c



 
O
 
Statement: Light travels in straight lines. This is known as µrectilinear propagation¶.
Evidence: The formation of shadows provides evidence that this is the case.

O


Light travels out from a light source as millions of rays. In the diagram below, some of the
rays are prevented from reaching the screen by the opaque object and a shadow is formed.

Object Shadow

  
This provides more evidence for rectilinear propagation. The image is inverted. A small
pinhole produces a sharp image, but also a dim one. A larger pinhole produces a brighter, less
sharp image. Multiple pinholes produce multiple images.

 
Mirrors reflect light rays. We can use a ray box to investigate what happens to a ray when it
reflects.

NORMAL ± Line drawn at 90o to the mirror

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE ± angle between normal and incident ray
ANGLE OF REFLECTION ± angle between normal and reflected ray
LAWS OF REFLECTION:

1.Ê Angle of incidence = angle of reflection

2.Ê Normal, incident, and reflected rays are in the same plane

Remember to label the direction of light with arrows.

 
Light travels at different speeds in different MEDIA. This can cause it to change direction.
When light enters an µoptically denser medium¶, it slows down and turns towards the normal.
When light enters a less dense medium, it speeds up and turns away from the normal. When
the incident ray is along the normal, it does not change direction ± but it does change speed.
Glass, Perspex, and water are optically denser than air.



The REFRACTIVE INDEX (n) is a measure of the optical density of a material. The
refractive index of a vacuum or air is 1. The greater the value of n, the slower the light travels
in the material.

For light travelling from air into another material, the relationship between refractive index,
ୱ୧୬୧
angle of incidence and angle of reflection is: . n is constant for light passing from air to a
ୱ୧୬୰Ǥ
given medium. This is known as Snell¶s Law.

  
For light passing from glass to air, there is a strong reflected ray, and a weak reflected ray. As
the angle of incidence increase, the angle of refraction increases until the refracted ray travels
along the boundary. This angle of incidence is called the CRITICAL ANGLE. If the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle, ALL the light is refracted.

The refractive index is related to the critical angle according to the following equation:

Sin c =

^   
Optical fibres are fine strands of glass. The fibre is covered with µcladding¶ that is less
optically dense than the fibre to ensure Total Internal Reflection (TIR) takes place. There is
usually a thin protective coating around the cladding.

Glass fibres can be used to transmit data using digital signals. Light entering the end of the
fibre undergoes TIR.
No (or very little) energy is lost so as much light leaves the fibre as enters it. Optical fibres
are also used in ENDOSCOPY. One bundle of fibres takes light inside the body to illuminate
it. A second bundle carries the image out to the surgeon.



In a real image, rays from the object pass through it; hence it can be projected onto a screen.
In a virtual image, no rays from the object pass through it; hence it cannot be projected onto a
screen.

    
    

VÊ Virtual ± no rays pass through it (so it can NOT be projected onto a screen)
VÊ Same size as the object
VÊ Laterally inverted ± right is left, but top is still top
VÊ As far behind the mirror as the object is in front (and a line joining the object and
image crosses the mirror at 90o)

Î  

The quantity of space occupied by an object is called its VOLUME. The SI unit for volume is
m3. This is a large volume so we often use cubic centimetres (cc) or litres (1000 cc) instead.
The volume and mass of an object are related by the property called density.
U


Density = 

U
In symbols: D = 

Density is measured in kg/m3, mass is measured in kg, and Volume is measured in m3.

       

1.Ê A force can be thought of as a push or pull of one body on another
2.Ê There are various types of force (e.g. gravitational, electrostatic, etc.)
3.Ê We use arrows to show the size and direction of forces.
4.Ê Force is measured in Newtons (N)

 
   
R.Ê If the forces of an object are balanced, it does not accelerate or decelerate. The
RESULTANT force is zero.
6.Ê If the forces are NOT balanced, it will accelerate or decelerate. The RESULTANT
force is NOT zero.


