Introduction To Subsea Systems Networks Part4

MSC SUBSEA ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION TO SUBSEA SYSTEMS & NETWORKS
Jee Limited 2008

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Table of Contents
1.0 OVERVIEW OF FIELD DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
INTRODUCTION
1
1
1.1.1
THE HISTORY OF SUBSEA PRODUCTION
1.1.2
HISTORICAL OIL PRICES
1.1.3
SUMMARY
ONSHORE DEVELOPMENT
1.2.1
THE FIRST OIL WELL
1.2.2
EARLY OIL DEVELOPMENT
OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT
1.3.1
SUBMERSIBLE
1.3.2
JACKUP
1.3.3
THE NORTH SEA
1.3.4
FIXED PLATFORMS
1.3.5
COMPLIANT TOWERS
10
1.3.6
GRAVITY BASE STRUCTURES
10
1.3.7
SPAR
11
1.3.8
TENSION LEG PLATFORM
11
1.3.9
SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE FLOATING PRODUCTION SYSTEM
12
1.3.10
OFFSHORE DRILLING UNITS
13
1.3.11
SUMMARY
14
SUBSEA DEVELOPMENT
15
1.4.1
INTRODUCTION
15
1.4.2
MONOHULL FPSO
15
1.4.3
SUBSEA FLOWLINES
16
1.4.4
EXPORT OR TRUNKLINES
17
1.4.5
BUNDLES
17
1.4.6
OTHER IN-FIELD LINES AND CABLES
17
1.4.7
RISERS
19
1.4.8
SUBSEA PRODUCTION TREES
20
1.4.9
MANIFOLDS
21
1.4.10
TEMPLATES
21
1.4.11
PLETS AND PLEMS
22
1.4.12
SPM AND SALM
24
1.4.13
CLUSTER AND SATELLITE WELLS
24
1.5
1.6
1.4.14
TIE-BACKS
25
1.4.15
DIVERLESS INTERVENTION
25
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT
26
1.5.1
INCREASED OIL RECOVERY
26
1.5.2
RISERLESS WELL INTERVENTION
26
1.5.3
SUBSEA PROCESSING AND PUMPING
27
1.5.4
ALL-ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEM
27
1.5.5
VIDEOS
28
1.5.6
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS SUMMARY
28
OVERVIEW OF FIELD DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS - SUMMARY
2.0 OWNERSHIP, INTERFACES AND OFFSHORE LEGISLATION
28
30
2.1
INTRODUCTION
30
2.2
INFRASTRUCTURE OWNERSHIP
30
2.2.1
2.3
2.4
CASE STUDY SAKHALIN PHASE II
STAKEHOLDER INTERFACES
32
35
2.3.1
WHAT IS A STAKEHOLDER?
35
2.3.2
WHO ARE TYPICAL STAKEHOLDERS?
35
2.3.3
IMPORTANCE OF STAKEHOLDERS
37
LEGISLATION
38
2.4.1
UK ACTS
38
2.4.2
UK REGULATIONS
39
2.4.3
UK REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
40
2.4.4
US - ACTS
40
2.4.5
CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS (CFR)
41
2.4.6
US REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
41
2.4.7
LAW WEST OF AFRICA (WOA)
42
2.4.8
LAW INTERNATIONAL
43
2.5
MARITIME AUTHORITIES
44
2.6
LICENCES & LEASES
45
2.6.1
LICENCES - UK
45
2.6.2
LEASES - USA
46
2.7
PERMITS/CONSENTS
46
2.8
SUMMARY
48
ii
3.0 DRILLING AND COMPLETING A SUBSEA WELL

