eal 3UILDING CONSTRUCTION ILLU STRATED SECOND EDITION tf op FRANCIS DK. CHING 7 faa YAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD New Yorki Copyrgit ©1991 by Van Kosbrand Remnold Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 90- 25064 ISBN 0-442-25498-6 (pbk) ISBN 0-442-00805-3 (hard) All righbe reserved. No part of thie work covered by, the Copyrighb hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or byrany means — graphsc, elechronic, or mechanical, meluding Phobocopying, recording, vaping, or information aboroge ane fetrieval eysbeme — without written permission oF the publisher, Manvfactored in the United States of America Published by Yan Nosbrand Rembold 115 Fifth Avenve New York, New York 10003 Chopman and Hall 2-@ Boundary Rew London, 961 “BHN Thome6 Neleon Avetralia 102 Dodds obrech Sovbh Melbovene 920% Viebort, Ausbralia Nelson canada 1120 Birchmoont, Road Scarborough, ontario MIK 564, Canada owe eee 67Gb 432 Library of Congress Cabaloging-in- Publication Paba Ching, Francie OK., 945 ~ Building consteuctien illuebrabed / Francie DK. Ching 5 with Cassandra Adams, — 2nd ed, pcm. Indiodes bulegraphical references and index. ISBN 0-442-23488-8 (pbk) ISBN 0-442-00685-3 (hard) 4. Building. 2. Hovse consbruction. 1, Adams, Cassandra, Tbe. THi4G,C62 109 690- dc 20| i PREFACE The original edition of thie illustrated guide to building construction introduced the student, of archibecture and interested ‘lay people to the basic principles of how buldinge are built. tb pravided an evervew of the mayor systeme of 2 building, how cach 14 constructed, ane how each 9 influenced by we relationship to other systems, While ‘this aecond adibion retains this perspective, it updates information where appropriate, and imelodes coverage of basic structural steel, reinforced concrete, and curtain wall systems. It presents 20 clearly 26 possible the material and shructural chowces availabe to the desgner, and how these chaces affect 2 building's form and dimensions, and ibs relabionshup to ibe site. Siece thie visual imagery 16 implicitly 3 very important element mm the peo- senvabion of the material, formation i this 2econd edition continues 40 be conveyed primarily through graphic illoetrations, Ths handbeek 16 orgameed according to 3 bulding’> major componenés and systems. Ib begins with a losk at the building site and the factors that mtlvence 2 building's locstion, organizotion, and onienbation, Following ths 1 a description of building’s major Systeme, how they relate to each other, and the etrucbural forces a building must: ve designed and constructed Zo resist. Each succeeding chapter then deeribes a maor building system according to type oF building material, structural geometry, 2nd hev each componen ntarbaces vath adjaiaing systams. The \s2b chapher and the appendec provide refererce information on building materials and space plaraing. the bibliography hsts sources winch, rf one is mberesbed in pursuing 3 subject further, can provide more m-depth information Ib would ve nearly impossible 40 cover all building maberale and construction techmiques, but the information presented here shovld be applicable to most residential and light construction situations: encountered today, Construction bechmques conbinve to change mth the development of new building materisls, products, and sbandarde, What does not change are the fundamental principles vhich underlie the design and construction of a building. thie illustrated quide focuses an these principles, which ohould provide a veeful context for the application of new information in the preliminary planning and design of a building. Each building elemenb, component, or aysbem 16 desenbed in terme of ite end use, The specific form, quality, capability, and availabilty of an element or component will vary with manufacturer and lecale, 16 therefore important to always follow the manvfacturer's rec~ ommendations im the use of a material and bo pay careful attention to the building code requirements in effect for 2 building’s use and location. tb 19 the users responsibility to judge the appropriateness of the information contained m baie vook aid hew it 12 ta be used. Seek the expert advice of 3 professional when needed. Gn the following page i an outline of the basic considerations which may be apphed to almost any building maberial, component, or system to measure ibe appropriateness for s qven design or construction situation.‘The wiZormation in tes book can be cabegorized according to the following factors MATERIALS. + shruchural properties (Gee STRUCTURE beiow) “Physical properties of... .+ Weight and deneiby = Thermal expansion and conductivity + Pormesvility to water vapor > Fire resistance + Acoustical valve + Form, dimensional chsracterobice, and nausl ereverties + purabiliby - resistance bo * Physical wear anc dérssion + The effect of oun, wind, and rain © Corrosion caused ky moisture or chemual action sFinsh and mamtenance requirements + Method of manufacture and aupely STRUCTURE»... us Form and qeomebry: hnear, planar, or yolumebric «Forces to be resolved. ....* Compressive, tensile, shear + Verbicel (downward or uplift), lateral, or angled » concentrated or uniformly aistribubed © Stabic dead and le leads; dynamic mind and seismic Forces ssbrength, sbiftness, and elasticity of the materials voed sTypes of connections required * Ainned, maid, or roller joinés «© Bubt, lop, or inberiacking connections + Foundation, bearing, and suppor’ requirements + Structural requirements for cantilevers, suspended construcbir, and openings CONSTRUCTION .........e Number and size of the pieces to he assembled + Modular consbrames, 1f any *Methed of fasbening required e Mechanical (nals, acrews, volts, rivets, clipe) o Welded » Adheowre + equipment, tools, and workmanship required «Place of assembly: on-sibe or ab the factory 2 standardization of parte and prefabeication where sdvanbageove «Work coordination, erection time, ard labor requiremenbs THE CONSTRUCTION ASSEMBLY. 0.1.00 +00 Control of the Row of Heat » Thermal conductivity and reFlectirny o Thermal exparoien characheriotics ic Ventilzbion and snfilbration Wabere Fermeabhby 40 water vapor + Water proofing requirements + ice and snow protection Fire resistance and acovatical rating sconstrvebion thickness or depth vhecommedstion of mechameal and electrical equipment and systems GENERAL FACTORS... + Fibnese for use and purpose, sostety, comfort, and health requirements * Compliance with applicable building codeo simbial and hfe costs :CONTENTS PREFACK THE BUILDING SITE ‘THE BUILDING & FOUNDATION SYSTEMS 4) FLOOR SYSTEMS 3 WALL SYSTEMS 6 ROOF SYSTEMS 7 DOORS s WINDOWS { MOISTURE x THERMAL PROTECTION ® SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION 10 FINISH WoRK Fe Cl MECHANICAL x ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 12 NOTES ON MATERIALS A. APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX UMS ESTE BUILDING SITE In planning the design and construction of a building, we shovid carefully consider the ennronmental forces which the physical context for the building—ibe aite— presents, A sike’s geographic lseabion, Zopography, plant materiale, climate, and orientation to ‘vhe ain and’ prevailing winds all infbence decieione at 2 very early stage in the design process, These environmental forces can hélp shape a vuilding’s form, articulate ibe enclosure, establieh ite relationship to the grog plane, and ebggest the way tka terion Spaces are laid out, In addition tg environmental forces, there may exist the regulatory forces of zonmg ordinances, These requlatone may prescribe acceptable uses for a building eite 26 well 26 limit the oie and ehape of the building mace and where wb may be lecated on the site, Included in this chapter ave ite improvemente which modify, 2 building site for acceso and use, define the boundar co of exverior spaces, and relate be buldma to the surrounding ground plane, these construction details typically are Closely related 0 the design of the building iteeit and can be seen to be logical extensions of the way the building ie constructed,‘41.2 | THE BUILDING SITE: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS: sole TOROSRAPHY ‘The soll type atfecto: © the type and aize of 2 bulding’s foundatim system © the dramage of ground and eirtace waber © the types oF plant materal able to grow on a site Land forme and ground slopes affect: © the building foundation tyre 9 the building form and te relationship to the ground plane © site drainage. © the site's micro-climate: wind, bemperatere, eolar radiation The types and locations of plant maberiale affect: the sibe’s micto- chmabe : solar radiation, wind, humudity, ar temperature and purity © the definition or veval screening of extenur spaces © the abserphion or dispersion of ound ‘The following climatic tactore affect 2 buildings form, orientation, and construction. The sun 16 the source of: © sdlar radiation (heat gain) © natural light ‘The prevalence, direction, and velocity of wind affect: © air infiltration into a building (potential heat: lose) © the ventilabion oF interior spaces and outdoor courts © the lateral load on a structure The prevalence and amount of precipitation affect: © the roof form, be construction, ard the resulting gravity lead on the structure. he presence and drainage of water on a sibe- © the choice of building materiale TEMPERATURE Air Gemperature and thermal comfort are affected by all of the arove climatic tackors, BENSORY FACTORS: news ‘The consideration of desirable and undesirable views will help determine: © the building form and orientation © the builaing’s fenestration (door and window openinge) © the plant materiale veed in landecaping the eibe The level, qualiby, and source of somnde atecb: the distribution and orientation of the building nace he choice of building materials and their assembly ® the sound control methods usedTreen LATORY FACTORS 13. Zoning ordinances govern the use and bulk of ZONING ORDINANCES REGULATE buildings and structures within 2 municipality o land ude district, These ordinances typically regulate: * the types of activities which may acour on a gwen LAND USE: piece’ of la © how much of the land can be covered by a building © how far a building must be oct back From each oF the property lines © how tall che building structure can be © the total floor area that can be constructed A zoning ordinance may also contain opecitic. requirements for access and oft-strect parking, accessory sbructures such 26 fences and outdoor decks, and the projections from 2 puilding’s facades auch 20! balconies and eof overhangs, ~* The cumulative effect of zoning ordinances 12 the management of the density ard pattern of development within variov> land bee zones, 4 ie le BEES Okner requiatory instruments exet which affect the BUILDING CODES nay buildings ate ated and constructed, Theee statutes [>] commonly referred to 20 the building cade — establish the relationship between: ) © the bype of occupancy a building houses © the fire- resistance rating of ibe ebructure and construction 7 othe allowable height and floor areas oF the. building, and ite sepanatun from neighboring structures See Appendix for mare information on building codes,To support: plant life, 2 sell must + be capable of absorbing metebure. + supply the appropriate plant nutrienbe + be capable af aeration «be free # concentrated salts Practically all buildmge rely on eo! fer thew vibmate” super, THe wntcaris #3 bong structure therefore depends utimately on the type of sel underlying the foundatan and the dail’ strength under loading. There are two bread classes df eolle— coarse-grained and Fine-qraired ooile, Coarse-arained o0ils include gravele and ‘sande which congist of relabwely large porticles, The individual particles of time Gained sells are much smaller and ofter Cannot be seen by the eye, The ool under lying 2 building site may acbeally conoret af superimposed layers, cach of which conbaine 2 mix of eit types. A soil stability and strength under loading depende largely on it resistance to shear, which 4 function of both ibe internal friction and 162 cohvewencas, Coarse-grained soil with a relatively law percentage sf vad spaces are more stable 29 2 foundatun material than silt or clay, Clay saile, in particulary tene te be unstavle since they shrink and owell considerably With changes in mosture content, SOIL CLASSIFICATION Sieve Particle Relate gradients for oe | 6iee (mm) bare sail embankments Cobblee 23" |> oo. * & | cearee gravel >" [> 19, YD | eine gravel onea [> 8.8 © | coaree sand oueio |r 2.0 & | Medium gand nese | > 2.@ Fine sand >N2200|> 0,08 aie ! lene 7 § | Pines Colle and clay) soils tend to be shallower than for more $ coheswe sole like compacted clay.ie cae UR eS a [ B01L MECHANICS the veval measure of a sail strength jo be bearing capacity m pounds por square fort, A foundabion dyke must distribube 2 building’s leads in such a Way thab the reaulban’ unit jad on the aail doce not deceed the soll’ bearing capaciby and 16 uniform under ail portions of the structure, While High bearing ‘capacity 4oile present few problems, low vearng capac iby sala may dictate the ape of faundation and load distribution pattern for a building, which in turn affect the building’s form, Unetable salle usually render a ate unbuildable unless an elaborately engineered and expensive foundation ayotem + pub in place, ‘the table belew outlines, for reference only, the relative ypes, Refer to ‘the local steenathe of varia.s atl 4 building cede for the allewsble bearing capacities of general classes of selle, Mast sole are in fact 2 Zimbnation of aifierent cal types, The sbratifica- Sun, compoorbin, and density of the eal ved, varisbiens int particle size, ard the presence or absence of water are all importants factors in debermining a soil’ bearing capacrty, When designing 2 sizable structure or when there are unusual lead condisiona, 16 adviesble to have a soils engineer Geet borings token from the actual @ In cold weather, the Freezing ard subsequent thawing of gall can cause ground heaving which places stress on 2 buildings foundation and sbrvc~ bare, The extent of the Frost action lepends an the site's geographic region and the oil cae Me vaned s0l8 are more susceptible bo frost Gotion than coarse-qreined 205, in any case, 2 puilding’e foobinge should always be placed well below the site’ Frost line. © A sails permeability should algo be taken bo accomnt % enoure thet surface and ground water can ke properly chanced away From the uilding otructure, Proper drainage: is required to io deterioration of 3 alls bearing capacity and to mini ‘mize the poesiblizy of water leaking into a pullding’s inberiar. Coaree- grained s0ile ae more gormeable Bnd drain bebbor than fine-grained gol, Fine ailte and clays aloo have aibe,. greater capillary which can cause water be migrate vpward above a site's water table, SOIL TYPE. Freaumed Bearing Capacity | Svecepbililiky te | Drainage Ctana/te2)} (ka/m*? Frost Action (permealasty) Compact, partially comenved gravels 1 Py wall graded with oto or ne Pee Mo eee ere basen Comes grail gravel and eand a 68 590 one | excellent [x and, 5 Gan, conga ‘sands loose gravels | 4 30 060 slight fair to good Ce loose oana : fi rintarbss Pinoy speed oon Pieri nen ane Pine, loose sand; dry, obrtf clay 2 19 680 high Fair 0 poor ‘Soft clay; eof, broken ohale a | 1A 6A high poor Orgame sole Uneuibable a9 a foundabion material ; «an be highy wnacable due bo bacterial decomposition and changes mn maisture content@ | TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE All of the following factors affect variations in lecal climate: «ground elevation * femperabure in the atmosphere decreases + land forms with abitude—approxmately :*F for every site anentation and slope — 400 feet: im elevatien (°F = 0-6566'C) «© types of ground corer large bodies of wator warm aie cool zone e heavier cool air wil bend to settle nto low-lying areas nn RK nee lare 4 water | 7 7 RY SURREAL ot © lange bodies of water ack ae a heat veserwirs and tend to © grass and other sround hard surfaces tend to moderate temperature covers tend te loiter tem- elevate temperatures ; variation peratures by abeorbing light-colored surfaces © they are gencrally warmer inselabion and entouraging —reflect solar radiatian than land in winter and cooler cooling by evaporation while dark surfaces tn summer aboerb and retain © thay are generally calor than ingelation land during the day and © dwturvance & natural dramage petvorne shod re aveided © partieviar attention should be yaid vo local Flood plaine aways check for the height a a site's water tavle and 19 seasonal variations, 26 well a5 for possirle under= ground sereame, evening breeze TA warmer at night, generating atehore breezes othe extent of thie moderating influence depends an the size bh and ourtace area of the bedy of water Sree replace updraft warm ever land; can hav, oncing aFlect Fup 40 10°F (8.6'c)| TOPOGRAPHY AND BUILDING FORM STEEP SLOPES | structures may be terraced or ebepped with the slope——, 0 be cub wito the lope iS v Fa 5 tt Wire + vee of retaining walle 16 required Te + amount af ovb bructune 13 sukect should approximate i 40 abeve-rarmal earth — amount oF Fill loads fe sie clevated an perso cole fr minimum diebrvence o he grad plane [| pay ons pore lead + adequate provioton should yomade for chanmeling of grevd and surface waber and the vee of plant wate — | vislé, to prevent soil erosion snatural angle of repose for the soll type should nob pe exceeded MODERATE SLOPES: sbructures may tot tt pond loade 9 ve dlevated on prere or oa # be cub into the slope — a FLAT SLOPES! structures may 9 be slevated or piers or tac © siton a ra6ed pad ~ epee and piers maybe search pade aid in 1 eed rat only to dlevate — draining surface 7 a structure shove the water away Prom + obructures wer ground plane but aloe — gtracture nioter may be Yo support’ sbructuree supzented by arbuated over unsuitable floatation or an bearing sal sassone 2° pes resing on 3 sub- surtace age 0 be dig vito earth and vermed few sheight 7f site's seasonal water table shovid be dnecked to suid the need to water- proot the relow-arade Structure eacths berme may act 26 the buildings suae walle7.8] PLANT MATERIALS Fackere to consider in the selection and vee & yree in landscaping mclude: road © form, deneity, vexture, and color of tne fobage. © potential arowtn height and orre @ speed or rate of growth @ siee ard depth of the rook ssruck @ requirements for sail, water, surly and temperature chong vse 2 the root ystems of trees ylanbed toe Goee te 9 balling way dicehek the foundation system e similarly, 2 tree's root obructure may orice interfere. with undergreune ubihby liiee a # the manner in which tree and other plant lie adapt their dorms to climate provder cloes to the waye buildings might do the. same F Grose and other ground covres © can reduce ait bomperstures by absorbing rnealabien and encouraging ceding ky evap orsbion aid in seabilizing oil and preventing eosin ete increase 2 oll permeability be air an: water 7 7 © Vines con reduce the heat tranamission through a sunlity wall by providing ohade ard cooling the immedibob onnionmené by vsporstionre [TREES AND ENVIRONMENT Te Trees affect the immediate environment of a building by: © providing shade xe © the amount of siiade depend on the bree® + orientation te the: un Le proximity to the building |e ehape, spread, and height: | sdeneiky and branch structure + deciduous trees provide shade and glare procoction during the oummen and leb Solar radiation (go well 26 alate) thravgh dunng the winter s evergreens provde shade throughout the year and hele reduce snew glare during the winter 2 reduemg sky, ground, and enow glare © providing wind probectien * foliage redvcts windblown dust © evergreens can “orm effective windyreaks during the winter and reduce 3 building's heat lessee einbercepting precipibabion and Fibering the be © aiding 19 sail stabilization, increseing ibe permeability ta water and air, and Preventing erseien | ‘ 2 defining apace and directing views + pronding vival soreening and prwvscy 9 abtenvating arborne somde + bree ahade a building most offochvely From the soubkeaot. and the southwest when the snorting 3nd lake afternoon sun kas a low albtade and caste long chadows + south-facing overhangs provde more efficient shaang during the mddey porud when the oun i9 high and casts short shadows Apartally penetrable wandereak. she ce teave cen tually exten leewanl shader a pS SS A = an ‘windward iF trees are dense leeward wind shadow 2 the approximate area of protection indicated above varieo mith the height and density of the trees, ard with nd vlecity * the protection pended primary a reductan in wr velocity pradueing an area of relative calrn yL410] THE SUN /Piieaie ‘suman solstice Qunez) vearing angle wuter eolebice (December zi) A building's location, orientation, and form should bake advantage of the sun's trermal, hygienic, and psycholeaical SN benefits, The sun’s radiation, however, may nav siwaye be Feneticial, depending on tne building abe’ climate. In devermining 3 building's form and onentanan, the objective should be te maintain 2 balance bebween underheabed perwde when solar radiation @ veneficial and overheated porieds when radiation ehovid be avoided, ‘The iong face of 2 building ohould rermally face south tf presibic. East and west exposures are generally Warmer in summer and cooler in winter than esubhern exposures, “The sun's path through the oky varies with the oeasone and a sitels latitude, Ite albitude ard bearing ange range shoule be determined before calculating eolar heat ain and ohading requirements for a specific site, The tabie below perkaine primarily te wsolabed buildings, The information presented should be considered along with other contextual and programmatic requirements, OPTIMUM SHAPE LOCATION GENERAL OBJECTIVES ORIENTATION low bemporstures encourage minimizing #2 baiding’s surface area COOL REGIONS sinerease edlar radistion abeonpbion «reduce radiabin, conduchion, and evaporation heat |e6e » provide wind probection temperate clmate. allows ‘er clongatien along te east-west ave TEMPERATE REGIONS + valance solar heat gain with ehade protection ona seasonal basis + encourage ai" movement 1n het. weather; protect trom wind m cold weather [a closed formes bulding mase enclooing cool air Fonds denirabie HOT- ARID REGIONS «reduce golar radiabion and conduction heab gain + promote cooling by evaporation using water and plantings + provide onade a @ form may be Freely elongated along cash-west an be mini- nize east and wesb exposure HOT= HUMID REGIONS + reduce oolar heab gain + ubihze wind be promote cooling by evaporation + provide shade DB] .€B] Db) epSOLAK SHADING DEVICES 1a Shading dencee shield a building's exterior surfaces and interie- spacce from aelar radation. Their effecbwenese Jepence on their farm and orientation relatwe ve the sun's angles. Exterior shading devices are more efficient than those. located within 2 building's spaces since they ypborder the sun's radiabwn before th can reach the building's surfaces, Belew are illvetrated basic types of solar shading devices, Their orientation, form, materials, and cone:ruction may vary te oui’ specific aibuabione, Their neval qualities (pattern, texture, rhythm, and the shadowe they cack) contribute much be a building’s appearance. Since 2 building’s exterior wale and rook are ibe primary sheltering elements againat solar radiation, ‘the materials used in their construction should be cenoidered in terme of their reFlectiniky and thermal conductnty, A material’s reflectivity depende on ibe color and vexture. Light colors ‘and shiny surfaces tend te veflect more radiation than dark, textured ones, Efectwe maulabing materiale Usually meonporate some farm of captured dead air space. Masse materiale auch 36 masonry absorb and store heat for a peried of ime, thve delaying heat transmission. HORIZONTAL OVERHANGS: «moo effective when Z they have southern i orientations HUNG LOUVERS louvers hung from a aold overhang provide protection for low sun angles o may meerfere with view HORIZONTAL LOUVERS: horizontal louvers parallel to wall permit air circulation near the wall and reduces conduction heat: gait = may ve operate Yo adapt to ours anal VERTICAL LOUVERS + moot eftective for eastern oF western exposures emay Ye opersble to adapt te aun angle, - + 2eparatien from wall reduces condvotion heat gam HORIZONTAL LOUVERS + slanted lowere provide more. protection than these. parallel to wall sang varies according to oun's aititade range EGGORATES + eggcrates combine bhe charactenstice oF horizontal and vertical louvers and have a kigh shading ratio + efficient im hot climates BLINDS» GLASS bles and rgees can pronde up te 50% reduction vw radiation depending on reflectivity shest-sbsorling glass can sosorly up to 4073 of the radiation reaching 19 surface TREES: ADJACENT BUILDINGS threes ord odjacen’ seructures thay provide. shade devending on ee § proximity, Height, 30PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN + deviio-alazing and imevlabion required bo mince righbbime heat lose + approximately 0.20-0.80 spvare Feet oF alazing required ‘or each equare foot of Floor area ¢ glazing material shosld be resiotart to degradation cavoed by gun's vibravwlek ray? adove: b'-\2 water: él or more Fesswe solar droige refers to vowng the oun’s energy to heat 9 building’s inbertor spaces through nonme- chanical means, Passive solar systems rely on bhe naturel beat transfer procease> of conductier, Canvaction and radiation for the collechier,, Se0raqe, distribvtion, and control of eolar energy, There are wo basic elements in every passwe odlar aystem: D) soubh-facing glace or branoparent plastic for sdar calection @ thermal mace tor heat collection, storage, and disembution, oriented to recnive maximum solar exposure The thermal wase allows the surrs heat be be aboorbed and retained until rb ie needed, and sleo helps te reduce internal temperseure fluctustions, Based on Yao relatienehip between the our, ene tetorwr opace, and the teat cellechen ayotor, there ate three ways in which presive solar heating can be accémplionad: direct gain, indirect gain, and ieelated gain. | DIRECT GAIN: Direct gain systems collect heab directly within an interior epace, The surface arca of the ators tase, which w meorporated ibe the ‘space, crould be bo * of the total gurtace ares oF the ‘spzce, Operable openings are used for cocling Wy ventilation, INDIRECT GAIN: Indirech gam systems control heabgain at the puilding’e exterior skin, The sun's radiation fino gerkes the thermal wall mass whch vs located between the sun and the ling epace, Selar heat te gheorbed by the thermal wall and then tv the opace iy conduction, and to some extent by convectien, INDIRECT GAIN: A sunroom or solarium san be introduced a6 a inedium for heat gain, This ounopace 16 separated from the main ving apace by 2 thermal storage wall From which heat io drawn ae needed, For” cooling, the sunspace can be vented te the exterior, L Zest 5*ra4e cooler redivm fall for reheating loclated gain aysteme collect and store heat anay from tee linng space. be aie onrater in 2 collecbor ve warmed by the oun, w rier vw the lwing space er to 9 thermal mass, Simultaneaisly, cooler ait or water is pulled ftom the storage better, cresting 2 nawral convection loop. |DAYLIGHTING qs ‘The aun’s radiation prondes not enly heat but alo fant for 3 building’s inberior space, This daylight 136 peycholagical benefit 20 well 26 practical utility. snorth-facing windows lat in While intense, the sun’s light will vary with the soft, diffuse skylight | bime of day From seazen 40 season, and from place wo place. 'b'can ve dittused by cloud cover, haze, and = \ | precipibatian, and reflected From the ground and | other surretnding surfaces, the quantity and eset and nest: facing quality of daylighting ima space. are deboemined inrdows require | primarily by the sie and arienbatien of tte / SAI shading devices i window openmge, Ny Wertizal lauvers or telat P eqgerstes) to aveid a ag [ED the pnght earl morning aad late ~~ afternson sun + goubh-facing windows are ideal sources for daylight horizontal shading devices can cantrol excessive sola radigtion ahd glare a The level of llyminanen pronded by daylight ‘alle off a6 ib penebrates an inberior apace. Generally, the larger and higher 2 window v0, the more daylight’ will enter 2 room, A vsetul role of thumb 16 that daylighting can be effective for task illumination up toa depth of twice the height A a window. pe the ceiling and back wall of a space are more — effective than the ede walle or the feor in the reflection and dete bution of daylight, Light colored surtaczs vetlock and diatiapube hight mare efficiently we large aress +t shiny aurfacee can cause glare, __. \ cesewe bmigitness ratios can lead to glare and inment I eval performance. There are two im ‘ypee of glare, Drech glare vs cavecd by the excessive cobrast between light in out normal | field oF viaten and the suect of a naval taok. ) Indirect glare 1s caved by a bask surface reflecting 2 light somee inte cur eyes, Glare epace mndows sdacent feside walla for additonal reflecbance ve controlled vy the use of shading devices, proper amentation of task surfaces, and a allowing daylight to enter 3 space Fram at leaot | bo directions, + allow light te penatrate From ab lean two directionsdais WIND Sees fy ae ook overhangs moreese incoming Flow oF air 3 high inlet: would dircet ai flen upward, resulting m2 lose af cooling effect low pressure. ethan over opening directs Flow upward which may be undesirable a —k => saanahes | SHRARRARSEEE ‘lot in overhang rasalizes external presoure iovvere can beneficially redirect and dFFvee air flow —- oo] > —— Wind prevalence, velociby, temperature, 2nd dirochion are important site consderstione in all climatic ezqune, In evaluating the wind pobenbial effect ona building, ibe seaconal and dally variations should be carefully considered. Wind induced ventilation of rberer spacee aide in $he alrexchange neceosary tor heals and odor removal, In hob mesther, and cepecially in humd climates, venbilstion 1 beneficial tor conveckive or baporative cooling, Natural ventilation in buildings 1 generated by differences in air pressure a6 well 26 temperature, The resulting air flow vabterne are atfeched more by building geometry tran by aie opead. + pratt of cubleb hao litle etfeck on air Flow pattern, we should be high to lek rising warm Bir eocape + aublet ohould be a0 lange, ar larger than uilet for maximums aie Flow + intern partitions and lange Furnishings may adversely aiver ar fow patterns The ventilation & concealed roof and crawl spaces i required te remove mowture and control condensation, (h het weather, abee ventilation can aleo reduce overhead radiant heat gain. ‘A uilding should be buffered ayamat cold winde to reduce ar infilbration into te nterior and lower heat lees, A windbreak may be in the form of an earth beam, 2 garden wall, or dense trees, 4p YE | — A = 2] - +P 3 Pressure edly ||| suctioweddy Pease es —_ 2:84 W015 H piorced screen incomplete barrier Wirdbroake reduce wind velocrty relatwe calm on their leeward aide, The extent of thio rand produce an aega oF "A partially penetrable windecreen creates lego preadure. aitferential, resulzing i a langer wind shadow depends on z wind break’ height, denatey, vind shadow to the lee aide of the screen, depth, and orientation te the wind, slope up tere slopes > Wind creates presoure on the windward aide of 2 puilding and suction on ite obher three sizes, Wind aleo produce auction on flat roofe, on the leeward aide of slopin roofs, 2nd oven on the windward side 01 roofe with a pitch lees than 7:12,[PRECIPITATION [a8 » flat roofs require either inberiar roof drains or seuppere along thar perimeter © water-cooled rate veed in hot-dry climates mob Suppor above normal roof loade on cold climates, flab roots are oulyect ko heavy snow loads; layer oF snow can act 34 additional mngulazion amederabely pibched © steaply pibched roots voote eaelly shed rain have Fast runoff of bub may hold onow ran water, and i the angle oF the slope 16 greater than 20°, can alba alguan off stow 9 srerhange provect a building's exteriar walls trom the weathering ofecke of oun and rain © damporooting on watenprooking > required for below grate epaces when ground water 1 present © ground water shovle be drained away from a sbevcture’s foundation to a natural outfall, dry well, ar storm Aramoge ayobem 2 natural surface dranage patterns are lessb disturbed iy ifbing a etructure of the ground plane wich plore * alvays alepe the groan plane away from 2 building ty Bioid water \eakaqe prablerne 2 40 prover’ soi sreoien, planted ground covers should ve provided tor swales with grades over 3% and for graund slopes with gradee over — grsse “ar fanved *minimum grade for ground cover areae:'2% paved areas: 05 te Bio recommended) (1% recommended ) > vodieo of wabar can roderate temperature var 3bian9 and temper shen immediate envirgament vin hoo-ary clinases, even emall bodies oF water are sirsiv2, veh paycnolegually and physteally, for cative cooling offect from reflected glare should be provided > provecti N SA ypunched window Framed nowy restricted \ Large new testers moor ovedoor relzoonohip A uilding’s window openings should be pootbioned met imiy to sabity roturs! light ard ventilation requirement? fob aioe to tame deswable views, Deyending on 2 aibele context, these viens may be close or disbaed in nature. Even when desirable views 2r? nonexwetent, eeaeané ouclosk can orten be creaved wibinis 8 building site Awindow may be created within 2 wall in a number oF ways, depending on the igbure, o the view and che way Wrotiesmed in the wall’ comobruckuart, We te wmpartane ba nove that the oize and location & windows ale welects 2 room's opatia’ quality, dayighbing, and porentral heat laos ar gait: [efonzontal bard window reobriebed view v6 upward (efor of vertcal Bky ighnbe/qreenhovse. viow 1 diagonally oriented —————F 7 Wa panoramic new oxterde Inverier space oubward view 16 diffused4 SOUND Sound requires 2 scurce and 2 path. Undesirable exterior aounde or noise are caused by vehicular traffic, aircraft, and other machinery. The sound anergy they generabe bravel® Through the air outward from the source in all directione ina conbinuavely expanding wave. Thie sound energy, however, lessens in intensity 26 1b digperses over a wie area. To reduce the impact of extern noise, theretare, the first consideration should be distance —lacating a dvilding 26 far from the novwe source a6 possible, When a eibe’s conebrainte de not make thie possible, then the mbervor spaces of a building may be screened frem the noe cource by: © physical mase ouch as earth berme # building zonco were nase can re tolersceds +4, mechanical, eernice, and utility areas = the construction of exterior walle and root, wich are a building's prmary varmiers. agzinet extenwr naise; doer and window openings are the weak epate ia these barriers and should, if possible, be orrented away from undesirable nawe sources 2 dense planbings of tvece and shrubs, which can ve effechive mi diffusing oF scattoring sound © grass or ground covers, which aro rove: sboorphve than the herd, reflectwe surfaces of pavement[48] ZONING ORDINANCES ox. Axe Gxd)+ (ext) + Cont? AXE “—\ % sllewalte