 
The earth¶s gravitational field acts on all objects close to the earth. The resulting force
towards the centre of the earth is called the WEIGHT of that object.

The weight of an object depends on its MASS, and also on the gravitational field strength (g).
Smaller planets have weaker gravitational fields so things weigh less on smaller planets, even
though the mass is the same.

Mass is the same everywhere in the universe, but weight is not.

Weight (N) = Mass (kg) x Gravitational Field Strength (N/kg)

W =m xg

µg¶ is the symbol for gravitational field strength. On earth, g = 9.8 N/kg (9.81«)


Å 
VÊ Pressure =


VÊ Pressure can be measured in N/m2 or Pascals.
VÊ A force distributed over a large area creates lower pressure than the same force acting
on a small surface area.
VÊ If objects are said to be µblunt¶, they really have a larger surface area than a µsharper¶
object with a smaller surface area.

In Physics, we usually assume that forces act at points. In real life, this never happens. Forces
are always spread over areas. The force divided by the area is PRESSURE. The unit of
pressure is N/m2 or Pascal. Pressure (N/m2) equals force (N) divided by area (m2 ).
Å
P=

A high pressure is applied when a force is concentrated on a small area. A lower pressure is
applied when a force is spread out over a large area.

 
  


When a force is applied to a (helical) spring, its length increases. For most materials, the
change in length is PROPORTIONAL to the force. This means that:

VÊ If you double the load, the extension is doubled

VÊ The graph is a straight line through the origin

When the force is removed, the spring returns to its original length. This is ELASTIC
BEHAVIOUR.
Eventually, the spring (or length of wire or rubber band) reaches its elastic limit and equal
increases in force produce reducing increases in length. This is INELASTIC (PLASTIC)
BEHAVIOUR. Up to the elastic limit:

F = kx

Where F = Force, x = extension (=current length - original length). k is the spring constant1
and equals the gradient of the F-x graph.

This is Hooke¶s Law for an elastic object [springs and wires]: Load is proportional to
extension.

!
   
Q: What causes pollen grains to move?
A:

VÊ Water is made up of particles (atoms and molecules)

VÊ Water molecules are too small to see
VÊ They are in RANDOM motion
VÊ They collide with the pollen grains
VÊ These are larger and visible
VÊ This causes BROWNIAN MOTION

 
There are three ³states´ of matter. These are SOLID, LIQUID, and GAS. The KINETIC
THEORY helps us understand how solids, liquids, and gases behave. This states that matter
is made up of tiny particles in constant motion {only at Absolute Zero will particles not be in
motion}.


 
Solid to liquid ± melting
Liquid to gas ± evaporation or boiling

         

Particles in a liquid have a random motion within a close-packed structure. Particles in a solid
vibrate about fixed positions within a close-packed Y
Y structure.

    
VIBRATION / OSCILLATION ± Motion to and fro about a fixed position

1
This is essentially the stiffness of the spring. It is measured in N/m, i.e. how many Newtons of force it takes to
extend the spring in question by a metre.
TRANSLATION ± motion between two distinct positions
ROTATION ± CIRCULAR MOTION about a NOMINAL position.

    

Electrical conductors allow electrons to move about freely within them. Metals are good
conductors. Insulators do not allow electrons to move about freely. Plastics are insulators.
Insulating materials can be charged by FRICTION. Positive means there are fewer electrons
than positive charges. The material has LOST electrons. Neutral means there are equal
numbers of electrons and positive charges (earth is neutral). Negative means there are more
electrons than positive charges. The material has GAINED electrons. LIKE charges repel, ad
UNLIKE charges attract. REMEMBER ± FOR THE TOPIC OF STATIC ELECTRICITY,
ONLY ELECTRONS MOVE (in solids ± unlike liquids in electrolyte where positive and
negative charge). Ê

    
 

Charge can be supplied by the electricity supply, instead of by friction. Practical uses include:

1)Ê Photocopying [aka xerography]

VÊ Toner (powdered ink) is attracted to charged areas on a drum

VÊ This is then transferred to paper and heated

2)Ê Electrostatic precipitators

VÊ Ash receives negative charge (from negative wires) as it rises

VÊ It is attracted to positive plates

3)Ê Inkjet printing

4)Ê Paint spraying

Ñ
   


A very large charge may cause sparks and this can be dangerous, e.g. when refuelling an
aircraft. Charge can build up due to friction between the fuel and the pipe so the aircraft and
the tanker must be earthed2 during fuelling to avoid sparks.