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
INTRODUCTION
49
49
3.1.1
SUBSEA DRILLING OVERVIEW
49
3.1.2
COMPLETION
52
DRILLING SEQUENCE AND COMPONENTS
53
3.2.1
DRILLING EQUIPMENT ON DECK
53
3.2.2
INSIDE THE DERRICK
55
3.2.3
OFFSHORE DRILLING UNITS
55
3.2.4
TGB INSTALLATION AND WELL INITIATION
57
3.2.5
WELLHEAD CASING HANGERS
58
3.2.6
BLOW-OUT PREVENTER
59
3.2.7
DRILLSTRING
61
3.2.8
DRILL BITS
62
3.2.9
DRILLING MUD
62
3.2.10
RUNNING THE CASING
63
3.2.11
CASING DESIGN
65
3.2.12
CEMENTING THE CASING IN PLACE
66
3.2.13
WELL ECONOMICS
66
3.2.14
DRILLING SEQUENCE AND COMPONENTS SUMMARY
67
WELL LOGGING AND TESTING
68
3.3.1
WELL MEASUREMENTS
68
3.3.2
OTHER MEASUREMENTS
69
3.3.3
SUMMARY
70
COMPLETION SEQUENCE AND COMPONENTS
70
3.4.1
PERFORATION
70
3.4.2
SUBSEA TREE
71
3.4.3
SAFETY VALVE
72
3.4.4
PACKERS
72
3.4.5
SWABBING
73
3.4.6
DRILLING AND COMPLETION
73
3.4.7
COMPLETION SEQUENCE AND COMPONENTS SUMMARY
74
3.4.8
DRILLING AND COMPLETING A SUBSEA WELL SUMMARY
74
iii
4.0 SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS
75
4.1
INTRODUCTION
75
4.2
TEMPLATE CONFIGURATION
75
4.3
CLUSTER CONFIGURATION
77
4.3.1
ADVANTAGES
78
4.3.2
DISADVANTAGES
79
4.3.3
SUMMARY
79
4.4
DAISY CHAIN CONFIGURATION

4.4.1
4.5
4.6
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
82
4.5.1
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
83
4.5.2
SUMMARY
83
SATELLITE CONFIGURATION
84
SATELLITE WELL
84
SUBSEA SYSTEM CONFIGURATION SUMMARY
5.0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION CONTROL