ob coverage = % allowable total Flor area = i % te allewsble wlth te or Ye S © the mammum width and depth a building may have, expressed a6 percentages of the site's dimensiend Within 2 municipality om land-se distract, zoning Jnances are generally intended te manage aroweh, regulate land-vse patterns, control bulding density, direct development te areze with adequate services and amenities, protect environmentally sensitive 2rea6, and conserve open apace, For any single building aibe, 2 zoning ordinance wal regulate both the tyres of ackiviby that may occur aitt and the bulk ef the building (s) constructed te hovee euch ackinities, A special type of zoning ordinance 1 the Planned Unt Develsement, which sllows a fairly large tract of land to be developed 32 2 single entity for adeed Flexibility in the. Placement, grouping, 2122, and use cf structures, 16 important to underoband how a zoning ordinance might congtrain the allowable size and shape of 3 building, The bulk ef 2 building ve regulated directly by specitying: how much of Zhe lad ean be nvted iy» balding structure and the tebal fer area thab may he Conatrocted, expressed 26 percenbagen of the lot area © how tall the building sbructure can be. The size and shape of 2 building are alse controlled indirectly by specifying how tar 2 building must be ‘ek back from cack of the property lince In addrbien, existing easements ard right-of ways may further lint Ge buildable area of a sibe, All of the above requirements, bogether with any restrictions an type and density of vse, define 2 three-dimensional envelope beyond which a wuilding’s volume may not extend, check the applicable zoning ordinance for specrfie require ~ ments.4 Exclusions to the general reauwements of a zoning ordinance may exist in the form of exceptions or allowzrices, Exceptions to the normal, setback requirements are typically j made for : setback ! nd i eet ble | © prazctions of architectural features such ( bnceprore 36 vooF overhangs, cornices, bay windows, and balconies e accessory structures such ae low-level decks, fencee, and detached carports © precedents set by existing, neighboring obructures esi ce Exceptions are ofter made “or sloping sites, or for sibes adjacent to public open spaces. ® sloping reefs, chimneys, and other rook projections may ve allowed a oxtend beyond _ the normal height limbakion © the hewht limit may be directly related be the slope of site. 09.2 reduchion in the setback requirements may be made for sloping sites ot for cites fronting on open space speseible reduction for elope: allowable height ln onder to provide for sdequate light, az and space, setback 2 and to enhance the streetscape and pedestrian ennronment, requirement may exit fors setback! * oven ovace accessible to the public © addibional setbacks if 2 strusture rece shore 3 certain height * modulation of a buslding’s facades © vehicular accees and parking | Zoning ordinances may alee contain requirements that apply only te specific use categories 29 well ae | Procedures far requesting 2 variance. from the regulations,1.20) VEHICULAR ACCESS AND PARKING Fronding for vehyevier acceso and porking are important aspects oF site planning whick wnFivence both the location #2 building on 126 atte and the. orientation of ite entrances, Outimed on these pages are some furdamental chibenie for estimating the space required for read ways and surface parking, Any planning of vehicula access and parking must bake inte conpiderabion the eafe and convenient movement of pedestrians about a eibe and from parking to building entrances, -eoseaenomesemory| SaaS se ~ inside turning adios subside turning r3di ne PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS! 1. number of parking spaces “equired by zoning, ordnance 1 based on type of occupancy; may be related to number of living unite or te Floor area of building 2. number, 4122, and location of spaces tor the. handicapped; curb cubs and ramps for Wwaeelcnair access 2. pedestrian access to building entrances from parking arese 4, loading zones for buses and other publie transportation vehicles A separation of sernce and truck leading areas & access for emengency vehicles such 26 fire trucks 7. aiowable wideh and location of curb cubs, and ce From public street inbereechione aight lines for vehicle enbering public roadway 2 control # access to parking areas 1a space for landscaping; screening of parking areas may ve required by zoning erdinance Mh, dramage oF parking surfaces; space for onow removal 7 yt i 7a et a Geabulance: 1b" yun: 22! fire truck: 94" semi-bruck/ trailer: 26! ambulance? 50° bus: 54! fire teuck : 45 semi-truck/trailer: 60! Z tanes: 22! (t0'mein) time Bomb 12" (19! mun.) o C8'min)“a | roto! wat Paar ar") : ahem fren ‘ wel stop to 1 i wall op Shovage ‘ ioe he! mn, iy fe slope slab fr ia? i [ ( ) TT drdmage ; || Average car dimensions Bete EEE te eta Bi sovertangy RESIDENTIAL DRIVES AND GARAGES: eo C curb ar wheelsbop Baeic parking space 6 BL "xia. Adjust wndthi for compact care and allow for opening of ear doors, carrying of parcels, ard handicapped Bees, 58! (oo! preferred) floor H ese tor walkuay a ison ee "wan SSO OF — 9 baa 10"ta lo” \ \ (me additional width for space preceding column i widieh of to tae what | pe A/S structural column 7 s SRY / | iy Sf CAR RAMP SLOPES FARKING LOT DIMENSIONS‘T.23] PAVING Sterna Faring provides 2 wearing surface for pedeobeian or vehicular braftic on 9 ite, lei 2 composive QW Structure whose thickness ard consbrvction SNS 203 directly relgbed to be type ane mcanaiy SSS trathe and leads to be corties, ahd the bearing capacity and permeability of the oubgrade. Te aubecade, which must ulomabely carry the pavement (ead, shevld be undiaturbed sell or compacted fill, aince ib algo receives maieture From infiltration, it shovld ve eloped to dau The base 16 2 foundation of well-graded aggre- O-Fiz tase teancters tho pavement lead to the Subqrade., te aloo prevents the upward migration oF capillany water. Heavy-duty leade may require bn additional layer 2 subbase of coarser = 3 ee Ce EO aagregabe euch as crushed sre, INS SIN RRR “the pavement receives the trafic wear, SS SS avomert 7 SO O~pretbete te bose, and tranotore ies laed to the hace obructure, THere are two types of pavement: flexible and rigid, Zlexible pavements, Such 36 bituminove conarebe on unit pavers en 8 zand setting bed, are somewhab resilient, and distribute ade ‘+o the eubgrade in 2 radieting tanner Rigid pavements, suh 6 remforced ae concrete slabs or paving units merkared over we — concrete olab, dilute their loads internally sed cory SSL and transfer them bo the eubgrade over 2 Et Fush dvder broad area, Rigid pavements generally do nov taised pavement require 36 thick a base ap flexible pavemenbo, EDGE CONDITIONS Flexible pavements require wood, veel, atone, masonry, er concrete edging te restrain the horizontal movement of the paving material. SL0FE FoR DRAINAGE Rigid povemonte require reinforcement ard an catia em extension of the bose materia along therr edgee. 03 te min. ; VY preferred; highly textured pavemenbo may require a scenper (2%) slope. for erainage. Additional notes: ‘© Pavement color and texture are important aesthetic considerations which aloo affects the 3% 33s, ewenent'e absorption or reflection of heat 7 = and light, 6 {——— © Provide traction for rampe and pavements in ‘ODED mms areas subject to wy condition, SLOPES: O%-S% preterred; 5% maximum « Avad surface ipregularities for wheelchair traffic # Provide, tactile warning stewe for the novally Worn Bi me hip VE TT ame| impart rake changes and hesarder= Rare: 5% - Bie ; vse only where climatic, conditions permit:Ye" to 3" 4 fas stay a Brick Favor cancxote Unie favor Date aa a ep ae OP Inberlecking Pavers PAVING MATERIALS! Coneult lecal supplier for availabilty of shapes, size, clare, baxturee vompresswe strength, and imaballation recommendations, Dye" Blas ms SS yp Gnd or Tar Bta0K orate Cove 2 #aVoquare. absorption properties, herringbone vacketweave mr herrmabone A SS ou random sack bond eaketweave baskebweave LAT aloes, Ono, 8 po sop r SCOOCOCOC Pre he5 eo es TE It I TT TTT Tt ‘diagonal pavers. Poneina bond Unik Favere PAVING PATTERNS brick or conc. pavers w handtight ot Y0"- 8" cond owes jets 2! sand sebbing bed——_ 24-6" compacted aggregate here required im high trafic areas oF over expanewve cal compacted subgrade ot undvotured gil“ xe RORY FLEXIBLE BASE nie pavers a8 above 46" conc, ela ——____~ compacted aggregate, freq. tur Hack — 2eand setting ed — 20-6" compacted aggregate PAMING DETAILS interlocking Pavere Cub Stone. ving unit on morsar Jed, 596 on edge a laid Fab cone. grade beam W exp jo, ———_ poring unib set vertically on mortar bed may extend to Va oF paver it. to form curly — Got, o mortar ey, (provide gravel under Sorting if Fook derth 16 deoper than feobing) 24, 4, of 6x pressume treated woad edge — Po depth varies we paring material 2x2 or 2x4 phe need stakes, 244 Lng, | B38! 4l ag.[1-24] RETAINING WALLS line # thrust parallele supe of surcharge AY LS) ST | fro 4 W Cazume 25%angle L Gres for f.. By bal) 1 RP T= 200 SH T= 0.693%) S= weight of soll (100 b/Ft® byprcal? We composite weight of wall acting through centroid of geetion = resultant of T and W 7 WEY WEY Ww Me overturning EX © Thrust (1) bends to overturn wall about tee of base. sliding Y ‘Sail n front oF wall ade in resisting lateral force of T vely areas and te aliow changes in ciovazion Which cannot be secomplished by grading wethin the: horizontal dimensions of a site, They mvok re consbruched te resist the thrust of the esi! being retained. The thrust car cause a recainimg wall te fall wn three ways. : D-2eestenng: The over turring moment (14,) of the sail thrust (Tx H/s) must. be auntered by the resiobing moment (Mr) ef the composite. weight of the wall aid any gail bearing on the bese (Wd), Vong a safety factor of 2, Mp > 2My Sliding: THe lateral thrust nthe. wal (7) must Qrieresisted by the composibe waght of the wall times the coefficient of freken for the eo suppering the wall (Wx GP,) Uning a aaicky serire Peak One or) level Sebtling: The hearing capacity of the setl (2:6) Qrprvst ne We exceeded by the vertical frce (We weight of the wall and any sell bearing on the bose plue te vertical compment of the 221 tarwet for a wall with surcharge). Using 2 aately factor oF 13, 86.2 LB WA Pramage v6 required to relieve waber pressure: behind wall ) suting NN SH tolac. on Footing should extend 2! below the lower grade oR 4 below the frost lie, whichever w greater: vee | — fatter refers to the sloping face at | 2.wall which ean offset the illusion & a vertical Face leaning frrwsed vation | 7 aia] i | i rove gravel | co| Temperature <7 Bal j eet “Hie fine | 2} structural Z 3 Sede, a 8b weeprcles @ drain pipe sloped to outlet away From wall provide vertical control oints eo. proportioning guidelines | bine. Plane... Volume... ; / A useful nay of seeing the forme of billing elements in 2 comparative manner 16 to categorize them aecording tp tae geomone clemente oF panb, line, elare, and velume. These elemenbe are joined together in consteuckion te farm a building's various componente and subaysbems, The draming on the facing poge illustrates theee subgysbems and gerves 36 a neval index to the orgemzation of thie back,- | i | | | | i | — peore and Windowe Sy! 1 $ 5 2 ge . 3 3. 2 2 6, 8 2 3h aS / uo ae ay gs Ske Bay ge ge S° Sy gs st SEL Bai aH Hae ye se 838 gs os sf af 38 B Ftd 2us Hs Ls fo BS 28SAN A 4 4F Trttcittt | In enclosing space fr habtabion, 2 turiding’s structure must ve able to eupyort two types 2 lesde—stabie and dynamic STATIC LOADS are assumed te be conetant: in nature and are oF twe kinda: ad loads are relatively fixed and include the weight of the building structure teael? 26 neh 9s the weights o any permanent clement thin te building, auch 39 mechanical equipmers. leads are morse leade which may nob be present all of the time, They mcisde Pre waghte oF 2 buildings occupante and fur- riehings, 36 well 26 snow loads on root, DYNAMIC LOADS can be applied to 2 structure suddenly and vary in magnibuce and location, d lnade san produce prosoure ot suction on 3 bullding’s walls and reef plaries, depending on their geotnetry and orientation. The dynamic ettecta oF wind on tall buildings sve cepecialy important. uc forces result from sudden movements In the earth's crusty They are mulbidirectional th nabore and propagated in the form of wave, These caver the earth's owface and any buildings resting on it to ribtate becavee- 2 the bendonay oF a bulding’s mase to remem 2b rest, We buidgl ded lads veatwely Fd character, static live. and dynamic wind and ‘seismic leads can vary in magnitude, duration, and pont of application, A buildings sbructure- musk nevertheless ke deegned for these poosibilibiee, Building cadet byprcally pronde eaywolent distributed or cencentreted lade ‘hr design purpeses. These are vased on the nob effect of the maximum expected combination of forces. (Ste Appendix for weighte ef common building matenala and typical accupancy and envirermental leads.) ‘Tee Follovnng we a bref m¢rodustien to the way 2 structural system must resolve. the force® acting en 2 building and channel them to ther ground. For mere complete inforenation m the oructursl analysis of buildings, exe Biblegrayhy,[STRUCTURAL FORCES 1m the obruchural analyoio of buildings, we are concerned with the magnibude, direchion, and pot: of application of forces, and their resolution to produce a sbate oF cqpilibriom, Three zondibions are necessary for a sbructural system bo beim equilibrium: 1. The oum (2)¢F all vertical forces 2 0 2, Bok all horizontal forces » 0 3, Eo all memenvo of all freee about any point = 0, Therefore, a5 cach structural element: loaded, bo supporting elements must reac with equal Wwe apponice forces, Forces can be assumed be vo applied im a uniformly Agbributed manner, 20 the case of 2 lve lead on 2 Floor of 3 wind lead on 2 wall, A force can aloe ber 2 concentrated losl, 36 when's beam bears on a post on 2 column bears on ike forking, Forese may be parallel and colinear, 0 when 2 column aupperts 3 vertical lead from above. they can alzo ber parallel bub vot mast, 36 when 2 beam supports 2 laad at ike mdspan, These parallel, neneancurrent forces will bend t2 cavse 2 gid ebructural element to bend and deflect, which must be resisted by the materials inbernal strength, Any force will terd to cause 3 body to move in the direction oF ive line of action, Tue Force can also cause. ‘the body to robate if & dees not pace Yhrough the body's center oF araviky. thie rotational effect oF 3 force 10 called a moment, For each moment created by the forces acting on a ebructural clement there must ve. an equal Wu? opporite resisting moment, A number of concurnont forces, acbing through a common pont, can ve resolved into a single resultant Which 6 equivalent te the several forces, In a similar | manner, an inclined ree can be revaived into vertical and horizontal componente, ‘Joist reaotion= beam load Deck reacbon = sro load Poot reaction = footing load Farting reaction load on eos! port ead Moment (M)=Fxd = 2 ae 4M i 4 © = Reactions of tie Sand wall must counter harizontal and vertical componente oF FSTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS coLUMN C=] beam section Tension “I Opeimastion oa F aF Structural elements oan be claseihid according '2 their geometny, riguity, and hew they reagond to the forces applied to them, Exterral ieods create intennal stresses within structural elements, Tne two basic typen of rigid, near sbructunal olements tre the cobra ind beams A colon feanemite cempresene forces voréically along bo alaft. lead ve conterad, tre column will simply camvrees. howorer, the load 16 off center or appiied ‘eterally, the column wil experience curvatime The load camying capacity of a column varie Inversely wibh ite length, The thicker 2 coivimn ie rolabwve to ibs heaght, the more th can canny a2 the better ib mill mitheband eccentne ov laborl leading, The height-to- thickness ratio « knawn 36 3 calunin’s slendertess ratio, Tal, sierser columns are especully eusceptivle to buckling. A beam branofer ibe lead laterally along ste length bo ibe eupperts, Due te the nencorcurrent pattern 2 forced, 2 beam 6 subject te bending. This results ng combination of compressive. and tensile stresses which are greatest along the beams top and bottam edges. In bending, a beam aloo becomes eukject to horizontal and vertical shear stresses. As a general rule, the strength A 2 beam will meres6e according te the square of tee increase: in depth, while &e stiffness mil mcreace accard- ing to the cube of tks increase in depth, 6urilerly, if 3 beam’s length dsvbled, the bending strese wil dovbie. and willbe able to carry enly half oF th omginal lead, ke deflection under leading will also increase. zecording ta the cube, oF te increase in length. Canbilevering 2 beam beyond ite end ovprorte can redvee ibe maximum intemal bending moment, Spanning 2 beam conbinvevely wer tires or more. supports can seo redvee the design moment and make the structure more rig,A truss consists of short, straight, rigid members aosenibled wibo a tangulabed pattern, This triangulation 16 what makes a truss 2 rigid structural unit, While 2 truss 26 a whole 12 subject te vending, the meividual members are subject only te compression or tension, When 2 bean is suzperted by bo columne, the assembly defines an invisible plane and qualifice the space arvund ib, ‘he kypeal column-and-beam sesembly v6 nok capable of vesting lateral farces unless ib 7 graced, if the jonts between the columns and Veam are made rigid, thes the aaserbly we called a frame, A rigid frame hae 4 greater measure of lateral stably