 
!  

A ping-pong ball is coated in conducting paint. It carries negative charges (free electrons)
from the cathode (left-hand plate) to the anode (right-hand plate). The ball then shuttles to
and fro at a steady rate. If this rate is big enough, the microammeter shows a steady current
reading. The higher the rate of shuttling, the larger the current, as more charge is transferred
2
Connected with a large neutral body such as the Earth to neutralise it.
per second. This experiment shows that an electric current (I) is the rate of flow of charges
(Q). Hence, current can be defined as the rate of flow of charge.
Lz ሺொሻ
Current (I) =
௧௜ሺ௧ሻ

Charge (Q) = Current (I) x time (t)

' 

Current ± ampere ± remember 1A = 1000 mA

Charge ± Coulombs
Time ± seconds

" 
 


Current is measured by an ammeter in series. An ideal ammeter has no resistance. Voltage is
measured using a voltmeter in parallel. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance. Which is a)
easier to measure and b) why? [It is therefore easier to measure voltage because, since it is
measured in parallel, it is not necessary to disconnect anything.]

#$   

%
The total CURRENT flowing into any JUNCTION in a circuit is equal to the total current
flowing out of the junction. This explains why the current is the same at all points in a series
circuit.

Î 
#$   

%
The battery voltage is equal to the sum of the other voltages around any LOOP / ROUTE /
PATH in a circuit. This explains why:

VÊ Voltages around a series circuit add up to the battery voltage

VÊ Voltage is the same across components in parallel

R


  
 
 
Ú௧ ௗ௜
௧ ሺሻ
Average speed =
Ú௧ ௧௜ሺ
ሻ

஽௜
௧ 
Speed = Ú௜

Speed is a SCALAR quantity because it only has magnitude. Velocity is a VECTOR quantity
because it has magnitude and direction.
Mass is scalar. Weight, as all forces, is vector.

 
Acceleration is a vector quantity ± it has magnitude and direction. Deceleration (or
retardation) is a negative acceleration.
Lz ௜ ௩ ௜௧௬
Avge acceleration = ௧௜௧ 

Lz ௜ 
ௗ
We sometimes simplify this to: Acceleration =
௧௜௧ 

௩ି
a=
௧

V = FINAL VELOCITY
U = INITIAL VELOCITY

[Don¶t useµs¶ for speed because it actually represents µdisplacement¶]

Unit of acceleration is: m/s/s (not technically correct but ok in exam) OR m/s2 OR m/s-2.

Ñ  & 
 

VÊ Straight line means constant velocity
VÊ Slope (i.e. gradient) = velocity
VÊ Curve means acceleration (or deceleration)
VÊ Instantaneous velocity is the slope of the tangent at that point

Î  & 
 

VÊ Straight line means constant acceleration
VÊ Slope = acceleration
VÊ Curve means acceleration is changing
VÊ Area under curve/line = distance travelled

N.B. Displacement (s) = distance as a vector quantity.

G
 'O
 "  
What are the 2 things that affect the (rate of) acceleration of an object? Resultant/unbalanced
force and mass.

Force (N) = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s/s)

Ê Ê


If the UNBALANCED (i.e. resultant) force is zero, then the object will NOT be accelerating.
If the unbalanced force is in the direction of motion, it will accelerate. If the unbalanced force
is in the opposite direction to the motion, it will decelerate. Why does a ball decelerate on the
way up and accelerate on the way down? Because the resultant force (i.e. weight and some
not very significant air resistance) is in the opposite (going up) / same (going down) direction
to the motion.