5.1
5.2
81
HYBRID CONFIGURATION
4.6.1
4.7
80
85
86
INTRODUCTION
86
5.1.2
COMPONENTS OF SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
88
5.1.3
SYSTEM INTERFACES
88
5.1.4
SUBSEA PRODUCTION STANDARDS
89
5.1.5
SUMMARY
90
SUBSEA TREES
91
5.2.1
INTRODUCTION
91
5.2.2
DUAL BORE CONVENTIONAL PRODUCTION TREES
92
5.2.3
HORIZONTAL PRODUCTION TREES
94
5.2.4
THROUGH FLOWLINE TREES
95
5.2.5
GUIDELINE OR GUIDELINELESS
96
5.2.6
GAS LIFT
97
5.2.7
CHEMICAL INJECTION
98
5.2.8
WATER AND GAS INJECTION TREES
99
5.2.9
TREE GATE VALVES
99
5.2.10
VALVE ACTUATORS
100
5.2.11
ROV INTERFACES
101
5.2.12
CHOKE VALVES
101
iv
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.2.13
CHOKE TRIMS
102
5.2.14
TREE FABRICATION
103
5.2.15
TREE FABRICATORS
104
5.2.16
SUMMARY
104
SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEMS
105
5.3.1
TYPES OF SUBSEA CONTROL SYSTEMS
105
5.3.2
VALVE POSITION FEEDBACK.
110
5.3.3
TOPSIDE EQUIPMENT
110
5.3.4
SUBSEA CONTROL MODULE
111
5.3.5
SUMMARY
112
SUBSEA MANIFOLDS
112
5.4.1
SUBSEA MANIFOLD OPTIONS
112
5.4.2
SCHIEHALLION MANIFOLD
113
5.4.3
MANIFOLD FABRICATION
117
5.4.4
LEAKING MANIFOLD
118
5.4.5
SUBSEA MANIFOLDS - SUMMARY
119
SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS SUMMARY
6.0 SUBSEA PROCESSING
119
120
6.1
INTRODUCTION
120
6.2
SUBSEA MULTIPHASE FLOW METERS
120
6.3
6.2.1
INTRODUCTION
120
6.2.2
FRAMO MULTIPHASE METER
121
6.2.3
ROXAR MULTIPHASE METER
122
6.2.4
SOLARTRON MULTIPHASE METER
122
6.2.5
SUBSEA MULTIPHASE FLOW METERS SUMMARY
123
SUBSEA PUMPS AND COMPRESSORS
123
6.3.1
INTRODUCTION
123
6.3.2
HELICO-AXIAL SUBSEA MULTIPHASE PUMPS
124
6.3.3
TWIN SCREW SUBSEA MULTIPHASE PUMPS
126
6.3.4
SUBSEA COMPRESSORS
127
6.3.5
ORMEN LANGE SUBSEA COMPRESSION PILOT
128
6.3.6
SUBSEA PUMPS AND COMPRESSORS SUMMARY
128
6.4
6.5
6.6
SUBSEA SEPARATION AND WATER REINJECTION
129
6.4.1
INTRODUCTION
129
6.4.2
TROLL PILOT PROJECT
130
6.4.3
TORDIS PROJECT
131
6.4.4
SUBSEA SEPARATION AND WATER REINJECTION SUMMARY
133
SUBSEA HIPPS
134
6.5.1
INTRODUCTION
134
6.5.2
SUBSEA HIPPS CONFIGURATION
135
6.5.3
SUBSEA HIPPS APPLICATIONS
136
6.5.4
SUBSEA HIPPS SUMMARY
136
SUBSEA PROCESSING SUMMARY
137
7.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
138
7.1
INTRODUCTION
138
7.2
TEMPLATE DESIGN
138
7.3
7.4
7.2.1
TEMPLATE REQUIREMENTS
138
7.2.2
EQUIPMENT ON THE TEMPLATE
139
7.2.3
LOADS ON THE TEMPLATE
140
7.2.4
PROTECTION FROM IMPACT
140
7.2.5
ACCESS FOR MAINTENANCE AND RETRIEVAL
142
7.2.6
PREVENTING CORROSION AND CRACKING
143
7.2.7
COST EFFECTIVE INSTALLATION
144
7.2.8
TEMPLATE DESIGN SUMMARY
145
SEABED INTERFACE
146
7.3.1
SEABED DATA
146
7.3.2
MUD MAT
146
7.3.3
SKIRT
147
7.3.4
CONVENTIONAL PILE
148
7.3.5
SUCTION PILE
149
7.3.6
SEABED INTERFACE - SUMMARY
150
FABRICATION AND TESTING
151
7.4.1
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
151
7.4.2
COMMON LIFTING FEATURES
152
7.4.3
COATINGS AND CP
153
7.4.4
SUBSEA PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES
153
7.4.5
TESTING
154
vi
7.4.6
7.5
7.6
FABRICATION AND TESTING SUMMARY
CASE STUDIES
155
156
7.5.1
TROIKA TEMPLATE
156
7.5.2
SHELL MENSA
157
7.5.3
VIDEO SUBSEA DEVELOPMENT
159
7.5.4
CASE STUDIES SUMMARY
159
STRUCTURAL DESIGN SUMMARY
160
