Sublevel Caving Technique

Sublevel caving technique-
Simplicity and low cost are the essence
SUBLEVEL CAVING TECHNIQUE

SIMPLICITY AND LOW COST ARE THE ESSENCE
Author: Partha Das Sharma, B.Tech(Hons.) in Mining Engineering,

E.mail: [email protected],
Blog/Website: http://miningandblasting.wordpress.com/
1. Introduction - Sublevel caving is usually carried out when mining of the orebody
through an open pit method is no longer economically feasible. Mining now proceeds
underground, underneath the open pit. At first, both a raise and a network of tunnels are
made. At different sublevels, jumbos are used for long hole drilling, drilling directly
upwards into the roof. These holes are then charged with explosives and blasted. As the
roofs cave in, the rock from the ground surface will cave in to the underground as well.
Scoop trams or Load Haul Dump (LHD) vehicles transport the muck, loosened rocks, to
an ore pass where the rocks are lifted to the surface. Drilling and blasting takes place at
different underground levels of the mine at the same time. As the blasted rock, muck, is
continuously transported to the ore pass, more blasting will encourage the roof to cave in
to the void and further into the drift. This is repeated until blasting, caving and
transporting depletes the entire orebody.
2. Modern day Sublevel caving - The sublevel caving technique, as the method is
applied today, the whole quantity of ore between the different sublevels is broken using
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Author: Partha Das Sharma, E.mail: [email protected],
controlled drilling and blasting. Sublevel caving is in many respects simple. It can be
used in orebodies with very different properties and it is easy to mechanize. In sublevel
caving, ore is developed from a series of sublevels spaced at regular intervals throughout
the orebody. Mining begins at the top of the orebody. A series of ring patterns is drilled
and blasted from each sublevel. Broken ore is mucked out after each blast and the
overlying waste rock caves on top of the broken ore.
This technique is inexpensive, highly mechanized and yields a large amount of muck. It
is normally used in massive, steeply-dipping orebodies with considerable strike length.
Since dilution and low recoveries are unavoidable, sublevel caving is used to mine low-
grade, low-value ore-bodies.
However, studies are going on in various levels to eliminate the shortcoming of the
system. The designs which are used and the measures which can be taken to eliminate the
disadvantages are less understood. Possibly the modern version of the method was
developed in the iron mines of Sweden. Over the past few years, the scale of sublevel
caving has increased markedly with LKAB being a leader in this regard. Today, with the
continuing push to increase mining scale, a fundamental question is whether the gravity
flow principles which served as the design basis for the small-scale sublevel caving mine
designs of the past can be applied at much larger scales or whether some other approach
is required.
In fact, in design and operating practices, sublevel caving is among the most advanced of
all mining methods. Sound engineering is indispensable to its conduct. The reason is
related to the complexity of the caving action and the necessity of controlling it.
The increased sublevel interval requires diligence in drilling, loading and blasting
practices. The advent of improved drilling technology has made increased sublevel
intervals possible in the sublevel cave mine. Hydraulic tube rod drill rigs have made long
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up-holes accurate with less than 2% deviation. Apart, blasting pattern used has also plays
very important role. Proper fragmentation and blasting efficiency is evaluated by
measuring the percentage of muck which is able to pass the designated blast size.
3. Description of sublevel caving method – An underground mining method used in

