Chapter 2

Forging
Subjects of interest

• Introduction/objectives
• Classification of forging processes
- Hammer or drop forging
- Press forging
- Open-die forging
- Closed-die forging
• Calculation of forging loads
• Effect of forging on microstructure
• Residual stresses in forgings
• Typical forging defects

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Objectives

• This chapter provides fundamental of metal working process for forging

in order to understand mathematical approaches used in the calculation
of applied forging loads required to cause plastic deformation to give the
final product.
• Classification of metal forging methods is also provided with
descriptions of defects observed from the forging processes.
• The solutions to tackle such defects will also be addressed.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Introduction

www.eindiabusiness.com
• Forging is the working of metal into a useful
shape by hammering or pressing.
• The oldest of the metalworking arts (primitive
blacksmith).
• Replacement of machinery occurred during
early the Industrial revolution.
• Forging machines are now capable of making
parts ranging in size of a bolt to a turbine
rotor.
• Most forging operations are carried out hot,
although certain metals may be cold-forged.

www.prime-metals.com

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Forging operations

Edging is used to shape

the ends of the bars and to
gather metal. The metal
flow is confined in the
horizontal direction but it is
free to flow laterally to fill
the die. www.jsc-pfm.com

Drawing is used to reduce the cross-sectional area of

the workpiece with concurrent increase in length.

Piercing and punching are used to produce holes in

metals.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Forging operations
Fullering is used to reduce the cross-sectional area
of a portion of the stock. The metal flow is outward
and away from the centre of the fuller.
i.e., forging of connecting rod for an internal-
combustion engine.

• Fuller move fast and moves metal

perpendicular to the face
Fullers come
in different
shapes

www.anvilfire.com

Fullers

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 Forging operations

Swaging is used to produce a bar with a smaller

diameter (using concave dies).

• Swaging is a special type of forging

in which metal is formed by a
succession of rapid hammer blows

• Swaging provides a reduced round

cross section suitable for tapping,
threading, upsetting or other
subsequent forming and machining
operations.
Swaging at the ends, ready
for next forming process.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Classification of forging processes

By equipment

1) Forging hammer or drop hammer

2) Press forging

By process

1) Open - die forging

2) Closed - die forging

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

Forming machines
There are four basic types of forging machines

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Hammer and press forging processes

There are two basic types of forging

Forging hammers hammers used;

• Board hammer
• Power hammer

There are two basic types of forging

Forging presses presses available;

• Mechanical presses
• Hydraulic presses

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Board hammer –forging hammer
• The upper die and ram are raised by
friction rolls gripping the board.
• After releasing the board, the ram falls
under gravity to produce the blow energy.
• The hammer can strike between 60-150
blows per minute depending on size and
capacity.
• The board hammer is an energy-
restricted machine. The blow energy
supplied equal the potential energy due
to the weight and the height of the fall.

Potential energy = mgh …Eq 1

Board hammer • This energy will be delivered to the metal

workpiece to produce plastic
deformation.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Forging hammer or drop hammer

• Provide rapid impact blows to the surface of the metal.

• Dies are in two halves
- Lower : fixed to anvil
Belt
- Upper : moves up and down with the TUP.

TUP • Energy (from a gravity drop) is adsorbed onto the metal,

in which the maximum impact is on the metal surface.
• Dies are expensive being accurately machined from
Metal special alloys (susceptible to thermal shock).
• Drop forging is good for mass production of complex
shapes.
Anvil

Drop hammer

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Example: Forging hammer or drop hammer

The energy supplied by

the blow is equal to the
potential energy due to
the weight of the ram and
the height of the fall.

Potential energy = mgh

…Eq 1

Forging machine
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2006
Power hammer • Power hammer provides greater
capacity, in which the ram is accelerated
on the downstroke by steam or air pressure
in addition to gravity.
• Steam or air pressure is also used to raise
the ram on the upstroke.
• The total energy supplied to the blow
in a power drop hammer is given by

1 2
W= mv + pAH = (mg + pA) H …Eq 2
2
Where m = mass
v = velocity of ram at start of
deformation
g = acceleration of gravity
p = air or steam pressure
acting on ram cylinder on
Power hammer downstroke
A = area of ram cylinder
H = height of the ram drop
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Hydraulic press forging
High
pressure
fluid

Ram • Using a hydraulic press or a mechanical

press to forge the metal, therefore, gives
continuous forming at a slower rate.
• Provide deeper penetration.
Die • Better properties (more homogeneous).
• Equipment is expensive.
Metal

Die

Hydraulic press

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Example: Hydraulic Press forging
• Hydraulic presses are load-
restricted machines in which
hydraulic pressure moves a piston
in a cylinder.

