and expectations and the "odor language" prevailing in
the market for which they create, their chances for success are slim.
The first step in acquiring this knowledge and understanding consists in studying in depth the
products that make up the market. The words "in depth" should not be taken lightly. Perfumers must
study the minor brands as well as the major ones, the ones developed and produced by local
manufacturers as well as the international ones, and develop
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an understanding of the differences that exist between these submarkets.
These may be differences of fragrance type but also differences of intensity or of tenacity. International
brands may, for example, be characterized by sophisticated fragrances used at moderate concentrations
resulting in medium strength and tenacity, while local traditional brands use simpler, less costly
fragrances marked by great tenacity, at higher concentrations.
Perfumers must study the perfumes of the products that make up the market also in relation to their
positioning. What fragrance types characterize baby soaps and distinguish them from family soaps? Do
the perfumes of the different brands of medicated soap have something in common? What fragrance
qualities set the premium priced products apart from the more common ones, heavy duty products from
delicate ones? The answers to questions such as these define the odor meanings and the odor language
that prevail in a market.
Perfumers must study these fragrances until they no longer know them just from the outside, as a more
or less curious range of perfumes that correspond more or less closely to their personal preferences, but
understand them from within, feeling why they are the way they are. Perfumers must speak the odor
language of the market for which they are to develop perfumes not like a casual tourist but like a native
or at least like a sympathetic, understanding visitor.
It is possible to arrive at such understanding simply by smelling products in one's studio. However,
being physically present in the market, breathing its air and observing the way people live, helps a great
deal. One understands the perfuming of laundry bars in the Philippines far better after having observed
Filipino women doing their laundry in the nearby river or in a tub in the yard. To truly understand the
differences in the perfuming of upper-class and popular products one must know the traditions and
attitudes characterizing the relations between the classes.
A good written briefing may provide a great deal of information that is relevant to a project, but to do
an outstanding job, perfumers must draw on an understanding of the market that goes well beyond the
specifications of the briefing. The product or marketing manager who develops the briefing, living and
working within the market, often does not spell out critical fragrance attributes because he or she takes
them for granted.
This is particularly true for projects related to secondary brands. A brand introduced by a company that
has the power rapidly to ensure wide distribution of a new product and the advertising budget required
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to establish it as a leading brand may be able to impose perfumes that do not correspond closely to
established traditions, thus establishing a new frame of reference, a new "tradition." In fact, as a result
of the "global brand" concept, this is happening in many markets today.
Less powerful brands depend for their acceptance upon an observance of established traditions. To the
extent that the perfuming of such brands deviates from prevailing traditions, the deviation must "make
sense" to the consumer within the positioning of the brand. Thus the first shampoo in a given market
that adopts a "natural herb extracts" claim should reflect this differentiation in its perfume, but the
perfume should be in line with how consumers in that market might expect natural herb extracts to
smell.
Successful Innovation
Perfumers who know and understand the fragrances of the major brands in a market are in a position to
make acceptable traditional perfumes for that market. Any perfumer who wants to deviate from
tradition and create successful innovative perfumes must know his or her market so intimately as to
have acquired an intuitive feeling for its consumers' olfactory frame of mind. Creating successful
innovative perfumes for any market is the ultimate creative challenge.
People like what they know, and all innovation entails a risk. Part of the key to success lies in
understanding how much innovation a specific assignment calls for, how much risk one can and should
take. The Innovation Scale in Figure 16.1 gives some guidance with respect to this difficult question. It
shows the cultural, product class related, and marketing plan related factors that jointly dictate how far
one should move to the right, away from tradition, in any assignment. A few explanatory comments
may be helpful.
Culture
Cultures differ a great deal in the respective value they assign to tradition and conventional wisdom, on
the one hand, and to innovation and progress, on the other. These values are usually reflected also in the
attitudes toward age and youth, in the respective powers of religion and science, and in the degree of
rigidity of the social or class structure. The more the dominant values lie in the direction of progress,
youth, science, and social mobility, then the more eager for or tolerant of innovation the culture will be
also with regard to the products it uses and to their fragrance.
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Figure 16.1
In any given culture the openness to innovation may vary over time. It is particularly high in times of
political upheaval, in the aftermath of a successful revolution or a lost war and during and after the
periodic sociocultural paroxysms that we call "culture revolutions." The radically new life styles that
swept Europe in the aftermath of the French Revolution, the adoption of chewing gum in Japan and of
Coca Cola and hamburgers in Germany after World War II, and the manifold changes in many western
markets after 1968 are cases in point. The instant success of the radically innovative "musk oil" which,
in many guises, strongly influences western perfumery up to the present, would have been unthinkable
without the coming of age of the post–World War II Flower Power generation in the 1960s.
Product Ambience
The context within which a perfumed product is used has a strong bearing on the degree of fragrance
innovation that is tolerated or desired. In products used within a ritualistic context, tolerance of
innovation is minimal. Experimental innovation in the scent of incense used at church services would
be shocking and unthinkable. The same holds, to a but slightly less degree, for the fragrances
surrounding the celebration of Christmas. In most cultures the family home has the emotional meaning
of a safe haven and refuge from the turbulent and threatening world outisde. Nothing should ever
change in the home.
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Naturally this feeling limits the degree of innovation tolerated in house-hold products.*
Sometimes, however, innovative fragrances may be appropriate even within the household product
category. This is the case, for example, in products aimed at homemakers who see the home as a place
in which to express their individuality, a place in which they give free reign to their creativity and
imagination. Innovative fragrances may also be indicated in products used in conjunction with modern
household devices. In a country where the population at large begins to purchase vacuum cleaners, new
products to be used with the vacuum cleaner should probably have fragrances distinctly different from
the cleaning product fragrances traditional to that country. When showers began to be widely installed
in German homes in the 1960s and 1970s, this trend was accompanied by the rise of shower foams with
fragrances distinct from both the traditional soap and the traditional foam bath types.
Target Group
Since people like what they know and the acceptance of unfamiliar things requires an effort, new
products that aim at instant acceptance by large segments of the population must not, in their fragrance,
depart far from the familiar. On the other hand, products aimed at people who consciously set
themselves apart from the crowd should have nontraditional fragrances.
This exclusiveness is desirable the more the fragrance of the product is intended to be noticed not just
by the user but also by others. In an expensive night cream, for example, the motives favoring a
traditional fragrance (it connotes safety and purity) may well override the wish for setting it apart.
However, in an Eau de Toilette, exclusivity, noncommonness, is likely to be the dominating motive. In
fact the desire to set oneself apart is probably the most important driving force
*There are two additional reasons why tolerance for fragrance innovation in household products is usually limited.
Fragrance often serves a signal that a certain job has been done. The lingering clean scent of a floor cleaner tells the
visiting friend or mother-in-law and the husband returning home from the office that the floor has been cleaned. It
can do so only if the floor cleaner fragrance is instantly recognized for what it is, in other words, if it is typical,
traditional. Moreover the scent of products used in the kitchen must be compatible with a wide range of foods. This
explains the popularity of lemon odors in kitchen cleaning products in general and in dishwashing products in
particular in many cultures.
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for innovation in alcoholic perfumery. As soon as a fragrance becomes too popular it becomes, for this
very reason, unacceptable to the elite.
Advertising Budget
Advertising, in addition to drawing attention to a new product, also assures people that the product is
good. Where advertising is lacking or sparse, the assurance that the product is good must come entirely
from the product itself. Normally this assurance is achieved by making the product as similar as
possible to other, well-known good products.
This mechanism operates powerfully in the realm of fragrance. Products with low advertising budgets
and nonadvertised products usually mimic the established market leaders also in their fragrance.
However, this is not always the case. When the back-to-nature movement became powerful in northern
Europe in the 1970s and 1980s, for example, many nonadvertised products used the association with
herbs and flowers rather than with market leaders in order to convince the consumer of their safety and
goodness; this approach was reflected also in the fragrances selected for these products. Such
developments are, however, rather exceptional.
New brand introductions supported by strong advertising campaigns, on the other hand, not only have
the liberty to use more innovative fragrances, they are nearly forced to do so. Normally such products
do not represent totally new product categories; they compete against established products and must
convince users of these products to switch. To do so, they must present clearly perceptible points of
superiority against the established products or at least points of difference. Very often fragrance
provides such a point of difference, a function that becomes important, the smaller the perceptible
differences in product performance are.
Since the marketing plans of mass-advertised products generally call for rapid acceptance for the
product by broad segments of the consuming public, the fragrance should not, however, be too radically
innovative. The appropriate range for fragrances for major mass-market product launches is therefore
somewhere near the middle of the Innovation Scale, innovative without departing too far from the
traditions established by current leading mass-market brands.
The Interaction of Countervailing Tendencies
In establishing the most appropriate range of innovation, perfumers must consider all factors, those that
relate to the culture, to the product
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ambience, the target group as well as the marketing plan. Often not all of these will point in the same
direction; the appropriate fragrance should then lie somewhere between the extremes of a totally
traditional fragrance and radical innovation. The case of major mass-market launches, where the need
for clear differentiation is counterbalanced by the need for rapid widespread acceptance, is but one
example among many. To understand the different factors involved, and to assign the appropriate
weight to each, requires mature marketing judgment.
Perfumer, Evaluation Board, Client, and Public
Perfumers may perfectly understand the attitudes and expectations of the market for which they create
their fragrances; they may succeed perfectly in developing fragrances that meet the expectations and yet
fail—because their creations never reach the market. This can happen because a perfumer does not
offer his or her perfume, or the product for which the perfume was developed to the public. Between
the perfumer and the public there stand at least two groups of people who must be convinced that the
fragrance is the right one before it has a chance to reach the market. One of these groups is within the
perfumer's own company, the other is within the client company that markets the product. Both groups
may vary widely in their composition.
Most major perfume suppliers today have within their organizations a group of specialists who evaluate
the submissions of the different perfumers who have worked on a project, often drawing upon off-the-
shelf formulations in addition to specially developed ones, and decide which fragrances should be
submitted to the client. Depending upon the organizational structure and the situation, others within the
perfumer's company may also have a voice in this decision: the chief perfumer, the application
laboratory responsible for stability testing, sales personnel, or top management.
The group of people at the client company who are involved in the decision on which of the several
(often very many) fragrances submitted for a product launch or relaunch should be finally adopted is
even more varied. It may include the purchasing department, development chemists, evaluation panels
attached to the development laboratories, marketing, in-house evaluation panels, the market researchers
who design and interpret consumer tests, even top management—or, as the rumor often goes, the
president's wife or secretary.
For the sake of this discussion, let us call the group involved at the perfumer's company the "evaluation
board" and the totality of all of
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Figure 16.2
the people involved at the client level, the "client." We then arrive at the model shown in Figure 16.2. It
is a typical example of what in current marketing literature is referred to as a "gatekeeper model."
Unless there is good agreement among the perfumer and the various gatekeepers about what the market
wants (Figure 16.3A), the perfume will not reach the market (Figures 16.3B and 16.3C). If there is good
agreement among the perfumer and the gatekeepers (e.g., if both evaluation and the perfumer
understand precisely what the client wants) and all of them are wrong, the perfume or the perfumed
product may reach the market, but it will fail (Figure 16.3D).
Achieving the situation shown in Figure 16.3A requires high skills of understanding and of
communication among all the parties involved, as well as organizational structures that favor open and
effective communication. Moreover the longer the chain of gatekeepers—it may in actuality entail
several successive gates both within the perfumer's and the client's companies—the lower are the odds
for the arrow, the perfumer's creation, to strike home.
One link in the decision chain where a poor alignment of "gates" has been rather common in the past
has been the consumer tests conducted by market research departments. Since fragrances, especially the
fragrances in functional products, exert their influence upon the consumer at a subconscious level,
special and sophisticated marketing research techniques are required to obtain a correct picture of this
influence. Moreover the techniques of marketing research have been developed largely within the
context of mass-market marketing and must be radically adapted to be appropriate to selectively
marketed products (Jellinek 1991b).
The perfumer, alas, is usually confined to a rather passive role in these processes, with limited power to
affect the decision mechanisms in his or her own company, and usually none at all to affect them at the
customer level. The perfumer can only do his or her utmost to understand the criteria that guide the
selection process at both levels and to take them into account in the perfume's creation.
Occasionally, however, a perfumer or a spokesperson close to him or her in the organization (e.g., the
perfumery manager or an experienced sales executive) succeeds in making the perfumer's views heard
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Figure 16.3
and respected at all stages of the decision process. Then the perfumer can exert a major influence upon
the final decision. To attain this status requires force of personality, excellent communication skills, and
a good track record. A classic example of this kind was Ernest Shiftan, chief perfumer of Van
Ameringen-Haebler, later IFF, who developed a relationship of trust with Estée Lauder and exerted a
major influence upon the highly successful selection of fragrances launched by that house for over a
quarter century, from Youth Dew in 1952 until his death in 1977. The high degree of innovation that
marked these fragrances was possible only because of the presence at the client level of a strong and
courageous decision maker, Estée Lauder herself.
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PART V—
SCIENTIFIC FUNDAMENTALS
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17—
The Chemical Structure of Perfumery Materials
The odor, volatility, strength, and stability of the materials used in perfumery are all determined by
their chemical structure. It is useful therefore, and of interest, for the perfumer to have some knowledge
of the various types of structures that occur, and of their naming and classification. For example, what
is meant by the words ''phenyl," "ethyl," and "alcohol," and how do these relate to the odor and other
characteristics of the material known as "phenylethyl alcohol"?
In perfumery we are concerned almost entirely with organic materials, that is to say, with compounds
made up of the elements carbon and hydrogen, usually also with oxygen, sometimes with nitrogen,
and rarely also with sulphur or chlorine. Compounds, or molecules, based on atoms of carbon and
hydrogen only are described as hydrocarbons. To this category belong many of the so-called terpenes,
such as pinene and limonene, found in essential oils. To those materials that contain oxygen belong
such groups as the alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, lactones, acids, and esters, while those containing
nitrogen include the nitromusks, anthranilates, nitriles, quinolines, and indol.
Bonding and Chemical Structure
The chemistry of carbon is based on the fact that the carbon atom is tetravalent—that is to say, it
always forms four bonds when combining with other atoms to form molecules. Hydrogen forms one
bond, oxygen
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two, and nitrogen three. For example, the following combinations can occur:
Carbon atoms can also bond to each other to form extended chains of atoms linked to each other. These
chains may be either straight or branched. For example,
Note that the two forms of butyl alcohol are made up of the same number and types of atom, C, H, and
O, arranged in different ways.
It is also possible for two of the potential bonds to be shared between a pair of atoms, between two
carbon atoms, or between a carbon atom and an oxygen atom. For example,
These are called double bonds, and a molecule containing a double bond between two carbon atoms is
said to be unsaturated. By the
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addition of two hydrogen atoms across a double bond, hydrogenation, the molecule is said to be
saturated. For example,
Similarly 2 nonenal (iris aldehyde) and 2.6 nonadienal are both unsaturated forms of aldehyde C9, the
aldehyde with nine carbon atoms in the chain:
Note that the suffixes -anal, -enal, and -dienal signify the saturated form and the forms with one and
two double bonds, respectively; note also that the numbering of the carbon atoms begins from the—
CHO, or aldehydic group, at the end of the chain, with the double bonds occurring at the 2 and 6
positions.
Triple bonds may also occur between carbon atoms. For example,
or between a carbon atom and a nitrogen atom. This is characteristic of the nitriles. For example,
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Carbon atoms are also capable of joining together to form ring structures, the most common of which
is the six-membered cyclohexyl ring. This may occur in the saturated form, or with a double bond
between one or two pairs of carbon atoms in the ring, or with three alternate double bonds loosely
shared between all six carbon atoms. It is usual, when writing out the structures of ring compounds, to
use a form of chemical shorthand. Some perfumery examples are given below:
This last type of ring, with three double bonds, known as the benzene ring, is of great importance in
perfumery, since it occurs in a wide range of materials, both natural and synthetic. Materials whose
structure is based on the benzene ring are described, for historical reasons, as aromatic—not to be
confused with the same word when used either in its original sense of having an "aroma," or as a
perfumery description for a particular type of smell, associated with "aromatic" herbs.
Ring structures of five atoms may occur, or even up to sixteen or more, in which one member of the
ring is sometimes oxygen. Large ring structures of this type, such as in cyclohexadecanolide, are de-
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scribed as macrocyclic. Similarly nitrogen may occur as part of a ring structure, or two or more rings
may be linked together:
It will be appreciated from this very brief look at the various types of linkage possible between the
atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, that the number of combinations possible is almost
limitless. Indeed more than eight million organic compounds are already known to exist. The whole of
life depends on such diversity—not just perfumery.
A list of the most important structural groups found in perfumery materials is given in Appendix A.
The Terpenes and their Derivatives
The terpenes form one of the most important groups of perfumery materials, including such products as
geraniol, linalool, terpineol, camphor, cedrene, and their many derivatives. They occur widely in nature,
and some are used as starting points for the synthesis of other materials, such as the ionones, and many
of the modern woody chemicals. Before their structure and chemistry was fully understood, the
terpenes were defined simply as the insoluble constituents of essential oils. It was found that the
majority contained either 10 or 15 carbon atoms, the two groups being named mono- and
sesquiterpenes. Other terpenes containing higher multiples of five carbon atoms were also known to
exist in both plants and animals. The structure of these materials was subsequently explained by the
working out of their biosynthesis.
All terpenes are in fact formed by the linking together of two or more units of five carbon atoms,
originally thought to be molecules of
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isoprene, or isoprene units. This description is still used, although it is now known that the chains are
based on the combination of two slightly different materials, isopentenyl pyrophosphate and
dimethylallyl pyrophosphate, which combine to form geranyl pyrophosphate. The addition of a further
isopentenyl pyrophosphate molecule produces farnesyl pyrophosphate. These two materials, which are
directly related to geraniol and farnesol, form the starting points from which all other mono and
sesquiterpenes are derived:
Although, chemically, all products belonging to these two series are correctly described as terpenes, in
perfumery (just to make matters even more complicated!) the word is often used in a narrower sense to
describe only the hydrocarbon members of the series. These include limonene and terpinolene with 10
carbon atoms, and cedrene and caryophyllene with 15. Materials belonging to the series but containing
oxygen are then described as terpenic alcohols, aldehydes, and so on.
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Many of the terpenes, such as terpineol, limonene, and cedrene, are ring structures formed by the
rearrangement of straight chain molecules:
Isomerism
Two or more compounds made up of the same number and types of atoms but with different chemical
structures are known as isomers. We have already seen the difference between the two isomers n-butyl
and isobutyl alcohol. These are known as skeletal isomers, since they have different carbon skeletons.
There are also positional isomers in which the "functional group" is located at a different position on
the carbon skeleton. For example, alpha, beta, and gamma terpineol all have the same arrangement of
carbon atoms but with the—OH (hydroxy) group and the double bond in different positions:
In citronellol the difference between the naturally occurring alpha form and the synthetically produced
beta form lies only in the position of
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one double bond:
Another type of isomerism is that of stereoisomerism. This is caused by the arrangement of atoms
around a double bond; all the connections are the same, but there is a difference in the three-
dimensional orientation. When a double bond occurs between two carbon atoms, the two atoms are not
free to rotate about their common axis. For example, two forms exist for the following hypothetical
molecule:
This form of isomerism occurs between geraniol and nerol which are otherwise identical:
So-called cis-trans materials are also examples of stereoisomerism, the prefix cis- coming from the
Latin meaning "on the same side" and
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trans- meaning "across." For example,
Cis-forms are more common in nature than trans-, and they tend to be more interesting in odor. They
are, however, less stable chemically due to the uneven stress placed on the double bond by both larger
groups being on the same side of the molecule.
Finally, a mention must be made of optical isomerism. It is observed that some materials can exist in
two forms: one that rotates the plane of polarized light to the right and one that rotates it to the left.
These are known as the dextro and levo forms. The explanation of this phenomenon lies in the fact that
the molecules can exist either in a righthanded or a left-handed configuration. This is a difficult concept
to visualize but may best be illustrated by comparing the two hypothetical compounds represented
three-dimensionally below.
The two molecules are identical in every way except that one is the mirror image of the other. When
two such isomers occur in equal proportions, the mixture, which has a net zero optical rotation, is said
to be optically inactive, or racemic.
Often the difference in odor between two such forms is surprisingly great. For example, dextro carvone
is the main odor constituent of caraway oil, while its optical isomer levo carvone is typical of
spearmint. Among other materials that occur in important dextro and levo forms are citronellol and rose
oxide.
Functional Groups and their Relation to Odor
A functional group may be defined as a group of atoms, part of a larger molecule, whose bonds have a
characteristic chemical behavior.
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In whatever molecule it occurs the group will behave in approximately the same way. The
classification of chemical substances is based on the functional groups that they contain. Examples of
such groups are double bonds, the aldehydes, alcohols, and esters. A list of the more important of these,
together with their nomenclature and chemical formulas, is given in Appendix A.
From the point of view of the perfumer this classification can be very instructive, since it provides not
only information as to the probable stability of materials in various types of products but also assists in
the understanding of their odor characteristics. Although the odor of a chemical substance appears to be
determined by its overall shape and structure, the presence of a functional group both modifies the odor
and brings to it its own particular character. The degree to which the functional group influences it
depends upon the size, structure, and odor characteristic of the molecule, and the position of the
functional group in it. This is best explained by considering a few examples.
1. Aldehydes and Alcohols
Aldehydes are, in general, stronger than their corresponding alcohols, as for example is aldehyde C12
lauric when compared to its corresponding alcohol. However, the degree to which these differences are
expressed varies considerably from one aldehyde-alcohol pair to another.
Example 1(a)
In the case of benzyl alcohol and benzaldehyde the molecular size is comparatively small with only 7
carbon atoms. The alcohol is also a weak material having virtually no odor. Here the change brought
about by replacing the alcohol group with the aldehyde is quite dramatic.
Moving up the structural series to phenylethyl alcohol, which has one more carbon atom and a positive
though not very strong odor, the corresponding aldehyde, phenylacetaldehyde, although very much
more aggressive, and "green," in odor still retains some of the rosy character of the alcohol. In the case
of phenylpropyl alcohol (hydrocinnamic alcohol), which has 9 carbon atoms and a very much more
powerful odor, the difference between this and phenylpropyl aldehyde is more one of comparative
strength than of odor type:
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Higher still up the series are amyl cinnamic alcohol and aldehyde. These are comparatively large
molecules containing 14 carbon atoms, and their odors are therefore relatively similar in type, although
there is still a very considerable difference in strength. Here the characteristic aldehydic note is almost
missing from the aldehyde, though this may be due partly to the protective influence of the side chain.
In hexyl cinnamic aldehyde, which has one more carbon atom in the side chain, the aldehydic note is
virtually missing altogether. (The molecule is also chemically more stable.)
Example 1(b)
The characteristic influence of aldehydic and alcoholic groups is also clearly shown in the relationship
between citronellol, citronellal, and hydroxycitronellal.
The difference between citronellol and citronellal is typical of that between an alcohol and an aldehyde.
Although they are clearly related in odor, the aldehyde is, as we would expect from quite a small
molecular structure, very much more powerful and harsh. In hydroxycitronellal the addition of an—OH
and—H across the double bond (in effect by adding a molecule of water, a process known as
hydration) produces an alcohol group near to the other end of the molecule, away from the aldehydic
group. The material still maintains some of its aldehydic character but now, in addition, has some of the
softness and floral character associated with an alcohol. The presence of more than
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one oxygen atom in the molecule also has the effect of greatly reducing its volatility.
2. Esters
The esters form a particularly interesting group in that each molecule is composed of two structural
units joined together by the characteristic ester formation. One of the two component structures comes
from an alcohol and the other from an acid. For example,
In effect a molecule of water is formed as the two molecules combine—a type of reaction known as
condensation. The resultant odor is a combination of the typical fruity-floral tendency of the ester
grouping together with the individual characteristic of each of the two structural units. Dominance
between the three parts of the molecule depends upon their relative size and odor strength.
How this applies in each individual case makes a fascinating study. A few representative samples may
be given.
Example 2(a)
Ethyl acetate, which is a comparatively small molecule, has the typical fruity character associated with
all the lower esters, and a more or less equal balance between the influence of the two structural units,
derived from ethyl alcohol and acetic acid. Linalyl acetate and geranyl acetate, however, although
retaining the typical character of an acetate have much less of the ester fruitiness and are more closely
related to the corresponding alcohols, linalool, and geraniol. The dominance of the alcohol appears to
be even greater in phenylethyl acetate and paracresyl acetate (a phenolic ester).
Example 2(b)
In the reverse case of the ethyl esters, where the alcohol derived radical is comparatively small, it is the
acidic part of the molecule that dominates, as in the higher members of the series such as the benzoate,
cinnamate, phenylacetate, and salicylate. Many of these higher ester radicals are very dominant in
character and give rise to closely related series. Cinnamates and phenylacetates, for example, are some
of the most readily recognized perfumery materials owing to their very characteristic odors.
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Example 2(c)
Esters derived from the weakly smelling benzyl alcohol are much less closely related to each other than
those derived from more powerful alcohols such as linalool, geraniol, paracresol, or even phenylethyl
alcohol. The higher esters of benzyl alcohol, in particular, seem to owe little to the character of the
alcohol.
Example 2(d)
In esters where both parts of the molecule are relatively large, the typical fruitiness is almost entirely
absent, as for example in benzyl salicylate, phenylethyl phenylacetate, and linalyl cinnamate:
3. Double Bonds
The presence of a double bond can have a significant influence on the strength and odor of the overall
molecule, as well as in modifying the effect of another functional group.
Example 3(a)
The dominance of the double bond in the cis-3-hexenyl series of esters, as well as in the alcohol (leaf
alcohol) and aldehyde, results in a closely related group of materials in which the other functional
groups play only a modifying role in the odor, despite the small size of the C6 chain:
CH3CH2CH CHCH2CH2OH CH3CH2CH CHCH2CH2OOCCH3