large, steeply dipping orebodies where the wall rock is of an incompetent nature. Parallel
drives are developed in the ore on equally spaced levels. The ore is then drilled and
blasted using longholes between levels, often in a circular or fan pattern, on retreat. The
weight of the rock is used to assist breakage. The upper levels are mined ahead of lower
levels. Broken ore is extracted from the drive before the next blast takes place. The wall
rock caves in when the ore is extracted.
As discussed, in sublevel caving, the hanging wall is allowed to cave in as the ore is
drilled, blasted and removed. The wall caving is induced by mining the ore in controlled
sequence, usually from hanging wall to footwall and from top to bottom. Sublevel caving
is often used in conjunction with surface mining.
Sublevel caving extracts the ore via sublevels, which are developed in the orebody at
regular vertical spacing. Each sublevel features systematic layout with parallel drifts,
along or across the orebody. In the wide orebody, sublevel drifts start from the footwall
drive, to continue across, reaching the hanging wall. In the orebody lesser width, sublevel
drifts are branched off in both directions, from a centre crosscut drive.
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Development volume to prepare sublevel caving is extensive, compared to other mining
methods. However, development is mainly drifting to prepare sublevels. Drifting is a
simple and routine job for the mechanised mine. Development of sublevels is done
efficiently, in an environment of multiple faces on one sublevel available to drill rigs and
loaders.
A ramp connection is needed to connect different sublevels, and communicate with main
transport routes. Ore passes are also required, at strategically locations along sublevels,
for LHD-loaders to dump ore from sublevels, to be collected and transported on the
haulage level below.
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Longhole rigs drill the ore section above the drift, in a fan spread pattern. Longhole
drilling is a procedure which is done independent of other jobs, often well ahead of
charging. Thus, drilling and charging-blasting longholes can be timed to suit the mine’s
production schedules. Blasting on each sublevel starts at the hanging wall, mining then
retreats toward the footwall. Miners aim the cave to follow an approximately straight
front, and adjacent drifts mined at similar pace. A section through the cave to show upper
sublevels one step ahead of sublevels underneath.
Blasting the longhole fan breaks the ore volume covered by the fan-pattern. As the cave
is filled with fractured rock, most of the fresh ore remains in the cave, while some caves
into the drift opening. Mucking out with LHD-loaders creates a cave pattern of ore and
waste from above. Loading continues until the operator decides that waste dilution is too
high, and stops the mucking, and transfers to a nearby drift heading with a fresh cave. In
the meantime, the empty heading is occupied by the charging team, to charge next ring of
longholes.
Ore handling involves mucking out at the cave, transport on sublevels and dumping into
ore passes. Waste dilution and ore losses are drawbacks for sublevel caving. Waste
dilution varies between 15 and 40%, ore losses from 15 % to 25 %, depending on local
conditions. Dilution is of less influence for orebodies with diffuse boundaries, where the
host rock contains low grades minerals.
Parameters directly influence flow behaviour have been found to include the geometry of
the extraction layout and drives, sublevel height, blast ring design, material
characteristics of the blasted and waste material, and draw control methodology. In most
of the sublevel caving system blasting parameters dominate in association with recovery
when compared to drawpoint and geological parameters.
Generally, sublevel caving method employs use of fan drilling using long and small-
diameter holes, between sublevels or drill drifts to undercut and blast the ore-zone. An
initial slot is developed at the wallrock, and vertical uphole fans are drilled in a diamond
pattern from sublevel in sequence. Generally, eight holes, inclined 80 to 85 degrees
toward the slot, are drilled. Hole diameter average 51 mm, Burden and Spacing vary from
1.2 to 1.8 m and 1.5 to 1.8 m respectively. Blasting is performed against broken waste
rock as wall rock caves. Generally, specific-charge range from 0.3 to 0.4 kg/ton.
4. Below are some salient features of Sublevel caving technique:

