BENT 3313

ELECTROMAGNETICS

Electromagnetics (EM) - the study of electric and magnetic phenomena.

A knowledge of the fundamental behavior of electric and magnetic

fields is necessary to understand the operation of such devices as resistors,
capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, transformers, motors, relays,
transmission lines, antennas, waveguides, optical fibers and lasers.
All electromagnetic phenomena are governed by a set of equations
known as Maxwell’s equations.

Maxwell’s Equations

E - electric field intensity

H - magnetic field intensity
D - electric flux density
B - magnetic flux density
J - current density
Dv - volume charge density
 Vector Algebra

The quantities of interest appearing in Maxwell’s equations along

with other quantities encountered in the study of EM can almost always be
classified as either a scalar or a vector (tensors are sometimes encountered
in EM but will not be covered in this class).

Scalar - a quantity defined by magnitude only.

[examples: distance (x), voltage (V ), charge density (Dv), etc.]

Vector - a quantity defined by magnitude and direction.

[examples: velocity (v), current (I ), electric field (E), etc.]

Note that vectors are denoted by boldface. The magnitude of a vector may
be a real-valued scalar or a complex-valued scalar (phasor).

Vector Addition (Parallelogram Law)

Vector Subtraction

Note:
(1) The magnitude of the vector A!B is the separation distance d
between the points a and b located by the vectors A and B,
respectively [d = *A!B* = *B!A*].
(2) The vector A!B is the vector pointing from b (origination
point) to a (termination point).

Multiplication and Division By a Scalar

 Coordinate Systems

A coordinate system defines points of reference from which specific

vector directions may be defined. Depending on the geometry of the
application, one coordinate system may lead to more efficient vector
definitions than others. The three most commonly used coordinate systems
used in the study of electromagnetics are rectangular coordinates (or
cartesian coordinates), cylindrical coordinates, and spherical coordinates.

Rectangular Coordinates

The rectangular coordinate system is an orthogonal coordinate

system with coordinate axes defined by x, y, and z. The coordinate axes in
an orthogonal coordinate system are mutually perpendicular. By
convention, we choose to define rectangular coordinates as a right-handed
coordinate system. This convention ensures that the three coordinate axes
are always drawn with the same orientation no matter how the coordinate
system may be rotated. If we position a right-handed screw normal to the
plane containing the x and y axes, and rotate the screw in the direction of
the x axis rotated toward the y axis, the direction that the screw advances
defines the direction of the z axis in a right-handed coordinate system.
 Component Scalars and Component Vectors

Given an arbitrary vector E in rectangular coordinates, the vector E

can be described (using vector addition) as the sum of three component
vectors that lie along the coordinate axes.

The component vectors can be further simplified by defining unit vectors

along the coordinate axes: ax, ay, and az. These unit vectors have
magnitudes of unity and directions parallel to the respective coordinate
axis. The component vectors can be written in terms of the unit vectors as
Thus, using component scalars, any rectangular coordinate vector can be
uniquely defined using three scalar quantities that represent the magnitudes
of the respective component vectors.
To define a unit vector in the direction of E, we simply divide the
vector by its magnitude.

where the magnitude of E is the diagonal of the rectangular volume formed

by the three component scalars.

Example (Unit vector)

Given , determine the unit vector in the

direction of E at the rectangular coordinate location of (1,1,1).

Note that the component scalars are

functions of position (the direction of the
vector changes with position).

At the point (1,1,1) [x = 1, y = 1, z = 1],

Example (Vector addition)

An airplane with a ground speed of 350 km/hr heading due west flies
in a wind blowing to the northwest at 40 km/hr. Determine the true air
speed and heading of the airplane.
 Dot Product
(Scalar Product)

The dot product of two vectors A and B (denoted by A @ B) is defined

as the product of the vector magnitudes and the cosine of the smaller angle
between them.

The dot product is commonly used to determine the component of a vector

in a particular direction. The dot product of a vector with a unit vector
yields the component of the vector in the direction of the unit vector.
Given two vectors A and B with corresponding unit vectors aA and aB, the
component of A in the direction of B (the projection of A onto B) is found
evaluating the dot product of A with aB. Similarly, the component of B in
the direction of A (the projection of B onto A) is found evaluating the dot
product of B with aA.
 The dot product can be expressed independent of angles through the
use of component vectors in an orthogonal coordinate system.

The dot product of like unit vectors yields one ( 2AB = 0o ) while the dot
product of unlike unit vectors ( 2AB = 90o ) yields zero. The dot product
results are

The resulting dot product expression is

 Cross Product
(Vector Product)

The cross product of two vectors A and B (denoted by A× B ) is

defined as the product of the vector magnitudes and the sine of the smaller
angle between them with a vector direction defined by the right hand rule.

Note: (1) the unit vector an is normal to

the plane in which A and B lie.
(2) ABsin2AB = area of the parallelogram
formed by the vectors A and B.

Using component vectors, the cross product of A and B may be

written as

The cross product of like unit vectors yields zero ( 2AB = 0o ) while the cross
product of unlike unit vectors ( 2AB = 90o ) yields another unit vector which
is determined according to the right hand rule. The cross products results
are
The resulting cross product expression is

This cross product result can also be written compactly in the form of a
determinant as

Example (Dot product / Cross product)

Given E = 3ay + 4az and F = 4ax!10ay + 5az, determine

(a.) the vector component of E in the direction of F.
(b.) a unit vector perpendicular to both E and F.

(a.) To find the vector component of E in the direction of F, we must dot

the vector E with the unit vector in the direction of F.

The dot product of E and aF is

(Scalar component of E along F)

 The vector component of E along F is

(b.) To find a unit vector normal to both E and F, we use the cross
product. The result of the cross product is a vector which is normal
to both E and F.

We then divide this vector by its magnitude to find the unit vector.

The negative of this unit vector is also normal to both E and F.