cis-3-Hexenol cis-3-Hexenyl acetate
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Example 3(b)
The effect of a double bond on the odor of a molecule depends very largely upon its position. The three
straight chain aldehydes with 11 carbon atoms provide a good example of this. The formulas are as
follows:
The introduction of the double bond into undecylic aldehyde to give the undecylenic form produces a
significant change both of character as well as of strength. If the double bond is now moved to a
position between the third and fourth carbon atoms from the end of the chain (the C8 position counting
from the functional group), giving intreleven aldehyde, the odor remains very similar but the strength
increases enormously. The strength of a double bond at this position relative to the end of the chain is
quite characteristic. As has already been seen, it occurs also in cis-3-hexenal (at C3), and in 2,6
nonadienal (at C6), two unsaturated straight chain aldehydes of great olfactory strength. The strength
of cis-jasmone may also be attributed partly to the presence of a double bond in this position.
Example 3(c)
When two double bonds lie on either side of a single bond, the double bonds are said to be conjugated.
This can occur in a number of different types of molecule, giving rise to such groups as conjugated
aldehydes, or the conjugated triple bond of a nitrile:
In perfumery this can have an important effect both on the odor of a material and its functional
properties. Conjugated aldehydes tend to be sweeter and deeper in olfactory character than their
saturated counterpart, for example, as with citral and citronellal, the aldehydes re-
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lated to geraniol and citronellol, and cinnamic aldehyde and phenylpropyl aldehyde (hydrocinnamic
aldehyde).
In the cinnamic molecule there is an additional conjugational effect between the double bond in the side
chain and the unsaturated benzene ring. The saturated form, phenylpropyl alcohol is again the harsher
of the two in character.
The conjugation of a double bond with a carbonyl group, C O, such as in an aldehyde, can have the
serious adverse effect of greatly increasing the likelihood of the material being a severe skin irritant or
sensitizer. Examples of this type of influence occur in citral, cinnamic aldehyde, and trans-2 hexenal,
as well as in methyl heptine carbonate which has a conjugated triple bond. Benzylidene acetone,
which is closely related in structure to cinnamic aldehyde, can no longer be used as a perfumery
material for this reason, and the level at which other potential sensitizers can be used in perfume
formulations is restricted (see pp. 183–185).
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18—
Chemical Reactions in Perfumery
Beneficial Reactions
Perfume compounds are essentially mixtures of materials that blend together rather than react. There
are, however, a few important exceptions, some of which are used deliberately by perfumers as part of
their technique in formulation, while others may be regarded as part of the normal process of
maturation.
Schiff Bases
A Schiff base is formed by the combination of an aldehyde and an amine (—NH2); usually in perfumery
with methyl anthranilate. This is a condensation reaction in which water is produced. For example,
aurantiol, the most widely used of the Schiff bases, is formed by the condensation of
hydroxycitronellal and methyl anthranilate:
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Other important Schiff bases include those derived from citronellal, Lyral, Helional, and Canthoxal.
One of the more recent and interesting is Meaverte, the product of Tripal and methyl anthranilate.
Like most other Schiff bases these products are all strongly yellow in color—a useful way in which to
recognize them in a compound.
Although Schiff bases are widely used as raw materials in formulation, they are also frequently allowed
to form within the compound by the use of methyl anthranilate as a straight ingredient in combination
with aldehydes and ketones. Schiff bases formed in this way often give a better result than is obtained
by including them in the formula. The process is, however, a gradual one, and it may take several
weeks or months for the Schiff bases and the resulting color to develop—a serious problem for quality
control! Many of the modern tuberose perfumes are created using this technique, with both methyl
anthranilate and ready-made Schiff bases being used at the same time with aldehydes such as
hydroxycitronellal, Lyral, Helional, and Lilial. The final result after maturation is indeed a complex
mixture.
Dilution has a significant effect in reducing the rate of the reaction, and the formation of Schiff bases is
slowed down, although not entirely stopped once the compound has been diluted in alcohol. Methyl
anthranilate occurs naturally in many essential oils together with aldehydes such as citral without
forming Schiff bases owing to the low concentration of both materials.
Hemiacetals
Aldehydes and ketones react with alcohols to form loosely joined molecules known as hemiacetals.
This is a reversible reaction that, depending upon the conditions, reaches a point of equilibrium in
which both the free aldehyde and alcohol occur together with the hemiacetal. This is a somewhat
complicated reaction, with intermediary products being formed, but it may be expressed simply as
follows:
Some of the harsher aldehydes such as phenylacetaldehyde are quite often kept diluted in phenylethyl
alcohol so as to take advantage of
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the softening effect of the hemiacetal formation before incorporating them into a compound.
Much of the initial maturing, or ''getting together," of a perfume compound depends upon this
formation of hemiacetals, and when diluted in ethyl alcohol, a further period is required for the
formation of hemiacetals between the ingredients of the compound and the base. In the production of
fine fragrances this process is usually allowed to continue for several weeks prior to chilling and
filtering, with the length of time having an important effect upon both the quality and persistence of the
end product.
Harmful Reactions
Unfortunately for perfumers, most of the reactions with which they are concerned tend to be destructive
to their compounds rather than beneficial. Perfumes are complicated mixtures of materials, all of which
are liable to change under certain conditions and to react among themselves as well as with the products
into which they are put. Exposure to air, heat, and light can be damaging to their stability, as can the
presence of metals such as iron. Perfumes often have to be designed for use in hostile bases that may be
either strongly acid or alkali. Perfumers concerned with such products will spend much of their time
assessing the stability of individual materials, so as to eliminate those that are unstable, which often
prove to be the majority. Even this type of test may prove to be inconclusive, since the base may act as
a catalyst causing the perfumery materials to react among themselves. At very low perfume levels,
however, this effect is unlikely to be great.
The whole subject of perfume stability is an enormous and complex one, and it is only possible here to
give some indication of the various types of problem that perfumers are likely to encounter and to
suggest a few of the possible solutions where problems exist. We may begin by looking at the stability
of two of the most widely used groups of perfumery materials, the aldehydes and ketones.
Aldehyde and Ketone Stability
Aldehydes and ketones are comparatively reactive materials and can be the cause of many stability
problems in perfume compounds. Two of the most important types of reaction that are specific to these
materials are the formation of acetals with alcohols, and the so-called
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aldol reaction in which two molecules of the same aldehyde or ketone combine with each other to form
a larger one.
The Formation of Acetals
Unfortunately, the beneficial formation of hemiacetals, which has already been discussed, can under
acidic conditions be carried a stage further leading to the formation of acetals:
As we will see later, the release of acids is characteristic of the breakdown of esters in the presence of
water. This acidity, in alcoholic fragrances, can in turn result in the formation of acetals between the
ethanol and any aldehydes that may be present in the perfume. Although this reaction is reversible in
principle, where there is a large excess of alcohol in the product as opposed to aldehydes, as is usually
the case, the aldehydes can be almost entirely lost, with a catastrophic effect on the odor.
When examining an alcoholic fragrance by gas chromatography, it is quite usual, if an old sample has
been used, to find large amounts of these acetals, such as hydroxycitronellal di-ethyl acetal and the
diethyl acetals of aliphatic aldehydes, which were never meant to be there in the original formula and
which would not have been present if a fresh sample had been used. The presence of large amounts of
glycols in an acid medium can similarly lead to the formation of diglycol acetals. These are often
virtually odorless compared with the original aldehydes, and their formation can result in the total loss
of what was intended to be the most powerful part of the fragrance.
The Aldol Reaction
It will probably have been noticed by anyone who has worked in a perfumery laboratory that aldehyde
C12 lauric and phenylacetaldehyde tend to solidify with age. What is happening is that the molecules
are combining to form larger molecules that make
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up solids rather than liquids. This reaction can be shown in the following formula for
phenylacetaldehyde:
This type of reaction, known as the aldol reaction, which occurs particularly in the presence of alkali,
is reversible, resulting in an equilibrium between the proportions of single and combined molecules.
Not all aldehydes behave in precisely the same way under these conditions depending upon the one of
three types to which they belong. These may be represented as follows:
Chemically these are described as mono-, di-, and tri-substituted acetaldehydes.
In the first type, which includes aldehyde C12 lauric and phenylacetaldehyde, the balance of the
reaction lies in favor of the combined molecule. In the second, however, to which belong aldehyde
C12 MNA, cyclamen aldehyde, hydratropic aldehyde, and Lilial, the balance lies more toward the
original material. Most ketones also behave in this way. The third type, which includes amyl and hexyl
cinnamic aldehydes, do not undergo the aldol reaction and are therefore more stable. Aldehydes such
as anisaldehyde and Triplal, in which the —CHO is linked directly to a ring structure, are also less
reactive.
This, however, is not the end of the story. Under slightly more extreme conditions, or over a period of
time, the products of the aldol reaction can go on to form other more complex materials. As a result the
aldehyde may be completely lost. Some of the products formed in this way are strongly colored and can
therefore cause discoloration in the end product.
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Such reactions can have a considerable effect on the stability of aldehydes and ketones in bases that are
even mildly alkaline, such as soaps and detergents. Before soap making reached the standards of quality
that are achieved today, the base would often contain, and still does in poorer qualities, a surplus of
alkali from the process of saponification. This made it almost impossible to use any of the less stable
types of aldehyde with any degree of confidence. Now, however, with good quality bases being
available most aldehydes, including many of the straight chain aliphatic aldehydes, can be used quite
safely.
A similar type of reaction occurs between aldehydes, ketones, as well as lactones, and ethyl
acetoacetate. This material is sometimes used in industrial deodorants and masking agents precisely
because of its ability to react with the unpleasant smelling aldehydes, and other reactive materials, that
they are designed to cover. When ethyl acetoacetate is included in a perfume formula for this type of
product, often at quite a high percentage, together with aldehydes, the shelf life of the compound tends
to be somewhat limited owing to this reaction. Ethyl acetoacetate and a few related materials are also
used in fine perfumery, though usually in such small amounts that the effect of dilution reduces the risk
of any serious reaction.
Ester Stability
Esters, as has already been seen, are formed by the combination of alcohols and acids with the
elimination of water. The reverse reaction, which is one of hydrolysis, can also occur under certain
conditions, such as the presence of acid or alkali in an aqueous base. Not all esters are equally
susceptible to this type of breakdown, but it only requires the formation of traces of a free acid such as
butyric acid, totally to spoil a compound. Even an acetate such as linalyl acetate can cause problems by
giving rise to free acetic acid. In alkaline media progressive breakdown of the ester may occur as the
acid becomes neutralized. In products where this is likely to be a problem terpinyl acetate is often used
to replace linalyl acetate.
Oxidation
Most perfume compounds containing essential oils will deteriorate when exposed to the air, and a
number of different reactions can be involved, all of which come under the general heading of
oxidation, brought about by the presence of oxygen. Many of the unsaturated monoterpenes, which
occur widely in citrus, coniferous, and seed oils,
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are especially liable to oxidation, forming in the first place peroxides by the addition of oxygen across
the double bonds, which can then break down to give a variety of different products.
Compounds that are in direct contact with air when in the final product, for example as in powder
products or in soap, are particularly at risk from oxidation, and the head space above the product is
likely therefore to become rich in the breakdown products of oxidation. For this reason the packaging
usually allows for a certain amount of "breathing" so as to let these "off-odors" escape rather than their
being reabsorbed into the product. A number of products exist, generally classed as antioxidants, for
example, BHT (butyl hydroxytoluene), that help to inhibit these oxidation reactions. These antioxidants
are often added to citrus oils, or to compounds to prolong their shelf life, or to the final product.
Another method used to prevent the possibility of oxidation is to flush out the air from the container in
which the material is to be stored with an inert gas such as nitrogen. This method is most frequently
used for large containers such as drums, particularly if these are only partly full.
Metal Contamination
The presence of certain metals such as iron, particularly in the presence of water, can act as a catalyst
for many types of chemical reaction including oxidation, and iron can itself form highly colored
reddish-brown complexes with many materials. A common test for the presence of iron in essential oils
such as patchouli, where it can occur as a result of the distillation process being carried out in
nonstainless steel equipment, is to mix the oil with benzyl salicylate. If iron is present, a reddish color
develops after a few moments. Fortunately iron can quite easily be removed by treatment with citric,
tartaric, or oxalic acids, with which it forms stable sequestered complexes. Compounds that show this
type of discoloration can sometimes be recovered in this way if not too old, whereas products
containing water (which may be the source of the iron contamination), such as alcoholic lotions, will
usually show too much odor deterioration, by the time the discoloration has developed, to make
recovery possible.
The Effect of Light
Light is a source of energy that is needed for certain types of chemical reaction. Some of these so-called
photochemical reactions are of value to the perfumery industry, being used for the synthesis of such
materials
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as the rose oxides. However, a number of perfumery materials discolor badly in the presence of
ultraviolet light. Some of the nitromusks, such as musk xylene and musk ambrette, are particularly
bad in this respect. Musk ambrette has now been banned as a perfumery material owing to its ability to
cause severe skin sensitization in the presence of sunlight. Similar sensitization occurs with bergamot
oil and with cumin oil.
Products known as UV absorbers, similar to the products used in sunscreen preparations, can be added
to alcoholic lotions that almost eliminate this type of discoloration. Some companies use them as a
matter of course in the manufacture of their finished perfumes and toilet waters. But they should not be
added directly to the perfume compound. Many of the problems of discoloration in soap, for example,
as by vanillin, are accelerated by exposure to light.
The Effect of Temperature
Heat is a form of energy that affects the rate at which chemical reactions take place. The shelf life of a
product can therefore be considerably reduced by exposure to elevated temperatures. Odor deterioration
and discoloration will develop much faster under these conditions, and this is exploited in the
accelerated testing of perfumes for stability in final products. Some products are manufactured at quite
high temperatures, and perfumers have to keep this in mind in the formulation of their fragrances.
Acids and Alkalies—pH Values
Many product bases that the perfumer has to deal with may be either acidic or alkaline, and as we have
already seen, under such conditions a number of materials such as esters, aldehydes, and ketones are
likely to be unstable. The severity of the problem depends on the strength and type of acid or alkali
concerned. For instance, hydrochloric acid and citric acid are examples of a strong and a weak acid,
respectively, and sodium hydroxide and ammonia of a strong and a weak alkali. One way commonly
used to express the degree of acidity or alkalinity is by means of the pH value. This is a numerical
scale from 1 to 14 in which pH 1 is the most acidic and pH 14 the most alkaline. At pH 7 the product is
said to be neutral.
Hostile Bases and Stability Testing
As has already been mentioned, many of the functional products with which perfumers are concerned
are weakly or strongly hostile toward
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a wide range of perfumery materials. Household products such as bleaches are powerfully alkaline,
whereas those that remove limescale are strongly acidic. Modern detergent powders contain active
ingredients that present perfumers with yet another set of problems. Liquid detergents may selectively
lower the volatility and thus the performance of different materials, and minerals such as talcum
powder may contain traces of heavy metals. Indeed it is difficult to think of any type of base that does
not in some way come between perfumers and their creations. Perfumers must always be working
within the limitations set by the bases with which they are concerned.
Although it is possible to some extent to predict the stability and performance of certain types of
perfumery material in any base—for example, the instability of esters in acid media—perfumers must
usually rely on the experience gained from the testing of individual perfumery materials. This is a
laborious undertaking and one that occupies much of the time of both the perfumer and the application
chemist. As has been mentioned earlier, such testing is normally carried out at elevated temperature as
well as at ambient temperature and in the cold.
Assessing the results of such tests requires considerable experience. It is important, for example, to
differentiate between the stability of a product and its performance. A material smelled in a sample of
dry detergent powder may show poor performance and yet be stable, making a valuable contribution to
the performance of a perfume on washed fabric. Its failure to perform in the base, even on cold storage,
should not necessarily be attributed to instability.
Similarly a weakly smelling material may, at elevated temperatures, be masked by the smell that has
develolped in the base itself. In many cases where a customer has complained about the deterioration of
the product this can be put down to the deterioration of the base itself rather than to that of the perfume.
It is one of the golden rules of stability testing always to begin by testing the unperfumed base.
Packaging
The importance of packaging has already been mentioned in connection with the problem of oxidation.
In most cases where a problem arises due to the faulty design of the packaging or the injudicious
selection of component materials there is little that the perfumer can do other than to identify the true
cause of the problem.
Various grades of plastic, for example, differ widely in their permeability to perfume. Low-density
polyethylene is far more permeable
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than the high-density variety; PVC, an excellent material in many ways, owing to its toughness and
comparative impermeability to perfume compounds, can often be the cause of odor contamination due to
the presence of plasticizers used in its manufacture. For environmental reasons PVC, which contains
chlorine in its molecular structure, is rarely used today.
Aerosols can often develop a powerful sulphurous rubber smell due to the quality or age of the rubber
gasket. Soaps can pick up the smell of their wrapping material such as cardboard or even the smell of a
plastic container. So often these problems are blamed on the perfume, and it becomes the job of the
perfumer or application chemist to identify the fault correctly.
Discoloration in Soap
Owing to their natural color many perfumery materials such as oakmoss and Schiff bases cause primary
discoloration in soap. Their use in white soap base must therefore be restricted. Other materials may
cause discoloration with aging either due to reaction with the soap base (oxidation, etc.) or in the
presence of light. The use of some of these materials may be justified even in white soaps at low
concentrations, and at much higher levels in colored soaps, depending on the actual color and intensity
of the final product.
Pink soaps are often as difficult as white, while yellow soaps will allow the use of yellowing materials
such as citral and Schiff bases. Similarly beige and brown colored soaps will permit the use of certain
amounts of nitromusks and eugenol. The quality of the soap base is important both in its effect on
general stability, for example, with aldehydes, and on certain types of discoloration. The presence of
iron, for example, can cause problems with salicylates, although most modern soaps contain
sequestering agents that effectively inactivate heavy metals.
Unfortunately, some customers insist on white soap stability even when the final product is to be
colored. The following is a list of common materials that may cause discoloration:
Materials Causing Discoloration in Soap