Application * Weak walls and strong ore preferred though weak ore can be
mined too.
* Steep dip:
A vertical dip is best, while dip>60 is fine too. Possibility of
loss of ore in non-vertical steep dips
Considerable loss of reserves in flat dips
* Preferably, the ore and the rock should be easily separable
* Surface should be amenable to caving (not an inhabited or the
watershed area etc)
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Development * Significant. Almost 20% of the ore is mine during
development
* Sublevels are established generally at 7.6-12.2 m vertical
intervals and about 10.7 m horizontal intervals
The vertical interval is dependent on the drilling accuracy
and the dip of the orebody
The horizontal and vertical spacings affect the eccentricity
of the cave
* The size and shape of the production drift affects the draw
Drift should be as wide as possible
Should give good support to the back and the brows
If the back is arched, the draw is mostly at the center and
none on the sides
If the back has to be arched for ground support, the drifts
should be closer
Ore remnants left behind (due to being out of reach of
LHD’s) increase with height. Therefore, drift height should
be as small as possible (usually about 3-3.2 m).
* Slot raises are driven at the hanging wall end of the
production drift all the way up to the next level
* Haulage levels driven in waste
In wide orebodies, transverse layouts may be used (ore
widths should be > 12-15 m)
Here, the production drifts are perpendicular to the strike
Recovery better than longitudinal layouts
Haulage drift in waste (footwall), about 9 m from ore
contact. This distance is maintained so that blasting does not
occur too close to it. Diamond drilling is done to obtain ore
boundaries so that the haulage drift is neither too close nor
too far away.
o o
* Ramps may be driven at 15 -18 , to production levels to
provide access
Production * Long, fan holes drilled 70-80 degrees forward (about 8 holes
totaling 100 m in a ring)
* Side holes, if drilled, should be steeper than 70 degree
Side holes reduce length of holes driven up from the level
below
If flat holes drilled to the sides, however, the blasted
material from the side holes cannot be extracted from the
working level. Therefore, the neighboring fan hole blasted
material does not get enough room to expand
* Brows should be supported if necessary
If brows collapse, ore floods the drift and covers some rings
Also, the loader has problems loading as the ore does not
stack high
If brows are uneven, the ore funnels down the high spots
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If sloughing or high brows are noticed from development, it
may be decided to blast more than 2 rings just to advance
through the area
* If drilling is not accurate, a bridge/arch may be left in the
stope
Re-slotting may become necessary
* Powder factor high as blasting is always against blasted muck
(almost twice that of blasting against an open face)
* LHD’s used for mucking
* Good ventilation necessary as all working faces are dead ends
* Productivity is quite high (about 36 ton/miner-shift)
Comments * High dilution from caved waste. Ore losses occur as well since
not all mined ore can be recovered.
* Ore/waste flow cannot be predicted accurately prior to mining.
* Probably the most economical when mining in weak strata
* Development openings are not kept open for the entire life of
mine. Once a level is extracted, the development openings are
consumed.
* Safe, since all mining activities are in small, protected openings.
* High degree of mechanization possible.
5. Discussion on ore flow, drilling and blasting for efficient workings:

* Fragmentation is of key importance to sublevel cave stope. Proper fragmentation of the
ore column resulted in improved efficiency for the other mine operations and was critical
to recovery.
* Underground observations indicate that the draw-points must be wide enough to
account for inconsistent blast results and provide regular flow.
* The draw-point width determines the width and flow strength of the central channel
which is important to achieving high recovery of the ring.
* The middle holes of the ring are fired first and can make first use of the swell volume
offered by the underlying sublevel drift.
* The central holes are drilled subvertical, fairly parallel, and relatively close to one
another. The result is a relatively high and uniform specific charge compared to the other
holes in the round. Thus, one would expect the best, most uniform fragmentation.
* The ore material in the central part of the round can make the best use of the effect of
gravity in directing it to the drawpoint.
* All of the material in the fan is drilled and blasted.
* Because of the fan geometry, the amount of explosive/unit volume and hence the
fragmentation varies throughout the fan.
* The ore material in the centre part of the fan and the lower part of the fan has a much
higher specific charge than that at the boundaries of the ring.
* Furthermore, the “cave” which lies in front of the blasted slice is an eclectic mixture of
waste rock and ore remnants.
* Its mobility varies with location and with time (it changes with the extraction
geometry).
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* Finally, most rock materials upon being blasted would like to bulk (swell) of the order
of 50%.
* In sublevel caving, it is the sublevel drift located at the bottom end of the fan which is
the primary provider of swell space for the ore in the ring.
* It has been observed that, increased amounts of oversize in the ring decreases recovery,
proving the importance of proper fragmentation for sublevel cave operation.
* Recoveries could be less than 60% if the ring is composed of 30% oversize. The
oversize in the draw-point reduces the mobility of the ore, thus preventing high recovery.
* Effective blast patterns also take into consideration the amount of benching.
* High powder factors are also required to reduce benching but may create excessive
blast damage and over-break.
* Practical solutions, such as, the blast pattern, blasthole size, primer sequencing, powder
factor and degree of fragmentation are to be considered in order to be efficient.
6. Design parameters and some preliminary design rules – Design parameters in

