Principle of Interferometry

When light rays from a monochromatic source

travel in different path lengths and
recombine, they will have a phase difference.
The resultant light will have maximum
intensity at an instant when the constituent
rays are in phase, and minimum intensity (or
zero) when they are out of phase.
These effects are called “Interference” & the
study is called “Interferometry”.
Waves in phase & out of phase
Resultant wave Resultant wave

Waves in phase Waves out of phase

 Method of producing Interference bands
Slit B

Slit A P (Bright)

M (Dark)
O (Bright)

N (Dark)
Light Source
Q (Bright)

Slit C
Method of producing Interference bands
As shown in the fig, light passes through a very
narrow slit ‘A’ & then through the slits ‘B’ & ‘C’
which are close to each other.
Thus, two separate beams of light are formed
which will further travel towards a screen.
At a point ‘O’ where the rays travel equal
distances, and hence will be in phase, a bright
band is produced.
At a point ‘M’ where the path difference will be
equal to one half the wavelength, i.e. the
waves will be 180o out of phase, resulting in a dark
band.
 Method of producing Interference bands
Similarly at a point ‘P’ where the path
difference is one wavelength, the waves will
be again in phase and result in a bright
band.
Thus, if the path difference is an ‘even
multiple of half wavelengths’ the light waves
will be in phase resulting in bright spots on
the screen.
If the path difference is an ‘odd multiple of
half wavelengths’ the light waves will be out
of phase resulting in dark spots on the
screen.
Optical Flats
 Optical Flats
An optical flat is a circular piece of unstressed glass
or quartz usually about 5 cm or more. (High quality
optical quartz or borosilicate glass is commonly
used)
The upper & lower surfaces are ground optically flat
to get reference planes.
The flats will be coated with a thin film of titanium
oxide to reduce the light lost by reflection.
Type ‘A’ optical flats have only one flat surface while
type ‘B’ has two parallel flat surfaces.
Cleanliness is utmost important as dust will result in
inaccurate measurement. Also optical flats get
rapidly heated by handling & takes long time to
regain ambient temperature.
 Principle of Operation of Optical flats
(Interferometry applied to flatness testing)
out of phase
Dark band
In phase
J M
G
Optical flat
C F
A L
H
E
B

Surface tested
D K 
 Principle of Operation of Optical flats
When an optical flat is put into close contact with a
surface to be tested, it will produce interference
fringes, which indicates the contour of the surface.
A ray of light entering at A is partly reflected at B
along BC and partly transmitted to be reflected at D
along DEF.
The difference in lengths of paths is (BD+DE) and if
this is an even multiple of half wavelength of incident
light, a bright band will be seen.
If at another position G, if the path difference
(HK+KL) is an odd multiple of a dark band will
result.
 Principle of Operation of Optical flats
If the test surface is perfectly wrung together with
optical flat, then no air gap exists & hence no
interference fringes will be observed.
If the surface is nearly flat, widely spaced parallel
fringes will appear.
If the angle air wedge between test surface &
optical flat) is increased, the pitch of the fringes
become small.
The fringe pattern observed indicate the nature of
test surface. Some typical fringe patterns are
shown in fig which indicate the contour of the test
surface.
 Pattern of fringes for different contours
Fringe pattern

surface
(b)
(a)

(c)

(d)

convex
optical flat
convex
concave
 Pattern of fringes for different contours

(g)

(f)

(e)

concave convex
 Pattern of fringes for different contours
Pattern (a) & (b) represent flat surfaces.
The inclination of optical flat is more in
case (b) than case (a).
Fig (c) represents spherical surface. Figs
(d) & (e) indicate concave & convex
surfaces which is decided by pressing the
flat slightly at the centre & the edges.
Fig (f) is the fringe pattern obtained for a
smooth cylindrical surface.
Fig (g) represents the pattern over a V-
block.
 Autocollimator
Autocollimator is an optical device used for
measurement of small angular differences
accurately. It is essentially an ‘infinity telescope’
and a ‘collimator’ combined into one instrument.
A source of light ‘O’ is placed at the focal plane of
a collimating lens. The light rays from O incident
on the lens will travel as parallel beam & strike a
plane reflector which is normal to its optic axis.
The reflected rays travel back along the same path
and get refocused at the same point O.
If the plane reflector is tilted through a small angle
then the parallel beam gets deflected through 2
and will be refocused at O’, such that OO’=x= 2
f, where f is the focal length of the lens.
 Principle of reflection