NITROGEN-CONTAINING MATERIALS
Nitromusks Photodiscoloration
Musk ambrette
Musk ketone
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Musk xylene (Excellent in soap when color permits)

(Musk tibetine does not discolor)
Indol Severe discoloration even in traces
Indolene
Skatol
(Indolal and lacktoskatone do not discolor)
All anthranilates Severe yellowing due to Schiff base formation
with free aldehydes in the base
(Quinolines can cause a problem, but iso-butyl
quinoline is stable at normal concentrations)
AROMATIC ALDEHYDES
Vanillin Severe discoloration

Ethyl vanillin Use at low concentrations up to 0.1%
Heliotropin Use in moderation
(Anisaldehyde does not discolor)
Cinnamic aldehyde Discolors
Amyl cinnamic aldehyde May cause discoloration at high levels
(Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde does not discolor)
Helional Photodiscoloration
OTHER ALDEHYDES
Some aldehydes can cause discoloration due to polymerization in alkaline soap base.
Citral Yellow–brown discoloration
PHENOLS
Eugenol Brown discoloration

Isoeugenol Severe darkening to black
Darkening
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Naturals containing phenols cause discoloration (e.g., oakmoss, birch tar, castoreum, and oils
containing eugenol)
Most of the esters of eugenol and isoeugenol, as well as benzyl isoeugenol, cause discoloration.
(Methyl eugenol and methyl isoeugenol are stable)
Salicylates Discolor in the presence of iron
OTHER MATERIALS known to cause discoloration

Estragol
Dimethyl hydroquinone
Nerolin yara yara
Bromstyrol
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19—
The Physical Basis of Perfumery
The properties of perfume materials are intimately related to their chemical constitution, but the
mechanisms whereby chemical structure leads to odor perception involve, in crucial ways, a physical
phenomenon: the mutual attraction forces between molecules. These forces determine the rate of
evaporation of odor materials from solutions or surfaces, they are the basis of fixation and substantivity,
they explain why the odor quality of mixtures varies depending upon the solvent or base in which they
are incorporated. They are also involved in the very process of odor perception, in the contact between
the odorant molecule and the receptor cell. Moreover they are at the heart of distillation, extraction,
solubility, and the mechanism of chromatography. In this chapter, we will briefly discuss the physical
basis of some of these phenomena, showing also how the attraction forces between molecules are
related to their chemical structure.
Evaporation and Volatility
Perfume materials, in the form in which we apply them to the smelling blotter, mix them, weigh them,
and incorporate them into products are usually liquids, occasionally also pastes or solids. The products
in which they are incorporated are usually liquids, emulsions, gels, or solids.
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Odor perception takes place only when molecules of the odorous material enter the nasal cavity and
physically touch the olfactory receptors located there. In nearly all instances (the exception being finely
dispersed aerosols), this means that perfume materials have to pass into the vapor phase in order to be
perceived. The process of evaporation therefore is of central importance to perfumery. The volatility
of perfume materials, that is, their readiness to pass into the vapor state, is one of their most important
properties from the perfumer's point of view (Appell 1964). In fact two famous perfumers have
proposed methods of perfume composition based upon volatility (Poucher 1955; Carles 1961).
Chemical Structure and Volatility
As a general rule the larger the molecular size—that is, the higher the number of carbon atoms—the
lower is the volatility of the compound. For example, the monoterpenes (C10) are more volatile, and
therefore less persistent, than the sesquiterpenes (C15).
However, the presence in a molecule of a functional group containing oxygen has the result of greatly
reducing the volatility. For example, the three hydrocarbons, ethane (C2, a gas), benzene (C6), and
cedrene (C15), are all very much more volatile than their corresponding alcohols, ethyl alcohol, benzyl
alcohol, and cedrenol. Here again, as was seen in relation to odor, the smaller the molecule, the greater
is the effect of the functional group upon volatility. Two functional groups within the same molecule
tend to lower the volatility even further, as has already been pointed out in the case of hydroxy-
citronellal.
This effect of functional groups containing oxygen in reducing the volatility is due to the polarization of
the electrical charge (the electron configuration) within the molecule. Such polar molecules are
mutually attracted, and said to be associated, thus reducing their readiness to separate and lowering the
volatility. The degree of association due to polarization varies from one type of functional group to
another. Aldehydes, ketones, and esters, for example, which contain a carbonyl group, C O, are less
strongly associated than either alcohols or acids in which the presence of a hydroxy, —OH, group
results in a further type of association known as hydrogen bonding. In alcohols this produces the
formation of a weakly linked chain structure. In acids, where a hydroxyl group and a carbonyl group
together make up the char-
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acteristic carboxylic group, , an even stronger linkage is formed between pairs of molecules,
or dimers. Although the nature of these hydrogen bonds is too complicated to be discussed here in
detail, they may be represented simply as follows:
These links are broken when the temperature of the material reaches boiling point, or when the material
evaporates. So what is smelled are the individual molecules.
Association, due to polarization and hydrogen bonding, is of special significance to perfumers when it
comes to the fixation of perfumes, and in the formulation of perfumes for such products as fabric
detergents and conditioners where substantivity is a major requirement. The polar characteristics of
perfumery materials are also of importance for their separation by gas chromatography when using
certain types of column.
The volatility of esters is also worth considering. As was mentioned previously, the esters are formed
by the combination of alcohols and acids. The resulting molecule has one weakly polarizing carbonyl
group. The esters therefore tend to be more volatile than either alcohols or acids of comparable
molecular size. However, the combined molecular size of an ester may be far greater than one or both
of its parent molecules, and this will affect its relative volatility.
For example, ethyl phenylacetate is far more volatile than phenylacetic acid, although the molecular
size is greater. Similarly phenylethyl acetate is slightly more volatile than phenylethyl alcohol.
However, phenylethyl phenylacetate is very much less volatile than
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phenylethyl alcohol and rather less so than phenylacetic acid. This can be related to the following
structural formulas:
Although esters, like acids, have a carbonyl group attached to another oxygen atom, the second oxygen
atom in this case is linked on the other side to another carbon. This type of linkage, characteristic of the
ethers, is nonpolar, and has little effect therefore on volatility.
This is further demonstrated by the two ethers phenylethyl methyl ether (pandanol) and phenylethyl iso-
amyl ether (anther), both of which are far more volatile than phenylethyl alcohol, although having a
greater number of carbon atoms:
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Rose oxide, although a monoterpene derivative with 10 carbon atoms, is also very volatile, being a
cyclic ether with a six-membered pyran ring but with no polar functional group. Very large molecules
such as Galaxolide, with 18 carbon atoms in a complex three-ring structure, can be very persistent
despite having no functional groups. This is entirely due to the size of the molecule.
In summary, large molecules tend to be more persistent than smaller ones, though this may be modified
by the presence of functional groups, which cause polarization and hydrogen bonding. For an
equivalent molecular size, hydrocarbons and ethers are more volatile than aldehydes, ketones, and
esters, which are in turn more volatile than alcohols and acids.
Most of the examples given so far have been chosen, for the sake of simplicity, from compounds whose
functional groups are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Those containing nitrogen, the
nitrogenous compounds, although less numerous in perfumery, are still of great importance. These will
be seen from the lists of structural and functional groups. (See Appendixes A and B.) A useful measure
of the volatility of a substance is its vapor pressure at room temperature. Tables 13.1 through 13.3
provide this for a number of aroma chemicals.
Solubility and Odor Performance
Forces of mutual attraction and hydrogen bonding occur not only among the molecules of any given
material but also between the different kinds of molecules that make up mixtures and solutions. They
directly affect the solubility of perfume materials in different solvent systems, their odor performance
in these systems, and the odor character of the solution.
The solubility of substances in different solvents is determined by the relation between the attraction
forces among the molecules of that substance and the attraction forces that occur between the molecules
of the solvent. If the two are similar in strength and in kind, solubility
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is high. If they are very different, solubility is poor. The alchemists said, ''like dissolves like"; today we
say that polar solvents are good solvents for polar substances and poor ones for nonpolar substances,
and the reverse holds for nonpolar solvents. The main functional groups and solvents of interest to
perfumers, in order of decreasing polarity, are as follows:
Within any functional group, polarity decreases rapidly as the length of the nonpolar carbon chain
increases. The polarity of mixed solvents is intermediate between the respective polarities of individual
solvents of which they are composed.
In perfumery practice solubility problems occur only at the extremes of the solvent range. At the high
polarity end of the scale, the systems contain high proportions of water such as low-degree alcoholic
skin lotions or after shaves, or foam baths and dishwashing liquids (surfactant-water blends) with very
low surfactant levels. In the latter, salt is often added to increase viscosity. This addition further
increases the polarity of the water and aggravates perfume solubility problems.
Solubility problems in aqueous-alcoholic systems become more pronounced at low temperatures, such
as during outdoors storage in cold climates or during air transport. Solubility problems in surfactant-
water blends, on the other hand, increase at higher temperatures.
At the low polarity end of the scale, problems may occur in skin oils (e.g., massage oils) containing
high proportions of mineral oils or in paraffin candles. Solubility problems never occur in multiple-
phase
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products such as emulsions or soaps, since here the perfume materials have the choice of entering
whichever phase they are most soluble in. Strong mutual attraction between solvent and perfume
material molecules results in a decreased tendency of the perfume material to evaporate (it is "held
back" by the solvent), and hence lowers the odor intensity of that material above the solution.
Since perfume compositions normally are blends of perfume materials that differ widely in their
polarity (even single essential oils represent such blends), the different components of a perfume are
held back to differing degrees when the perfume is dissolved in a solvent. The patterns of differential
holding vary greatly between different solvent systems. As a result, if a given perfume composition is
dissolved in two different systems, the odor above the two will be distinctly different (Jellinek 1959).
It can therefore be stated generally that the odor of any perfumed product is affected by the product
base in two ways: (1) by the odor of the base itself and (2) by the way the base, through physical
attraction forces, affects the odor of the perfume. Sometimes a third factor, chemical decomposition of
the perfume by components of the base, enters the picture. This will be considered later.
Odor Persistence and Fixation
The persistence of a perfume material depends on its volatility: the greater the volatility, the less is the
persistence. However, in any given application, persistence also depends on the concentration of the
material employed (the higher the dosage, the greater is the persistence) and on the strength of the
attraction forces between the perfume material and the base in which this material has been
incorporated, as well as the substrate to which it is applied.
Let us, for example, examine the case of a solution of a perfume material applied to a smelling blotter.
If we compare the persistence of a 10% alcoholic solution with that of a 1% alcoholic solution, both
dipped to the same height, we will find the more concentrated solution to be more persistent. If we
compare two 1% solutions of the same material, one in a volatile solvent such as ethyl alcohol and one
in a nonvolatile solvent such as diethyl phthalate or dipropylenene glycol, on blotters, again taking care
to apply the same amounts of both solutions, we may find the solution in the nonvolatile solvent to be
more persistent due to the attraction forces between the solvent and the perfume material. Ethyl alcohol
evaporates so quickly from the
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blotter that such forces soon cease to be effective in the case of the alcoholic solution.
In the case of weak odorants we may observe a reverse effect. Again the perfume material is held more
strongly by the nonvolatile solvent, but this also diminishes its intensity in the air over the blotter. Thus
it may happen that the material, although still physically present, is no longer readily perceptible
because it has become too weak.
Coming back once more to the alcoholic solutions: After the alcohol has evaporated, there are still
attraction forces of the dipole-dipole or hydrogen bonding kind at work that slow down the evaporation
of the perfume material. These originate in part from interactions between the molecules of the different
materials contained in the perfume. Perfumers may use materials of low volatility in their perfumes
intending thereby to slow down the evaporation of more volatile perfume components. This is the
practice commonly referred to as fixation (Sturm and Mansfeld 1976; Jellinek 1978).
Adhesion and Substantivity
Attraction also occurs between the paper of the smelling blotter and the perfume materials. The
attraction forces between the perfume and the solid support upon which it has been deposited are called
forces of adhesion, and the degree of adhesion is often designated by the term substantivity. Adhesion
plays a major role in the persistence of perfume on the skin, of the perfume from shampoos or
conditioners on the hair, of detergent and fabric softener perfumes on textile fibers.
In the latter application the dependence of adhesion upon the nature of the support can readily be
observed. Under comparable conditions of application, perfumes are far more persistent upon wool
fibers than upon nylon; cotton occupies an intermediary position. This is because the molecular
structure of nylon, as distinct from wool or cotton, offers little or no opportunity for hydrogen bond
formation. Conversely, there are great differences in the degree of adhesion of different perfume
materials to a given support. This is the principle upon which both liquid and vapor chromatography are
based.
The persistence of perfume materials on human skin has been the subject of some study (Wells 1960;
Jellinek 1964). But, considering the importance of evaporation, and of the attraction forces between
molecules, to the performance of perfumes in all conceivable applications, it is surprising how little
attention has been paid to these subjects by the perfumery profession at large.
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Diffusion
The diffusion of gases is a physical phenomenon. It would be reasonable to think that the rate of
diffusion of the vapors of perfume materials in air should have a major effect on their odor diffusion
and volume and hence be a matter of great practical concern to the perfumer. In practice this is not the
case, for two reasons.
The rate of diffusion of a substance is proportional to the square root of its molecular weight. Since the
common perfumery chemicals span a fairly narrow spectrum of molecular weights, this means that the
lightest common materials travel about 1.5 times as fast as the heaviest ones. This is not a major
difference.
Even more important is the fact that under normal conditions of perfume use, there is so much
turbulence in the air that the odorant molecules are distributed through turbulent flow patterns rather
than straight-line diffusion. In such flow patterns, the specific nature of the molecule plays a small role
indeed.
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20—
Psychophysics and Perfumery
Psychophysics explores the relationships between measurable characteristics of stimuli and their
perception. In the case of odor as a stimulus, the only two quantitatively measurable aspects, at our
current state of knowledge, are concentrations and the composition of mixtures. Hence the
psychophysics of odor deals with measuring the perception of given odorants at different
concentrations and with the perception of mixtures.
In the brief discussion that follows, we will again restrict ourselves to those aspects of the subject that
have direct and practical application to perfumers' work. They relate only to relations between
concentration and perception, for although considerable research has been and is being conducted upon
the perception of mixtures of odorants, this research has not, so far, generated findings of immediate
interest to perfumers.
Thresholds
A fundamental concern of psychophysicists working on olfaction has been the determination of the
odor thresholds of a broad array of substances. A distinction must be made between the detection
threshold, which is the lowest concentration at which significant detection takes place that some
odorous material is present, and the recognition threshold, which is the lowest concentration at which
an odorant can be recognized for what it is.
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Because thresholds differ from person to person and can vary from one occasion to another even within
the same person, reliable threshold values can be obtained only as averages taken from sizable groups
of measurements. Moreover reports of threshold concentrations are meaningful only if they specify
under what conditions they were established, since the threshold concentration of any given substance
depends a great deal upon the precise condition under which it has been established.
For instance, as is shown in Table 20.1, very different threshold values are obtained if the concentration
of the substance has been measured in a solution the head space of which is smelled, or directly in the
inspired air. In the case of solutions the specific nature of the solvent makes a great deal of difference
(compare Table 20.2). In two solvent systems such as emulsions, the higher of the two thresholds
prevails, since the odorant distributes itself between the two phases in such a way that it resides
predominantly in the phase in which it is most soluble, which is usually the one in which its threshold is
highest. Thresholds based on the concentration in air are the most meaningful values, since they are
independent of the medium in which the odorant was disolved, but they are also the most laborious to
measure, requiring an elaborate apparatus named olfactometer.
In the normal applications of perfumes, concentrations come into play that lie far above the threshold
values. Nevertheless, when used in conjunction with vapor pressure data, the threshold values of
individual odorants can give the perfumer helpful information about their performance. Substances with
low threshold values are generally more potent in odor than substances with comparable vapor pressure
(volatility) and higher thresholds.
Table 20.1 shows the detection thresholds of a number of perfume materials in air and in water. Note
the tremendous range (from 0.002 parts per billion for beta-damascenone to 10,000 parts per billion for
phenylacetic acid—both taken in water solutions), the large difference between optical isomers of the
same substance (e.g., Nootkatone and alpha-damascone), and the large differences in thresholds
reported by different investigators (e.g., benzaldehyde and vanillin). In substances with relatively high
water solubility such as vanillin and ethyl vanillin, benzaldehyde, phenylethyl alcohol, and phenylacetic
acid, the thresholds in water are very much higher than in air. In poorly water-soluble substances such
as pinene and the macrocyclic musk cyclopentadecanolid, the reverse is true. The relative thresholds of
a substance in different solvents indicate its performance in different application environments.
Substances whose thresholds in water solution are much
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TABLE 20.1 Detection Thresholds of Some Odorants (in ppb)

