Chapter 3

Vectors
In physics we have parameters that can be completely described by a
number and are known as scalars. Temperature and mass are such
parameters.
Other physical parameters require additional information about direction and
are known as vectors. Examples of vectors are displacement, velocity, and
acceleration.
In this chapter we learn the basic mathematical language to describe
vectors. In particular we will learn the following:

Geometric vector addition and subtraction

Resolving a vector into its components
The notion of a unit vector
Addition and subtraction vectors by components
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar
(3-1)
The scalar (dot) product of two vectors
The vector (cross) product of two vectors
 An example of a vector is the displacement vector,
which describes the change in position of an object as it
moves from point A to point B. This is represented by an
arrow that points from point A to point B. The length of
the arrow is proportional to the displacement magnitude.
The direction of the arrow indicated the displacement
direction.
The three arrows from A to B, from A' to B', and from A''
to B'', have the same magnitude and direction. A vector
can be shifted without changing its value if its length and
direction are not changed.
In books vectors are written in two ways:

Methoda1: (using an arrow above)

Method 2: a (using boldface print)

(3-2) The magnitude of the vector is indicated by italic print: a.

 Geometric Vector Addition
  
s  a b

Sketch vector a using an appropriate scale.

Sketch vector b using the same scale.
 
Place the tail of b at the tip of a.
 
The vector s starts from the tail of a

and terminates at the tip of b .
Vector addition is commutative:
   
a b b a

 
Negative  b of a given vector b

has the same magnitude as b
but opposite direction.
(3-3)
 Geometric Vector Subtraction
  
d  a b
    
 
We write: d  a  b  a  b .
 
From vector b we find  b .

 
Then we add b to vector a.


We thus reduce vector subtraction to

vector addition, which we know how to do.

Note: We can add and subtract vectors using the method of components.
For many applications this is a more convenient method.

(3-4)
 A component of a vector along an axis is the projection
of the vector on this axis. For example ax is the

projection of a along the x-axis. The component ax
is defined by drawing straight lines from the tail

and tip of the vector a that are perpendicular to
the x-axis.
C
From triangle ABC the x- and y -components

of vector a are given by the equations
A B ax  a cos  and a y  a sin  .
If we know ax and a y we can determine a and  .
From triangle ABC we have:
ay
a  a a
2
x
2
y and tan   .
ax

(3-5)
 Unit Vectors

A unit vector is defined as a vector that has magnitude

equal to 1 and points in a particular direction.
A unit vector is defined as a vector that has magnitude equal to 1 and points
in a particular direction. Unit vectors lack units and their sole purpose is
to point in a particular direction. The unit vectors along the x, y, and z axes
are labeled ˆi , ˆj, and kˆ , respectively.

Unit vectors are used to express other vectors


For example vector a can be written as

a  a ˆi  a ˆj .
x y

The quantities ax ˆi and a y ˆj are called


the vector components of vector a.
(3-6)
 y
 
r Adding Vectors by Components
b

a x
O

 
We are given two vectors a  ax i  a y j and b  bx iˆ  by ˆj.
ˆ ˆ

We want to calculate the vector sum r  rx iˆ  ry ˆj.
The components rx and ry are given by the equations
rx  ax  bx and ry  a y  by .

(3-7)
 y

 d Subtracting Vectors by Components
b

a x

O
 
We are given two vectors a  ax i  a y j and b  bx ˆi  by ˆj.
ˆ ˆ
We want to calculate the vector difference
  
d  a  b  d x ˆi  d y ˆj.

The components d x and d y of d are given by the equations
d x  ax  bx and d y  a y  by .

(3-8)
Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar
  
Multiplication of a vector a by a scalar s results in a new vector b  sa.
The magnitude b of the new vector is given by b  | s | a.
 
If s  0, vector b has the same direction as vector a.
 
If s  0, vector b has a direction opposite to that of vector a.

The Scalar Product of Two Vectors

   
The scalar product a  b of two vectors a and b is given by
 
a  b =ab cos  . The scalar product of two vectors is also
known as the "dot" product. The scalar product in terms
of vector components is given by the equation
 
a  b =ax bx  a y by  az bz .

(3-9)
 The Vector Product of Two Vectors
    
The vector product c  a  b of the vectors a and b

is a vector c .

The magnitude of c is given by the equation
c  ab sin  .

The direction of c is perpendicular t o the plane P defined
 
by the vectors a and b .

The sense of the vector c is given by the right-hand rule:
 
a. Place the vectors a and b tail to tail.

b. Rotate a in the plane P along the shortest angle

so that it coincides with b.
c. Rotate the fingers of the right hand in the same direction.

d. The thumb of the right hand gives the sense of c .
The vector product of two vectors is also known as
(3-10) the "cross" product.
   
The Vector Product c  a  b in Terms of Vector Components

 
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ c  c ˆi  c ˆj  c kˆ
a  a x i  a y j  az k, b  b x ˆi  by ˆj  bz k, x y z

The vector components of vector c are given by the equations
cx  a y bz  az by , c y  az bx  ax bz , cz  axby  a y bx .

Note: Those familiar with the use of determinants can use the expression
i j k
 
a  b  ax a y az
bx by bz

Note: The order of the two vectors in the cross product is important:
   

b  a   a b . 
(3-11)