For a constant mass, (unbalanced) Force is proportional to acceleration. The gradient of a

force-acceleration graph is equal to the mass.

If the unbalanced force is constant, mass is inversely proportional to acceleration.

 
  

Stopping Distance = Thinking Distance + Braking Distance.

Thinking distance is the distance travelled during the reaction time (i.e. before the brakes are
applied). It is affected by speed and also by age, drugs, alcohol 3, distractions, tiredness, etc.
Braking distance is the distance travelled after the brakes are applied. It is affected by mass
and speed and also by road conditions, design and maintenance of the brakes, tyres, etc.

N.B. Note spelling of BRAKING.

(     
#
 %

The change of gPE of an object depends on its mass (m), the gravitational field strength (g),
and the change in height (¨h): í
Ê Ê

í Ê Ê

$   

The Kinetic Energy of an object depends on its mass (m) and on its velocity (v): KE = ½.m.v2


       
 

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be transferred into other forms. There are
many situations where KE is transferred into gPE and vice versa. If the amount of one form
of energy reduces, then the amount of other types of energy must change by an equal amount.
This is because the total amount of energy remains constant.

    
$ ) 

In problems involving gPE/KE transfers, the key principle is that:

The total energy remains constant

If the only energy transfers are between gPE and KE:

Reduction in gPE = gain in KE
Or

3
Although technically alcohol „
a drug
reduction in KE = gain in gPE
or generally
¨gPE = ¨KE

 * ! 
A pendulum of mass 0.1kg is released from a height of 0.1m above its lowest possible point.

a)Ê What is the reduction in gPE between release and its lowest position?

¨gPE = mass x g x ¨h
= 0.1 x 10 x 0.1
= 0.1 Joules

b)Ê What is the maximum speed?

Ù
„




„
„

¨KE = ¨gPE
Ù 

„

 „
„


„
 

KEmax = 0.1 Joules

„


Ù
„


KEmax = ½m v2
0.1 = 0.R x 0.1 x v2
v = 1.4m/s

c)Ê What is the speed when the height is 0.0Rm below the high point?

¨gPE = ¨KE = 0.R x 0.1

= 0.0R Joules
= ½m v2
0.0R = 0.R x 0.1 x v2
v = 1m/s

^$( ^" Ñ^G +

Work is done whenever energy is transferred. In fact work done is EQUAL to the energy
transferred.

Work done (Joules) = Energy transferred (Joules)

GCSE calculations involve MECHANICAL work done. Mechanical work is done when a
force moves.

Work done (J) = Force (N) x distance (m)

W = F.d
KE is the work done when«
Change in gPE is the work done when«

The KE of a body is the work done when the body is accelerated to a velocity v (from rest).
The increase in gPE of a body is the work done in raising the height of a body.
^ &, *+
The faster a car climbs a hill, the more power it consumes. Power is the rate of doing work. It
is also the rate at which energy is transferred.
`ௗ 
௬௧
ௗ
Power = ௧௜௧ 
= ௧௜௧ 
Energy transferred/time taken

Unit of Power is the Watt (W), 1W = 1J/s

`
[The equation can be written: P = . This is OK for GCSE but should really be written in
௧
full].

 * 
 
Ñ 

The work done by the brakes is equal to the Kinetic energy transferred (to heat).
Work done = Braking force (F) x braking distance (s)
KE transferred = Initial KE ± Final E = ½mv2 ± 0
F.s = ½mv2

  
ሺ
ሻ
௬௧ ௧
Efficiency = ሺ௧௧ ሻ
௬௜ ௧
Or

ܹ‫ݐݑ݌ݐݑ݋݇ݎ݋‬


ܹ‫ݐݑ݌݊݅݇ݎ݋‬


Or
t‫ݐݑ݌ݐݑ݋ݎ݁ݓ݋‬


t‫ݐݑ݌݊݅ݎ݁ݓ݋‬

Efficiency has no units but can be expressed as a %.