Threshold Threshold
Substance in Aira in Waterb
Alcohol C8 5.8 110–130
Alcohol C9 71 50
Alcohol C10 18
Alcohol C11 68
Alcohol C12 (lauric) 13
Aldehyde C8 1.3 0.7
Aldehyde C9 2.2 1.0
Aldehyde C10 0.9 0.1–2.0
Aldehyde C11 (saturated) 1.7

Aldehyde C11 (undecylenic) 2.0 5.0
Aldehyde C12 (lauric) 2.0
(+)-Ambrox 2.6
(–)-Ambrox ("Ambroxan") 0.3
DL-Ambrox ("Synambran") 0.6
Amyl salicylate 3.5
Androstenone 1.1
Anethole 7.1
Anisaldehyde 33
Benzaldehyde 42 350–3500
Benzyl acetate 145
Borneol 2.1
Bornyl acetate 14 75
Camphor 51
(–)-Carvone 22 50
Cineole (Eucalyptol) 16 12
Cinnamaldehyde 2.6
Cinnamic alcohol 1.2
Citral a (Geranial) 3.2 32
Citral 7.4 30
Citronellal 11
Citronellol
7.1
(–)-Citronellol 4
Coumarin 0.7
Cyclocitral, beta 5
Cyclopentadecanolid 102 1–4
Damascenone, beta 0.002
(+)--Damascone 100
(–)--Damascone 1.5
Decalactone, gamma 11
Decalactone, delta 100
Dodecalactone, gamma 7
Diphenylmethane 23
Ethyl alcohol (Ethanol) 29,000
Ethyl benzoate 28 60
Ethyl phenylacetate 65
Eugenol 11 6–30
Farnesol 20
Fenchone 93
Geraniol 40–75
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Threshold Threshold
Substance in Aira in Waterb
Geranyl acetate 9
Geranyl isobutyrate 13
Geranyl propionate 10
Guaiacol 1.0
Heliotropine 4.8
Heptalactone, gamma 400
Hexalactone, gamma 1600
cis-3-Hexenol 70
Indole 0.03 140
Ionone, alpha 0.06
Ionone, beta 2.6 0.007
Limonene 440
Linalool 54 6
Linalyl acetate 8.9
Maltol (Corps praline) 35,000
Menthol 42
Menthone 170
p-Methylacetophenone 0.027
Methyl anthranilate 1.1
Methyl benzoate 11
Methylcyclopentenolone 300
Methyl eugenol 820
Methyl heptine carbonate 0.8
Methyl nonyl ketone 22 7
Methyl salicylate 44 40
Musk ambrette 0.002
Musk xylene 0.06
Nerol 0.2 300
Nonadienal, trans-2, cis-6 0.01 0.01
Nonadienal, trans-2, trans-4 0.04 0.09
2-Nonenal 0.08–0.1
(+)-Nootkatone 0.8–1
(–)-Nootkatone 600
Phenylacetaldehyde 4
Phenylacetaldehyde dimethyl acetal 21
Phenylethyl alcohol 17 750–1100
Pinene, alpha 690 6

Pinene, beta 140
Raspberry Ketone 100
Skatole 0.6
Styrallyl acetate 7.2
Terpineol, alpha 37 300–350
Thymol 15
Vanillin 0.03 20–200
aFrom Devos et al. (1990). This is a compilation from 372 references. For each material a "standard value" was derived by a
complex mathematical treatment of the available values from these sources.
bFrom Leffingwell and Leffingwell (1991). This also is a compilation from multiple sources. Where values for one
substance from different sources showed marked differences, the highest and lowest value reported are listed.
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TABLE 20.2 Ratio of Flavor Threshold* of Aliphatic Aldehydes in Different Solvents

Approximate Mole Ratio
Threshold in Peanut Oil Threshold in Paraffin Oil
Substance Threshold in Water Threshold in Water
Aldehyde C1 (propionaldehyde) 1 6
Aldehyde C4 (butyraldehyde) 3 10
Aldehyde C5 (hexyl aldehyde) 10 20
Aldehyde C8 (octyl aldehyde) 200 100
Aldehyde C10 (decyl aldehyde) 1000 400
Aldehyde C12 (lauric aldehyde) 10,000 2000
Aldehyde C14 (myristic aldehyde) 135,000 9000
Aldehyde C4 unsatd. 1 0.5
Aldehyde C9 unsatd. 13 70
Methyl hexyl ketone 8
Source: Lea and Swoboda (1958).
lower than in oily solutions are more odor effective in applications where no oil phase is present (e.g., in
gels or water-surfactant systems such as shampoos) than in products containing an oil phase, such as
emulsions or soap. As shown in Table 20.2, the higher fatty aldehydes are examples of this type. On the
other hand, substances whose thresholds in oil and in water are not so far apart (e.g., the lower
aldehydes, especially if unsaturated) vary little in their performance whether or not oil is present.
Concentration and Intensity
Normally, the perfumer is interested in the performance of odorants at levels well above their threshold
concentrations. How strong are they or, to put it more scientifically, how intensive is their odor
perceived to be? The answer obviously depends on their concentration in the perfume and in the finished
product: the greater the concentration, the higher is the intensity.
The relationship between intensity and concentration is, however, not the same for all odorants. With
some odorants the intensity increases distinctly as the concentration is increased, with others the change
in intensity is far less marked. The dependence of intensity
*The flavor thresholds in Table 20.2 are perceived by the nose when the solutions are placed in the mouth. It is
reasonable to assume that the threshold ratios would be similar upon smelling the solutions directly.
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TABLE 20.3 Slopes of Selected Substances

Substance Slope
Amyl acetate 0.21
Anethole 0.24
Benzyl acetate 0.33
Citral 0.25
Coumarin 0.25
Decyl alcohol 0.12
Eugenol 0.40
Geraniol 0.26
d-Menthol 0.36
Methyl anthranilate 0.49
Musk xylene 0.30
Phenylacetic acid 0.18
Phenylethyl alcohol 0.28
Terpineol alpha 0.39
Source: Patte et al. (1975)
upon concentration can be indicated by a parameter which, for reasons that will not concern us here, is
called the slope of the psychophysical function or simply the slope.* The values for the slopes of a
few perfume materials are shown in Table 20.3.
A relatively high value for the slope indicates a strong dependence of intensity upon concentration.
With a substance having a slope of 1, a tenfold increase (or decrease) in concentration would result in a
tenfold increase (or decrease) in intensity. With a substance having a slope of 0.40, a tenfold change in
concentration results in an intensity change by a factor of only 100.40 = 2.5. With a substance with slope
0.20, the intensity would change by a factor of only 100.20 = 1.6.
In applications where fragrance tenacity and diffusion are desired, odorants with a low slope are more
effective than those with higher slopes, other things (e.g., volatility and threshold) being equal (Jellinek
1979). This is because the concentration of odorants in the air near a perfumed product, object, or
person always decreases as time elapses after application of the perfume (or exposure of the product),
and it is always less at a greater distance than near the product, object, or person. Now, if this lesser
concentration in the air results in a but slight weakening of intensity (as it does with substances of low
slope), there is good tenacity and good diffusion.
*The notion of the slope as a constant, characteristic of a substance assumes the validity of Stevens's law (Stevens
1957) for odors. This is still a matter of some controversy. For example, Sauvageot (1987) holds the slope to be
"characteristic of the stimulus-subject couple." Certainly the value for the slope depends upon the method by which
it is determined.
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Low-slope odorants typically do not seem very powerful when examined undiluted on a blotter and for
this reason their value may be overlooked in the initial screening of new perfumery materials. They
show their mettle only when used in actual applications. We suspect that materials such as the synthetic
musks, Hedione, and the damascones are, among others, of this kind.
Unfortunately, the determination of the slope is a laborious undertaking beset with pitfalls (Hyman
1977). It may well be that values given in Table 20.3 are in error. However, a rough measure of the
dependence of intensity upon concentration may be obtained by examining dilution series of odorants
upon the blotter. Those materials that are still clearly recognizable at 0.1%, even though they did not
appear to be particularly powerful at 10% or 100%, are the ones of special interest.
Slopes and Odor Values
The odor value (OV) concept and its uses were discussed in Chapter 13. The odor value, being defined
as
would be a true indication of odor strength if the odorant's intensity varied in direct proportion to its
concentration in the air, i.e., if the slope of all substances were equal to 1. As Table 3 shows, this is
clearly not the case. To obtain a true value of intensity at levels above threshold, we should take the
slope of the substance in question into account. The true odor value of an odorant, OVt' could be defined
by
OVt = OVodorant slope
In the calculations of cost effectiveness of different odorants in a fabric softener application (Chapter
13), we should really have used the OVt values of the different materials. Not having reliable values for
their slopes, we could not calculate the OVt values and instead used what we called OV' values. These
were calculated from the OV values assuming that the slopes of all materials involved is 0.35, certainly
not a true assumption but a better one than the assumption of a slope of 1.0 for all materials on which
the OV values are based.
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The true OVt values are a useful potential tool for measuring the cost effectiveness of perfumery
materials and for creating fragrances of optimal cost effectiveness in use. In quantitative head-space
chromatography, we now possess a good technique for establishing the vapor pressures of odorants
under relevant conditions. It is to be hoped that before too long the perfumery industry will undertake
the effort to establish reliable values for the thresholds and the slopes of a wide range of perfumery
materials.
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APPENDIXES
Page 253
Appendix A—
Structural Groups
Suffixes
The suffix -yl is normally used in conjunction with alcohols and their derived esters. This is the form
given in most of the samples below. The -ic suffix is normally used in conjunction with aldehydes, and
for acids. In some cases, however, the two forms are used alternatively, for example, as with cinnamyl
or cinnamic alcohol.
The suffix -ate is always used to indicate the ester radical derived from the corresponding acid.
Synonyms
In many cases a number of different synonyms occur. Only the most commonly used are given in the
following table.
STRUCTURAL GROUPS DERIVED FROM THEIR CORRESPONDING STRUCTURAL GROUPS DERIVED FROM THEIR CORRESPONDING
ALCOHOLS ACIDS
For example: For example:

Methyl CH3— —OOC—H Formate
Methyl alcohol CH3OH H—COOH Formic acid
The Aliphatic Series
Ethyl CH3CH2— —OOC—CH3 Acetate
Propyl CH3CH2CH2— —OOC—CH2CH3 Propionate
Iso propyl (CH3)2CH—

Allyl CH2 CHCH2—
Butyl CH3(CH2)2CH— —OOC—(CH2)2CH3 Butyrate
Iso butyl (CH3)2CHCH2— —OOC—CH(CH3)2 Iso butyrate
Amyl CH3(CH2)3CH2— —OOC—(CH2)3CH3 Valerianate
Iso amyl (CH3)2CHCH2CH2— —OOC—CH2CH(CH3)2 Iso valerianate
Hexyl CH3(CH2)4CH2— —OOC—(CH2)4CH3 Caproate

3-Hexenyl CH3CH2CH CHCH2CH2— —OOC—(CH2)5CH3 Heptoate
Heptyl CH3(CH2)5CH2— —OOC—(CH2)6CH3 Caprylate
Octyl CH3(CH2)6CH2— —OOC—(CH2)7CH3 Pelargonate
Nonyl CH3(CH2)7CH2— —OOC—(CH2)8CH3 Caprinate
Decyl CH3(CH2)8CH2—
Undecylic CH3(CH2)9CH2—
Undecylenic CH3 CH(CH2)8CH2—
Lauric, dodecyl CH3(CH2)10CH2— —OOC—(CH2)10CH3 Laurate
Tridecyl CH3(CH2)11CH2—
Myristic CH3(CH2)12CH2— —OOC—(CH2)12CH3 Myristate
Page 254
The Aromatic Series
Page 255
The Terpenic Series
Miscellaneous Groups
Example
Page 256
Carbinols (continued)
Page 257
Page 258
Appendix B—
The Functional Groups
Page 259
Page 260
Page 261
Appendix C—
The Aldehydes
The Aliphatic Aldehydes
Acetaldehyde
CH3CHO
Saturated Straight Chain Aldehydes
CH3(CH2)xCHO
Aldehyde C6 Hexaldehyde
Aldehyde C7 Heptaldehyde
Aldehyde C8 Octaldehyde Orange
Aldehyde C9 Nonyl aldehyde Rose
Aldehyde C10 Decyl aldehyde Citrus
Aldehyde C11 Undecylic aldehyde Citrus-floral
Aldehyde C12 Lauric aldehyde Soapy
Aldehyde C13 Tridecyl aldehyde Waxy-citrus
Aldehyde C14 (true) Myrisitic aldehyde Fatty-citrus
The so-called aldehydes C14 and C18 are not really aldehydes but lactones. Likewise, aldehyde C16 is
really an ester.
Saturated Branched Chain Aldehydes
Unsaturated Straight Chain Aldehydes
Page 262
The Terpenic Aldehydes
Monoterpenic Aldehydes
Page 263
Norsesquiterpenic Aldehydes (Related to Farnesol but with 14 Carbon Atoms)
The Nonaromatic Cyclic Aldehydes
The Aromatic Aldehydes*
Nomenclature
The nomenclature of the aromatic aldehydes is somewhat confusing because in the past a number of
different conventions were used in the naming of organic compounds. While some, such as cyclamen
aldehyde, and vanillin, are usually referred to by their common names, others are referred to either by a
single chemical name or by a number of different chemical synonyms.
This convention is best explained by taking as our starting point the three compounds, benzene,
phenol, and toluene.
*The term ''aromatic aldehyde" is usually used in perfumery, as it is here, to include both the true aromatic
aldehydes and the alkyl aromatic aldehydes, in which the aldehydic group is attached to a side chain rather than
onto the benzene ring.
Page 264
Relative to the hydroxy (OH) or methyl (CH3) groups, the other positions on the ring may be named or
numbered as follows:
Referring to the schematic representation of the aromatic aldehydes that follows, we may begin with
benzaldehyde in which one hydrogen atom on the benzene ring is replaced by the aldehydic (—CHO)
group. Moving down the page, we come to phenylacetaldehyde (phenylacetic aldehyde), so named as
representing the condensation product of phenol and acetaldehyde in which one hydrogen atom of the
methyl group is replaced by a benzene ring.
Similarly phenylpropyl aldehyde may be considered as the product of phenol and propyl aldehyde.
However, phenylpropyl aldehyde is also frequently referred to as either hydro-, or dihydro-, cinnamic
aldehyde, owing to the fact that it was originally made by the hydrogenation of cinnamic aldehyde, an
unsaturated aldehyde so named after its original isolation from cinnamon oil.
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Page 266
Working across the preceding pages from left to right, we may derive from the four aldehydes at least
one of the chemical names for each of the remaining products. (These are only shown when commonly
used.) Anisaldehyde, for example, is sometimes referred to as para-methoxy benzaldehyde, and
vanillin can be referred to as para-hydroxy-meta-methoxy benzaldehyde, or 4-hydroxy-3-
methoxybenzaldehyde. (Not surprisingly the common name is the one preferred.)
Para-methyl benzaldehyde, however, is usually referred to as para-tolyl aldehyde, since it is equally