• The full press load is available at

any point during the full stroke of
the ram. Therefore, hydraulic
presses are ideally suited for
extrusion-type forging operation.

• Due to slow speed, contact time

is longer at the die-metal interface,
which causes problems such as
heat lost from workpiece and die
deterioration.
• Also provide close-tolerance forging.
• Hydraulic presses are more
expensive than mechanical presses
and hammers.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Mechanical press forging
• Crank press translates rotary motion into
reciprocating linear motion of the press slide.
• The ram stroke is shorter than in a hammer or
hydraulic press.
• Presses are rated on the basis of the force
developed at the end of the stroke.
• The blow press is more like squeeze than
like the impact of the hammer, therefore, dies
can be less massive and die life is longer than
with a hammer.
• The total energy supplied during the stroke of
a press is given by

W =
1
2
[
I ω o2 − ω 2f ] …Eq 3
Mechanical press
Where I is moment of inertia of the flywheel
ω is angular velocity, ωo-original, ωf-after deformation, rad.s-1
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Typical values of velocity for different
forging equipment

Forging machine Velocity range, ms-1

Gravity drop hammer 3.6-4.8

Power drop hammer 3.0-9.0
HERF machine 6.0-24.0
Mechanical press 0.06-1.5
Hydraulic press 0.06-0.30

Remark: HERF – High Energy Rate Forging

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 Closed and open die forging processes

Open-die forging

Closed-die forging

Impression-die
forging

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 Open-die forging

• Open-die forging is carried

out between flat dies or dies of
very simple shape.

• The process is used for

mostly large objects or when
the number of parts produced
is small.

• Open-die forging is often used

to preform the workpiece for
closed-die forging.

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 Closed-die forging (or impression-die forging)

• The workpiece is deformed between two

die halves which carry the impressions
of the desired final shape.

• The workpiece is deformed under high

pressure in a closed cavity.

• Normally used for smaller components.

• The process provide precision forging

with close dimensional tolerance.

• Closed dies are expensive.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Closed-die forging operation
billet Rough-forge Finishing die Trimming die Final
Preshaped
product

Die cavity
completely

Forging complete
filled
Forging load

Flash begins
to form

Dies contact
workpiece

Forging stroke
Flash is the excess metal, which
squirts out of the cavity as a thick
Typical curve of forging load vs. stroke for
closed-die forging. ribbon of metal.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Functions of flash

The flash serves two purposes:

• Acts as a ‘safety value’ for excess metal.
• Builds up high pressure to ensure that
the metal fills all recesses of the die cavity.

Remark: It is necessary to achieve complete filling of the forging cavity

without generating excessive pressures against the die that may
cause it to fracture.

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 Example: Die set and forging steps for the
manufacturing of an automobile engine connecting rod

• Preforming of a round piece in an open die

arrangement.
• Rough shape is formed using a block die.
• The finishing die is used to bring the part to
final tolerances and surface finish.
• Removal of flash (excess metal).

Steering knuckle Rail Flange

http://www.hirschvogel.de/en/produkti
onsverfahren/warmumformung.php

See simulation

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Closed-die design

Usually the deformation in closed-die forging is very complex and the

design of the intermediate steps to make a final precision part requires
considerable experience and skill.

The design of a part for production by closed-die forging involves

the prediction of
• workpiece volume and weight
• number of preforming steps and their configuration
• flash dimensions in preforming and finishing dies
the load and energy requirement for each forging operation, for
example; the flow stress of the materials, the fictional condition,
the flow of the material in order to develop the optimum geometry for
the dies.

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 •The degree of difficulty increases as the
Shape classification geometry moves down and toward the right.