in the direstien of ths plane and both columns and beam are suhect to bending. IF we fill 1 bee plane defined by tue columne and a beam, tb ack 36 a long, thin column m branemiéting compressive freee to the ground, Thie wall, sonstrscted of reinforced tincrate, ig capable of resioting lateral fncee, iF oF unit masonry, however, ‘the bearing wall i capaihe: & carrying erly in-plane leads, Stresses in 2 bearing wall have to Flow srovnd any door snd window operings mthin the planer A planer structural clement; such ae a reinforced concrete alah, can span herizontally and branofer (es loade te ito supports by bending, A one-way slab acts a 2 mde, flat beam spanning hetween two supporto, A two- way sak, supported along four sides, 16 mere versazile since ib prondes mere paths along which stresses may bravel to the supporting elements, Long, narrew planar elements can be womned slong, their 2dgen te vm folded plates. These act 36 Yeams We are capable spanning fairly long distances, Also capable of long apano ws the space Frame. While te acte a6 2 planar obructural unit, 6 aonaiote of short, rigid linear members aegerbled inko 3 three-dimensional triangulated pattern. Uni mnseomry bearing RigID FLAT PLATE, 2 way sla Folded plate[Giae] BASIC STRUCTURAL UNITS IGAL SUrFORTS With the primary structural elements of columt, bears, slab, and lad Reinforced concrete Reinforced concrete 2 way beam bearing wall, thie pecsible te farm ard lah 2 basic ebrvctural unt capable oF y defining and enclosing 2 volume space “or habitation. Tme structural bait, whether veed alene ot in 3 repebibive manner, w the basic building Hock for’ a building's structiral eyotem, on these two pages are destibed hase pes, of ebevctaral ants, The verbioal sppports may be. load- bearing walle, 2 framework oF solunire and Years, of simply olurens eupperting 4 two-way reinforced concrete Flat plate the horwzonbal opanning element can ke 2 one er two-way rigid late of remterced concrete, An albemabve ayetem consiabs af 2 hiersrchical arrangement of deckn eupported ly she-way jute, beame, and girders, linear columne and beame form a three dimensional skeletal framewerk with a potential for epenress, lead bearing walle eopperting 3 one-may lab form a planar aystem which imparta directional qualty to the, apace dcfined. Herizonbal sabe diporied by columne free ue the lodster of walle and defire: horizon tal layero oF apace.traits Bu RAN SPEER SURE EER [Gas The spanning capabibty of herzontal elements determines the spacing & their vertical supports, Tha fundamental relationship between the epan and spacing of structural elemente influences the dimensions and scale of the opaces defined by 3 building/e structural eystem, the dimeneiens and proportion of the system's structural units, inborn, sheuld be related to the programmabie requiremente of the building's spaces, A fundamental dwtinetion etnsen one-way rd ‘bH0-way opanning systems lies im the proportion the sbouckural bay tach con hetebiy pan. One way ayetoms are generally preferred when the structural bay te rectangilar—e,, the ratio af the long te the short dimensions 19 greater than 1.5— or when the structural grid forms 3 Imear pattern, Two-way systems, an the other hand, axe more eHechive tar square bays or when’ the. sérvotural grid extonde equaly in two direction, Representative. SPAY RANGES & differant eyotema in feeb 0 1 % 9 5 oo 70 bo 0 too 1 ys | | Planks A lente 1——— | A (§ | bammates Beams ln | A E | tuseee Deck go | [Pers eee (OO | e x Mide-tlange Beame kz = & NN £ e Oper: web Fra y 2 | Open nel trusses WAT : 2 5 abe | z ——— 1 _ & Pan Josts Sear | 5 |S [ear rie af 3 | Precset tees rrr | ‘ S » aby | Fav Pate > | e{s ai S 1S | Gvay Goan and Sib =r Ne arte oan = SQ ae[ LATERAL STABILITY Wad om eartavake a, Rad Harszontal Diaphrag a pid joins Fin jourioe ea ete Fog Stabilizing clements are required te reset lateral forces in all directione, wwearial. Gavieiiy doment — gesbihang eleme te 7 Compdonce oF applied and esissing forces Aaymmebrical lajabe- Symmetrical tayo A building's structural slemento mosh be configures to forin 2 ohable structure under any pooribic ead conditions, Theedore, wile 2 structural eystem 6 designed primarily to carry vertical gravity leade, if mvet also be aie t witheband laters! wind or eartnavake, forces, There are three, beoie mechaniems for engoring laberai sbabilthy, Diagonal Bracing (timber or obeel) bracing 3 Frame with diagenal membore Rigid Frame (steel on remferced concrete) Developing 2 Frame with rigid joints capabice of resisting changes in anguish rélationshiea Shear Wall (wood, concrete, ar mavorty) Using a rigid pianar elements capable oF resioting shape changes Any of these systems may be uecd t stabilize 5 gorckure or they may ¥e Used m cambination. Gi the three, a rigid Frame bends bo ve che: eset efficient. However, maid frames can be veeful when diagonally braced frames or shear walle form barriers which eavse funchonal problems, Laberal obabilizing elements may be placed mthin a building or along ibe perimeter, and combined in variovs waye, In all eases, however, a number of stahiizing elements must be vsed bo resiet Isteral forces in all directuns. Rid horizental Araphragme, acting 2¢ flat, dcop teams, pan between shear walle, These are necessary te tranofer laberal leade from nen- laad-bearing walle 4a the lead-camying shear wale Lateral leads tend te be more critical in the ohert dwecton of rectangular buldinge and the more: vétcient mechansme (ohear walle or braced frames) are used mn this direction, In bhe long Arrection, esther eimilar eluents oF a righ frame con be used, ‘The arrangement of lateral etabiheing clemento we important te the otability of 2 strucvure ae Bhihole. An aeymmetnical layout, where the centroid of the appied face ie rob camadens with the centred of the resioting mas, can cause torosoral effects, A gymmctrical arrangements of lateral aabiizing clement bheretore alwayo desirable ‘The principle especially important for tall building. orL ‘all buildings are parievlarly susceptible to the affect of lateral leads, Under lateral lnading, they can be sen be act 30 vertical cantilevers, ‘The overturning manent: mus je countered by the whernal teanbing moment of the structure, The wider a tall building 1 the graater ve ibe resistance te bending, Avnaid frame 9 the lesob ofPoient may to achieve lateral stables and ve appropriate: arly for lowe bo mediumenee ebruckures, Ao tue height of 2 building meresoe, 1 becomes necessary to supplement: 3 rigid Frame with additional bracing mechanisms, such 36 3 rigid core or di | orscing, A abifter buhe structure capable of resieting all lateral forces can be developed \y veing closely spaced columns rigidly connected to hortzonical epandrel beams, For extremely tall obructures, majer diagonal bracing dements can ve superimposed over a rigid frame a tuke structure, Earthquakes can produce dyramic. and complex movement? of the ground on which 3 building reets. While these- motions are Yhree- dimensional in nature, from 2 structural design viewport, honzontal ground movemente are the most important, Seeme, forces are therefore: considered to be primarily lateral in characher When designing for seiomic lead, ib w alwayo denrsile te use simple goomobme forme with 3 symmetrical layout building masa, lead Austribuben, and lateral stabilizing clemente, Linear 1,75 and H planshapes should be broken wéo shorter segments with aeiemnc Jonte, These allaw adjacent sections of 2 building te move freely and independently # each other, In reoisbing sevsmic ard other lateral forces, Beymmetrical layouts such 26 these — can result im undesiratle bereinal effects off-center stiffening slements [Baz ‘mallee columa Forces develop in wader” buldmgs sice the moment arnt separating the colunms i2 greater. Tl lereurrimg moments q eager bracing superimpoeed over frame or whe serene sbructire 2 <7 Symmetrical ian Simpl geometric forms Zeiemic york ; U-shaped Piscontinyove bearing walls ‘shear walleDas LINEAR STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS = a 7 e & oe extension et qr nee n3 dimensions J Laheral stability may bee rigid Frames or shear walls ( \ The primary linear structural elemento columns and veame~ fernt 2 skelotal type & structural syetem, in plat, the: enitieal pomts oF this linear framenerk are Phase, ab whvch x wuilding \eade are carmied vertically #0 the grand along colomit lines. This 4ies rise to the use of a grid where the, 4 and lines vopresent the her-amtal contiruidy oF beams iomne and 2Feame — and the mbereections of the grid lines represen’ ther lecatiene of columne. ‘The mherent geometric ordor of a grid can be used in the design process to initiate: and remforce a building’ functions] and spatial organization, “p the lott ave diagrams which illvebrate, how 5 single modvle- of epace. w defined by four columns supgerting two beams. Thi baete building block can logically be exterded vertically along calom lines and hervzontally along beam lines te form 3 variety of Yuilding shapes, The Veeic ‘arid can aloo be albered bo accommodate oyecial neede ouch a large opaces ef unveval site cimditions, The use of 2 regular calumn grid mplies the develspment oa ceniee oF repetitive spaces, Hoveree, since the walle necessary fr the enclaeure, of mnbenor spaces need nob her load-bearing, thy can be treoly manipulated to define a varicky of spatial configurations.‘| senna st OS SR i RE OS SRE There chould be 3 Functional fit between the. vertical support pattern of a structural aysbem ged the spol aed functional eaanzston a huilding. The dimentsene and propertane of a sbractiral grid alee bell up something about the type & system veed te apan horizontally vebwien column supzorts, Two-way ayetome can Hiiwently opan aquare baye while ane way ayrieme are generally preferred when panning linear and reckangular gride, if exposed Yo new, the directional qualicy of the: horizon’ syotent branctoro iteelt to the interer spaces being apanned, poomspec newman A double anid can bo affect to develop interstitial spaces, These intervening spaces can be used to Aetna patterne of movement, medisbe between sence of larger paces, or +e hevse mechanical sernces. Non-unifores ee ieegular gre can bo vodd bo reflect the functional ar huerarchical erdering ot a building's spaces. \t 6 sla possible to fs canine ditorent and patterne im 2 singlee structure, One pattern can be 3 subset of a larger pattern and he related at column lecations. When the two patterns cannot ve Fatbome aligned 2 Rindem wrtersection conveniently aligned, a third element, ouch a0 calome pork ‘along 2 bearing line. a bearing wall, 2 mediating opace, or a ; finer-graimed Spatinng system, can be veed, { | Paterna separated © Pattaens sornad by 3 Seeding space. ‘shied spateung ayotemPLANAR STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS ‘the maypr planar shevebural elements ate the vertical load-bearing wall and the horvzontal alah, These rigid dlements can be combined to form a strachural ayetert that wo capsiie of enclosing apace 26 well a> supporting building loade A plarar ebructural system typrally consiets of a parallel series of load-bearing walle, Two auch wals naturally define an axial, h-directional space, Clesing one end with 4 shear wall resulbs in a space oriented bovarde the open ead, Closing the other end a6 well creates an introverted Space capable & being opanned mith 2 O97 ay ayer, secondary axe can be developed peryendcular te the primary axle wnth openinge mthyn the lead-vesring halle, Care shevid be bakon that these aponings de not weaken the walls inbegrity, strength, and rigidity. Load-bearing walle are mort effecewe- m resieting forces along there planes, and mect vulnerable #3 fercee perpendicular te their planes. The stably of 2 (ead- hearing wall eyotem therefore: depends en the support OF pervendicular shear wall planes a6 we | a6 the rigidity, stitiness, and mass of the walle themoslves, ‘To the left are diagram winch illvbrate the variatiens inform pessible through the manipulation of tte length, heighb, spacing, and arentatien o lead-bearing walls‘the parallel nature a 2 lead-Wearing wall pattern fee wall with one-way epanning systems, since uad-vearing valle ae moet effachye when carrying disbributed leads, thay bypically supperé 2 series of sists, planks, or a ane- way slab. Any aystom using midely spaced beams creates concentrated loade which require remforcement or thickening 3b ther beam euppert locations, ‘A common plan configuration 16 2 series of lad-teering wale nich define and separate a number # repetitive spaces. Openings are ible at either end of the apaces i lateral sauity can be achieved mbh braneverse frames or ohear waller More complex plan catigurabione are possible: once ante of parallel load-bearing vdlie can be arranged perpondslar to each other: Pecouse of the planar nature of lead-bearing walls, there should bo 2 correspondences Vebweon thew spacing and the functimal requirsmente of the defined spaces. The leestion 3td onentation o load-bearing walle, however, should aleo be devermined by the requirements for laberal stability, Lead-bearing walle may be thick enough that veide within ther construction can be weed 2 servo spaces, Even double walle organized Beng a tartan grid can be ozen to be oimilar n nature ta thick laad-bearing walle, In order to transter lateral wand or earthquake forces te load-bearing walle that serve 38 shear planes, floor planes rust be designed 3» rigid horizontal diaphrsams, Since these act 20 thm, deep veang, they should be carefully designed, Flan shapes rob suitable 36 hormial Yeam shapes should be avoided.a E STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS — yp Fianae Wear Rind Fear of bear colvmre ard bea aga obese wale “braced frame # ier Combing both linear and planar abructural elements, 1b posoile be form 2 compooibe sbructural aystem, Comesive structural ayoteme allow 2 building to be mete flexie wn responding bo the pregrammatic requiremenive of the avaces and the context of rte site. Even when 8 balding vislzes Bsingle printany type of structural ayster, the secondary ad berbiany ayoteme consieh of beth Imes and planar Planar slab clement, A ged can again be used $0 coordinabe 2 building’ soructural, spatial, and functional systems, and te organize how the structural system collects and channele ste loads to the ground, ‘The manner im which farce ave tranefenred from one, structural element b the next and how 2 eeructural ‘nystom perbirme 26 2 whole: depend. be a great extent ZA ante tines oe ad eannactins sed. On the fllowng page are described the basic types of connections used im building consbrvctien, ster patie \A «Planar decking et Wear eae s Fianar decking 22 near jaro| Structural elements can be joined to cach other in three mays, ube joints allow one # the olements fo be continvevs ard usvally require a third mediating element to make “he connection, Over lapping joints allew all oF the connected cements to bypses each other and be continvove across the jot, the ebructoral dements can aloo ke molded ar shaped te form bhe connection, The conmectore used to Jain thee structural elements can be i the form of 3 point, line, or surface. While line and suntice types connectors resiet eetation, pant. connectors de net seas diteibe bed sores6 3 large surtace area. ss PINNED JowTs theoretically allow rebabion bu no tranelStien many direction, \N EXED or RIGID JoMTS resist momento and forces in any direction and therefore. do nde allaw any tobation or trenelabion te occur, [LYOINTS AND CONNECTIONS Z Wood Overlapping Jou [Pome Connecter Weld ON Ling Gonmector lve surface Connector Connectors| ard boite Pulte or vets | eel Concrete Precast. conarobe ‘aed metal emnectars Wood Diageally bribed connection . A! Steel ROLLER JOINTS allow rotation bub reeset tranelatien ir one direction only, They are net 36 commonly used 26 pinned of fied connections bub the principle behind railer jane can be 24en to aaply te jombe iat allew expansun and contrac tion of 3 structural clement to secur. a C&POTHER STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS Columns, Yearne, and alabe are the moot comman ‘structural clemente because of the recbilinest building qcomebry Uhey are capable of generating. There are, honver, other means of spanning and orclosing opace, These are generally dorm aebwe- elements which make efficient vee o° her | trateral for the distances apanned because of their geomekry and shape, While beyond the scape of this beok, they are brefly desorbed velow, Ar ARCH ¢ a curved structural element that spans bebueen two pombe, A black arcti we capable of carvying only in-plane forces which caves the segments to compress unrformly, A rigid arch, on the ether hand, tansiete of a cintinvovs proce ea curved rigid maberia\ such 6 steel ar concrete, A VAULT 6 2 singly curved structural plane binst spare brarerersely, like 2 continvovs black arch. A CYLINDRICAL SHELL 1s similar m Form but spans longitudinally like 2 beam with the conve, perpen dicular to the span. ADOME w 2 ephomcal evrtace aeructure thet | AEE can be made of stacked blocks, a combinvevs rigid LEER, _ tera ke reinforced concrorey oro shart righ : AEEESEEER\ linear elemento a0 m the case of a geodesic dome. ' oeioae! bine: A domes amilar to 2 tebated arch except that carcumforential forces are developed which are a Gomprocawe near the orewn and tenale the 7 lower portion. i CABLES are Flexible structural elemento which mveb be weed purely im tension, When auect concentrated lsade, 2 cable’ orape conaigte sbraghi-line segment, Under a unitermly dwtripsbed load, b will take on the shape oF an inverted arch, A NET w 2 three dimensional surface made up of a senies éF croooed cuvved cables. MEMBRANES ate aloo flexible ctrucbural elements. ‘the thin sheet maberial may ke suspended or sbretched booween pooks, or ve eupported by aie pressure. Freumabic Seructure: Double Membrane System: Ae-supyorted ArrnflatedFOUNDATION SYSTEMS The foundation system for 2 building— te oubotructure— 1s the critical ink in Hie transmission of Yuilding oade down to the round, Bearing directly on the call, the toundation system musb istribute vertical loads ec that settlement of a building » erbhor negligible or uniform under all parte of a balding, it must aloo anchor the building’s superstructure againet oplifting and racking die te mind or earthquake forces. The most critical factor in actermining the foundation ayobem of a building 6 the type and bearing capacity of the eoul.to which the building leads are Astributed, Foundation systems are presented in three categories according to she azomotric analagies oF, point line, and plane, Each bype foundation system described in thie chapter can support certain wall and floor systema, Just 26 the tyve of foundation system weed 1@ regulated by the eoil and copography of the building sive, the chowce aloo affects the potential form of the ouperotructure.