correct to think of it as being the aldehyde derived from toluene. When referred to simply as tolyl
aldehyde, this may denote that the material is a mixture of the ortho, meta, and para forms. Although
similar in odor the para form is usually preferred. Similarly syringa aldehyde may sometimes be
referred to either as para-methyl phenylacetaldehyde or as para-tolyl acetaldehyde.
Where a branched chain occurs in the molecule, this may also be reflected in the name. For example,
hydratropic aldehyde may be referred to as alpha-methyl phenylacetic aldehyde—in this case with the
methyl group occurring in the alpha position relative to the aldehydic group—and similarly alpha amyl
cinnamic aldehyde. To give this material its even fuller name, we may refer to it also as alpha normal
or alpha n. amyl cinnamic aldehyde denoting that the amyl (—C5H11) side chain is straight rather than in
its branched, or iso form. Understandably perfumers prefer simply to call it ACA. To give two further
examples, the chemical name for cyclamen aldehyde is alpha-methyl-para-iso-propyl hydrocinnamic
aldehyde, whereas lilial is alpha-methyl-para-tertiary-butyl hydrocinnamic aldehyde.
To those unfamiliar with the complexities of chemical nomenclature, this lesson may all sound
thoroughly confusing, but with a little practice it can be quite easily learned and applied to all types of
aromatic compounds.
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Appendix D—
The Ionones
Nomenclature
The nomenclature of both the ionones and methyl ionones can be confusing because they occur in a
number of isomeric forms. Although it is possible to obtain many of these in a comparatively pure
form, most of the products that are generally available contain a mixture of isomers besides the one that
is named.
Ionone
Ionone Pure 100%
Products with this description are usually mixtures of ionones alpha and beta with the alpha form not
less than 60%.
Ionones Alpha and Beta
These may be found in their pure forms or often containing a proportion of the other.
Methyl Ionone
Most commercial grades of methyl ionone are complicated mixtures of a number of isomers. The four
most important of these, each of which has its own quite distinct olfactory character, are
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For simplicity only the most commonly used names are given. Two other isomers often make up a large
proportion of some of the less expensive grades of methyl ionone. These are
Page 269
Appendix E—
Glossary of Perfumes, Speciality Raw Materials, and Bases*
Perfumes
Amarige Givenchy 1991

Anais Anais Cacharel 1979
Arpège Lanvin 1927
Aramis Lauder 1965
Aramis 900 Lauder 1973
Aromatics Elixir Clinique 1972
Bandit Piguet 1944
Beautiful Lauder 1986
Blue Grass Arden 1935
Cabochard Gres 1958
Calandre Rabanne 1968
Caleche Hermes 1961
Calyx Prescriptives Inc 1987
Canoe Dana 1935
Casmir Chopard 1991
Chanel No. 5 Chanel 1921
Chanel 19 Chanel 1971
Charlie Revlon 1973
Chloé Lagerfeld 1975
Chypre Coty 1917
Coco Chanel 1984
Coriandre Couturier 1973
Diorella Dior 1972
Dioressence Dior 1970
Dune Dior 1991
Eau Sauvage Dior 1966
Escape Calvin Klein 1991
Eternity Calvin Klein 1988
Femme Rochas 1942
Fidji Laroche 1966

Fleurs de Rocaille Caron 1933
Fougère Royal Houbigant 1882
Giorgio Giorgio 1981
Je Reviens Worth 1932
Jolie Madame Balmain 1953
Joop Joop 1987
Knowing Lauder 1988
L'Air du Temps Ricci 1948
L'Heure Bleue Guerlain 1912
L'Interdit Givenchy 1957
L'Origan Coty 1905
Loulou Cacharel 1987
*The products in this list may not all still be available.
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Perfumes (Continued)
Madame Rochas Rochas 1960

Ma Griffe Carven 1944
Miss Dior Dior 1947
Mitsouko Guerlain 1919
Moment Suprême Patou 1933
Must de Cartier Cartier 1981
New West Lauder 1988
Obsession Calvin Klein 1985
Opium St. Laurent 1977
Oscar de la Renta Stern 1976
Paloma Picasso P. Picasso 1984
Paris St. Laurent 1983
Poison Dior 1985
Quelques Fleurs Houbigant 1912
Rive Gauche St. Laurent 1970
Samsara Guerlain 1989
Shalimar Guerlain 1925
Silences Jacomo 1979
Spellbound Lauder 1991
Topaze Avon 1959
Trésor Lancome 1990
Vanderbilt Vanderbilt 1981
Vent Vert Balmain 1945
Volupté Oscar de la Renta 1992
White Linen Lauder 1978
Youth Dew Lauder 1952
Ysatis Givenchy 1984
Specialty Chemicals and Derivatives
Agrunitrile Dragoco
Ambroxan Henkel
Brahmanol Dragoco
Calone Pfizer
Canthoxal I.F.F
Cashmeran I.F.F
Cassione Firmenich
Cedramber I.F.F
Celestolide I.F.F
Cycloamylone I.F.F
Damascone alpha Firmenich
Damascone beta Firmenich
Dimetol Givaudan
Dragojasimia Dragoco
Dupical Quest
Dynamone Givaudan Roure
Evernyl Givaudan Roure
Frambinone Dragoco
Fiorivert Quest
Galaxolide I.F.F
Glycolierral Givaudan Roure
Hedione Firmenich
Helional I.F.F
Page 271
Specialty Chemicals and Derivatives (Continued)
Hivertal (see Triplal) Dragoco

Indolal (Florindal) Dragoco
Isodamascone Dragoco
Iso E super I.F.F
Jessemal I.F.F
Kephalis Givaudan Roure
Lactoscatone Dragoco
Liffarome I.F.F
Lilial Givaudan Roure
Lyral I.F.F
Madranol Dragoco
Magnolione Givaudan Roure
Methyl cyclo citrone I.F.F
Muguet aldehyde I.F.F
Musk T Tagasako
(ethylene brassylate)
Oncidal Dragoco
Parmavert Bedoukian
Rholiate Dragoco
Rosalva I.F.F
Sandalore Givaudan Roure
Sandranol Dragoco
Sandela Givaudan Roure
Tonalid P.F.W
Triplal (see Hivertal) I.F.F
Vertacetal Dragoco
Vertenex (PTBCHA) I.F.F
Vertofix I.F.F
Vertral Dragoco
Speciality Bases
Aldehone alpha Roure
Althenol Roure
Ambrarome Synarome
Cassis 281 Dragoco
Dianthine Firmenich
Dorinia Firmenich
Jasmin 231 Firmenich
Florizia Firmenich
Fleur d'Oranger Firmenich
Melysflor Firmenich
Mousse de Saxe de Laire
Muguet Invar Roure
Parmantheme Firmenich
Pimenal Roure
Printenyl Roure
Selvone Roure
Vertralis Dragoco
Page 273
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Page 277
INDEX OF PERFUMERY RAW MATERIALS AND BASES