sublevel caving are largely a function of caving mechanics, the branch of rock mechanics
related to the breakage and collapse of consolidated materials in place and their flow
downward by gravity. Although, the ore has to be drilled and blasted, the overlying rock
comprising capping or hanging wall is undercut and caves. Extremely careful controls
must be exercised in drawing the ore to avoid excessive dilution. Draw control is the
practice of regulating the withdrawal of ore in the sublevel crosscuts so as to optimize the
economics of draw.
Preliminary design rules:

* Sublevel drift size (width (Wd) and height (Hd): determined based on equipment.
* Sublevel interval (HS): the theoretical maximum value is based on the ability to drill
long, straight holes. This, in turn, is based on the hole diameter (D). The actual limit is
based on recovery and dilution considerations which are due to managing ore/waste
pulsation.
* Hole diameter (D): based on the available drilling equipment and the ability to charge
long holes.
* Spacing of the sublevel drifts (Sd): Sd = (2.4 to 2.7) Wd
* Ring spacing (Burden B): Based upon the damage radius (Rd): B = 2 Rd
Where: Rd/rh = 20 ( Peexp/PeANFO)½ ( 2.65/ρ ρrock)½
Rd = damage radius (m); rh = hole radius (m); Peexp = explosion pressure for the
explosive; PeANFO = explosion pressure for ANFO = 1600 MPa; ρrock = rock density
(g/cm3); 2.65 = density of typical rock (g/cm3).
* Hole toe spacing (ST): based upon the burden ST = 1.3 B.
* Spacing for parallel holes (SP): based upon the burden SP = B.
* Front inclination: 70–80 degrees (forward).
Example: If it is assumed that: D = 115 mm; Drift dimensions: 7 m wide by 5 m high;

Explosive: emulsion (Pe Exp = 3900 MPa); Rock density = 4.6 g/cm3; Sublevel interval:
25 m based on drilling ability and control of pulsation.
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One finds that the remaining dimensions are: Sublevel drift spacing: 17–19 m; Burden:
2.7 m; Toe spacing (fanned): 3.5 m; Toe spacing (parallel): 3 m; Front inclination: 80
degree selected.
7. Experience from LKAB, Sweden - Sub-level caving (SLC) is an important mass

mining method, used at LKAB. The caved rock or debris at the SLC interface reduces the
fragmentation and the swelling of the blasted ring and it dissipates the explosive energy.
These phenomena may immobilize the blasted ring, causing ore losses. There are two
major factors that influence the mobilization of the blasted ring, fragmentation and
swelling of the blasted material. The caving process is influenced by also the stiffness of
the waste rock, which is dependent in some way by the compaction that the blast ring
contributes to.
By using the acoustic impedance between the blasted material and the confining debris, a
relationship for both fragmentation and compaction have been found depending on
material, specific charge and physical properties of the debris. Regression analysis has
been used for both tasks, where the two statistical hypotheses clearly have good
agreement with actual data i.e. the prediction models can forecast both the fragmentation
and compaction for this set-up with reasonable accuracy The results can be comparable
with confined blasting in large scale, this both that it have representative design
parameters that fulfil in many ways the scaling laws and the second is that it can be
linked to other comparisons between large-scale and small-scale, where the similarities
have been shown.
LKAB’s Malmberget - The Malmberget mine consists of about 20 orebodies, of which