&e2| FOUNDATION SYSTEMS Seporobructure orbsirwcboe eh) Creobing Prerturning The foundation aysbem 19 that part of a builling’s substructure inhich transmis the building’ loads dovn to the eupperéing #0 These Icade wiclude the dead lad of the building’s werght and the ie iaad of te ocoupsnte and contents, A fourdation system may algo have to reset ground pressure ae nell a6 anchor the building’s superotructune againet uplift o racking due %0 lateral wind or earthquake. forces. TYPES OF FOUNDATION SYSTEMS A foundation system tymcally coneiove of colurine, plore, of walle which rest on featings, These Footings are the widened parte of the fourdation which rest directly on the. oot). They bre opread in orden to diebribube. their loads wer 2 wide oneugh ares that the soils bearing capacity 16 net exceeded, Footings should alnaye rest on undieturbed coil. When thio © not possible, concrete or a specially engineered and compacted Fill should ve used to make up the extra depth. Avoid pearing om unotable or ergame ole, web clays, or on ground with peor Aravriage, When Yhe coil underlying 2 foundation ayoter we not adequate to oupport the building?s leade, column-like piles are uzed to penetrate down to 2 mere euitable bearing serabum of rock 2° dense vande and gravee, Piles can alee be supported by the fricbional resistance developed vetmeer rhe ple, evrtace® and the aurrounding oorl, Seread Faobings are veually of plain or remtorved concrete while pilee may be of word, Sole plain corcrete, or reinforced concrete, these basic types of foundation ayskemne are discussed further on 2.4 and 2. aout} dur Longitudinal ‘sneinkage reinforcement Steel reantorceme) Bm 1 16 Pequred when footing prycots mare than halt ef faondabion wall thickness and becomes avrject bo bending. FOOTING SIZE omee fookmge fer residential and obher light sensbruction tranmit relatively light leads, ther azo can voualy be eotamated by the following when they bear on stable soil. For foundation walle: Width (W) = 2x thickness of foundation wall Thickness (1) = thickness of faundatien wall Fer columns and pera: A= 0/6, where ‘As honizental bearing surface of footing P= calumn lead in pounde 8 2 all bearing capacity i Ihe /6F. Woon bearing on poor aol or designing for hesry leade or slepmg sibes, ea sampies should be bested and an engineering, gnalysis made be debermmne the type and size oF foumastiom eystem that we required, Coneuib 2 abructo-al engineer.“sm ancien a i SH AR L BUILDING SETTLEMENT 6 3 building bears Jewn on the supporting sail, some settlement 6 bo be expected, A properly deougnedl ail constructed foundstion system should minimize thie gobblemend or make ib negligible. whatever oebblament 2009 occur should bo equal under all pants o 2 building. This ig accomplshea by laying out and proportioning the foundation supports so that thay branes an equal load per unit area to the sell. Uneven or differential sedlement can cause a building 40 shift out of plumb and cracks bo szcar in 4 foundation, structure, ot Fohen, F oxbreme, differential settlement can revit: in the. ailure a building's structural mntegnty. Settlement w due prmarily to a reduction im the, volumes af rade in the sail, Taio reduction 1 slight and eceure rather quicky a0 ieide are applied on dense, granular Zolle, On clays, settlement can be areator evrice clay 36 a relsbively larye percentage oP veide, Consvlidatien clay can also be cantinvous ever 3 long period oF tame since? any water presents cannot pase Uarrigh the clay easily. ‘Though nob 36 commm, the laveral awplacement oF eal! im embankments or adacent to excavations can sleo cauee settlements to eccur WATER Ground wster can place preseure on and penetrate foundation walle and ground slabs below grade, eopecially iF they lie below a site's water table. Foundation walio enclosing basement spaces should be watenproePed and 2 perimetar drainage system used to collect and avert water away from the feurdztien, in cohesive scile, ground water san alee rise through capillary action and Penetrate 2 buildings gromd slab or oral space, Capillary can be controlled with 2 combination of granular vase matorale and vaper barriers, Surtace weber should be dramed away from a building doing protective slopes: 9% mmmun for grasay or planted areas ard 1% for paved surfaces, ROST Simos water expands upon Freceing, ground heswng can secur 36 call moisture Freezes in cold weather Ye minimize the eftect of thio frost action on 3 foundation, footings shavid ber placed below the decreet frost penetration expected at the buldng atte, Since shia frosting vames from region to region, \@4 depth should be verified when a opecitic ante ie selected. In addition, fookinge should net be placed on frozen ground, Ag the trezen soil thaws under the- pressure of the buildieg lved, excese water can cavec the sail ta |os0 much 7 ite bearing capacity, ais 4 toh Settlement 1 due to compression oF ‘uprorting bal resulting From 3 reduction in che volume of its voids. Tran tile on pe (bee 0.20) Vapor barrier \\ ranula have course ‘erage depth Aiba te site”> region¥ &| TYPES OF FOUNDATION SYSTEMS Reinterced al Lead -vearing) or treated wood pi ‘support veame above or en grade) | leolated factinge dustribute per leads +0 oot Catoson may extend down through | unsabietactery ool + 2 oubable: 7 pearing abrabym—————" PIER FOUNDATIONS ee +A qnd of igalated pore and trotinge can bo used im resiaential snd ligt: construction te elevate the euper- ‘etruckure above the ground plane. Piers can oxtend up and serve 2° columne for the, superetructure, + Flaor plance elevated above grade should be mneulated, + Piers can alee Ve used 42 provide port: supports for qrade bearne. Soe + Winer camyng heavy leads, “pier of column footings cat be combined into 2 ary Footing which aebe a6 3 continvove beam. +A combined footing 19 ake used te He two columns together when one of the calumne most: abut a property line... it oll catosen Rentoreed concrobe pile cap ditesbutes golumn load 0 piles — Twated woad,, steel, or cane piles ose when lange buildings generate bade nich exceed the soils bearing capacity, piles are veed + penetrate down to 2 mere outable bearing stratum, +Pileo are typically dewen cisely together i elvetors, each of which io ypned at the top by a reinforced concrete. pile car + Fils may be end-bearing or be oupported by the Fricbienal resistance of the syerounding eo, + Piles may be of treated 34 I timber, bot for large buildinge, eit shed Wesectione, concrete Zii filled pipes, on precast we Lye remforced or proserensad conareke Bre more: commen. End-bearing pile + Gaisoone are oimilar te rrles wn function but they conpet 4 plain or remforced concrete which % eitecast into drilled holee. @rHOOoOG 8 woud okeol eovorcte,Pe do Reinforced concrete ‘conereke of ground 6upy | masonry LO aieb. frondsbon | ne | | | bel pressure, Integral grade beam 2 Supported by tp Sens ore or pees, _Tuckaned edge to camry jel warm chinates wall load sutbable for SLAB FOUNDATIONS: *Foundstion walle encloomg 2 basemert opace 2b 20 vebaining walle and must ve able, to relat sail pressure, +A rind floor plane and basement ‘slab oan provide leva supper + Waberproctin poser he nd a drain tile eystem are required where ground waber exicke + Pasement slabs and crawl spaces require vapar barriers to conéro| paseage of ground masrure, + Crawl spaces sleo requires venvilatian, + On sloping sites, stepped footings are necessary bo mamntamn the required footing depth velow grade, ab all poinbe around a building. + When 3 concrete. ground dial ie voile independent of 2 building’s ‘undabien, tb requires anly 2 stale, compact ved for support, + Ip chmateo where little or ne ground frost cccure, 8 ground- supvorted slab aan be thickened te camry wall and colon loads, + When mde column footings are requred 20 28 nob to exceed a gulls bearing ezpacity, may be more officients and economical toon them wo 2 mat frundation, +A ma foundation 16 a tuck, reintercad slab bhat acks 26 a single faoting fer an entire building, bis designed 39 9n integral seructural unit with the superstructure, capable of transmibting lade to ‘the fondation soll under the entire area of the olab,PIER FOUNDATIONS: WOOD LA EE locke may bear en and canlever beyond reams or be Framed mbe veame: Poles or pooke may conbinue up to camry vortical laade of the euperatrucbure or tormnate a the Firot fear and suppor’ convenbionsl Pablo centroctor | oe “ t oe Wood pier téundabions elevate timber ( sbructures above the ground plane, require a minimal excavation, and preserve the tt natorsl features ard exieting drainage if patterns of a atte. They are yarbicularh oe veeFol when building moter abpee aed wt areas subject te periadic: flooding ar high winds, Word should be presoure-breabed with preservatives ve renith insects and decay. See 12.2. Frovor embedment, backfilling, and beam connections are required for the stability oF yole structures. Word prere can be extended to support. the rook ard form 2 soructure more reslotant to Iabersl wind and seismic loads. These poleo or ate usually laid oub along a grid defined by the beam and job framing pattern. Their evacing determines bobh ‘the beam and oiet epane ard the vertical loads they muse surrert-. ++ 4 us TE iit cae Pe i L 1 | | | SN se When adequate embedment ie not possible, ouch + * + + gor roel) alpen, sel red crooolracig wich l turnbuskies or ehear walle # concrete or See peer eee masonry can be used to pronde laveral atabihty, | : | | i 4 ene ee TAO ack open 4. jena gots teecesl g ate cantiovore te V4 of the back epanNekching improves bearing for beams ard prondco better contact with rourd poles thie nabching Ws sometines referred 42 ae dapyng All field notching, cubs, and drilled holes should be treated with preservatives, used to'mprove bearing wn he ef nobehing. Spaced beams are throvgh-bolted to the odes oF the eupporbing pote ar poles, which can then continue up te serve a6 the load-bearing frame far the superstructure. CONNECTIONS. Depth at embedment depende on type of soll, degree of ground ope, and eeiennc ame. Piscking canbe LL When pore terminate ab the finet: Floor, beaine can bear directly on the piers and be secured with wood or metal Gusseee, ‘A epikad grid connecter mith 3 angle bale: can provide etter load-bearing valves | than 3 notched, bolted connection: |} treated polo —— fave re Cmorete or y ale sal-cements | es aE backfill usea | Lag ble an fteey seter, ES) eborctorage ie erat a [fs tamped backfill salle + frvet line k: of sand, gravel, 7 or crushed rock: faze ot footing aE a! mune depends on pole 1 is 2 spikes or galu ‘Spscing, 10d, dad metal strape ype oF oa tor better’ anchorage, FooTINes: CONCRETE FAD Poles are set in holes dug by hand or by a power auger, Concrete yade or calla increase the poles contact with che eal ard distribute their loads over 2 larger area. GONCRETE COLLAR, CONC. BACKFILL flee can alee be drven as end- or Froton-vearing piles. When used in this manner, consul an engineer.erst Floor system ee 44, 40h, Flere may support Firat Foor beam or columne which carry the vertical lnade oF the superstructure: ‘cteel connectors reepired 42 eupport and anchor wood or steel structural membere ‘to concrete piere, \ Ranforced concrete pee ard footing ~ exvend down to below raat line. Lonerete piere, like wood pwere, elevate 2 wilding’s ssperebructure above the ground Pane with minimal diwburance to the oibo, “Thay can bo used 36 the faundabion for omall, iugheweight buildings or pust-and- bear aervcbures, capecially when bulding on 4 slepo. Concrete pore are usvally iatd out aleng 2 grid defined by the beam and jot framing pattern, Those spacing dekermines bobh ‘the beam and jowt opane and the lade they most supper © Mex. unsupported height = fox min math # pier @® Inovlabe fire Fleer according to lecal climatic condibwre © Proce structure for lateral stability Linnie cantilevers to a & the back span/os i AD teal beam suppor nd archer: Kein, concrete pier = 0810" min. i CONCRETE PIER CONNECTIONS Steel column welded ase plate ect on leveling So. plate or nube column base is grade mins Non- shrinking grote Anchor Volto: Building céde may require I standot high’ above. cone, inhen exposed to weather 2? min, sudecover: SAL. Damped backfill NSS {Footing width and depth f depende on pier load and bearing capacity of sell, # Gee 6.44 tor renterced sencrobe columns. ssi il RS SET PIER SORMWORK sfiker forms + Slay tile or soncrete pipe sSmeoth a + eke in place spiral pattems men finioh + Dieposable Mu t 3 4 veces + Woad formnork + A varety of proprietory post bases and beam anchors are availabie, Conovit manufacturer for mnsballation + Square or details and allowable oade, rectangulae + Post and beam connectors can aloo be shop section fabewabed te sub apecitic den conditions, + Reveable + Connechors shuld ve gsvanized er plated to remot corvvsion when exposed to weather. STEEL CONNECTORS poe% 10] FOUNDATION WALLS: CONCRETE BLOCK LE extend wall at leat 6° abore frich rade LF when eupperoing 2 nood structure Yee anchor bolve held ve enibadded 2b“ leet 16" into unrewntorced grouted masdnry or 7" nto reinforced masonry; spabe.no more than o! ac, Es L A top course and PC celle of concrete hocks Bast contain reinforcing bars, icdget ibe and other iesecte must be Filhed wich grovt Dranage membrane filter fabric ar Pol baci 48 dean tile laid W/ enone a perforated pe Footing drains are required +o SS channel ground water away and reduce hydreetabie. preeeire an foondstion, 000.20. K Conbee onto net recommended frr macory basement walle te avoid water leakage probleme = Tinckneoe and remforcement: of foundation wall, and the oize of we footing are determined by: 1. Building |0ed and Awtributien pattern 2, type and bearing capacity of onl 3. Laberal leading from eail and 4reund water 4. Lakeral gcing provded by vasement gromnd alab and first Feor system: erresonce of ground water requires waterproofing af foundation walle and ingballatim af forking drains. Provide rough penings far windows and doors as well 36 pipe sleeves For water, sewer, 426, of and clectrical lines. a tyre Hf Floor and wall systems being supported will debermne the bop cdge condition FOUNDATION WALL SYSTEMS ‘tre tonm and cupperé pattern of the foundation wall ayetem should respond te the form af the super ‘sbructure 36 well 26 to the building aite’> sail and taprgraphic conditions,Waterproofing and Enibed Yep anchor bolts ab least ae ‘Tinto soncrete and space no mere ee than 6! acs eee 7 at Lanta fe wurden of 972 a door pening Peam pocket “age 49, 416, b" min. vhickness fort Foundstion and vscemonk walle SS footing arain elements sintilar to theoe shown on B10. CONCRETE BLOCK FOUNDATION WALLS 9 No formwork reqsireds vbilize easily handled email units; leso erection time than for sitecast conorebe, walle + Since concrete block @ 2 madular materia, all major dimensians (lengohe, height sfeez4, wall pening) should be madular to minimize cutting of block. + Concrete block walle are svaceptibie 40 diFerental settlement and crasking. # S00 5.22, 451 SITECAST CONCRETE FOUNDATION WALLS + Formwork and access te place concrete required # Generally stronger but mare expenawe than concrete Wleck foundations + Modular dimensioning nét necessary unlese required by superstructure. aboveFOUNDATION WALLS: WOOD 7 bese er rate Feld arte te Hie wall sections tagether- alfect omnes From theee oF lower toy plate insulin, wr, iene ea and wal finoh ap required i “ “Treated weed sonp to protest tap vapor varmer —Lower kop plate VA ond-nailed to studs lope Ve" por Font \ Double hector a x Ve" or thicker ere fp ee Arete yd el adhesive ———— 7s —— Ye" rite tee Come, ia Genel vacktll awiked for deainage ——~ 2x stude@ 2" 48 drain tile or perforated pipe idth depende on foundat Nl wood used to fabricate fommdation { 4 oyotem moet be. proserrabue, pressure mele guna 2 een or breated wood and preseure- treated ol viyweod, approved for ground contact vse; Gravel base ~~ all field cubs should be treated with the: same prosematie. Woo? FOUNDATION WALLS © Weed foundation ayebeme can be used fer bath basement and crawl opace construction, » Foundation wall sections may be factory fabricated or Wilt on sites offers reduced erecbien time. +» Foundation walle supperting a first Fleer beam should be designed te carry the beam’s concentrated lead, and distribute ib 40 that the allowable bearing capacity of the gravel base and eail 16 not exceeded, ‘| abi Ho 1 2" min. Se Se ee BA) te CEES i STA ep AIR At la 4 rin H-Kigid Foam Sitecaet concrete or a mevlabien extends canesbik. Found tion walt f dewe from nal ' frame above INTEGRAL FOOTING The slab under a bes-ing partition can be thickened to serie 26 4 footing. Widbh and depeh of footing depende on wall thioknese and lead, and the soll conditien, Woop STUD WALL Resign o come. slab and grade bear depends on superetructiee lead sed all condibiens, GRADE BEAM For marm clivates where tal conditions pormie THICKENED EDGE SLAB& 20 CONCRETE GROUND SLABS: FLOOR GONDITIONS Vavee barrier prevents gromd morebere. from yeneorabing slab; may be either &- mil poly ethylene sheok or glase hiker remforcad water procfirg yaper fi Gravel base cores limited capillariky prevents ground water to rise threugh slab bed; 4" bo 6 deep. Compacted fill mereasee oil stability, lvadbearing capacity, ard resistance to ater penetration THE SLA® BED shining. wacd frame fo Flashing teqyired wher [ constrvctien Dowels to te slab bo Ss S fovndatien vali k——thicken foundation wall | fradaitional bearing, if required EXTERIOR SLAD Chamber or rade YE! expt Sti febietets Sawn joints Ye" prenrolded Keyed control fill w/ ate inverted — Joints prevent joie eealer when cocrete —“adhesian by 12 cast applying cvring compound to one ide before other side 16 CONTROL JOINT TYPES east For slab openings less than 12!) extend second layer of wire mesh reine forcement. 