At pages marked in italic type, the chemical formula is given.
Acetaldehyde diphenylethyl acetal, 51, 120
Acetanisol, 52
Acetophenone, 31, 36, 56
Adoxal, 263
Agrunitrile, 48, 270
Alcohol C10, 47, 245, 248
Alcohol C12, 57, 245
Aldehone alpha, 133, 271
Aldehyde C7, 50
Aldehyde C8 (Octyl aldehyde), 47, 57, 245, 247, 261
Aldehyde C9 (Nonyl aldehyde), 47, 209, 245, 261
Aldehyde C10 (Decyl aldehyde), 31, 33, 50, 57, 119, 134, 166, 245, 247, 261
Aldehyde C11 Intreleven, 220, 261
Aldehyde C11 Methyl octyl acetaldehyde (MOA), 261
Aldehyde C11 Undecylenic, 31, 33, 47, 110, 130, 134, 135, 166, 168, 220, 245, 261
Aldehyde C11 Undecylic, 157-159, 220, 245, 261
Aldehyde C12 Lauric, 31, 33, 119, 157-159, 225, 226, 245, 247, 261
Aldehyde C12 Methyl nonyl acetaldehyde (MNA), 31, 33, 41, 157, 159-161, 163, 166, 226, 261
Aldehyde C14 (Gamma undecalactone), 31, 38, 50, 113, 114, 124, 125, 129, 133, 136, 259
Aldehyde C16 (Ethyl methylphenyl-glycidate), 31, 38, 50
Aldehyde C18 (Gamma nonalactone), 31, 37, 38, 50, 122, 136
Allyl amyl glycolate (Isogalbanate), 31, 39, 123, 125, 168
Allyl cyclohexyl proprionate, 31, 39, 123, 258
Allyl ionone, 95
Althenol, 96, 271
Ambergris, 79, 84, 96, 116, 125, 137, 194
Ambrarome, 118, 271
Ambrette seed, 30, 41, 79, 118
Ambrettolide, 48, 112, 136
Ambroxan, 31, 33, 43, 157, 159, 245, 270
Amyl acetate, 137, 248
Amyl cinnamic aldehyde, 31, 34, 36, 49, 51, 52, 54-56, 89, 110, 157-159, 162, 168, 217, 226, 232, 264,
265
Amyl salicylate, 31, 37, 54, 55, 110, 126, 157-159, 245
Anisaldehyde, 31, 36, 52, 56, 226, 232, 245, 264, 265
Anisic alcohol, 52
Anisyl acetate, 52
Armoise, 30, 34, 67, 113, 125, 129, 135
Aurantiol, 31, 36, 37, 50, 57, 222
Page 278
Basil, 30, 33, 113, 122, 125, 129, 135
Bay, 30, 41
Beeswax absolute, 117. See also Cire d'Abeilles
Benzaldehyde, 31, 35, 157-160, 168, 216, 245, 263, 264
Benzoin, 30, 41, 42, 48, 50, 84, 122, 124-127, 136
Benzyl acetate, 31, 35, 38, 45, 49, 51-54, 110, 129, 135, 155, 157-159, 162, 166, 168, 174, 245, 248
Benzyl alcohol, 50, 53, 57, 80, 173, 216, 219, 235
Benzyl benzoate, 50, 51, 56
Benzyl cinnamate, 49
Benzyl formate, 54
Benzylidene acetone, 183, 221
Benzyl isobutyrate, 49
Benzyl isoeugenol, 233
Benzyl phenylacetate, 56, 57
Benzyl propionate, 49, 54
Benzyl salicylate, 31, 34, 37, 54, 55, 86, 88, 95, 110, 115, 124, 126, 127, 138-140, 155, 157-161, 219
Benzyl valerianate, 49
Bergamot, 30, 35, 38, 40, 84, 110, 116, 120-122, 124, 127, 129, 131, 133, 134, 137, 183, 229
Birch tar, 30, 40, 233
Bourgeonal, 265
Brahmanol, 31, 43, 128, 270
Buccoxime, 95
Calone, 31, 42, 129, 270
Camomile, German (bleue), 48, 130
Camomile, Roman, 30, 34, 50, 113
Camphor, 34, 39, 40, 151, 245
Cananga, 50, 53, 170
Canthoxal, 122, 223, 270
Cardamon, 30, 34, 41, 129, 134
Carrot seed, 48, 54
Cashmeran, 31, 41, 42, 126, 270
Cassie, 56
Cassione, 48, 56, 270
Cassis Bourgeons, 30, 39, 79, 138
Cassis 281, 95, 271
Castoreum, 30, 33, 40, 124-128, 136, 194, 233
Cedarwood, 30, 42, 54, 56, 96, 118, 120, 127
Cedramber, 31, 33, 43, 270
Cedrene, 213, 235
Cedryl acetate, 31, 42, 114, 125, 126, 130, 137
Celery seed, 30, 41, 50, 134
Centifolyl, 127
Celestolide, 122, 270
Cineol, 34, 245
Cinnamic alcohol, 31, 34, 38, 49, 51, 52, 54, 55, 95, 117, 157-159, 184, 245
Cinnamic aldehyde, 34, 41, 162, 166, 168, 186, 221, 232, 245, 265, 266
Cinnamon, 30, 34, 41, 48, 53, 124, 126, 136, 184
Cinnamyl acetate, 51, 54
Cire d'Abeilles absolute, 48, 114. See also Beeswax absolute
Ciste (cistus), 30, 33, 40, 116, 126
Citral, 31, 35, 48, 166, 168, 174, 186, 193, 220, 221, 232, 245, 248, 262
Citronella, 54
Citronellal, 31, 33, 35, 132, 166, 217, 220, 223, 232, 245, 262
Citronellol, 31, 36, 45, 47, 51-53, 56, 124, 130, 157-159, 175, 214, 217, 245
Citronellyl acetate, 31, 36, 51, 53, 174
Citronellyl lactone, 49
Citronellyl oxyacetaldehyde, see Muguet aldehyde
Citronellyl phenylacetate, 48
Civet, 30, 33, 51, 78, 113, 116, 121, 124, 125, 131, 133, 137, 194
Clary sage, 30, 34, 40, 79
Clove, 30, 35, 41, 48, 49, 54, 55, 124, 126, 127, 136, 137
Coriander, 30, 40, 41, 124, 130, 134
Cortexal, 56, 265
Cortexaldehyde, 265
Coumarin, 31, 42, 84, 117-122, 124-127, 129, 133, 157-159, 161, 162, 166, 211, 245, 248, 259
Costus, 30, 33, 39, 79, 136, 184, 192
p-Cresol, 50, 127
p-Cresyl acetate, 32, 33, 50, 218
p-Cresyl phenylacetate, 50
Cuir de Russie, 124
Cumin, 30, 33, 41, 134, 184, 229
Cuminic aldehyde, 52, 264
Cyclamen aldehyde, 31, 36, 50, 52, 55, 114, 120, 226, 265
Cycloamylone, 50, 270
Cyclohexadecanolide, 211
Cyclopentadecanolide, 31, 40, 114, 115, 119, 120, 157-159, 245
Cypress, 123
Damascone alpha, 115, 123, 184, 245, 270
Damascone beta, 31, 37, 38, 47, 53, 95, 123, 184, 245, 249, 270
Page 279
Decalactone gamma, 31, 38, 50, 115, 122, 151-159, 245
Decyl alcohol, 47, 245, 248
Decyl aldehyde, see Aldehyde C10
Dianthine, 121, 271
Dihydro jasmone, 49, 174
Dihydromyrcenol, 31, 38, 40, 89
Dimethyl acetophenone, 259
Dimethyl benzyl acetate, 49
Dimethyl benzyl carbinyl acetate (DMBCA), 31, 37, 48, 49, , 96, 115, 120
Dimethyl benzyl carbinyl butyrate, 48, 67, 122
Dimethyl hydroquinone, 233
Dimetol, 51, 56, 270
Diphenyl oxide, 31, 37, 45, 48, 118, 175, 260
DMBCA, see Dimethyl benzyl carbinyl acetate
Dorinia, 95, 271
Dragojasimia, 49, 56, 270
Dupical, 50, 270
Dynamone, 136, 270
Estragol, 31, 33, 122, 233. See also Methyl chavicol
Estragon (tarragon), 30, 33, 125, 129
Ethyl acetate, 218, 259
Ethyl acetoacetate, 227
Ethylene brassylate, 120, 126, 139. See also Musk T
Ethyl linalool, 51, 56
Ethyl linalyl acetate, 56
Ethyl methylphenylglycidate, see Aldehyde C16
Ethyl phenylacetate, 31, 35, 48, 130, 236, 237, 245
Ethyl vanillin, 31, 42, 54, 124, 125, 127, 157-159, 232, 245, 264
Eucalyptus, 151
Eugenol, 31, 35, 41, 48, 49, 53, 55, 86, 89, 95, 110, 117, 122, 124, 126-130, 134, 136, 139, 157-161,
166, 175, 192, 210, 232, 245, 248, 258
Eugenyl phenylacetate, 48, 53
Evernyl, 31, 40, 114, 119, 132, 270
Exaltolid, see Cyclopentadecanolide
Farnesol, 48, 51, 186, 212, 245
Fleur d'Oranger, 121, 271
Florivert, 55, 270
Florizia, 95, 271
Foin absolute, 50, 113
Frambinone, 31, 39, 42, 48, 50, 56, 115, 246, 270
Galaxolide, 31, 40, 79, 85, 115, 120, 122, 125, 126, 130, 132, 139, 140, 238, 270
Galbanum, 30, 39, 54, 112, 114, 125, 134, 135, 137, 138
Gamma nonalactone, see Aldehyde C18
Gamma undecalactone, see Aldehyde C14
Geraniol, 31, 36, 47, 49-52, 56, 125, 130, 135, 212, 214, 245, 248
Geranium, 30, 37, 40, 48, 53, 56, 67, 93, 118, 120, 123, 125, 130, 134, 170
Geranyl acetate, 31, 37, 38, 47, 56, 118, 127, 130, 218, 246
Geranyl acetone, 56
Geranyl formate, 31, 37
Geranyl nitrile, 31, 33, 35, 48, 209, 259
Glycolierral, 119, 270
Greenyl acetate, 31
Guaiacwood, 30, 42, 45, 54, 118, 137
Guaial acetate, 118
Hedione, 31, 35, 47, 49, 51, 53, 85, 112, 113, 115, 119, 120, , 122, 123, 125, 127-132, 136, 137, 139,
140, 178, 249, 270
Helional, 31, 42, 114, 119, 125, 129, 130, 223, 232, 270
Heliotropin, 31, 36, 42, 51, 52, 54-56, 95, 102, 110, 117, 121-123, 134, 136, 139, 232, 246, 264
Heptaldehyde, 50
cis-3-Hexenol, 47, 51, 54, 89, 175, 215, 219, 246
cis-3-Hexenyl acetate, 31, 39, 49, 54, 114, 219
cis-3-Hexenyl benzoate, 49
cis-3-Hexenyl methyl carbonate, 55
cis-3-Hexenyl salicylate, 31, 37, 54, 110, 112, 115, 127, 178
Hexyl cinnamic aldehyde, 31, 34, 36, 45, 49, 51, 54, 86, 96, 112, 113, 117, 119, 120, 129, 135, 157,
159, 217, 226, 232, 265
Hexyl salicylate, 31, 37, 54
Hivertal, 31, 39, 47, 51, 56, 270. See also Triplal
Homo-cuminic aldehyde, see Cortexal
Hydratropic aldehyde, 54, 168, 226, 265, 266
Hydratropic aldehyde dimethyl acetal, 54
Hydrocinnamic aldehyde, see Phenylpropyl aldehyde
Hydroxycitronellal, 31, 36, 45, 49, 50, 52, 84, 86, 95, 96, 110, 112, 117, 119, 120, 124, 127, 130, 132,
133, 135, 168, 178, 184, 217, 222, 235, 262
Immortelle, 50
Page 280
Insense, 131. See also Olibanum
Indol, 31, 33, 36, 45, 50-52, 55, 57, 79, 80, 95, 119, 129, 157-159, 170, 207, 232, 246, 258
Indolal, 50, 51, 55, 232, 271
Indolene, 50, 55, 57, 232
Intreleven, 220, 261. See also Aldehyde C11
Ionone alpha, 31, 37, 39, 47, 49, 51, 55, 95, 157-161, 166, 174, 246, 267
Ionone beta, 47, 55, 139, 246, 267
Iris, 30, 37, 48, 54, 56. See also Orris
Irone, 137
Isobornyl acetate, 31, 41
Isobutyl benzoate, 53
Isobutyl benzyl carbonate, 49
Isobutyl phenylacetate, 53
Isobutyl quinoline, 31, 40, 95, 121, 135, 136, 211, 232, 258
Isocyclocitral, 47, 263
Isodamascone, 47, 271
Iso E Super, 31, 43, 56, 85, 114, 115, 123, 128, 130, 136, 139, 140, 271
Isoeugenol, 31, 35, 49, 51-53, 110, 117, 134, 157-159, 184, 232
Isoeugenyl acetate, 53
Isogalbanate, see Allyl amyl glycolate
Isojasmone, 56
Isophytol, 50
p-Isopropyl Phenylacetaldehyde, see Cortexal
Jasmin absolute, 30, 35, 51, 93, 110, 115, 119, 129, 133
Jasmin 231, 121, 271
cis-Jasmone, 31, 49, 129, 220
Jessemal, 122, 135, 271
Juniper berry, 67
Kephalis, 120, 271
Labdanum, 30, 33, 40, 79, 96, 124, 126, 131, 133, 134
Lactoscatone, 50, 271
Lauryl alcohol, 57, 245
Lauric aldehyde, see Aldehyde C12
Lavandin, 30, 34, 39, 40, 93, 118, 135
Lavender, 30, 39, 40, 89, 126, 129, 134
Lemon, 30, 35, 84, 127, 129, 133, 137, 185
Lemongrass, 30, 35
Liffarome, 55, 120, 271
Lilial, 31, 36, 49, 50, 52, 55, 114, 122, 130, 139, 157, 159-161, 166, 223, 226, 265, 271
Lime, 30, 35, 185
Limonene, 155, 157-159, 163, 175, 210, 213, 246
Linalool, 31, 38, 40, 47, 51-53, 55, 56, 89, 110, 116, 118, 122, 127, 129, 139, 157-161, 163, 166, 174,
246
Linalyl acetate, 31, 38, 40, 49, 51, 56, 89, 110, 116, 118, 122, 127, 129, 139, 157-159, 168, 174, 175,
218, 246
Linalyl cinnamate, 51, 219
Linalyl phenylacetate, 57
Lyral, 31, 36, 47, 49, 50, 52, 112, 119, 122, 127, 130, 131, 134, 139, 157-159, 178, 223, 271
Madranol, 128, 271
Magnolione, 130, 271
Maltol, 31, 50, 157-160, 246
Mandarin, 30, 35, 113, 122, 123, 127
Meaverte, 57, 223
Melysflor, 124, 271
Menthol, 210, 246, 248
o-Methoxy benzyl ethyl ether, 47, 53
Methyl acetophenone, 52, 246
Methyl anthranilate, 31, 37, 50, 68, 114, 122, 157-159, 170, 222, 232, 246, 248, 260
Methyl benzoate, 31, 37, 52, 246
Methyl benzyl carbinol, 255
Methyl chavicol, 31, 33, 125. See also Estragol
Methyl cinnamate, 31, 34, 54
Methyl cyclo citrone, 47, 271
Methyl eugenol, 53, 55, 233, 246
Methyl heptine carbonate, 47, 55, 168, 169, 185, 209, 221, 246
Methyl ionone, 31, 37, 39, 43, 55, 84-86, 88, 96, 102, 110, , 114, 116, 117, 121-123, 128-133, 135,
137, 157, 159, 267-268
Methyl isoeugenol, 52, 233
Methyl naphthyl ketone, 31, 36, 57
Methyl nonyl acetaldehyde (MNA), see Aldehyde C12
Methyl octine carbonate, 31, 37, 39, 55, 169, 185
Methyl octyl acetaldehyde (MOA), see Aldehyde C11
Methyl paracresol, 52
p-Methyl phenylacetaldehyde, see Syringa aldehyde
Methyl phenylacetate, 48
Methyl salicylate, 32, 37, 122, 246, 257
Mimosa, 30, 36, 48, 50
Mousse de Saxe, 95, 121, 137, 271
Page 281
Muguet aldehyde, 47, 50, 262, 271
Muguet Invar, 133, 271
Musk, 78, 79, 84, 89, 116, 125, 131, 137, 194
Musk ambrette, 110, 136, 185, 229, 231, 246
Musk ketone, 32, 40, 79, 110, 115, 119, 120, 122, 123, 126, 133, 157-160, 231, 260
Musk T, 32, 40, 48, 271. See also Ethylene brassylate
Musk xylene, 157-159, 229, 232, 246, 248
Musk xylol, see Musk xylene
Myrrhe, 84, 131
Narcisse absolute, 113, 114
Nerol, 47, 56, 118, 214, 216
Neroli, 30, 36, 38, 116, 121, 124, 134
Nerolidol, 48, 50, 57
Nerolin bromelia, 57, 233
Nerolin Yara-Yara, 57, 233
Neryl acetate, 56
Nitromusks, 117, 121, 126, 231. See also Musk ambrette, Musk ketone, Musk xylene
2,6 Nonadienal, 47, 55, 95, 166, 209, 220, 246, 261
Nonalactone gamma, see Aldehyde C18
Nonyl aldehyde, see Aldehyde C9
Nutmeg, 30, 41, 67, 124
Oakmoss, 30, 40, 86, 89, 113, 118, 126, 129, 133, 134, 137, 170, 185, 192, 233
Octyl aldehyde, see Aldehyde C 8
Olibanum, 30, 41, 96, 133. See also Incense
Oncidal, 50, 262, 271
Opoponax, 30, 41, 122, 124, 127, 131
Orange, 30, 35, 121, 122, 127, 133
Orris, 110, 134, 137. See also Iris
Osmanthus, 139
Palmarosa, 48, 125
Paracresol, -cresyl, see p-Cresol, p-Cresyl
Parmantheme, 95, 271
Parmavert, 55, 271
Patchouli, 30, 41, 67, 86, 89, 124, 126-131, 133, 134, 136, 139, 170, 195
Pepper, 30, 41, 48, 54, 134
Peppermint, 30, 40
Peru balsam, oil, 30, 34, 42, 126, 183, 192
Petitgrain Paraguay, 30, 36, 38, 53, 56
Petitgrain Citronnier, 129, 133
Phenoxyethyl alcohol, 49
Phenoxyethyl isobutyrate, 32, 37, 39, 47, 49, 52, 55, 67, 96, 122
Phenoxyethyl propionate, 55
Phenylacetaldehyde, 32, 35, 39, 45, 47, 51, 52, 54, 114, 119, 157-159, 168, 174, 186, 216, 225, 226,
258, 264-265
Phenylacetaldehyde dimethyl acetal, 32, 35, 39, 47, 51, 52, 54, 246, 258
Phenylacetaldehyde glyceroacetal, 51, 54, 55, 117, 119, 130
Phenylacetic acid, 32, 33, 35, 48, 57, 157-159, 166, 236, 246, 248, 258