8.0 INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING
161
8.1
INTRODUCTION
161
8.2
INSTALLATION ISSUES
161
8.3
8.4
8.2.1
INTRODUCTION
161
8.2.2
VESSEL COSTS AND CAPABILITY
161
8.2.3
INSTALLATION VESSEL COST
162
8.2.4
SIZE AND WEIGHT OF SUBSEA EQUIPMENT
163
8.2.5
WEIGHT OF WIRE ROPE
164
8.2.6
METOCEAN ISSUES
165
8.2.7
DYNAMIC AMPLIFICATION OF A LOAD DURING INSTALLATION
166
8.2.8
VESSEL STABILITY
167
8.2.9
INSTALLATION ISSUES SUMMARY
168
INSTALLATION METHODS
168
8.3.1
INSTALLATION ON WIRES
168
8.3.2
DRUM WINCHES
170
8.3.3
FOUR-POINT LIFT OF SUBSEA STRUCTURE
170
8.3.4
HEAVE COMPENSATION
173
8.3.5
SHEAVE INSTALLATION METHOD
175
8.3.6
PENCIL-BUOY METHOD
176
8.3.7
INSTALLATION ON A TUBULAR
177
8.3.8
INSTALLATION METHODS SUMMARY
179
AT THE SEABED
179
8.4.1
SEABED PREPARATION
179
8.4.2
INSTALLING PILES
180
8.4.3
LATCH-LOK - OIL STATES INDUSTRIES
182
8.4.4
HYDRA-LOK PILE SWAGING - OIL STATES INDUSTRIES
183
8.4.5
TEMPLATE LEVELLING AND ATTACHING TO PILES
184
8.4.6
GUIDELINES
185
vii
8.5
8.6
8.4.7
HOT INSTALLATION
185
8.4.8
AT THE SEABED SUMMARY
186
NEW TECHNOLOGY
187
8.5.1
PENDULAR INSTALLATION
187
8.5.2
DECOUPLED AIR VEHICLE INSTALLATION TOOL (DAVIT)
188
8.5.3
SYNTHETIC ROPES
189
8.5.4
NEW TECHNOLOGY SUMMARY
190
INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING SUMMARY
190
9.0 WORKOVER
191
9.1
INTRODUCTION
191
9.2
WHY WORKOVER A WELL?
191
9.3
WORKOVER EQUIPMENT AND VESSELS
192
9.4
9.5
9.3.1
WIRELINE
192
9.3.2
RISERLESS WELL INTERVENTION
194
9.3.3
COILED TUBING
195
9.3.4
DRILLSTRING WORKOVER
198
9.3.5
WORKOVER EQUIPMENT AND VESSELS SUMMARY
199
MINOR WORKOVER OPERATIONS
200
9.4.1
WHAT IS A MINOR WORKOVER?
200
9.4.2
SAND REMOVAL
200
9.4.3
SAND PACKING
200
9.4.4
DEPOSITION
201
9.4.5
FRACTURING
202
9.4.6
ACID JOB
203
9.4.7
PRODUCTION TUBING REMEDIATION & MAINTENANCE
204
9.4.8
NEW PRODUCTION ZONE
204
9.4.9
RESERVOIR REMEDIATION
205
9.4.10
COILED TUBING DRILLING
206
9.4.11
FISHING
206
9.4.12
JARRING
208
9.4.13
SUMMARY
208
MAJOR WORKOVER OPERATIONS
209
9.5.1
WHAT IS A MAJOR WORKOVER?
209
9.5.2
CASING FAILURE
209
9.5.3
CASING REPAIR
210
viii
9.6
9.5.4
SIDETRACKING
211
9.5.5
COMPONENT REPLACEMENT
211
9.5.6
SUMMARY
212
WORKOVER SUMMARY
212
10.0 ABANDONMENT OF SUBSEA DEVELOPMENTS
213
10.1 INTRODUCTION
213
10.2 SUBSEA ABANDONMENT REGULATIONS
213
10.2.1
INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS
213
10.2.2
UK/EU ABANDONMENT REGULATIONS
214
10.2.3
US ABANDONMENT REGULATIONS
215
10.2.4
SUBSEA ABANDONMENT REGULATIONS SUMMARY
216
10.3 HISTORY AND FUTURE OF SUBSEA ABANDONMENT
216
10.3.1
PLATFORM ABANDONMENT IN NORTH SEA
216
10.3.2
HISTORY AND FUTURE OF ABANDONMENT IN UK
218
10.3.3
SUMMARY
218
10.4 ABANDONMENT OF SUBSEA WELLS
219
10.4.1
SUMMARY
223
10.5 ABANDONMENT OF SUBSEA DEVELOPMENTS SUMMARY
223
ix
9.0 Workover
9.1
Introduction
In this module we will learn about minor and major workover operations, and the equipment required
for these. We will look at the specific jobs which may be performed during a workover, and the reasons
for doing so.
9.2
Why Workover a Well?
Workover, or well intervention, is performed on a well for the following reasons:
If a well has seen a reduction in production it may need to be stimulated or new