2! on all dee of opening WIRE MESH REINFORCEMENT | Max olab dimenown | wire-apac’s | Wire gage | Cfeet) Grenes) — | (rvmber? Up te AE exe | ie a6 60 axe | 0/6 wwe ere | We = Coste bowel 4 provent verbical shite SLAB STEPS When depreopion vs greater than 16) extend vice mesh reinforcement. 2! on bebh odes thickened slab. ot LAB DEPRESSIONS. 242" min, cover. oe pO Fronde fr movement where pipce pare through conebrvctien jomnto, EMBEDDED HEATING PIPES [208 min, cover — HEATING DUCTS.i | | | | | | | | FLOOR SYSTEMS Floor systems are 2 building’s primary horizontal Blanes which must support beth ine loado— people, turniehings, and movable equipment—and dead loads— the weight oF the Floor construction itself Floor systems must transfer their loads horizontally Berose space to aither beams and coluinna or bb bearing walls. Rigid wall planes can aleo serve 96 horizontal disphragme which act 26 thin, wide beams spanning between Shear wall planes, f floor system may be composed of a semes of |mear veams ard jose overlaid with a plane of oheathing or decking, or 16 may consist of 2 wearly homeqeneole slab of reintarced concrete, The depth of'9 foe sytem io directly related to the size and proportion a the structural bays must opan and the strength of the mabemale ved, The 2ize and place- ment ¢ any carbilevere and openinge within he. floor plane ‘should also be considered in the layout of 2 floor aystem’s structural supports, A tloor system edge conditions ard connections to supporting foundation and wall systems affect both a buildings sbroctural inbegrity and its physical appearance: Since te must eafely eupport moving loads, 2 Floor system should be relatively atitt while maintainin tis elasticity, Due to the detrimental effects Ha excessive deflection and vibration would have on finieh flooring and ceiling materialo, 20 well a5 concern for human comPave, detlaction rather than Vending becomes the ersbical controlling Factor. The depth of the flaor construction and the cavities within ib should be considered if ib ie necessary to accommodate rung af mechanical op electrisal bnee within the floor eyatem, For floor systems vebween living spaces dbacked one above ancther, an additional factor bo consider io the blockage ct both airborne and sbructure-borne sound, Except for exterior decks, 3 building's Floor systems are normally net exposed to weather. Since they all must oupporé traffic, however, Aurabilby, resistance. Ye west, and maintenance requirement are factors to consider in the selection of a floor Finieh and the eystem required 0 ourport 16, —_COMPARATIVE FLOOR SYSTEMS Wood yoot system © Relztwaly small nob members closely spaced © dowst> oupported by either beams er walle woop Wood yok Fleer aystem + Relatwely short spans for ‘subFloering, underlayment, and applied ceiling # Flexible m form and shaper Wood plank and veam ayotent + If undereude of sonstruction io loft oxpooed, ibis more. aFEicult to run concealed mechanical and electrical lines, and the eystom 16 lass resistant to Sound branemiesion © Concentrated \eade and Floor openings may require sadtenal Feaming Word plank and Vern + Larner beams opaced furbhor apart and spanned wrth sbructvrsl planking ar deck © Beame supported irdere, pote, orinie Steel ost oystom + Lightgage. or open-web pate dusely bpaced + Joists supparted by beams or walle STEEL Steel joist Floor eyeteen © Rolabiuely short opane for dooki = Underside of structure. may be- lett exposed, or have a coiling applied + Limited cantilever pobential Steel beam and decking eystem © Typwcally an integral part of Pras star ayetem = Concentrated loade and Floor openings may require addibienal Framing Steel beam ond decking + Heavier boams spaced frther apart and spared with abel decking or precast concrete planks © Beams supported by girders, columng, or walle CONCRETE + Precast or cast-in place = Concrete Floor systems are classified according to the bype of ‘span and the resulting form : = One-way and two-way slabs = ne-way jovst slab Two-way wattle lak tne- way Flat alae - Two-way Flat plabe. + Factors in eystem chaice include the type and magnitude of load conditions, the desired floot depth, and the desired oie and proportion of the structural baysZaloor aad underlayment for Finish floring > Ab Finah woed Flooring over decking ; reahent tile and emilar Fleoring require. underlayment; deckirg may be lete xpos 1 woigh conection ph 24a, Seiling applied durectly be undecodle of Joiete or svipended from jowbe Mechanical and electrical ie normally tun parallel 40 jabs 5 may ron perpendisvlar te and penetrate welste under certain conditions Woop JoleT System = Lexan FY Applied ceiling optionals Underside may be lee exposed Mechanizal and clestmeal lines may ke ron within Spaced beame fir concealment: WOOD PLANK AND BEAM SyoTeM Conerete fill ar slab over Steel Floor decking Precast cone. planks, a conc. fll or sla aver abeel Floor decking-— sori fo ee 24! or greater, \ depending on “oor \ lead and spanning \ capability of deck \ Undereide +f structure, may We let expooad, or a ceiling may | ve hung trem joisbs Mechanical and clecbrical lines may evn parallel or porgend cular te apen- nek jeobe STEEL Joist SYSTEM ——— nam size and spacing related %0 floor lead, beam span, and ayanning capabiing of deck | Underside of obrvcbore: may ve lef exposed, or a coiling tay be suspended | from déok } Mechanical and clectmcal lee run parallel to beams, or perpendicular to and veneath beames uy penesrate beame under cortam conditiane STEEL BEAM AND DECKING “ Seo 4,2-4.39 for overview oF concrete Floor systema,Als | WOOD JOIST FLOOR SYSTEM Finish Flooring over plywood or plank sist open 1 subtlearings sme finish Flaering maberiale may require additional underlayment 1 i le : dalinigtdepata oo se anne red ; aireckly to jabs Novae apacing: 12", e's ar 24"se, * min. bearing on weed or metal may be svepended : 3" mit. bearing an rasenry Briowerel caimg S728 oes at area or concealment # mechanical lines ‘tise aad gyn + Floor stiffness criteria = Dimensions and epanning Erd ust may Fe capability & evbfleoring Aovbled bo provide adbihonal supper for end wall hataral oupporb required ‘or owt onde; see 40 Floor projections and openings fenio \ fasemty an —/- iad frame wall | Woed or | abel beam: Partition omespee 90040 aa eae WOOD JOIST FLOOR SYSTEM © Mest typical wved Fleer eysbem + Flexible in form and shape becavee of the workability of the material, the relatively gmell pieces, and the various meane of fastening available © Fire-resiatance “ating depends on fimieh fleor and ceiling materiale ‘spacing * Allawable Hoo? deflectionWOOD JOIST SPAN TABLE AGS The josh ozan table velow vo for prehminary sizing of members only. Ib agoumes that jousts have simple spans, Arle o Shumb fe estimating (ab spore: Span = 24 x Jost depth. SIZE SPACING | SPAN AS LIMITED BY DEFLECTION * | SPAN AS LIMITED BY SENDING: nominal | contort + = (| center’ | 321,200,200 pa Tipe aoe Fo = 1400 98 | 60 zo | oo | 40 30 axe | al tz whi | aie | jee" a 710" | p10" 2" 6-10" 7-10" oe" | 7-3" | axe | 2 wo | wr | pee | ie oo | ot 2 oA aon fee | oe | | | | 2xlo | 12 | t-1 lane 19-8 ir ro | | ie 14-9 iB-2 1B 7-2 4-9 4 Bo | ee es fee | wee axi2 12 0-6 7-4 21-10 1o- B-T | O-o i 3 | ies | ies | 8 | re 4 2 ia- 19-9 1e-7 7-0 ae 2x4 2 12-7 0-2 15-4 gal a1-6 23-10 é | 2 | i-7 we | os | we | tone a4 1-4 ont BB Wer ori 7-2 ¥ Lot deflection now be exceed \/a6otn of span; stiffness af jae eyobem under stress 18 mare cribical than Ye strength + Goneraily, # the srerall construction depsh v accepbable, deeper yosbe reaced further apart are more Jeairdvle fer stress than shallow javste spaced marv closely bayceher, + Ee medulva of olsebiotty 5 Fp = allowable unit stress m exbreme fiber bending; bébh vary according bo gpecies and of grade of lumber used, BRIDGING Bridging canswote of ced of metal crosevracing or Fill-derth blocking between each yet ab 9! interval. Bridging may be required by some Folding calee fhe yout devrn v2 br more. cimee ite thickness Henever, 16 vaually neo cecess ary iF the not ands 2re supeortes laterally and their top compression edges sre restramed Yy the auetlooring CUTS IN olor 79 allow plumbing and eleceical |mes to vase through fluor jotste, cvts may be made according t2 the following guidelines: a Max diameters th jaw depth —— Seer Yo of 92 aepoh maxima and ve nibern enile Said of spans rs4k .G | WOOD JOISTS: ounation system connections ~ pe BA corough 6.10 for wood stud wall and second Floor Framing conditions en area aubjeab to metal shield allow wall sheathing to her Fiveh w/ frundation PLATFORM FRAMING Teulstior sold blocking panies 98 rest directly on double gill — and are face- nailed to joiske and vee-nailed te oil BALLOON FRAMING SS \ We" maa > ‘ Toenas! w/ barnes ering } Zio RN tation, motall 2 2 VA tons Wf conbimuree sheet PS ill may be eet vack bo / NZ Wood obadryall framing a loado te Foundatun vec presoure-breabed wood ; normal 2x0 or «3 lay wer fibrove sil Sebler to reduce air infilerations level nf shims Yo" anchor bolts @ 6'4.0.5 min, oF 2 belts per eill piece W/ ome within 124 of each end See 64 and 6.5 for digovesion of valloen and piattorm Framing. g 4 Metal attachments are vod te wall and ficor Framing securely to founda- tion when resistance [ te wind and. sersrnice leads te requiredWOOD JOISTS: peau surecer conDiTions Au 7 | T | Jovote supported within beam depth | It Jowts gartly | | within beam depeh— : ‘a | | vost hearing | 7 | | [on beame || Lesce of support & Ye req bearing i L J 7 | | Stee levee! Wood UJ Wood Wood 5 | g ie" min, beaeings a 3| s E| § | = 5 = Ez | 3 3 4 3 3 2 "4 500 412 for types of wood beams ard beam apan able Word yauate may be supported by maed or steel beams. In eizher case, the height of the veam and 19 supper’e ohoild be ccordinated with beth the porimeter gill condibien and how the beam supports Yhe fear jaiste, Bee nexb page for debaile af jorst- beam connections. Wood 1 mast eusceptible bo ahemkage porpendicvlar $e ibe grain. For thio reason, the total depth of meod constrvation for both the ell cenditien and the joeb-beam connection shovid bo equalized to avoid subsidence of the Floor plane.Al .8| WOOD JOISTS: peam surroRt conpiTIoNS Bobo of beam and outs 6 same clevabion 38, yormeter sil Kee only with welleseasoned lumber TOP OF JoleTs FLUeH W! BEAM Mobsl stray: be the inline RS Joes together wher ‘ow tops are Flush Wf top oF & joe over beam 24 ledger (242 min; We" min, bearing LEDGER DEARING horizontal continuity oF Floor structure, and supporto subFleor Seah ties yorote together, mainésin’ Se Ya" spacd +b allew for yoiet shrink: < rave bolted to bebtom flanger; of same thickness ‘heel veam 36 porimebor ail te eqvalize, shrvkaye LEDGER BEARING Incline jorsbe WES nae bi Weed all of same thickness a6 perimet. all; bolted wi bnrcaded rad welded to toy Flange” AIEEL BEAM BEARING ‘The incline jovek eystem allawe the vee oF ane site smaller yaats that woeld normaly be weed 17 conventional framing. When used mith otude and tatters paced 24% 00, in-line joints alee maker officrent vse of 4D" wide sheathing maberiale, ‘These maborial savings, however, may be effect by creased laber coat, “the system concrete of uneven length joroks, the longer once overhanging she center eupesrt V4 bo Ve af the simple oan, at 3 paint where the bending moment approaches ere, the oherver uniete are connected to the overhanging joiete with shear. resleting metal cennectero ¢r Plyweed aphee plates. The overtanging and short joste alternate sidee and form yowte continveve aver tno spans,WOOD JOISTS! ragtition connections Wood stud wall subfloor ~ NOW-BEARING PARTITION ~ Ne partition velow Weed aud wall eubtleor Poodle tap plate of yarhibien below BEARING PARTITION ~ laste Pireatep~ and header heeween wae Wood obud frame wall ele — Pe | ‘rtibie ON | bearing bebinee. Moduive of Elastic by (€) = [.4 xio*pa | CB x 10% po fr glo-iami> |WOOD BEAMS: wate AND GIRDER SUPFORT CONDITIONS: Header came depth 96 beam _7Peam ill 2% mun, bearing nd ation wall For residential framing FOUNDATION WALL SUPPORT = Metal tener! bie acrtee girder For wol-seasmed ot laminated veame ‘ard light te mederate loads GIRDER SUPPORT A variety of mebal abachmente are manvfactured for woed-te- wood, weed -ta- netat, and nood-to- masonry connections, These inolvde- jowt and beam hangers, post basco and caps, framing angles and anchors, and Floor tee and helddowns, Coneuit: manvtachurer for specrtic sizes, conFigurations, sliewabie leade, and tastering requirement, Depending an the magnitude o the laade being reototed er tranoferrsd, the conmectore may'be nailed o belted, We" mun, clearance en ond and oiden; more space nay be required for consbrucbun access ‘hae! chp angles and aso plate on bed of dyach groves Anchor bales optimal prefabricated beam 2 reovet beth pie seat, and horizontal forces! MASONRY OR CONCRETE WALL Beams raieed above airber for decking te lear gaddle. superimposed beame; check for Iatoral stability Exposed beams hanger Far madorate to heavy lead GIRDER SuProRT eoiive bending | Negative Poibve bending T Grice T 7 T Continveve spans preduce more uniform sbtessee then simple span, resulting im more efficient use of material, Any splices shovid occa ab points of minienom bending stress, approximately VA to VB 2f the span on eitinee ade of an interior euppert, Wedges STEEL SPLICE CONNECTOR MORTIBE SPLICEWOOD BEAMS: BEAM- COLUMN CONNECTIONS sbeol U-plave or eaédle ~, steel plate a“ in saw kere peo J Far concealment, geunterainkc bolt zade and ube, aed plug | | | eConcealed connects STOR COLUMN, side plate Wood pote Continvors post Pleckg Peck pe veg Aico LE Conbvmunng, beam A Throvgh bot | | oonnections| WI ebpaced veam- gold post sSuld Yasm- spaced roots POST OR COLUMN CONNECTIONS iI | Middle yoob | member continvve— Throwgh bolts Ovber beam connectiere mentee) (i Contin | | INTERLOCKING POST AND BEAM eb min, bearing 0h direction of bear span when 2 veame abu aver supports s2xposed column cap Bxposed Totrap steel Zip anges Motel tie: Adaiioral cuppore vaited of wey otibfenere fe vost Hf reqnred| and thraugh belts ofo6t continvavs *Peam continveve Columns continuing vertically , The size and number of bebe required at a connection depend on the thicknese of the members, the species of wood, the magncbide- and direction of bhe lead relative to the grain of the wood, and the use of metal connactore, See 515 bor bolt spacing gudelimes. When there w nevfticier’ area te accommodate tho required wumber &F bolbe, shear plate or apie ring connector, which can develop greater stresses per unib bearing, can ve v9td,| 4i 18] WOOD PLANK AND BEAM: ration connections | ‘Beam must be, Framed wie poate or other beame fr suppers — ENer-bearng partitions perpendicular to Heer planking have ther lead Aisbriboted evenly acroes + Fartitions parallel to Fleer planking may be supported by beams the planks either below or abare the planking NON-BEARING PARTITIONS OVER WOOD FLANK FLOOR In the plank and beam framing ayober, the beam and layoub should be carefully integrsbed with the required placement of inberwr partitins for both sbructeral and visual reasons, Nermally, most parbibiene in thie ayoter are nen-bearing and may be placed a6 shown above, IF bearing partitions are required, hewever, bhey ohevid continve down to 3 feundabion wall or be placed over Fleer beame large ensigh to arty the addibensl ead, FLOOR SYSTEMS SPANNING BETWEEN BEAMS Otner than the conventisral weed jovet and panel subfloor system, the following can be ubilized: LA-| Plywood Prefabricated panelo Woed planking Combined sib loor-vnderlayment) + YO" buck + Plywod sheathing over + See Facmg page + Can span up to 4! nominal 2" framing which seks + Tongue and groove edges 46 Floor ite + Limbed overhang possible + tad continvevely over 2 + Glue- nailed or bended wibh + openings and concenbrabed | spans with 4200 pee adhesive under heat and loads require addrtenal verpendicular to beams Pressure to term atressed Framing and end joints staggered kin pancle + Wood etry fleering laid st + No overhang porsible + Ineulation, vapor barrier, and right angles te plankin + eee A interior Finish may be applied + Unlerlayment required at one time: fer vesilient and thinset + Limibed overhang poosible tile Flooring | |{ [WOOD PLANK FLOORING WIS K | ES = iF dS Solid Sehd Laminsbed | Nominal 246, 