It must be less than 1 (or 100%).

 
   - 
.-  
.

The weight of a body acts through its centre of gravity. The stability of an object is related to
the angle through which it is ³tipped´ before it ³topples´. Increasing the size of the base
and/or reducing the height of the centre of gravity will make an object more stable (because
this increases the angle). An object will not ³topple´ (i.e. is stable) providing the centre of
gravity is above a point on the base.

"^" G
Definition:
The moment of a force about a point depends on the force and the perpendicular distance
from the force to that point.
Moment of a force (N.m) = force (N) x perpendicular distance to point (m)

Principle of Moments:
If an object is balanced (i.e. in equilibrium)«
Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments.
This is the principle of moments.

Perpendicular distance

"    

Is the body in equilibrium?
If so, sum of the clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments.
Where are you taking moments about?

IN EQUILIBRIUM

þ MOMENTS = MOMENTS
MOMENTS ABOUT X

E.g.

In eqbm.
M= M

(F1 x d1) = (F 2 x d2 )

Î 
   

Current is the rate of flow of charge:
ொ
I=
௧
(I is in Amps, Q in Coulombs, t in seconds).
Voltage is the energy transferred per coulomb of charge:


V=
ொ
(V in volts, E in joules, Q in coulombs. I = Current in Amp(ere)s (A)
  a

  
The total current flowing into a junction is equal to the total current flowing out of the
junction.

Î 
a
   

The supply voltage is equal to the sum of all the other voltages around any loop in a circuit.

 
Resistance reduces the flow of charge in a circuit. The greater the Resistance, the less the
current (for a particular voltage). Resistance in a metal wire is caused by ›  Ê between
moving  › Y and stationary  
. These collisions are the means of  Y

Êtransfer (or
power consumption). Without resistance, no energy is transferred. Longer wires have more
resistance than shorter wires. Thicker wires have less resistance than thinner wires. The
resistance increases if the temperature increases. The units of resistance are OHMS. We
calculate resistance from the formula:
ZሺZሻ
R (â) = ‫ܫ‬ሺ‫ܣ‬ሻ
V

R I


V
 

!
    
In a wire at constant temperature (or a resistor), current is proportional to voltage and the
resistance is constant. A thinner, longer wire has more resistance. In a filament lamp, the
current is not proportional to voltage ± resistance increases as voltage increases. Diodes allow
current to flow in one direction only (+ to -).

I I
I

VV V V
Resistor Filament bulb Diode

O Ñ  
VÊ Semiconductor devices.
VÊ More energy on device reduces Resistance (increases current).

R
R

 T L




Power is the rate of energy transfer. Electrical Power is:

Power = Voltage x Current

P (W) = V (V) x I (A)

E.g. I = 2A
V = 3V

R =  = 1.Râ
P = V.I = 6W

/     

A direct current is always in the same direction but an alternating current changes direction.
The electricity in our homes is AC with a frequency of R0 Hz.
What do we pay for in our electricity bills?
The answer is ENERGY. Electricity companies measure energy in Kilowatt hours (kWh).
Energy = Power x time
Energy in Joules = Power in Watts x Time in seconds
Energy in kW.h = Power in kW x Time in hours
1 UNIT of energy is 1kWh. It is the energy converted when a 1kW appliance operates for 1
hour.
The cost of electricity is simply the number of units consumed x the cost per unit.
E = V.I.t

 

Appliances are fitted with FUSES as safety devices. The ³size´ of the fuse (in Amps) should
be just above the normal operating current.
Why is this?