Phenylethyl acetate, 32, 36, 38, 47, 49, 54, 218, 236, 237, 259
Phenylethyl alcohol, 32, 36, 45, 47, 49, 51-56, 110, 130, 157-159, 161-163, 166, 173-175, 210, 216,
236, 237, 246, 248, 258
Phenylethyl butyrate, 49
Phenylethyl cinnamate, 55
Phenylethyl dimethyl carbinol, 32, 37, 48, 127, 256
Phenylethyl formate, 51, 52, 54
Phenylethyl isoamyl ether, 237
Phenylethyl isobutyrate, 51
Phenylethyl methyl ether, 237
Phenylethyl methylethyl carbinol, 51
Phenylethyl phenylacetate, 32, 35, 37, 48, 51, 53, 57, 130, 219, 236, 237
Phenylethyl salicylate, 55
Phenylpropyl acetate, 51, 52
Phenylpropyl aldehyde, 221, 246, 263
Phenylpropyl alcohol, 31, 34, 51, 52, 54, 55, 157, 158, 159, 216
Pimenal, 124, 271
Pimento, 30, 41, 127, 137
Printenyl, 119, 271
Prunol, 133, 271
PTBCHA (Vertenex), 32, 38, 43, 112, 118, 135, 271
Rhodinol, 47, 51, 125, 192
Rholiate, 47, 271
Rosalva, 32, 33, 47, 271
Rosatol, 32, 37, 48, 55, 130
Rose absolute, 30, 36, 51, 56, 110, 115, 137
Rosemary, 30, 34, 84
Rose oil, 30, 36, 54, 119, 120
Rose oxide, 32, 37, 39, 47, 53, 89, 118, 123, 229, 238, 257
Rosewood, 30, 40, 42, 51, 110, 124
Sandalore, 128, 271
Sandalwood, 30, 43, 48, 51, 56, 67, 110, 116-119, 122, 124-126, 128, 133, 135, 137, 139
Page 282
Sandela, 32, 43, 271
Sandranol, 128, 271
Scatol, 50, 79, 232, 246
Schiff bases, 50, 57, 66, 68, 102, 114, 122, 222, 223, 232. See also Aurantiol
Selvone, 96, 133, 271
Skatole, see Scatol
Styrallyl acetate, 32, 38, 110, 130, 132, 134, 135, 166, 246
Styrax, 30, 34, 53, 55, 67, 117, 119, 126, 127, 131, 132, 134
Syringa aldehyde, 52, 265, 266
Tagete, 30, 39, 125, 185
Tarragon, see Estragon
Terpineol, 32, 35, 36, 45, 52, 89, 95, 110, 139, 157-159, 213, 246, 248
Terpinyl acetate, 168
Tetrahydrogeraniol, 47
Tetrahydrolinalool, 51
Thujone, 34
Thyme, 30, 34, 125, 129
Thymol, 232
Timberol, 136
Tolu, 124, 126, 127
p-Tolylacetaldehyde, see Syringa aldenhyde
p-Tolyl aldehyde, 52, 264, 265
Tonalid, 32, 40, 115, 126, 157-159, 271
Tonka, 30, 42, 84, 118, 125
Trimofix, 140
Triplal, 125, 223, 226, 263, 271. See also Hivertal
Tuberose absolute, 30, 37
Undecalactone, see Aldehyde C14
Undecylenic aldehyde, see Aldehyde C11
Undecylic aldehyde, see Aldehyde C11
Vanilla, 30, 42, 84, 96, 113, 118, 125, 133, 134
Vanillin, 32, 42, 52, 54, 89, 95, 102, 110, 111, 116, 117, 119, 124-127, 136, 157-159, 163, 229, 232,
246, 258, 264, 265
Vertacetal, 32, 39, 271
Vertenex, see PTBCHA
Vertofix, 31, 42, 112, 118, 120, 122, 126, 127, 130, 131, 135, 137, 139, 157, 159, 271
Vertral, 47, 54, 95, 271
Vertralis, 95, 271
Vetiver (Vetyver), 30, 43, 116, 118-120, 124, 129, 130, 137, 139
Vetiveryl acetate, 32, 43, 84, 96, 110, 117-122, 130-134, 136, 188
Violet leaf, 30, 37, 39, 42, 47, 49, 55, 113, 130
Ylang-Ylang, 30, 37, 50, 52, 53, 67, 86, 89, 110, 116, 117, 120-122, 130, 134, 135, 137
Page 283
GENERAL INDEX
Perfume names are in italic type.
Absolutes, 20
use, 110
Accords, 86-87
Acetals:
formation of, 225
stability, 168
Adaptation, 175-176
Adhesion, 241
Air fresheners, 144, 147, 148, 165, 175
Alcohols:
odor, 216-217
reaction with aldehydes and ketones, 223
Aldehydes:
conjugated, 220-221
odor, 216-217
stability, 68, 168, 223-227
uses, 116, 120, 132, 135
Aldol reaction, 225
Alliage, 103, 104, 105, 125, 269
Amarige, 140, 269
Amber notes, 79, 126, 133, 134
Ambreine accord, 95, 121, 123, 127
Anais Anais, 96, 105, 109, 113-114, 269
Animalic notes:
composition, 96
importance, 78-79
in plants, 79-80
uses, 131, 133-134, 136
Anosmia, partial, 4
Antioxidants, 169, 228
Antiperspirants, 164, 168
Aptitude test, 9
Aramis, 136, 269
Aramis 900, 103, 130, 269
Aromatics Elixir, 129-130, 269
Arpège, 116-118, 269
Automatic dishwashing detergent, 165, 168
Auxiliary materials, 110
Bandit, 125, 135, 269
Bases, use, 92, 94-97
Bath oils, 173
Bath salts, 164, 168
Beautiful, 105, 138, 269
Beauty bars, 164
Biodegradability, 189-190
Blue Grass, 109, 124, 269
Bubble bath, see Foam bath
Cabochard, 85, 125, 135-136, 269
Calandre, 97, 108, 117-120, 269
Caleche, 117, 269
Calyx, 129, 269
Camay soap, 118
Canoe, 85, 103, 110, 269
Carles, Jean, 85, 86, 88-89, 93, 96, 103, 132
Page 284
Carnation notes, 109, 110, 112, 113, 116, 117, 121, 122, 134
Casmir, 138-139, 269
Cassis notes, 79, 138, 151
Chanel 19, 105-106, 136-138, 269
Chanel No. 5, 93, 104, 116-117, 120, 269
Charlie, 109, 137, 269
Chelating agents, 144, 170
Chloe, 109, 149, 269
Chypre, 131
Chypre, 131, 269
Classification:
of perfumes, 102-106
of raw materials, 26, 33-43
Clouding, 171-173. See also Solubility, Water solubility
Coco, 124, 127-128, 269
Cold wave lotions, 144, 165, 168, 169
Color stability, 170. See also Discoloration
Complexity:
in floral notes, 45, 46
in natural products, 81
in perfumes, 13, 90-93, 110
Communication function of perfumes, 150-152
Compatability, 171-175
Concretes, 20
Container, 169, 173-175, 230-231
Coriandre, 103, 130, 131, 269
Creams, cosmetic, 90, 144, 164
Creativity, 6-7. See also Innovation
Deodorants, personal, 144, 164
Depilatories, 144, 164, 168, 169
Detergents, 144, 148, 165, 169, 173-174
liquid, 173
Diffusion, 152
and performance, 242
perfume loss, 173-175
rate, 243
Diorella, 194, 119, 129-130, 269
Dioressence, 127, 269
Discoloration, 170, 229, 231
Discrimination ability, 4
testing, 9
Dishwashing detergents, 147, 165, 172, 173
Distillation:
fractional, 21
steam, 19, 22
vacuum, 21
Double bonds:
conjugated, 220
influence on odor, 220
structure, 208
Drakkar Noir, 149
Dune, 104, 138-139, 269
Eau de Cologne, 84, 103, 132, 145
Eau de la Reine de Hongrie, 84
Eau Sauvage, 90, 103, 119, 129, 178, 269
EDTA, 144, 170
Emulsions, destabilization, 173. See also Creams, Lotions
Encapsulation, 175
Enfleurage, 20, 134
Enzymes, 169
Escape, 104, 129, 269
Essential oils, 19
terpeneless, 21
Esters, 207
interaction with plastics, 175
stability, 227
structure-odor relationships, 218-219
Eternity, 104, 138-139, 269
Evaluation board, 202-204
Evaporation, 154
Expression, 20
Extraction, 20, 22
Fabric conditioners (softeners), 114, 161-162, 165, 166, 168
Fatty acid off-notes, 144
Femme, 133, 269
Fidji, 103-105, 109, 111-113, 269
Fixation, 84, 236, 240
Fleurs de Rocaille, 109, 269
Flowers, fragrance, 44, 80, 81
Foam bath, 164, 172, 173
Fougère Royal, 110, 269
Fruity notes, 115, 129, 133, 138, 139, 151
Functional products, definition, 143
Gardenia notes, 110
Gas chromatography:
and competition, 194
in creation of bases, 97
fingerprinting, 67
head space, ix, 44
influence, vii-xi, 103
in matching, 59, 65-69, 107
in perfumery training, 11
polarity and, 236
principles, 65
Gels, aqueous, 164
Geranium notes, 151
Giorgio, 123, 269
Gras, Martin, 91
Green notes, 90, 96, 105, 112, 115, 137, 139
Grojsman, Sophia, 85, 87
Page 285
Hair rinses, 164
Hair straighteners, 165, 168
Hard surface cleansers, 165
Heat, effect on stability, 229
Hemiacetals, 133, 223
Hostile bases, 230
Household cleaners, 165, 168
Hungary Water, 84
Hy, Michel, 94
Hyacinth notes, 45, 46, 112, 113, 122, 135
Hybrid perfumes, 96, 104
Hydrogen bonding, 235, 236, 238
Hydrolysis, 168
IFRA guidelines, 181-186
Impact, 152
Inherent odor strength, 163, 166
Innovation
in perfume creation, 198-202
in perfume material use, 175-177
Insecticides, 144
Iron contamination, 128, 228
Isolates, 21
Isomerism, 213-215
Isopropyl alcohol, 146
Jasmin notes, 80, 100, 113, 116, 122, 129, 131, 133, 134, 135, 139, 145
Jellinek, Paul, 15-18, 151
Je Reviens, 105, 109, 269
Johnson & Johnson baby products, 104, 132, 148, 150
Jonquille notes, 109
Joop, 128, 269
Jolie Madame, 136, 269
Jonquille notes, 109
Jordi-Pey, Arturo, 87
Ketones, stability, 223-227
Knowing, 103, 130, 269
L'Air du Temps, 85, 88, 93, 103, 105, 109-111, 269
Lauder, Estée, 204
Laundry detergents, see Detergents
Lavender water, 84
L'Heure Bleue, 102, 121, 269
Light, see Photochemical reactions
Lilac notes, 45, 80, 109, 110, 116, 117
Line extensions, 149, 150, 175-176
L'Interdit, 117, 269
Lipstick, 164
L'Origan, 102, 121, 269
Lotions:
aqueous-alcoholic, 164, 171-172
emulsified, 164
Loulou, 102, 121, 123, 128, 269
Lux soap, 135
Madame Rochas, 108, 117-118, 135, 137, 270
Ma Griffe, 85, 96, 103, 132-133, 135, 270
Marine notes, 129
Masking, 144-146
of fatty odors, 145
of perspiration odor, 145
Massage oils, 164, 173
Matching:
briefings, 69-72
by gas chromatography, 65-69
as a learning method, 12, 58
by nose, 62-65
Mellis accord, 95, 109, 124, 126, 127, 128
Memory, 5, 18
recall, 29
testing, 9
training, 12, 24-29
Microencapsulation, 175
Miss Dior, 134-135, 270
Mitsouko, 124, 125, 133, 270
Moment suprème, 110, 124, 128, 270
Muguet notes, 45, 80, 110, 113, 116, 117, 118, 119, 133, 139
Must de Cartier, 123, 125, 128, 270
Narcisse notes, 109, 113, 140
Natural products:
importance, 92-93, 109
quality, 26, 104
Neutral pH products, 168
New West for Her, 129, 270
Nitriles, 209, 220
Nonpolarizing fragrances, 148
Obsession, 103, 105, 123, 125-126, 139, 270
Odor effects diagram, 151
Odor intensity, related to concentration, 247-249
Odor strength, inherent, 163, 166
Odor value, 163, 166, 249-259
Odor volume, 152, 153, 162
Olfaction:
anatomy, 76
evolution, 75
and odor recognition, 25
Olfactometer, 244
Olfactory sensitivity, see Sensitivity
Page 286
Ombre Rose, 104, 270
Opium, 124, 127, 270
Orange blossom notes, 80, 122, 151
Oscar de la Renta, 102, 121-123, 270
Oxidation, 68, 168-169, 227-228
Oxidizing agents, breakdown, 171
Packaging, 169, 173-175, 230-231
Paloma Picasso, 103, 130-131, 270
Paris, 97, 105, 109, 114-116, 123, 139, 270
Performance, 152-167
definition, x, 152
evaluation, ix-x, 153
Perfume:
definition, 83
environmental impact, x, 185-189
Perfume families, origins, 102
Perfume industry, viii, 186-187
Perfume materials:
of animal origin, 193-194
availability, 195
as basis for study, 24
biodegradability, 189-190
classification by odor, 33-43
cost effectiveness, 161, 164, 249-250
environmental aspects, 187-191
head space concentration, 161, 249
innovative use, 175-177
introductory list, 30-32
natural, 26, 92-93, 104, 109
natural vs. synthetic, 191
nature identical, 192
new, 175-177
producers, 186-187
production, 184
purity, ix, 184
quality, 105-106
from renewable resources, 188
skin safety, x, 179-185, 192-193
solubility, 238-240
solubility and performance, 240
solubilization, 172
stability, 167-171
substantivity, 114, 153, 161, 236, 241
vapor pressure, 154-160
water solubility, 157-162
Perfumery:
history, ix, 84-85
principles, 13
Pheromones, 77
Photochemical reactions, 228
pH values, 229
Plastics, 174-175
Poison, 102, 121-123, 139, 270
Polar molecules, 66, 235, 239
Polymers, 174-175
Poucher, William A., 91
Powders, 164
Psychophysical function, 247-249
Quelques Fleurs, 109, 270
Quenching, 186, 192-193
Rancidity, 169
Raw materials, see Perfume materials
Resinoids, 20
Rive Gauche, 97, 117-120, 137, 270
Rose notes, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 129, 122, 124, 127, 130, 133, 137, 139
Roudnitska, Edmond, 15-18, 129, 178
Safety:
consumer concerns, x
IFRA guidelines, 179-184
worker, 185
Samsara, 104, 128, 270
Scouring powders, 165
Sensitivity, olfactory, 4
Setting lotions, 164
Shalimar, 85, 103, 123-125, 127, 270
Shampoos, 164, 172
Shiftan, Ernest, 204
Shower foam, 147, 164, 173
Silences, 138, 270
Slope of psychophysical function, 248-250
Smelling:
analytical, 60
in patterns, 61
''tunnel", 64
Skin oils, 164
Soaps, 90, 114, 144, 147, 164, 173, 231
Solubility, 157-162, 238-240
Solubilization 172
Spellbound, 138-139, 270
Stability:
chemical, 167-169
color, 170
testing, 170-171
Standard bases, 153, 154
Steam distillation, 19, 22
Substantivity, 114, 153, 161, 236, 241
Sunscreens, 170, 229
Surfleurs products, 95
Synergism, olfactory, 87
Tenacity, 152. See also Fixation, Substantivity
Page 287
Terpenes:
formation, 211-213
stability, 68, 168
volatility, 235
Threshold, olfactory, 161, 245, 247, 249
Tinctures, 20
Toilet cleaners, 144
Toilet soap, see Soaps
Topaze, 117, 270
Trésor, 85, 104, 138-139, 149, 270
Triangle test, 9
Trickle-down, ix, 149-150, 175-176
Trigeminal nerve, 145
Triple bonds, 209
Tuberose notes, 113, 114, 116, 118, 122, 134, 140, 151, 233
UV absorbers, 170, 229
Vanderbilt, 102, 121, 123, 270
Vapor pressure, 154, 155-160
Vent Vert, 134, 270
Violet notes, 114, 115, 134, 140, 151
Viscosity changes, 173
Volatile organic chemicals, 189
Volatility:
and chemical structure, 235-238
measures, 155-156
and perfume structure, 26, 88-90
Volume, 152, 153, 162
Volupté, 104, 270
Washing powders, see Detergents
Washing-up liquids, see Dishwashing detergents
Water solubility, 157-162
White flower notes, 113
White Linen, 104, 117, 120-121, 123, 270
Window cleaners, 144
Woody notes, 112, 113, 114, 115, 118, 124, 139
Youth Dew, 124, 126, 127, 204, 270
Ysatis, 103, 132, 270