• Simple parts are symmetry shape, or parts with circular, square

and similar contours.
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Shape classification

• More complicated parts have pronounced longitudinal axis and

are curved in several planes.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Preform design is the most difficult and
critical step in forging design. Proper
preform design assures defect-free flow,
complete die fill, and minimum flash loss.
mfge.atilim.edu.tr/
Upsetting

- Metal flow consists only of two basic types

• extrusion (flow parallel to the direction of
the die motion)
• upsetting ( flow perpendicular to the
direction of the die motion).
- However both types of metal flow occur
simultaneously.

- We need to identify the neutral surface

since metal flows away from the neutral
surface in a direction perpendicular to the
die motion. See simulation

http://www.qform3d.com/images/el
ectrups/elecrups2.gif
Suranaree University of Technology Metal
Tapany Udomphol flow during forging Jan-Mar 2007
 Metal flow in forging

• Finite element analysis

was originally developed to
model the elastic
deformation of complex
structures but recently has
been extended to cover large
plastic deformation under real
stress system.

Finite element analysis of upsetting an aluminium cylinder

• It is a numerical modelling technique that involves splitting the whole of

a body into a series of simple geometrical elements that are joined
together at points (nodes) where both equilibrium (lower bound) and
compatibility (upper bound) requirement are established.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 General considerations for preform design
• Area of each cross section = area in the finished cross section + flash.
• Concave radii of the preform > radii on the final forging part.
• Cross section of the preform should be higher and narrower than the
final cross section, so as to accentuate upsetting flow and minimise
extrusion flow.

draft angle
web • Shape with thin and long
sections or projections (ribs and
rib webs) are more difficult to
process because they have
higher surface area per unit
volume
increasing friction and
temperature effects.

Some typical nomenclature

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 General rules of closed-die design
• The die set should be designed for smooth metal flow – symmetry
dies (spherical or blocklike) are the easier than thin and long section.
• Shape changes in section are to be avoided.
• Dies should be designed for the minimum flash to do the job.
• Generous fillet dimensions should be allowed, therefore, forging dies
must be tapered or drafted to facilitate removal of the finished piece.
• Draft allowance is approximately 3-5o outside and 7-10o inside.
• Dies with inclined angles should have counterlock to prevent the dies
from sliding apart from each other due to side thrust.

draft angle
web Counterlock
rib Side thrust

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 www.nitrex.com

Die materials
Required properties

• Thermal shock resistance Forging die

• Thermal fatigue resistance
Die materials: alloyed steels (with Cr,
• High temperature strength Mo, W, V), tool steels, cast steels or cast
• High wear resistance iron. (Heat treatments such are nitriding
• Hgh toughness and ductility or chromium plating are required to
• High hardenability improve die life)
• High dimensional stability during hardening
• High machinability
Note: 1) Carbon steels with 0.7-0.85% C are appropriate for small tools and
flat impressions.
2) Medium-alloyed tool steels for hammer dies.
3) Highly alloyed steels for high temperature resistant dies used in
presses and horizontal forging machines.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Die materials
Common steels used for forging dies
Forging Steels Copper and copper alloys Light alloys
materials
DIN AISI DIN AISI DIN AISI
Forging dies C70 W2 -
C85 W2 -
60MnSi4 - X30WCrV53 H21 X30WCrV53 -
40CrMnMo7 - X38CrMoV51 H11 X38CrMoV51 H11
X32CrMoV33 H10
Die inserts 55NiCrMoV6 6F2 55NiCrMoV6
56NiCrMoV7 6F3 56NiCrMoV7 6F2
57NiCrMoV77 - 57NiCrMoV77 - 57NiCrMoV77 6F3
35NiCrMo16 -
X38CrMoV51 H11 X30WCrV93 H21 X38CrMoV51 H11
X32CrMoV33 H10 X32CrMoV33 H10 X32CrMoV33 H10
X30WCrV53 - X30WCrV52 - X30WCrV53 -
X37CrMoW51 H12

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Die materials
Die life can be increased by
1) Improving die materials such as using composite die or
2) Using surface coating or self-lubricating coatings

Ultra hard surface coatings

Current forging Future forging

Ultra hard surface coating
on die surface is used to

In
• Improve die life.
m no ce
at va rfa • Reduce energy input.
er ti su
ia ve e
ls d a tiv tion
ie v a
no ific
• Reduce die-related uptime
n
I od
m and downtime.
• Reduce particulate emission
from lubricants.
http://www.eere.energy.gov/industry/supporting_industries
/pdfs/innovative_die_materials.pdf
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Die failures Different types of die failure