equipment added.
If a zone has been depleted then it may be necessary to drill to a new level and activate
a new area for production.
If a piece of downhole equipment has become damaged then workover is necessary in

order to replace it.
Workover is performed from the surface by lowering tools on wirelines, coiled tubing or drillstrings.
Some methods require the well to be killed and some do not.
Killing the well means stopping
production, filling the well bore with drilling mud, and lifting out the production tubing,
To date it has not been possible to workover a well from subsea although research is being performed in
this field.
Page 191
9.3
Workover Equipment and Vessels
9.3.1
Wireline
The use of wireline tools is the simplest method of well

intervention. The main advantage is that a tool can be lowered
through the production tubing without the need to halt
production.
Wireline tools can be used to clean the inside of the production
tubing, perform work such as acid jobs to stimulate production,
and remove junk and fish from the well bore.
The wire is wound from a drum on the deck of the vessel, so no
drilling derrick is required.
Wireline tools courtesy of Weltec
Wirelines are relatively weak, making them suitable for only light-weight well interventions.
Simplest method of intervention
Cable of diameter 2.7 mm to 3.2 mm (0.108in to 0.125in)
Wound from 1 m to 3 m (3 ft to 9 ft) diameter drum
No derrick required
Wireline is relatively weak
E-Line is a wireline containing an insulated electrical conduit, which can be used to operate the tool
downhole.
Before a wireline is lowered from the vessel, a package is attached to the top of the subsea Christmas
tree. The package comprises a BOP at the bottom, with a lubricator and then a stuffing box attached to
it. The lubricator contains grease at a higher pressure than the well, and the stuffing box has rubber
seals which surround the wireline, preventing entry of seawater or loss of lubricator fluid.
A heave compensator in the vessel allows the tool to be lowered steadily despite vessel motion due to
swell.
Page 192
Well bores which have been directionally drilled may

require that a tractor tool be attached to the tool at the
end of the wireline. The tractor drives the tool deeper into
the well when gravity alone is not enough to overcome
friction in the tubing.
A wireline must enter the well through a BOP, lubricator
and stuffing box as the well is not killed for the workover.
The
for
wireline
is
shown
below,
courtesy
of
leespecialities.com
The lubricator (right) is shown courtesy of Schlumberger.
The lubricator is for a wireline intervention with a riser,
where the lubricator and stuffing box are located at the
topsides and the BOP is located subsea.
Lubricator and stuffing box

Courtesy of Schlumberger
Reel Drum for a Wireline - courtesy of leespecialities.com
Page 193
9.3.2
Riserless Well Intervention
Riserless well intervention does not require a riser to be lowered from a drilling vessel. A much lighter
vessel may be used for the workover saving money.
The Island Frontier is a vessel built by FMC and Aker Kvaerner for riserless light well intervention
(RLWI). It is a monohull dynamically
positioned (DP) vessel with a 70
tonne (77 US ton) handling tower
and a 130 tonne (143 US ton) crane.
It is capable of performing wireless
intervention and workover in water
depths up to 500 m (1640 ft) and
Island Frontier - Courtesy of FMC, Aker Kvaerner
waves up to 5 m (16 ft) in height.

The vessel uses its own ROV to guide a BOP and lubricator
package on guidelines from the handling tower and through the
moonpool to the subsea Christmas tree. It is capable of logging,
perforation and equipment replacement.
The diagram to the left is courtesy of Lewis (Lightweight
Economical Well Intervention Systems)
Page 194
9.3.3
Coiled Tubing
Coiled tubing is a metal tube, which can be wound onto a drum, and unwound into the well bore for
performing workover jobs. It has a few advantages over wireline intervention:
Hydraulic fluid may be transmitted through the tubing.
Coiled tubing can push as well as pull objects inside the well.
Coiled tubing is run through a coiled tubing riser (a type of