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This text is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:

Printed in the United States of America

The Descent of Perfumes

Glossary of Perfumes, Specialty Raw Materials, and Bases

Index of Perfumery Raw Materials and Bases 277

General Index 283

A basic understanding of creative perfumery is certainly helpful in a great number of other

Testing for Aptitude

3. A perfume's structure is based upon:

b. The relationship between simplicity and complexity.

The Gray Area Between Naturals and Synthetics

The Basic Raw Materials and their Classification

Iris concrete Thyme

Cyclamen aldehyde Lyral

Methyl salicylate Phenylpropyl alcohol

Musk ketone Rosalva

TABLE 5.1 Classification by Odor of 162 Materials

Aldehydes Aldehyde C11 undecylenic

Aldehyde C12 lauric Soapy

(Nitrile) Geranyl nitrile Citrus

(Alcohol) Rosalva Rose

(table continued on next page)

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

(table continued on next page)

(table continued from previous page)

Synthetics and (Ingredients) Class/Specific

Carnation Eugenol Spicy Clove

Gardenia Styrallyl acetate Fresh

Hyacinth Phenylacetaldehyde Green Rose

Phenylacetaldehyde dimethyl Green Lilac

Jasmin Jasmin absolute

Benzyl acetate Fresh

(table continued on next page)

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

Narcisse-Jonquille Methyl cinnamate Cinnamic

Neroli-Orange Methyl anthranilate

Rose Rose absolute Phenylethyl alcohol

Rose oil Citronellol

(table continued on next page)

(table continued from previous page)

Synthetics and (Ingredients) Class/Specific

(table continued on next page)

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

(table continued on next page)

(table continued from previous page)

Synthetics and (Ingredients) Class/Specific

(table continued on next page)

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

(table continued on next page)

(table continued from previous page)

Synthetics and (Ingredients) Class/Specific

(table continued on next page)

TABLE 5.1 (Continued)

(table continued on next page)

(table continued from previous page)

Synthetics and (Ingredients) Class/Specific