2x0 TYPES OF WOOD DECKING Y Ve groove MRSS TR XX \ S SURFACE PATTERNS for cxpooed Nominal 4x¢, 4xe STZ Channel arcove fain ar molded Spline. plank ceilings Simple spon Flanks simply supported ab each rd have the moss deflection for 3 avon lead, TYPES OF DECKING SFANS Double span Structurally, the most efferent use of material oF 3 guen length, TOTAL ALLOWABLE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LoADS * [Nominal deck | Span | Simple span | Controlled random layup oheknese i |g a te fect | thereon | Iba pero é 46 _| a 20 26 3 ee ioe 3 ae 32 A 2 \e a1 0 @ 0 B (ooperthick)| 12 I) on 4 % ” % a4 m 4 4 20 47 ie 1% a1 4 a 86 a le 34 60 °° 4 a wo ie 30 The abave aoumes: Fiber stress im bonding (Fp) = 1900 pet Modulus oP elaotiarty (€) © 13 x 10% pet Allowable deFlecbien = ‘Veto oF decking apan Nominal 3x6, 0,105 46,0; 3x9,8 Conbinuovs apat over 4 of more supportes ise oF random lengths tedvess wastes layaut mush ver carefully controlled. + Distance between end janto im adjacent cavrees mist ber at least 2! + Sainte inthe same general lines muse rest an ab leant ane supporé + veinbs in non- adyscenb rows must be separated by (2! ar 2 ows of planks + Only one Joins should cour sn each course between supports + Bach plark mueb rea’ on at least tne eupport + Inond pang, one-third oF the planks should be Free a jobs, * thie table 1s to ve used for preliminary sizing eniy, Consult manufacturer's hterature,[4i-20] STRUCTURAL STEEL FRAMING Feimany eam or ginier eam Framing may Ye apanned with: + steel Fleer decking n/ concrete slab; 960 4.27 © ibecsah or precast Bear oupperted Selomn supported Wall eupparted For nan vest or curtain wall 2 pte, 208, Structural bee! elements are veed te conabruch 2 okeleken frame omar 40 weed peot-and-beam construction. Seructural steel, hewever, 16 Flexible ensugh te frame both lan-riee builaings and tali structurce. + since obructuval steel 1 diffioalt te work oncaibe, tt 16 narmally cab, shaped ard drilled ma Fabrostien ahep according te the dengner’s eyecitica ‘one; this can restit in relatwely fast, precise: constrvction, + Because steel can lese strength rapidly ng five, tire-restetve aeeemblies or coatings ate required; in expooed conditions, verrasien-restabance 16 alee required. ‘abcel Framing ve mene oFfictent when 16 ws lad ovb along 2 regular ard To resist Iaberal witd or earthqvake forces, shear planes, Aiagenal bracing, or rigid frames with moment resting comneetiané can Veveed. - Column_or beam anpyort: Genmeckione vevaly vee transitional elements, avch 36 angles, tees, or plates; may be riveted, but mere often I elbed gir welded — SSIIIT" Steel vase pistes are required to | Awtribues concentrated column leade to ‘thew concrebe fowndaciune. See 6,30. 2 7 Wall swpport: Stadl wear plates are required to Aistribite the concentrated \osd Impnoed by the eam so that the reauivart une bearmg pressure: ace née exceed the alimable for the wal material. - S-beam (6) shapes have boen largely superseded by the mere aeructurally eFhicient wide-Flange (W) shapes, Beame ray aloo be m the farm oF cnannel (6) sections, structural tubing, or composite sectiet, bong opane may be Framed with buile-up plate girders, cantellated beame, brontes, or rigid-Frame bente, |[ae FLOOR FRAMING SYSTEMS | t to ' i | | 1 Hlllii dd ONE-WAY BEAM 9Y2TEM ISS pair of clopely-spaced external columns supports a ISI pan beam, This apatem re suitable for long, narrew buildings, copecially when 3 column-froe epace 16 desired. Lateral-losd-caneying mechamieme are required im both auctions, Wut leads terd ta be more ential m short drection SS Poo eee Se “typical opan ange Fer beams w 20'- 60's for ‘spans beyond 32), open- vieb obeel owe are a economical alternative an 6! 0 16! veam spsaing, depending a Flor deck eat a mS ok Generally, steel Frowing should viilize rectangular bay unieo, with comparatively lightly leaded beame spanaing further than more heavily leaded airdere, ‘TWO-WAY BEAM SYSTEM Framing inte givdere romimizes floor depths some mechanical serveee can pase through holes out into the beam webs, bub large hmee may have be be accom- modsted wn apace velew, ‘Qrlayer system incrassen floor Jepth considerably but provides more epacer for mechanical gervices. rytrrtrrinrt rit Me if When 3 large, column Free space we required, leng-spanning plate sirdero or trvesed can ve vsed to carry the primary beams which, vn born, oupport’a layer af secondary beams. TRIFLE BEAM STEM cd Prmacy Weare — Secondary Long-apar member“| 4h 22 STEEL BEAM» COLUMN CONNECTIONS poner rates ff weldad te cole’ Beam welded to otiffener plated) and bolted te tab: praising argle-—— seab angle carries hese esa i Top and bottom Flanges welded to column “bh plate welded to column and bolbed he 2 angles, or 2 tak plate welded ¢2 column rd plate welded te beam all znund and bolted to column <— ‘StiFfeser platee welded te column and bolbed te beam tanger Welded all areund 2 angles ohap-nelded 4 beam wob and fuld- ~ welded ve column Bales held beam mn race ide are made The sbrength #2 connection deponde on the size oF the mombere and the connecting toos, angles, ar plates, 3 well a0 the configuration of velo and/er welds voed, The Amerisan Institute # Ster| Cmebrvobion (At60) detinee three bypee of steel framing which govern the: site oF members and the types of their connectane: Types, rigid Framing, asoumes that beam- column connections 3°6 rigid and willbe able to Hold their aruginal angles under leading. Tyres, cimple framms, assumes the endo of beame and gitdere are connected for shear enly and are free te rebate under gravity leade, Type 8, semi-rigid framing, zesumes beam and girder connections possess 3 limited but known moment-resisting capacity, morons nearer eatenSTEEL BEAM: GIRDER CONNECTIONS As 25 be PP” gies pate lee to top Flanges of girder AK and veames in lieu af eviahe, weld Hanger orl co my § z i g z aiiders bole to keep Bese fram otf dinall apinge may be oxt or drilled in webs large apeninge Weaken web m hear and require stiffening or reinfercemenc até welded bo quedo \ web and zelted fo bateom flange & beam MOMENT CONNECTIONS - Conbinuity mn bear Flanges 19 required 2 wows oF geder Z— beams fer the top of tho beam to be flvoh wf the bop of tho girder, bhe beam’s tap flange 10 coped or cb away SHEAR CONNECTION Al-welded connectors are scsthebically pleooing, especially when gramd omerth, we ‘thay oan ve very expensive te Fabricate, “There aro many Ways in whieh bee] oenmectiona | can ke made, vaing afferent types of connectire and various cembinasions of bolts and welds, Refer the AleC Manual of Steel Construction for abeel section properties std dimensions, allewable load tables for beame and celvmine, 2nd requirement’ for welded and bultes connestions. In addition to obrength and degree of rigiity, connections shovid ve evaluated fer economy of fabrication and erection, and for waual appearance if the sbrvsture wo exposed w view:Au 24| OPEN WEB JOIST FLOOR SYSTEM [Fleer deck npane between yao © Linear support Mechanical cernces can pase steel eam agrder ——Shrough opening m web. Galing may ve attached te vob om cherdo oF be osspended 1 additional apace for — sertices '6 required, ceiling may slo be omitted te expose Jovste dnd Flew deck, © Planar eupzoré Masonry wall Fisor decking typically conaiobs oF concrete over metal decking. Precast: cancreke, plywood, 0 Wood planking can leo be weed. Spacing of joists w related ta: + Magnitude o Flor inad + Spanning capability oF deck + Lead canrying capacity of Jesbe + Floor construction septh desired —From 2' bo ie! 40' opacing common in large buildings Limited serhange yossile w oxtenorone_~ of top chords. —~ srsganal bridging voqyired + Open web steel ouske are shep- Fabricated : + Pocavse of ther standard dopths vn ebaedard lengths, depths, and lead nH and manvéactured lengths, open carrying capacities, web joists chav be laid ove + Relatively linbweight construction 16 i along 2 regular grid. analogwe to weed Joo construction, pal + The aysbem works meot + Open web> permit the passage oF j i efficiently when carmying nected: services, i ae ! 1 yaitorly distributed loade, . cherd bearing condition restricts oes “i rly engineered, a \enaih of rhonge + + crtocnirsbed lade may hear = Fireresiotance rating depends ont over parel porte, the rating ¢F the fiver and ceiling ; : aeeemblics, (ee A.t2.) iL +an OPEN WEB STEEL JOISTS 4u.25 | 1 2Ye" far K serie; 6" for LH/DLH series Profiles oF open nev obeel joists vary according Lh er ne 0 andy tg manufackyrer. ; Zo 1. wraesrsnce A r i | | 1% } bee chr i i i | LL wag pessble L L : feed [ bxbennen or we " | celina s oquare, MINIMUM PeaKine LenoTH| [aren wep sree. JoioTS aaa Ksereo | wH/oun servo | [standard | 8! to 30" depths + Masonry wall support} 4" toc" | 6" 49 ia" | genes | opanning vp 12 60 | Langepan LA 10" be 46% daptho | + Concrete wall support} 4" oot | series | spanning up te 96! Le ot + 2%e . Deep longepan | DLH | 58" 4072" depths steal beam support —¥ 2Ie" | daaa eee nat Horigontal om Aisgmal bedging 16 required to proven lateral movement oF jab chords, 4yacing of bridging From | wl ts 20'ee., depends on the jot spin and cherd size. The following table ie to be vecd for prolimmary sizing of jerste anly, Cangult the Steel awe Institue. for speciticatine and complete load tables for all joist tyres, ALLOWABLE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LAD (Ibs. por 3) doet series | Jot Sysn in Fook designation | 12 | ib wo | 2 | | 3 | 36 | 42 | | 54 | 60 | K oxi | vez | ons | | Ki 590 | 32 | 200 ext [350 | a7 508] 200 tka “a | ae | 6 | eke 550 | 50386 [p50 | 214 a reo | ane [aa | toa | aap DRT 7 2 | $50 | doo | 9B | Hee $60 | 50 a8 sse_| aka Seo | a0 ae a 31 oo Tia Sep | bape ane a ate Seno [ae ae tet ase | BK See #45 | 460_| Ale |"302 | 284] 240 30K | tT 340 | 480 | dio | sot | 324 | 202 + 1 Les | soe | seo | 954 | LE bar "Be Fo mor i B58 | 440 | 4s BUFF t 238 500] 40 ELA 1 Feo| 309 a cm p80 ast depen / C hor | in inches snot ypeAu .2G| OPEN WEB STEEL JOIST FRAMING T Pocking options: + Plywood ar weed plank 5 Proportion bearing area ouch that mb SR reavives 3 naslable top chord [bearing stress dots net exceed the allowable: we er naler bolted to tay chord | fer the wall aber SPRet cette ania ee Sa 7 / 2 ‘Anchor every third jovst w/ Seis / Z "4 sted lare BY longs for / Ui and DUH yotets, anchor every jek WA vare 12" long — Geo bable m An6 for ‘minimum vearmg lengthe 2-Vo" fillet welde long or YAM bole for LH and DL yoste, 2- val dillet welde Bt long or 2- 94h holt = B. IN RS Weld or bolt bridging to clip angles secured $0 masonry wall or steel edge 4 beam FLOOR OFENINGS + ~ Sriall gvoninge may be Framed with obeel angle headers supported by brimmer pote, Large apeninge require structural steel framing. Extended onde of otee! angles ov channel seatiens are available for short overhangs, For otendard oiste, the werhang may extend 546" mith an allowable lead of 300 Ibo. por linear fo0b,METAL DECKING 4b oT to supper deck edger; anchor alt be taaconry wall Co ateel sot or veam Metal decking \e cormagated to ncrease ite ptiftness and syanning capablity. The Floor deck serves ao a working platforn during construction and 6 formwork fr concrete, + The decking pancle are generally seaured hy Pvddle-weldng thrngh the decking te the Supporting steel jevsts ar heame, + The panels aro fastened to cao obher along their sideo with screws a weld. + If the deck i te serve 26 3 lateral daphragnt, ihe perimeter muse ve welded be steel suprortss in addition, more obringent requirements tor support arid side lap Fastening may apply, There are vhrce types af metal decking: FORM DECKING a! ne! » Seanning |G 3! papanning ate Bt 3 spanning $b 12" + The decking serves 20 permanent farmwark for a reinforced concrete olabs ib supports the concrete until the elab can support beelF and ite Ivo load. GOMFOSITE DECKING aA: 2 4" , seanning 4 to 9! 3 Spanning 8' bo iz! 3 spanning ata 16! = The decking serves 6 Fonale remforcement for the cencrete alab to wich ib 19 bonded witht ambossed tib patterns. + Composite aceion between the concrete sisb and the floor veame canbe achieved by welding shear stude threvgh the decking be the supporting velaw, CELLULAR DECKING spanning 6 to 12! a We 2" | spanning 6 fo [2° 3" ) spanning 10'to le! + Cellular decking ve manvfacbured by welding 3 corrugated Sheat to 2 tat one, The opacce crested con be veed 26 raceways fr decerical and communications wiring + special crboute are wallable fer Fleer aublets, Consult the manukacburer far patterns, widthe, lengths, gages, fimahes, and allowable spans.Au 28] LIGHT GAUGE STEEL JOIST FLOOR SYSTEM | petal decking a wed panel ovbtleor : fom o a OT © Linear suppore: Crunched has redvon * Planar supper: Geel beam ar channel — eta weaght and allow race — Metal ebud or boo Oe OOD 008 O ho paonate ¢F small emorete/maomey fmhig and elecrnea femndat on wall eo, Motal decking: ar weed yanel \ Light gauge steel jasts are manufzctured from ‘ubtlaor Galt: Orned ohect or strip shee, They form 2 economical fisor eyabem thet ve lightweight, noncomburtible, and damppreef, The yaks ate lad out ma manner that w similar te weed “~ oist Floor eyobeme, Sy Jowts ate spaced Io) 24, 0 4B" o.c., depending \02d and type ef decking voed. _—+ Connestiene may be bolbed, sorewed,or welded. \¥2" min, bearing at yowbendos 3° min, bearing at inberwer supports > strap bridging ot 8! t08! 00, depending an Joe apan Noverhange and fleor openings 36 framed in manner similar & Wood Jol6t Flaore. LIGHT GAUGE JoleTS Web stiffeners are required Lp where concentrated leads Z raight cripple jnist webs, wZ buch 30 Coat oe or over Natlable jovet 'C joke owt closure Intortar sapporte. Popthes 6, 8, 2,10, 12 mcheo- nominal Flange wultho: 1 Fo", 194", 176%, 24, 212" Gauges: V4 through £2 {te flloung babe toby wood fr preliminary axing only, Conve manofacturers! literature te contien 5 oink erzee, traming details, and allowable opane nd lea ALLOWABLE UNIFORM LOADS (Ibo. per @F) soier eizeé | oPacine | Sean in feeb ner site| eracine | oran in tect w fe f[4 |] © 4 [1 [1 | | we" [ae | ie | oe | 57 | 52 i [ise [ioe | 07 | «4 | 40 of va" | tye | a | a7 | 30 | 24 io" 2a lize | 63 | ne | 43 | 32 40’ | 7 | 45 | 2 | | 7 ao" | cz | 42 | 29 | al | le \ ie" ua | ae | 54 ie | ies | it oe me we |e | 36 2" at | 120 | 2 40" a | 2 | 45" 54 | al\eraming angle Metal obud wall — a Metal stud wall Pecking, Anchor vel toe wrote under pareition leade conteinwevs ever : beam ar wall support INTERIOR BEARING Sy CL in Z ditto (FS Powvied Jouko ot FounHatign ob diftoners over Rerometer Steel jot ole ‘aopport channel HL00R FROLECTIONS AND OPENINGS EXTERIOR BEARING moREINFORCED CONCRETE eS foi Loorert Reinforced concrebe can be caeb into almant any shape. le flexibility of term 16 bmited only by bhe formwork and ate! reinforcement required, and the methud vied tor who placement ar casting, Ie may be formed nto either lmear or planar siemente and configured into exelebal Frame, bearmg wall, or shell structures. Concrete must be shaped and eupported by form- work until 1b ures and can support wbeel®, This formwark i eften designed a6 2 soparabe shrucbutal ayotem because ¢ the conmderable weight and fluid presoure the concrete oan exert anit. ‘The contack surtaces # forme are coated with a parting compound (oil, war, ar plastic) 40 aid in their removal, From 2 deaign stardpomt, the shape of 2 concrete section must allow far the easy removal of the formwork, Lee tayored secbions Where he: farmwerk mighb stherwine be brarved by the surtemding cencrote, Sharg oxbeensl carnere are usually bovelled ar rounded te svad chipping and vagged edges, For economy, standard farms shorld ve weed ina repetitive manner. When possible, vse columns and beame of a conobant size and vary the amomb # obeel required, REINFORCING BARS are or-ralicd abeel sections that have ribs for better honding to the: concrete, The bar number refere te ibe diameter in aighthe of an inch. e4,, A #6 bar 6 670" 1n diameter, Fer cross-sectional area tabies, 600: 12.0 STEEL REINFORCEMENT WELDED WIRE FABRIC consists of cold-drawn mires arranged mn 3 grid and welded 3b their points Hf inbereection, The. Fabre ie typically ved “a provide temperature “einforcement. fer labo wb the heanor gauges san gleo ke voed to remnForce concrete ale, the tebme designated by the wires spacing and ibe gauge or crose-bectional atea Since ooorebe ie velativaly weak in bensien, gteel reinfsrcement ve required te handle tensile stresses n structural concrete: members, Geel reinkercement 16 Ble required to te vertical and herizontal elements, reinforce the edges round speninge, minimize shrinkage cracking, and conbrel thermal expansun md contraction, Reinforoing steel must be protected by the surromding concrete againat Fire and corrosion, Minimum requirements for cover and apacing Bre apecifiee by ther American Concrete Inetitube (ACI) - Building Code Requirements tor Reinforced Concrete according to the concrebes exposure, ard the oe of the oars aggregate and steel veed. These requremento are nated oh the following drawmge where ‘appripriaber Gee also 12.8, Renforcement shovld be designed by + aualdied structural engineer.