Wear (abrasion)

Thermal fatigue

Mechanical fatigue

Permanent deformation

• Different parts of dies are liable to permanent deformation and wear

resulting from mechanical and thermal fatigue.
• Important factors: shape of the forging, die materials, how the
workpiece is heated, coating of die surface, the operating temperature
(should not exceed the annealing temperature).
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 Calculation of forging loads
The total energy required for deformation process;

Utotal = Uideal + Ufriction + Uredundant

Note: redundant work = work that does not contribute to

shape change of the workpiece

Efficiency of a given deformation process η is

U ideal Note: η = 0.3-0.6 for extrusion

η= = 0.75-0.95 for rolling
U total = 0.10-0.20 for closed die forging

The calculation for forging load can be divided into three cases according to friction:
• In the absence of friction
• Low friction condition (lower bound analysis or sliding condition)
• High friction condition (sticky friction condition)

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 1) In the absence of friction
By assuming that there is no friction at die-workpiece interface, the forging
load is therefore the compressive force (P) acting on a round metal bar.

Then
P =σoA ….Eq. 4

Where P is the compressive force

σo is the yield stress of the metal
A is the cross sectional area of the metal.

And the compressive stress (p) produced by this force P can be

obtained from
Do
4 Ph 4 Ph 4σ o Ah
ho D p= → = ….Eq. 5
h πD 2
πDo ho πDo2 ho
2

Do2 h = D 2 h Note: from volume constant

Where h is the instantaneous height of the metal bar during forging

ho is the original height of the metal bar
Do is the original diameter of the metal bar.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Do

ho D
h

We have engineering strain in compression,

∆h h − ho
e= = ….Eq. 6
ho ho

And true strain in compression,

h
dh h ho
ε = ∫ = ln = − ln ….Eq. 7
ho
h ho h

The relationship between e and ε is

ε = ln(e + 1) ….Eq. 8

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2) Low friction condition (Lower bound analysis)
By considering the equilibrium of forces acting on the workpiece at any
instant of deformation.
• For example, if we consider the effect of friction
on an upset forging operation in plane strain
condition (rigid-plastic behaviour, see Fig).
• To calculate the total forming load, we have
to determine the local stresses needed to
deform each element of a workpiece of height h
and width 2a.
• In plane strain condition, as the workpiece is
reduced in height, it expands laterally and all
deformation is confined in the x-y plane. This
lateral expansion causes frictional forces to act
in opposition to the movement.

• Assuming that there is no redundant work

and the material exhibits rigid-plastic
behaviour, and all stress on the body are
compressive.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 • Consider the force acting on a vertical element of
unit length and width dx. The element is at some
distance x from the central ‘no-slip’ point, in this
case to the right.

• The vertical force acting on the element is

stress × area = σ y dx ….Eq. 9

• If the coefficient of friction for the die-workpiece

interface is µ, the magnitude of the friction force
will be µσydx. The frictional force acts at both
ends of the element so the total horizontal force
from the right is 2µσydx.

• Acting on the left will be the force σxh and from the right the force (σx+dσx)h.
The horizontal compressive stress σx varies from a maximum at the centre of
the workpiece to zero at the edge and changes by dσx across the element
width dx.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Balancing the horizontal forces acting on
the element:

h(σ x + dσ x ) + 2 µσ y dx = hσ x ….Eq. 10

Rearranging, we have

2µσ y dx = − hdσ x ….Eq. 11

and therefore

dσ x 2µ
=− dx ….Eq. 12
σy h

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 As the frictional force µσy is usually much smaller than
both σx and σy , which are principal stresses. Thus
we can use them in the yield criterion when the slab
will yield
2
σ y −σ x = σ o = σ o' ….Eq. 13
3
Where σ ‘o is the yield stress in plane strain.

Differentiation of the yield condition gives dσy = dσx ,

and substituting for dσx in Eq. 12 gives
dσ y 2µ
=− dx ….Eq. 14
σy h

Integrating both sides of this differential equation gives

2 µx  2 µx 
ln σ y = − + Co ….Eq. 15 or σ y = C exp −  ….Eq. 16
h  h 
where Co is a constant of integration.