specialist workover riser) or a standard workover riser.
The continuous tubing is plastically deformed onto a spool
for transportation.
On site the coil is unwound and
straightened before being fed into the well. Once installed

fluids can be pumped down the coiled tubing to undertake
a multitude of activities.
The photograph to the right shows Schlumbergers
compact coiled tubing unit which has been specially
designed to minimise the number of lifting operations
required for installation on the vessel. The straightener can be seen at the top of the photograph.
Small diameter, thick wall continuous tubing

o
25 mm to 114 mm (1in to 4in) diameter
610 m to 4570 m (2000 ft to 15 000 ft) long
Compressive strength
Fluid pumped through tubing and back to surface through production tubing
Multitude of uses
Log onto the modules WebCT site and watch the video entitled Coiled Tubing Manufacture
at > Resources > Video Files > Coiled Tubing Manufacture
This video (courtesy of Precision Tubing) shows how coiled tubing is manufactured from steel
strip using high frequency induction welding and wound onto spools. Once fabricated the
internal diameter of the coiled tubing is validated by blowing a steel gauge ball through the
tubing. The tubing is then hydrotested to 90% of specified minimum yield strength and
purged with nitrogen to remove water vapour.
Page 195
9.3.3.1
Coiled Tubing Deployment
During deployment the coiled tubing is plastically straightened

through a series of rollers, this plastic straining can lead to
hardening of the steel and loss of ductility, making the tubing
prone to fatigue crack growth. In order to detect these cracks
the coiled tubing is inspected after the straightening process
using an automated ultrasonic system.
The tubing is also
inspected after it is plastically deformed back onto the reel.

The steels used for coiled tubing are selected for their ductility
and resistance to strain hardening in order to extend the life of
the tubing.
Tubing plastically deformed from reel to

straight
Strict quality control system after

straighteners to check thickness and
integrity
Careful spooling of tubing back onto reel

and further quality control
9.3.3.2
Running Coiled Tubing
Coiled tubing can be run through a top tension riser, a conductor or a workover riser. The coiled tubing
unit is usually supplied as a compact unit with fully integrated services in order to save time.
Shown in the picture below is a GeoFlo flow remediation tool. It is attached to coiled tubing and
inserted down a flowline to clear blockages. It is very similar to a jet wash tool, which is used with
coiled tubing to clean well bores.
Page 196
Need BOP rated to well shut-in pressure (SIP)
CT units provided as compact skid mounted units
In-line sensors provide
Temperature
Pressure
Loading
Swivels, centralisers and connectors used to run

CT
9.3.3.3
Coiled Tubing Inspection
Coiled tubing is inspected after each deployment as it is spooled back onto the reel. The inspection
techniques need to determine if the coiled tubing has elongated or become distorted during the
unreeling process. It is also important to inspect for gouges and other marks on the coiled tubing
surface where the tubing has been in contact with the production tubing, since these marks can result in
crack growth.
The inspection results are stored on a computer and compared with the previous inspection, based on a
tube position reference, to identify any deterioration in defects.
Tubing is inspected as it is reeled back onto spool

o
Ultrasonic array
Wall thickness reduction
Cracking
Diameter gauges
Visual inspection (camera)
Ovality
Gouges, flats, scuffs
Inspection data over entire length retained for comparison over life of tubing
Page 197
9.3.4
Drillstring Workover
For major jobs such as replacing large pieces of equipment, or the deeper drilling of a well, it may be
necessary to use a drillstring workover. This is because a drillstring can carry more weight, and transmit
more torque to the tool. Using a drillstring is the most expensive form of well workover.
A Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit (MODU) is required for this job, as the production tubing must be
removed, and a riser installed. A MODU has a derrick, which is used to lower the workover riser in
single, double or triple joints, depending upon its height. It is worth noting that a workover riser does
not need to be as wide as a drilling riser, as it is not required to accommodate casing.
If the BOP is installed at the topsides then a high pressure workover riser must be used. The use of a
riser and a drillstring allows full communication with the well, as fluids may be pumped through the
drillstring and the annulus.
An advantage of drillstring workover is that in the case that the intervention fails, the MODU is already
in place to facilitate further drilling.
Major workover
Well must be killed
Mobile offshore drilling unit
Requires BOP and workover riser