ten are currently mined. Most of the deposit consists of magnetite ore, but non-magnetic
hematite also occurs. The present main level of the Malmberget mine is at a depth of
1000 meters. About 14 Mt of crude ore is extracted from the orebodies each year.
Development - The first stage of mining is drift development. A drift is a tunnel that is
driven into the rock. Development involves construction of new areas of the mine where
ore can be extracted. A development project begins with construction documents
prepared by the mine planning department. Each year, the mine planning department
orders development work on the basis of the forecast demand for products as well as
current knowledge of the status of the orebody.
A development drift goes right through the orebody. Drifts are driven with electric-
hydraulic drill rigs. For each charge, as many as 60 holes are drilled. Each hole is about 5
meters deep. When all the holes are drilled, they are charged with explosives.
The charge is blasted at night. The loose ore is then hauled out by a front loader. This
procedure is repeated until the entire development drift has been driven. The drifts can be
up to 80 meters long. If necessary, the walls and ceiling of the drift are reinforced with
rock bolts and/or shotcrete.
When development is complete, i.e., when several drifts have been driven in the same
area, the next stage of mining can begin; namely, production drilling.
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Production drilling - Slices of ore are drilled up with remote-controlled production

drilling rigs. From their control rooms, the operators (drillers) operate several drill rigs
out in the production areas via remote control.
The rig drills upwards into the ore, forming fan-shaped patterns of holes. There are 10
drill holes in each series. They are normally about 40-45 meters deep. The holes are
straight, so that subsequent charging with explosive and blasting can be done efficiently.
When a pattern of holes has been drilled, the rig is moved back three meters, then drilling
of the next pattern begins. About 20 of these patterns will be drilled in an 80-meter drift.
Once drilling is completed in the entire drift, the holes can charged with explosive.
Blasting - A robot injects explosive into the drill holes in one pattern. The explosive is
manufactured by LKAB’s own explosives company. Blasting is done every night. Each
round brings down about 10,000 tonnes of ore.
When the blast has been ventilated, loading with wheeled loaders can begin. Then, the
next pattern is charged, etc. The procedure is repeated until the entire drift has been
mined out.
8. Conclusion - Caving methods have become the underground bulk mining methods of
choice and expected to continue in the foreseeable future. The growing popularity of
caving methods around the world is largely due to the very low production cost and the
intrinsic safety associated with this mining approach. It is often the only viable mining
method for some of the lower grade massive orebodies that are becoming too deep for
open pit mining. Caving of strong rock masses has become accepted practice even though
there are still some challenges to be resolved.
Strategically, most medium and large mining companies are operating or planning to
operate a caving mine. Codelco's El Teniente mine in Chile and the LKAB Kiruna Mine
in Sweden are among the largest and most famous caving operations in the world.
Australia’s leading caving operations include Rio Tinto's Northparkes mines, BHP
Billiton Nickel West's Perseverance Mine and Newcrest's Telfer and Ridgeway gold
mines.
References:
* Kvapil, R , "Subleve l Caving", Underground Mining Methods Handbook. 2"d Edit ion, Vol. 2.,
H.L. Hartman, ed., SME. Littleton, CO, 1992, p. 1789.
* Geddes, P.J., "Swedish Drilling and Blasting Practice", Trans. Int. Min. Metail., 1 986, Sect. A.,
V. 95, p. 204-207.
* Alatalo. R., Heden, H. and Ronnback, L., 'large Scale Sublevel Caving in LKAB Malmberget
Mine", Proc. Int. Sym. Large Scale Underground hfining, Nov. 1985, V. 7. Lulea, p. 139- 145.