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We can evaluate C by looking at the boundary conditions. At the edge of the
workpiece where x = a, σx = 0 and from the yield criterion σy - σx = σ‘o, so
σy = σ‘o and therefore:

 2 µa   2µa  σy
σ exp
'

C exp −  = σ o ….Eq. 17
' o
 h 
 h   2µ
σ o' exp  (a − x )
so Friction hill  h 

 2µa  σ‘o σo
C = σ exp
'
o  ….Eq. 18 X
 h  -a a X

Using this in Eq.16, we find

 2µ 
σ y = σ exp  (a − x )
'
o
….Eq. 19
 h  x = -a x=0 x=a

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 _
The total forging load, P, is given by P = 2 p aw ….Eq. 20

Where p is the average forming pressure across the workpiece

w is the width of the workpiece (in the plane of the paper).

This equals σy and can be estimated by integrating Eq.19:

− a
σy a
σ o'  2µ  ….Eq. 21
p=∫ dx = ∫ exp  (a − x )dx
o
a o
a  h 

The integration in Eq. 18 can be simplified if we make the following

approximation to Eq. 16. The general series expansion for exp x is

x 2 x3
exp x = 1 + x + + + ... ….Eq. 22
2! 3!

Since µ is usually small (<1) we can approximate exp x as (1+x) for small x.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Thus we can approximate Eq.19 as

 2µ (a − x )
σ y = σ o' 1 +  ….Eq. 23
 h 
and Eq.21 becomes

σ o'  2µ (a − x ) 
_ a
p=∫ 1+ dx ….Eq. 24
0
a  h 
Integrating this gives:
a
_ σ  '
2µax µx  2
….Eq. 25
p= x +
o
− 
a  h h 0

So that the average axial tooling pressure, p, is

_
 µa 
p = σ o' 1 +  ….Eq. 26
 h 

We can see that as the ratio a/h increases, the forming pressure p and
hence the forming load rises rapidly.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

Example:

The flash has high deformation resistance than in the die (due to
much higher a/h ratio), therefore the material completely fills the
cavity rather than being extruded sideward out of the die.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

3) High friction condition (sticky friction)
In the situation where the friction force is high, the stress acting on the
metal is
a−x 
σ y = σ o'  − 1 ….Eq. 27
 h 
and the mean forging pressure is
_
 a  ….Eq. 28
p = σ o'  + 1
 2h 
Under these conditions, the forming load is dependent on the flow stress
of the material and the geometry of the workpiece.

For example: if the a/h ratio is high, say a/h = 8, then p = 5σ’o. The local
stress on the tooling can therefore be very high indeed and 5σ’o is probably
high enough to deform the tooling in most cold forming operation.

Solutions:
• reducing µ to ensure that sticking friction conditions do not apply.
• changing the workpiece geometry.
• reducing σ’o by increasing the temperature.
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
In the case of sticky friction, if we replace the force µσy with k (the average
shear stress of the material) in Eq.14
dσ y 2µ
=− dx ….Eq. 14
σy h
_
then we have 2k 2σ o dx dx ….Eq. 29
dσ y = − dx = − = −σ o'
h 3 h h
Integrating x
σ y= −σ o' +C ….Eq. 30
h
Since σy = σ’o at x = a, a
then C = σ o' + σ o' ….Eq. 31
h
Replacing C in Eq. 30 we then have
x a a−x  Or Eq. 27
σ y = −σ o' + σ o' + σ o' = σ o'  + 1
h h  h 

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

Example: Dieter, page 574-575

A block of lead 25x25x150 mm3 is pressed between flat dies to a size

6.25x100x150 mm3. If the uniaxial flow stress σo = 6.9 MPa and µ = 0.25,
determine the pressure distribution over the 100 mm dimension (at x = 0, 25
and 50 mm and the total forging load in the sticky friction condition.

Since 150 mm dimension does not change, the deformation is plane strain.
From Eq.19.
2  2µ  where σ o' = 2 σ o
σy = σ o exp  a−x  ( ) 3
3  h 
At the centreline of the slab (x = 0)
 2(0.25)
σ max =
2(6.9)
exp  (50 − 0) = 435MPa
3  6.25 

Likewise, at 25 and 50 mm, the stress distribution will be 58.9 and 8.0 MPa
respectively.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 The mean forging load (in the sticky friction condition) from Eq.28 is
_
2  a 
p= σo + 1
3  2h 
_
2(6.9)  50 
p=  + 1 = 39.8MPa
3  12.5 

We calculate the forging load on the assumption that the stress distribution
is based on 100 percent sticky friction. Then

The forging load is P = stress x area

= (39.8x106)(100x10-3)(150x10-3)
= 597 kN
= 61 tonnes.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Effect of forging on microstructure

grain structure resulting from (a) forging, (b) machining and (c) casting.