Energy is supplied into our homes using a LIVE and a NEUTRAL wire. The live wire varies
from +230 Volts to -230 Volts R0 times every second. The neutral is maintained constantly at
zero Volts. Circuits are completed when the live and neutral wires are connected to
appliances; current flows and energy is transferred.
Why must the live and neutral wire be insulated from each other?
A third wire is connected to ³earth´. Usually, no current passes through this wire.
Why do we have an earth wire which normally carries no current?

FUSES and CIRCUIT BREAKERS prevent FIRE due to electrical faults. Circuits can
overheat when too much current flows. A fuse is designed to ³blow´ before overheating of
cables, etc. can occur. A circuit breaker uses a simple electromagnet to switch off the current
when it is too high. It can be reset.
The earth wire together with a fuse (or circuit breaker) prevents ELECTROCUTION. If a
metal casing becomes ³live´, a very high current flows ³to earth´. This blows the fuse and the
appliance stops working.

DOUBLE INSULATED appliances don¶t need an earth wire because any metal parts are
completely surrounded by an insulating polymer.

/
When heat energy is transferred, the temperature of an object may change.
Heat energy can be transferred by CONDUCTION, CONVECTION, RADIATION or
EVAPORATION.

  
Heat causes atoms to vibrate and pass on their energy to neighbouring atoms. If there are free
electrons, these can transfer the energy more rapidly by bypassing immediate neighbours.
Why are metals good conductors and how are they different from insulators?

  
When a FLUID is heated, it expands, becomes less DENSE and rises. Colder, denser fluid
sinks to take its place. The process continues as convection currents are established.
Why doesn¶t convection happen in solids?
  
All objects radiate heat energy (even very cold ones!) but the power radiated depends on the
temperature.
Radiated heat travels as electromagnetic waves (just like light) ± it travels at the speed of
light through a vacuum and can be reflected and focussed. Dull, black surfaces are good
emitters and absorbers of heat. Shiny, white surfaces are poor emitters and absorbers.

What do the following facts tell us about heat radiation?

A)Ê There is life on Earth

B)Ê Thermal imaging cameras can be used in the Arctic or the Sahara

Describe experiments to show that:

A)Ê Heat can be reflected and focussed

B)Ê A white surface emits less heat than a black one


All wave motion involves OSCILLATION. Waves transfer energy but without any flow of
material.

There are two types of waves:

TRANSVERSE waves have oscillations perpendicular to the motion of the wave (e.g. water
[surface], light).

LONGITUDINAL waves have oscillations in the direction of motion of the wave (e.g.
sound).

Ñ  


WAVELENGTH is the distance between any point on a wave and its equivalent point on the
next wave.

AMPLITUDE is the maximum distance that a point moves from its resting position when a
wave passes.

FREQUENCY is the number of waves passing any point each second. It is measured in Hertz
(Hz). It is also the number of complete oscillations per second by a particle in the wave.

The amplitude depends on the energy of the wave.

The PERIOD of a wave (T) is the time for one complete wave to pass measured in seconds. It
 
is also the time for one complete oscillation (T = ; f = )
 Ú
$  "" ! 
Wavefronts are always at 90 degrees to the direction of movement of the waves (e.g. the rays
for light waves).

The frequency of a wave is NOT affected by reflection or refraction.

  
v = f?

v is speed in m/s. f is the frequency in Hz and ? is wavelength in m. This equation works for
all typed of wave.

Derive the wave equation starting with the formula for speed.

 
Sound travels as longitudinal waves through a medium ± it cannot travel in a vacuum. Echoes
are caused by the reflection of sound. Sounds travel faster in solids than in liquids or gases
because the particles are closer together.
Sound can be reflected, refracted and diffracted [not on syllabus] (just like any other wave)
and it obeys the wave equation.
The frequency range for human hearing is 20 Hz ± 20 000 Hz.

How could you measure the speed of sound?