\ i 1d pemale be he inte [ $continstion above | REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS H «| Top are: are placad m continvove eame m areas oF ypward bending LLL aii Reinforcing abeal wf placed in aaa oF tensile st1e58. shirrupe are vequred ta handle daagnal tension \ LL Hook or 40° bend 0 tranofer tensile stresses & bear ands ibesaot concrete seame gre almost sluaye formed and cask aleag mth She ola thoy suppor, Since a o-bien of the slab acbe 26 2 part of the beam, the depth of the beam 1p meaevred bo the top of the slab, A rule of thumbs for estimating 3 beam’s depth ie Beam apan in Feet = Beam depth in inches. * Continuiby between columns, beame, slave, and walle w deairable te meirimice bending moments ab these jynobures, Since continuity ve easily attainable in conctebe constriction, strveturee continveve ner 3 ot mare apane are voually the nook efficient. whan loaded bo te ful aad-careying capocity, a conventionally reinforced concreke peam ve subcephible to cracking under bension im ibe lawer sane. Prosbresoing the eam redices bono arscks by placing We anbire crane. section vito compreseien, This @ achieved vy stretching the reinforcing steal bo a high tension, anchoring 6 3b the veam ends, and then releasing it, | Prestressing reducos beam Aeflecbian and allows the vee of otallower veame and longer 2pan6, there sre two bypes & preskreseing techniques, Prebensioning % accomplished in 3 procasting plant. Foxt-bensionin 4 6 vevaly performed at the png ste eopecially when the seructural unite are bo large to transport from factory t0 aber at beam supeorts, “op vare may aloo ve required when he beam dopbh limited aid tnore ‘s mmovPhicien’ concrete ata to handle the compressive stresses, aL We" min, cover veam depth | | px mammal b3r 4 ar oxse: oF saree aggregate, oy I et min. 2/4" bevel a chamfer mth — Vo te Ve oF beam depth in Nor 3! multiples PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS A rotensioming D Foob-benoioning essere ‘taal sbrande, draped tnaide beam form, are coated ar sheathed bo prevent bonding wile conoceke cant, Beam 1 cart aroma ‘After concrete 1s cured, the abretched steel, the abel 19 sbrebched with a hydravhe yack and seourely anchored. 4 " Under leading, the veam curves downward ard equalizes the upward airvature. Fel ie gbrotched cress the beam bed. eee when released, the steel places the entre beam section nko compression,4u.32| REINFORCED CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEMS + Slab ie supported on be sides by beame or vesring wallos beame, in burn, may be supperted by girders or columae. + One-way olabe are veed for light tw mederate lade over relgtivaly short spane. ah |e barge madvle size 16 net 26 Flexible: for defining irregular aye 26 smaller modules oF waftle slab. ONE-WAY SLAB 6! ¥0 12! ayane pozie' te 416" [ Sayan InnmunADPEe=S wed | G49 20" Dretribubien rik for apane i m2" over 20"; epace het more bhatt | | __ rang Rar ‘labo; 4? mn. HEE 5p20/36 for roo? elabe increment Is! a2. for spans over 30! yan forme in total depeh = 6pan/24) typical Jowk band 16 an economical atvernstwve to conventional beams it hae the same depth ge the joisbe but v breader, Ey PET treet jorst clove are used or loiger apane ad hearer ee \osde bhah practical br one- nay old slabs nor ae outable sl fr late concentrated Lsao, pa aves may be flared at the beam aupporte far greater shear reoiotance. re ate" bo AM" Saab arr ie. Lot tea0"m 4 19" or 0" ee oct 2" meremerte equare dome min. total depthe span/t4) farmed Sold heade at column sypports are formed by emibting deme =~ formes size depends on ayan and lead conditiene, Tive-way wattle slabs are veed for leng spans and heaty lead TWO-WAY WAFFLE OLAB + For maximum efficiency, bays should be #6 nearly aquare 36 pessinie: 2 Wattle slabo can be efficiently cantilevered in two directions, wp to VB oF the main 9pan, + Cobtered undereide ie often lett exposed, 20' to AB! opaneCpepth= slab porimoter/ioo; 4 min. + Tg way slab is supparted on four aides by beame; bay shovid be se nearly square 26 possible. “Thay alae with beame are used L r long 2pane and heavy leade, ar when : a high Neoobance ‘o ioeral fraee ve iimepeiaet required. Two-way slabs, however, are votslly male withevt bosma. 600 valow. 16 ta 40! gpane Ms. dopthe apan/36 or 4! GG te12"typ) Min, depth apan/9e Fy Min. midthe 04 apa —t Column cap + Two-way alab io oupperted by columns withevé boame, ma «Drop panels and/or column cape lB | two-way ear reintorce slab 6 column supports, SLAG + Reinforcing abeel 1s arranged te handle | varying sbreseee inthin 3 slab al ‘mr thcoross, th Se Syl i my to flab platen below, 15! fo 40! apane Mon, doptlt = ayan/ 23. or 6 (ha 1a") * Minmal construction depth ean Frmimize building height Two-way Flab plates sre similar to two-way | -—————— labo bub have no dp vanelo, ly Ree eee + Flat olates ae subsble br maderate Irade 7 «Thay are ample t» form, and parm some Hlosiivey in colemn pocement, ; i "TN tsa4.34) PRECAS” CONCRETE FLOOR SYSTEM Concrete beppin (wee nate bow”) S Linear gupeort LC undenoide may be csileed # Planar sipport t Reinforced concrete, ard painted; ceiling finish Maooney bearing eet) or may aleo be applied to or be or romnterced T Steel veam evoponded From alab—~__ concrete wall Te serve a6 2 lateral vad Aisphragn, precast aah nite must be tied to each ather ovr their supperee and at their end bearings. 500 436 y a am al dpeninge. be obwenee” 7 ZO Sepdiony fo red tit woe ns a >< oreo’ op hinge parallel to slab a¥’an bre preferred rth concrete bepping bende Face of the olab unice, helps tie ‘gether, and conceale any surface aribies, 2 topping oan be remborced with steol over eupperting beame or walle for structural continuity and greater resistance to labersl ~ + Precach tmerebe olabe, beams, and strvcbural bee6 20 one-way apanning vnibos they are normally prestressed and may be of normal or lghtweighbgoncrebe, + the preset unite arc. camt-and cured in 2 plant ettaibe and bransporbbd.te the building site For erection 36 rigid compontente ; the gize and propartinn 2 lade, the unite may be limited by the means + the topping can alee increase the alabe ef transporeatior. Fire-reaistance rating a6 vell 26 + Plant fabrication enabloe the unite to accommodate underfleer condvie for wiring. have a consis boat quality of abrength, * Woon the Fler ve to be canpce: and pod, durability, and fmeh, and eliminates the borping can ve omitted iF smooch - the need tor on-site formwork. eurtace unite are veed, + The medular natire of the otandard-sited unibe may not be suitabie for irregular building ‘shapes,PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURAL UNITS 44.35 The table velow illuctratcs the basic types of precast coareve. obrucbural unite. The syan ranges Indicated are te bo used for proliminary sizing only, Consult manufacturer for availablity of sizes, exact dimensiens, connection devaile, ‘and span-lead tables, TYPE OF PRECAST GONGRETE UNIT THICKNESS or DEPTH in ches SPAN RANGE in feoe aba ® * eeack dimenswn vanes te allow pace fer veinrrcement 3nd grouting, BOLD FLAT SLAB ptiotot fiz - Ato! 5 eel tole! . OOOO | ‘ ¥, zn (Lg gh L ah 1 ie ‘Aloo available mn IlA" alo, 344" and BYo widthe, " te 40" dopthe 2 See 2" bo 40" depehe, a 7 SINGLE Tee 7 ere re EE ~ = wa 4B - 10 N/A wa | 4b g -e rot - 1p" bo aD" Rectangular BEAMS Va vo Va oP teal depth lverted pee.06 | PRECAST CONCRETE STRUCTURAL UNITS! surrorr conpirions ' | pBxtend sbeel dowdle inte 2mm. toppings —_-— Stbecaet conerebe topping mith welded wire fabric { | [ withevt topping, extend ates! into grovted remfercement bonds to precast aleke to torm 2 1 : key jomnte or interior veide, | composite structural rin me \) \eull veide of allan core unite with concrete: 1 “oheel bare m kepping oF in grovbed ! 2b ends to te ine concrete: ar masonry supper — key Jomtks te te slab unite wer NS a ‘steel bert their oupport. [> ve bearing serie ate rod i cone. beam (or avde ery ate ‘an tee! bear) extend up te tie PRECAST SLABS |p oneel piste welded tw plater cast nto ail Precast else and concrete support ino topping, Fill hallow oote unite ( W caorete ( Neoprene Yl Vea bie i qravbed | Neoprene bearing serie vearmg IN key sombe ane i Reinforced waeouny or concreter bearing wall PRECAST SLABS oteel angle Welded bo platee cast imbo Reintorced sitecaet concrete a. precast tees and conc, wall oupporé Se heel plate welded te angles cast inte beam and strvebural bee he Neaprene bearing pid Inverted tee beam PRECAST STRUCTURAL TEES Steel angle welded te platee cant ante beam and “mo ar [ tT Lt St _— _ Sp Neorrene bearing pad— Pearing angle casb into boam recose onch caek with cone, column ‘steel havich cask mbo concrete column RECAST BEAMSisi Wall eysteme are the vertical planes of a bstlding which define and enclege its inberior epacce, They may ve bearing walls of homogeneous or comporite- conetruction, or they may ve constructed cf linear columns and beams with nonstructural panele filling in bebeen them, How these walle and columns suppor’ Flaor and rook syoteme above, and how they are supported in burn by wall and foun - dation Systems elow, are, determined by the structural compatibility of these eyetems and the type of materiale and Lonnections used, ¥ rigid, walle can aleo serve a9 shear planes which are designed to reset lsberal wind and carbhgvake forces, Exterior, walle serve 2¢ 2 protective shield agamet the weather for a building's inberier spaces. Their construction should control the passage oF heat and cold, air, mature, and waber vapor. the exterior akin, which rey either ye apphed te or be integral with the wall otructure, should ve durable and, resistant to the weathering 2ffects of oun, wind, and rain, the mberior walle which subdivide the apace within a building may ve either nonstructural ar lead yearing, Their construction should be able bo support the desired fimen materials, provide the required degree of acoustical separabien, and accommodate when necessary rune of mechanical and electrical lines, the size and location of door and window open ge mwalle are debermined by the requirements for natural light, ventilation, view, and phyeical access, These openings must ve conecructed ao that any vertical laade are disbributed around the openings and nob transferred to the door and window units themselves,COMPARATIVE WALL SYSTEMS Wood eTUP WALL Z + Walle are normally 2146, bub may ke 2x68 or larcer bo accommodate mere thormal inselabier er nee mare than I4 Fest, + Stud are spaced Io" ot 24% Ai; Dhie opscing 4 related fe the width and length af commen sheathing materials. + Studs carry vertical \sade while the wall ahesthing 0° diagonal bracing help to make the frame rigid, + Thermal mevlation, vapor barriers, and small mechanical services can be accommadated within the stud wall frame, + Sed frames can accort a variety # inberior or echerior wall finiheo, eome Finiehes require 2 nail-baoe eheathing + The fires renmbance rabing ef the wall asvombly depends on ike Finish materiale, + stud wall Framee may be fabricated on-site or panelized off-site, + Stud walle are Flexible m form dve te the workability +f relatively mall pieces and the varieve meane of Fastening available. METAL STUD WALL® + Mots! atid walle are similar in gorvobure to naod obid walla, + Connechione may be ecrewed er woldeds WooD Poet AND BEAM FRAMING = Fook and beam ayebem veee fewer but larger otructural members than stud Framing. + Frame requires d:agmal bracing, ohear planes, or rigid connectione far isbersl sbsbiiby. 7 + Dotaling oF connections we critical for structural and vigval reaeens, Frame may be left exponed, + Not-beariig infill yancle enclise apace and, om exterer walla, eerve, a5 9 weather barrier + ib may be difficult t0 accommodate mechaniosl and electriesl services with the structural Frame work, + Prats avo vevally ind out along 2 grid to aupyert sank and beam Horr and rook etrvetures, a STEEL AND REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES + Steel and conoreke: Frames are similar in form to wood post and beam servcbures, + Stronger materials can pen greaber Awtances snd carry heavier \aade; rigid connections are Feasible, + Struckoral Frame can eupport 2 variety oF curtam wall aystome, MASONRY AND CONCRETE BEARING WALLS + Masonry and concrete bearing walle rely on their maos fer thor lead carrying capability; while sbrang m compreasien, they may require reinforcing to handle any tensile abresses, A = Thewr height-to- width ratio, pronsione fer Iabersl aeabiity, and praper placement sf exparoron jmbs are critical. : + Wall guréace may be lett expaoeds matersale have gréd fire- reavbance, + Mechanical and electrical services may be intearated into wall. + Thermst mortaeien may be contained 1 wall cavity a” be applica +0 wall avrface,FACTORS IN WALL DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION Strength ins «© supperting vertical leade from floor, willy and roof struckwee above + Reaisbing iaberal ind and seine, forces and \ateral loads From supported Fleer and ro0P sbrucbores, Connection to foundation, Figo, aid root syatome : © Floor and root syeteme may vear on the: wall ayntem 2¢ thot thew lgeo sre oxpased and carbilevers are made possible, + Floor and rosP eyatems may Frame into the wall ayokem which ve continvove fer the heighe # the building Wall Fineh desired: © Compatibility between Yaoe maborial oF wall and dosited wall Finiah + Vieval charsocerisbice of caler, bexture, | potters, and yainting | Door and window openings : © Structural and/or madviar limikatione an size, propertion, and location + Efteck on daylighting and potential for heab loos or gain Westhertightnese and the control of: + Heats Flow «Are mfileratien + Movoture and waber vaper Flow + Gord bravamiasien, Expaneion and sonbrackion’ + Type and lecation oF expansion jointey required. Accommodation of mechanical and electrical servizee and avblete. Fire reelobance rating desired or required by the building cade.BALLOON FRAMING Fiat oe 2) root syste. subtler Floor josbo—, 2x Frestoee — ea ribbon eb | 1 hla Continvove wall stude 2x Frrestop — suihloor Fleer vee oil plate Foundation wall Wood sosste lap aides oF centinaaue wall abado— xe ribeen led inte etude provide additians! appore Fr iste Labers| bracing required eb 6, 2yA oF 2x6 shude opaced 6! or 24420 sre continuove for Fill building height. ~ Y raitstr | eat ayotens | See Charter B Palleon framing ie rarely veed taday Wut minimal veréical mavement may ber desirable fer brick veneer and stveco finishes. «+ First Flaor joists bear on 3 foundation aill plate while Sezmnd Fleer wiote lop the etude and vest on 2 continveve ribbon let into the studs. + Concealed spaces in Frames require 2x Fireatepe 4 prevent draPie Vebween vterice and between 2 tep etory and the rect. WALL STUD SIZES fer beth ialigon and viatierm Fromm War uneopperted | heigt Maximum apacing 2x4 stude \4 | Nota, excope wnen supporting only « ceiling and root, | 2x4 etude not mere than 10' high may be epaced 24"ac. i | 2xe studs zo! 24" aG., except when supporting 2 oteries and 2 reef, space Oxo stude net mere than IG" 4c.PLATFORM FRAMING f syebems seo Chapter wall abode) Sele plate | » SSL Plat toa >} floer | sheathing and/or Finiahs 200 12 sie vate see he Pre oS bole ond oust SS Foundation systems 500 Chapter 2 | elattorm} Floor bracing requueds 422 610 + 2xA or 2x6 story height abide are spaced 16" or 24 "ac, + Flaor jowts vest on Frundation sill plate or top plate oF stud wll beloy « aubllaor extends to ater edge of wall frame and serves 26 2 work plabtorm, + Although vertical shrmikage is greater than m balloon Framing, 16 equalized vetween fears, 7 + Sbud walle are adaptable te ofPeite fabrication a9 panele and tilb-p constriction, + Concealed space wibhin Frame require 2x fircobope to prevent dratte retween stones and votween 3 top otery ahd the roof. Flsb or 2-7 Naller be ceiling Povble top pate 2x Wall studs ele plabe Bub Floor f ceiling ~onible bop plate 2x Wall bude vbFloor Flear jovwto~, Bungie or dovile oll Foundabon vail3.6] WOOD STUD WALL SECTIONS second Floor wall Framing | similar bo Fret Feor below |, Frnigh Floor over: a0 leor i ] See A ter various Floor/ portibien connections, i Ki Hl 7 [Sas viecking te pronde eee | a nating surface fr | contiever (esting Pima e410 —Pevbic ax te plate Wee ste sppany pn a See BD \ \ He} Crevide nailing surfaces fer wall Fineh PLAN OF 6TUD WALL FRAMING Wall inversoctione 500 B.D t Exterior wall sheathing andlor fingh——__ Thermal meulatien and vapor rarer: see 8.25-b27 —lnberer wall Finish — Ix edie plate min, clearance betmeen untreated woed and grade — 2x sill anchered to faundation walls se 8G Slope away From sbrvseure. SECTION THROUGH EXTERIOR WALL t~2x studs @ ior 24" a0. 5 ! 200 6.4 for ize and spacing reauirementes } 2x3 etide @ lokoc. may be used er inberer nonbearing partibiene Fimsh floor over sub Floor 2d Wood soot Fleer systems see 4A (ht Provide beam or wall eupport. for interior load-bearing partitions 00 49 INTERIOR PARTITION eves ros sypinuemaenescieeseneonss |second Floor Parapet wall wall Framing ond ean —— 2x ole plate, for Flzehng, Far variove reef edger Famalt Floor ever subFery requremento: conditions 2x Hecking te prondea/ Rook joists lap tr ailing qurésce for ‘studs and bear | ceiling fmah on 2x blscking or tovble 2x top plate —“]_ | fe 6008.25 -8,27 for chermal ineulction and vaper barner. 216 sbude—| 2x4 hone, 2x wall studs | eomm [4 Blo 248 46 — Be Vlecking may be reauired by some wall fimen materiale. With the increase in thermal meviation requirements required by some building and energy codes, 2x6 or even 2x8 stude have come into greater vesge. Alternatives melude using dovble wall Gonstrvatiin s¢ installing 2x4 horrzantal strapping mode or svbeide 3 stand ard atid wall. See aleo 0, continvave 2x wall stude—te Yeoup, jb Cone, ground alah Soest 9 \ 40 8,25 for ulation option} — 00 5.10 ‘far thickened 24ge ground slabs YY DSL, S 900 9.6 far per Foundations NOTE! The wall sectiors on the and the preceding page ate rob intended to he complete, They exclde speesfic wall, flor and ceiling fimehes, tem, msulation, and varer barriers, Instead, tray attemps ko illvsbrate th 36 byprcally used mith wood joist and rafter ayotems, rye need aud walle connect bo vaneve foundation, Fleer, and oF systema Weed stud walle