O'
X

O
Point source

Focal plane Collimating lens

Plane reflector

Principle of reflection
 Principle of Microptic Autocollimator
Lamp

f
diffuser

Cross line 
(target) graticule

Eye piece Beam splitter

Measuring
graticule objective lens
Reflector
on workpiece
 Principle of Microptic Autocollimator
A cross line target graticule is positioned at the
focal plane of a telescope’s objective system.

When the target graticule is illuminated, rays of

light reach the objective lens via a beam splitter &
then move towards the reflector as a parallel beam
of light. In this mode, the system operates as a
“Collimator”.

The flat reflector reflects the light back along their

original paths. A portion of this light passes
straight through the beam splitter and image of
target cross line is visible through the eye piece. In
this mode the system operates as a ‘telescope
focused at infinity’.
 Principle of Microptic Autocollimator
If the reflector is tilted through a small angle,
then the reflected beam of light will be
deflected by twice the angle of tilt and will be
brought to focus in the plane of the target
graticule but linearly displaced from actual
target cross lines by an amount 2f.
Linear displacement of the graticule image
is directly measured by an eyepiece or
optical micrometer.
The focal length determines the sensitivity &
the angular measuring range.
Autocollimator models
Autocollimator
 Screw Threads
Screw threads are used;
To hold parts together (ex: V-threads)
To transmit motion & power (Square, Acme threads)
 Screw threads Terminology
PITCH: The distance from a point on a screw thread
to a corresponding point on the next thread measured
parallel to the axis.
LEAD: The distance a screw thread advances in one
turn. For a single start threads, lead=pitch,
For double start, lead=2xpitch, & so on.
THREAD FORM: The cross section of thread cut by a
plane containing the axis.
MAJOR DIAMETER: This is the diameter of an
imaginary cylinder, co-axial with the screw, which just
touches the crests of an external thread or roots
of an internal threads. It is also called as ‘Nominal
diameter’.
 SCREW THREAD TEMINOLOGY

EXTERNAL THREAD TERMINOLOGY

Pitch
Crest

Flank Addendum
Pitch line Flank
Thread angle
Angle Dedendum
Axial thickness

Root

Axis of thread

Major dia Pitch dia Minor dia

 Screw threads Terminology
Minor diameter: This is the diameter of an imaginary
cylinder, co-axial with the screw which just touches the
roots of an external thread or the crest of an internal
thread. This is also referred to as ‘ root’ or ‘core
diameter’.
Effective diameter or Pitch diameter: It is the diameter
of an imaginary cylinder coaxial with the axis of the
thread and intersects the flanks of the thread such that
width of the threads & width of spaces between
threads are equal.
Flank: It is the Thread surface that connects crest with
root.
Depth of thread: It is the distance between crest and
root measured perpendicular to axis of screw.
 Screw threads Terminology
Angle of thread: Included angle between sides of
thread measured in axial plane.
Helix angle: Angle that thread makes with plane
perpendicular to thread axis.
Flank angle: It is half the included angle of the
thread.
Addendum: It is the distance between the crest and
the pitch line measured perpendicular to axis of the
screw.
Dedendum: It is the distance between the pitch line &
the root measured perpendicular to axis of the screw.
 Errors in screw threads
There are six important elements in a thread,
errors in any one of which may lead to rejection.
They are Major dia, Minor dia, effective dia, Pitch,
Flank angle and the profile at root & crest.
Errors in screw threads may cause interference
with mating threads or slackness due to improper
flank contact.
Errors in pitch of screw thread may be classified
into three types;
(i) Periodic errors (ii) Progressive errors (iii) Erratic
errors
 (i) Periodic errors
Periodic errors are those which vary in magnitude
along the length of the thread and occurs at
regular intervals as shown in fig (a).
A ‘drunken thread’ is a particular case of periodic
error where the error repeats once per turn.
For a true thread, if the thread is imagined to be
unwound from the pitch cylinder, the helix will be a
straight line. For a drunken thread, it will be a
curve as shown in fig (b).
In a drunken thread, the advance of the helix is
irregular in one complete revolution. This is due to
thread being not cut to true helix.
 (i) Periodic errors