* Baase, R.A., Diment, W.D., and Petrina, A.J., "Sublevel Caving at Craigmont Mines Ltd.",
Underground Mining Methods Handbook, W.A. Hustrulid, ed.. SME, New York, 1982, p. 898.
* Chatterjee, P.K., Just, G.D., and Ham, G.I.. 'Sub-level caving simulation of 3000 pillar-recovery
operation at Mount Isa mine. Australia". Tram inst . min. & Met.. Sect. A., V. 88.. Oct. 1979, p.
Al47-Al55.
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* Cox, LA., "Latest Developments and Draw Control in Sublevel Caving", Trans. Int. Min
Metall., 1967, V. 76, p. A149-159.
* Hustrulid. A., "Sublevel Cave Mining at LKAB Kinina Mine". iNCO presentation Aug. 1995.
* Bull, G. and Page, C.H. (2000) Sublevel caving – today’s dependable low-cost ‘ore factory’, in
Proceedings MassMin 2000, G. Chitombo (ed), 29 October to 2 November 2000, Brisbane,
Australia, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp. 537–556.
* Hustrulid, W. and Kvapil, R. (2008) Sublevel Caving – past and future, in Proceedings 5th
International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining, MassMin 2008, H. Schunnesson and E.
Nordlund (eds), 9–11 June 2008, Luleå, Sweden, Luleå University of Technology Press, Luleå,
pp. 107–132.
* Kvapil, R. (2004) Gravity Flow in Sublevel and Panel Caving – A Common Sense Approach,
Luleå University of Technology Press, Luleå, 152 p.
* Moss, A., Russell, F. and Jones, C. (2004) Caving and fragmentation at Palabora: prediction to
production, in Proceedings MassMin 2004, Santiago, A. Karzulovic and M. Alfaro (eds), Chilean
Engineering Institute, Santiago, pp. 585–590.
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Author’s Bio-data:
Partha Das Sharma is Graduate (B.Tech – Hons.) in Mining Engineering from IIT, Kharagpur,
India (1979) and was associated with number of mining and explosives organizations, namely
MOIL, BALCO, Century Cement, Anil Chemicals, VBC Industries, Mah. Explosives etc., before
joining the present organization, Solar Group of Explosives Industries at Nagpur (India), few
years ago.
Author has presented number of technical papers in many of the seminars and journals on varied
topics like Overburden side casting by blasting, Blast induced Ground Vibration and its control,
Tunnel blasting, Drilling & blasting in metalliferous underground mines, Controlled blasting
techniques, Development of Non-primary explosive detonators (NPED), Hot hole blasting,
Signature hole blast analysis with Electronic detonator etc.
Author’s Published Book: "Acid mine drainage (AMD) and It's control",
Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. (ISBN 978-3-8383-5522-1).
Currently, author has following useful blogs on Web:

• http://miningandblasting.wordpress.com/
• http://saferenvironment.wordpress.com
• http://www.environmentengineering.blogspot.com
• www.coalandfuel.blogspot.com
Author can be contacted at E-mail: [email protected], [email protected],

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Disclaimer: Views expressed in the article are solely of the author’s own and do not necessarily
belong to any of the Company.
***
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Sublevel caving technique-

Simplicity and low cost are the essence

SUBLEVEL CAVING TECHNIQUE

Author: Partha Das Sharma, B.Tech(Hons.) in Mining Engineering,

3. Description of sublevel caving method – An underground mining method used in

4. Below are some salient features of Sublevel caving technique:

5. Discussion on ore flow, drilling and blasting for efficient workings:

6. Design parameters and some preliminary design rules – Design parameters in

Preliminary design rules:

Example: If it is assumed that: D = 115 mm; Drift dimensions: 7 m wide by 5 m high;

7. Experience from LKAB, Sweden - Sub-level caving (SLC) is an important mass

LKAB’s Malmberget - The Malmberget mine consists of about 20 orebodies, of which

Production drilling - Slices of ore are drilled up with remote-controlled production

Currently, author has following useful blogs on Web:

Author can be contacted at E-mail: [email protected], [email protected],

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