• The formation of a grain structure in forged parts is elongated in the

direction of the deformation.
• The metal flow during forging provides fibrous microstructure (revealed by
etching). This structure gives better mechanical properties in the plane of
maximum strain but (perhaps) lower across the thickness.
• The workpiece often undergo recrystallisation, therefore, provide finer
grains compared to the cast dendritic structure resulting in improved
mechanical properties.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Forming textures
Redistribution of metal structures occurring during forming
process involves two principle components; 1) redistribution of
inclusions and 2) crystallographic orientation of the grains

1) The redistribution of inclusions

Redistribution
during forming of
(a) soft inclusions
(b) hard inclusions

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Forming textures
2) Crystallographic orientation of the grains

Castings Forgings

Cast iron structure

Fibre structure in forged steels

Mainly epitaxial, Redistribution of grains
dendritic or in the working directions
equiaxed grains
Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
 Residual stresses in forging
• The residual stress produced in forgings as a results of
inhomogeneous deformation are generally small because the
deformation is normally carried out well into the hot-working region.

• However, appreciable residual stresses and warping can occur on

the quenching of steel forgings in heat treatment.

• Large forgings are subjected to the formation of small cracks, or

flakes at the centre of the cross section. This is associated with the high
hydrogen content usually present in steel ingots of large size, coupled
with the presence of residual stresses.

• Large forgings therefore have to be slowly cooled from the working

temperature. Examples: burying the forging in ashes for a period of time or
using a controlled cooling furnace.

• Finite element analysis is used to predict residual stresses in forgings.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Typical forging defects files.bnpmedia.com

• Incomplete die filling. Fluorescence penetrant

reveals Forging laps
• Die misalignment.
• Forging laps.
• Incomplete forging penetration- should
forge on the press.
• Microstructural differences resulting in
pronounced property variation.
• Hot shortness, due to high sulphur
concentration in steel and nickel.

www.komatsusanki.co.jp

See simulation

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Typical forging defects www.mece.ualberta.ca

• Pitted surface, due to oxide scales occurring

at high temperature stick
on the dies.
• Buckling, in upsetting forging. Subject to
high compressive stress.
• Surface cracking, due to temperature
differential between surface and
centre, or excessive working of the surface
at too low temperature.
• Microcracking, due to residual stress.

http://upload.wikimedia.org
Buckling

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 Typical forging defects

Cracking at the flash Cold shut or fold

Internal cracking

• Flash line crack, after trimming-occurs more often in thin

workpieces. Therefore should increase the thickness of the flash.
• Cold shut or fold , due to flash or fin from prior forging steps is
forced into the workpiece.
• Internal cracking, due to secondary tensile stress.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 Summary
• Mainly hot forging – Blacksmith, now using water power, steam,
electricity, hydraulic machines.

• Heavy forging
- Hydraulic press = slow, high force squeeze.
- Pieces up to 200 tonnes with forces up to 25,000 tonnes.
- Simple tools squeeze metal into shape (open-die forging).
- Sufficient deformation must be given to break up the ‘as cast’
structure.
- Reheating is often needed to maintain sufficient temperature
for hot working.
- Forging is costly but eliminates some as-cast defects
- Continuous ‘grain flow’ in the direction of metal flow is
revealed by etching.
- Impurities (inclusions and segregation) have become
elongated and (unlike casting) gives superior properties in the
direction of elongation.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007

 References

• Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
• Edwards, L. and Endean, M., Manufacturing with materials,
1990, Butterworth Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-2754-9.
• Beddoes, J. and Bibbly M.J., Principles of metal manufacturing
process, 1999, Arnold, ISBN 0-470-35241-8.
• Lange, K., Handbook of metal forming, 1919, McGraw-Hill Book
company, ISBN 0-07-036285-8.
• Lecture note, Sheffield University, 2003.
• Metal forming processes, Prof Manus.

Suranaree University of Technology Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007