+
True thread
Cumulative
pitch error

Pitch
Max error Drunken
thread

_ Length of thread

Mean diameter
Fig (a)
Fig (b)

PERIODIC ERRORS DRUNKEN THREAD

Progressive pitch error: If the pitch of the
thread is uniform but is longer or shorter
than its nominal value, then the error is
called progressive as shown in fig (c). These
errors may be caused by a change in length
due to hardening, or by the errors in the
pitch of the lead screw, or by the faults in the
saddle guide ways.
Erratic errors: These errors vary in irregular
manner along the length of the thread as
shown in fig (d). Their causes are difficult to
identify. Possible sources are faults in the
machine and irregular cutting action resulting
from material non uniformity.
 (ii) Progressive & (iii) Erratic errors

Cumulative pitch error

Cumulative pitch error

Length of thread

Length of thread

Fig (c) Fig (d)

PROGRESSIVE ERROR ERRATIC ERRORS
 Measurement of major diameter
Clamp

Fiducial Supports
Indicator

Measuring
Anvils Holding centres

Micrometer head

BENCH MICROMETER
Bench Micrometer
BENCH MICROMETER
 Bench Micrometer
A good quality hand held micrometer is quite suitable for
measuring external thread, but only light pressure has to
be applied on the anvils to make only contact on the screw
threads.
Excessive pressure may lead to elastic deformation of
screw threads leading to errors.
A bench micrometer may be used for greater accuracy
which give direct readings of 0.0002 mm.
A standard cylinder of known diameter ‘S’ (which is nearly
equal to thread diameter) is held between centers & a
reading R1 between the fiducial indicator anvil &
micrometer anvil is taken. The cylinder is then removed.
Then the screw thread to be measured is held between
centers & a second micrometer reading R2 is taken.
Then D1 =S(+ or -) (R1~R2)
 Holding centre Holding centre

Measuring anvil Measuring anvil

Standard Cylinder

Screw Thread

Measurement of Major diameter

 Measurement of minor diameter
The principle of minor diameter is same as
that of measuring major diameter except
that v -shaped prisms are used.
Prisms of suitable sizes are placed between
the standard cylinder and the instrument
anvils in order to take a reading first
micrometer reading R1.
The standard cylinder is then replaced by
the screw thread and a second reading R2 is
taken as shown in fig.
Then the minor diameter D2=S +(or -)
(R1~R2)
 R1
S R2

Holding centre

Fiducial Prism
indicator
anvil Standard Cylinder

Screw Thread
Micrometer anvil
Prism

Measurement of Minor diameter

Measurement of Flank angle

0 10 Protractor arm
10
20
20
Pivot Protractor
Screw

Shadow Protractor
 Shadow protractor
Shadow protractor is most convenient method for
measurement of flank angles using optical projection.
The shadow of the thread is viewed on a screen and the
angles are measured by means of a protractor.
For clear definition of a thread form on the screen it is
necessary to project the light beam along the thread helix
angle by using a lamp & collimating unit.
The protractor is supported at the screen on a straight edge.
The pivoted arm of the protractor is rotated until its shadow is
parallel to the flank & the first reading is taken.
The screw is then rotated 90o to its axis and the protractor is
swung about its pivot and adjusted to measure the angle of
the same flank and a second reading is taken.
The mean of the two readings is then the angle between the
flank & normal to the screw axis.
Measurement of effective diameter by Two wire method

MEASUREMENT BY TWO WIRE METHOD

E M
Dia 'd'

P


Pitch line B C
F
C D E
G 
M



E
Measurement of effective diameter using two wire method
The effective diameter can not be measured directly
but can be calculated from the measurements made.
Wires of exactly known diameters are chosen such
that they contact the flanks at their straight portions.