o
BOP can be topside or subsea
If topside requires high pressure

riser
Full communication with well
Option of drilling if intervention fails
Jackup MODU
Page 198
9.3.5
Workover Equipment and Vessels Summary
Wireline is lowered from a reel on a small vessel. It may contain an electrical conduit for powering
equipment (E-line). Wireline may be used in riserless well intervention.
Coiled tubing is also deployed from a reel onboard a small vessel. It is more versatile than wireline for
two reasons:
Fluids may be pumped through it.
It has compressive strength.
Drillstring workover requires the use of a drillship, which is expensive.
This kind of workover is
necessary for replacing some subsea equipment, and sometimes the deeper drilling of a well.
Page 199
9.4
9.4.1
Minor Workover Operations

What is a Minor Workover?
A minor workover is performed using wireline or coiled tubing on a live well. It may be done with or
without a workover riser and can be performed using a light intervention vessel, which saves money.
9.4.2
Sand Removal
In some formations sand enters the production tubing and

impedes the flow of oil. Coiled tubing can inject water at high
pressure, which flushes out the sand from the production tubing.
Coiled tubing
o
High pressure water
Sand transported up production tubing
Watch an animated flash movie of this process on the

modules WebCT site. You can find the file at
> Resources > Lecture Note Animations > Sand
Removal
9.4.3
Sand Packing
A weak formation with crumbling sand may impede production. One solution is to pump resin slurry
(sand and resin) through the coiled tubing. The resin hardens to form a matrix which oil and gas, but
not sand can pass through. Once the resin has hardened it is common to drill a small pilot hole using a
mud motor on the end of the coiled tubing. This eases the flow of hydrocarbons.
Gravel packing is another, similar method used to achieve this, whereby gravel is used instead of sand.
Page 200
Resin slurry
o
Hardens
o
Forms porous matrix
Drilled
o
9.4.4
Sand and resin
Mud motor and CT
Deposition
Paraffins and asphaltenes are long-chain polymers which are known to solidify in the production tubing,
reducing the possible production flowrates.
A paraffin scratcher may be lowered on a wireline to remove the deposits mechanically. This requires
production to be temporarily stopped.
A permanent solution to deposition is a magnetic fluid conditioner (MFC), which can be installed
downhole. High-energy, permanent magnets alter the cloud point, viscosity, pour point, surface tension
and deposition temperatures of the oil, and make paraffin and asphaltene deposition less likely.
Page 201
9.4.5
Low
Fracturing
permeability
in
the
formation
can
be
counteracted by fracturing. Originally fracturing was

performed using explosives but it is now more
common to use high pressure liquids, which can be
water, oil or gas-based.
It is also possible to use
acids to eat-away and enlarge cracks, thereby

improving production.
The region where the cracks have been enlarged by
water pressure can be seen in the diagram. The high
pressure liquid is pumped down coiled tubing, and
enters the formation through the holes in the casing
walls. A high-permeability formation will allow only
short cracks to form before the fluid is lost, and a
low-permeability formation will allow longer cracks to
form.
A proppant is a solid particle, such as a sand grain or glass bead, which is used to hold the cracks open
after fracturing.
The proppant must be hard enough to hold the crack open once the pressure is
reduced, but not so hard that it fractures the formation and allows the crack to close around it.
9.4.5.1
Fracturing Procedures
When performing a fracturing operation the well bore must be first cleaned so that debris does not clog
the fissures which are supposed to be widened. Packers can be inserted above and (if necessary) below
the perforated zone.
The pressure is monitored during the process, to determine when the job is
complete.
Well bore must be clean
Packers inserted (straddle packer)
Pressure monitored
Page 202
9.4.6
Acid Job
An acid job is similar to hydrostatic pressure fracturing, in that a fluid is pumped down coiled tubing to
increase the permeability of the formation. Special equipment must be used, such as lined pipes and
processing equipment, as acid corrodes metal.
Hydrochloric acid is cheap and suited to dissolving limestone or dolomite formations. Hydrofluoric acid
is more expensive but necessary to dissolve the quartz that is the main constituent of sandstone. There
are associated health hazards because acid is harmful to the skin and respiratory system.
Surfactants are injected with the acid to stop it forming an emulsion with crude oil, and sequestering
agents prevent precipitation of minerals from the acid solution. As the acid eats away rather than props
open the cracks, proppants are not required.
Limestone or dolomite
o
Hydrochloric acid
Sandstone
o
Hydrofluoric acid
Health hazard
Additives
o
Corrosion inhibitor
Surfactants
Sequestering agents
Proppants not required
Page 203
9.4.7
Production Tubing Remediation & Maintenance
Coiled tubing can be used to clean the production tubing and perforations
using high pressure water or solvents.
Coiled tubing can also be used to
insert and remove inflatable packers and in-line valves to isolate sections of
the production tubing.
9.4.8
Tubing washing & cleaning tools