By measuring the time taken for a sound to travel a known distance, the speed can be
ௗ௜
௧ 
calculated (speed = ௧௜ ). This can be applied to echoes (reflections of sound).
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VÊ Units:  or Pascals
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SOLID LIQUID GAS

melt evaporation

break bonds or boiling

tight pack further apart much further apart

vibrate fixed position attraction less Ek much higher
Ek relatively low Ek higher forces are negligible
move around move around at high speed
 If the atoms are [totally] stationary, this is equivalent to Ek = 0, and a temperature of 0K, or
-273oC is reached.

There is a range of kinetic energies in the atoms of a liquid. During evaporation, some of the
fastest molecules leave the surface of the liquid.

At the boiling point, all of the particles are effectively evaporating, but at the same
temperature.

(
The atoms in a gas have a range of speeds and kinetic energies. All of the atoms are moving
in random directions. When they hit each other and the walls of the container, they will exert
a force, and change direction. The forces due to the individual atoms will be spread over an
Å
area, and since P =
, the atoms of the gas will exert a pressure.

The pressure due to a gas is used in both external and internal combustion engines. The
energy of the moving atoms is used to drive a piston which in turn can be used to turn the
wheels of a steam engine, car, etc.

There are three macroscopic properties for a gas ± pressure, volume, and temperature. In this
experiment, the pressure and temperature variations are investigated, while the volume is kept
constant. The graph is extrapolated to find the temperature at which the pressure would be
zero, i.e. the molecules have stopped moving. Kelvin moved the pressure axis to -273oC, and
redefined this as 0 Kelvin. The graph is now a straight line passing through the origin, and
therefore:

P À absolute temp
@
Ú
= constant

! O
 !   Bourdon Pressure
Gauge to measure
pressure of air
Fixed mass of dry
air at constant
temperature

Oil
Ruler to
measure
µvolume¶
of air
To

compression
pump
ÊÊ
ÊÊ Êʛ
Ê Ê
ÊÊ Ê Ê The results show that within experimental error,
2.R 16 6.3 40.0 P x V = constant, and the graph shows that
2.3 17 R.9 39.1 pressure À

2.1 19 R.3 39.9 ௩
2.0 20.R 4.9 41.0 (This can also be stated
1.8R 22 4.R 40.7 pressure inversely proportional to volume)
1.68 2R 4.0 42.0 This is Boyle¶s Law.
1.R 28 3.6 42.0
1.4 30 3.3 42.0
1.3 33 3.0 42.9
1.0 42 2.4 42.0

VÊ P x V = constant

VÊ P x  = straight line through (0,0)

VÊ P À


VÊ þP = constant x  (0,0)
y=m x+c

VÊ Pressure inversely proportional to volume

@
VÊ P À T (v constant); þ = constant
Ú
VÊ P x V = constant (temp. constant)
a third law states that

VÊ V À T (P constant) n = constant
Ú
@ 
VÊ PV = constant; Ú = constant; Ú = constant

@௫
VÊ = constant IDEAL GAS EQUATION
Ú

   G 

Atomic nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons. These comprise nearly all of the mass of
the atom. The orbiting electrons have negligible mass by comparison. Nuclei are represented
A
by the Z X notation (A = neutrons + protons; Z = protons). Nuclei which contain the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Some of the isotopes
of a given element will be unstable. To become more stable, they emit radioactive radiation ±
4
these include Į, ȕ, and Ȗ radiation. Į is a helium nucleus, 2 He . ȕ is an electron emitted
1 1 0
when a neutron turns into a proton and an electron. n np + e
0 1 -1
 Gamma radiation is a very high frequency electromagnetic wave. The emission of radioactive
radiation always takes place in an attempt to improve the stability of the remaining nucleus.

!*
   
This is a totally random process and is present everywhere and comes from all directions.
Some of the sources of background radiation are building materials (especially granite),
cosmic radiation (from the Big Bang), the Sun, etc. Background radiation is greater in
mountainous areas because of all the granite rocks. In radioactive experiments, the
background count in Becquerels (Bq) should always be subtracted from the actual count to
reduce the corrected count.