If the size of the wire is such it contacts the flanks at

the pitch line, it is called the ‘best size’ of wire which
can be determined by geometry of screw thread.
The screw thread is mounted between the centers &
wires are placed in the grooves and reading M is
taken.
Then the effective diameter E =T+C
where T =M-2d, & C is a value which depends on
diameter of wire, pitch & angle of the screw thread.
 Measurement of effective diameter using two wire method
 d 
From the triangle OAB, OA  OB.cosec  . cos ec
2 2 2
d    d
AG  (OA  OG )   cos ec  1 OG  OB  
2 2   2
 P
In the triangle AFD, AF  DF.cot . But DF 
2 4
P  d  
and FG  (AF  AG )  . cot   cos ec  1
4 2 2 2 
Effective diameter E  T  (2  C) where C  2  FG
P  d  
 Effective diameter E  T  (2  FG )  T  2 . cot   cos ec  1
4 2 2 2 
P    
 E  T  2 . cot  d cos ec  1
2 2  2 
For whitworth thread,   55o  C  0.9605P  1.1657d
For metric thread   60o  C  0.866P  d
Effective diameter by three wire method

E M
Dia 'd'
P


A
h B C
H 

D
M
E
Effective diameter by three wire method
This method is more accurate than two wire
method as it ensures alignment of micrometer
faces parallel to the thread axis.
Here, three wires of exactly known diameters
are used, one on one side & the two on the other
side. The wires may be held in hand or hung
from a stand.
From the fig, M=diameter over the wires
E= effective diameter (to be found)
d= diameter of wires, h=height of wire center
above the pitch line, r=radius of wire, H=depth of
thread, D=major diameter of the thread.
 Effective diameter by three wire method

 d 
From the triangle ABD , AD  AB cosec  cosec
2 2 2
 P  H P 
H  DE cot  cot and CD   cot
2 2 2 2 4 2
d   P 
Further h  ( AD  CD )   cosec    cot 
2 2  4 2
Distance over the wires, M  E  2h  2r
  P    P 
i.e. M  E  2rcosec  cot   2r  E  2r 1  cosec   cot
 2 4 2  2 2 2
  P 
Or M  E  d 1  cosec   cot
 2 2 2
 For Whitworth thread,   55o , depth of thread  0.64P
 
 E  D - 0.64P, cosec  2.1657, and cot  1.921
2 2
M  D  3.1657d  1.605P where D is the major diameter of the thread.
For Metric threads, Depth of thread  0.6495P
 
 E  D  0.6495P,   60 , cos ec  2, cot  1.732
o

2 2
 M  D  3d  1.5155P
We can measure the value of M practically & then
compare with the theoretical values using formulae derived above.
After finding the correct value of M, as d is known, E can be found out.
 Pitch Measuring machine
Fiducial Pointer T Micrometer
indicator

Pointer K Spring loaded head

Base
stylus

centers Screw thread

Carriage
 Pitch Measuring machine
For measuring pitch, two methods are commonly
employed as follows;
(a) Using pitch measuring machine
(b) Using Toolmaker’s microscope
In a pitch measuring machine, the screw
thread is mounted between the centers of the
machine. A stylus inserted into a spring loaded
head makes contact at the thread flanks near
the pitch line.
The stylus is positioned by and an initmoved
parallel to the axis
 Tool maker’s microscope
Optical head
Eye piece

Column

work table
with carriage

Hollow base

Lamp

Collimator lens
Mirror
Base
TOOLMAKER’S MICROSCOPE
TOOLMAKER’S MICROSCOPE
GEAR TOOTH CALIPER
GEAR TESTER
GEAR TOOTH NOMENCLATURE
 Anvil
P
Wire

E M


Screw thread D G F

C 
M
 
A

MEASUREMENT OF EFFECTIVE DIAMETER BY TWO WIRE METHOD