/& 
The half-life of a radioactive sample is the time taken for half of the radioactive nuclei to
decay.

This decay is totally random and the initial number of radioactive nuclei is immaterial. Its
value can vary for different isotopes between fractions of a second and millions of years. The
curve is called an exponential decay curve.

    


Positively charged alpha particles were directed at a thin gold foil. It was expected that the
alpha particles would pass straight through the foil. However, about 1 in 2000 bounced back
in the original direction. The conclusion was that the atom was not solid as in the kinetic
theory model, but was made up of a tiny positive nucleus (the electron shells are a very long
way from this nucleus).

The nucleus is approximately 10-1R m in size, the atom is about 10-10 m, i.e. about 10R or
100,000 times bigger.

(
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gold foil
most pass
vacuum straight
through

beam of

Į particles '
zinc
sulphide
screen
microscope

some deviated by
large angle '
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 COOLANT ± Heat from the fission reaction is carried away by carbon dioxide at high
pressure. This heat is used to make steam to drive turbines and hence dynamos to generate
electricity.

WASTE PRODUCTS ± Spent fuel rods are removed from the core and sent to a reprocessing
plant. Here, unused uranium is separated from the radioactive waste products together with
small quantities of Plutonium-239. This is used as the fuel in fast breeder reactors and in the
production of nuclear weapons ± it is the most hazardous substance known.


    

   


Paperclips
Strength of electromagnet depends on:

1.Ê Current
2.Ê Number of turns / length
3.Ê Nature of core (best with soft iron)

Ñ    "
 

N
S S demagnetised
N

S N S N
partially magnetised
S N S N
S N
S N S N S N
fully magnetised
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When there is relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage (or
electromotive force, or emf) is induced and a current will flow. The size of the induced emf
and current depends on: ±

1.Ê The rate at which the magnetic field is cut

2.Ê The strength of the magnetic field
3.Ê The length of wire affected by the field

Michael Faraday discovered this around 1830.

S N

galvanometer
(sensitive ammeter)

When the magnet is brought towards the coil, the induced current flows in such a direction
that it opposes the motion (i.e. a north pole is induced in the coil). The galvanometer deflects
to the right. When the magnet is withdrawn from the coil, a south pole is induced, and the
galvanometer deflects to the left. The induced current flows in such a direction as to oppose
the motion of the magnet. This is called Lenz¶s Law, and it ensures that the Principle of
Conservation of Energy is obeyed. Fleming¶s Right Hand Rule can be used to predict the
direction of the current.




 
 * 


induced magnetic force

strong magnet

aluminium tube

weight

When the magnet is moving the aluminium tube is a conductor in a moving magnetic field.
As a result, an emf and current are induced in the aluminium tube. These are in a direction to
oppose the motion. The resultant force (weight-induced force) is much smaller than the
weight alone, and so the magnet falls at a slow, steady speed.

This type of electromagnetic braking has various uses, e.g. electric trains, some theme park
rides, and protection systems in lifts. Another use is in speedometers.
( 
This is very similar to the motor, except that it does not involve a battery. The coil is turned
by some external force, e.g. steam, in a gas-fired power station, the turning blades of a
windmill, etc. When the coil is in the position shown, it is cutting the magnetic field at right-
angles, and so the maximum emf and current are induced. When the coil has moved through
90o, it is then moving parallel to the magnetic field, i.e. no longer cutting the field, and the
induced emf and current will be zero. It can be shown that the emf and current are sinusoidal
or cosinusoidal [sin/cos waves].

brushes
N

- V+
S

slip rings


  
Current and voltage are only induced in the secondary coil when the magnetic field is
changing in the soft iron core. This requires AC in the primary coil.

It can be shown that: ±

  ௗ ௬௩௧ 
  ௗ ௬௧



= or =
௜ ௬௩௧  ௜ ௬௧


Also, by conservation of energy: ±

input power = output power

Ip x Vp = Is x Vs
 


Transformer equation: = (= )