o
Wire scratchers
Jet washers
Setting & adjusting plugs & valves

o
Inflatable packers
In-line valves
New Production Zone
After a well has become depleted it may be necessary to close off production and begin extracting from
another layer. The new zone may be higher or lower than the original.
Squeeze cementing is used to fill up the
perforations.
The cement is pumped from the
surface at high pressure, and it fills up the

perforations in the old production zone.
The
zone may be depleted as water has risen to a

higher level, in which case the casing could be
perforated directly above the old production
zone.
There may be another production zone
much lower in the formation, in which case the

cement would be drilled through and the bore
extended further downwards.
Page 204
Sidetracking involves isolating the old zone, and then drilling off at an angle from the well bore at a
higher point.
If further drilling is necessary then a full workover using drillstring would be necessary. Moving the
production zone upwards can be done using only coiled tubing.
New zone may be deeper or shallower than original
Isolate original zone
9.4.9
Squeeze cementing
Sidetracking
Perforate new zone
Reservoir Remediation
Coiled tubing can be used to transport a perforation gun through

the production tubing to fracture a new pay-zone along the well.
Once perforation has occurred a slug of acid is usually required
to dissolve the copper lining around the perforations to allow the
hydrocarbons to enter the tubing. The diagram shows fracturing
and acidising assemblies courtesy of Schlumberger.
Fracturing
o
Perforation guns
Explosive shaped-charges
fracture formation and maximise
contact area of well bore with
formation
Acidising
o
Slugs of acid transported between plugs
Acid used to dissolve metal

(copper) used in shaped charge
Perforating tool
Page 205
9.4.10
Coiled Tubing Drilling
Drilling is carried out by a slimline bit which is driven by the flow of mud through the
coiled tubing or an electric motor, supplied from an internal electrical cable. Material
removed during drilling, fines, is returned to the surface with the drilling mud through the
annulus. The mud is then filtered to remove the fines before being pumped down the
coiled tubing again. The diagram shows a coiled tubing drilling assembly courtesy of
Schlumberger.
Motorhead unit at end of CT

o
Driven by flow through CT or electric motor
Drill bit
Slimline bit
o
Mud pumped down CT
Mud & fines returned up annulus
Good for drilling deviated wells
Motorhead Unit
9.4.11
Fishing
Junk is classed as small objects which are stuck down a well,

such as a broken part of a drill bit or a hand-tool which has been
dropped from the surface. Fish are large pieces of equipment
which have become stuck such as a length of drill pipe or a
collar. A spear can be lowered using coiled tubing or drillstring,
and activated by rotation once inside the fish. During activation
the spear clamps itself inside the fish using slips and the spear
and fish may be lifted out of the hole together. An overshot has
slips on the inside, and is used to clamp around a cylinder with a
small external diameter.
Page 206
Watch an animated flash movie of this process on the modules WebCT site. You can find the
file at > Resources > Lecture Note Animations > Fishing
Coiled tubing can be used to identify and remove objects which

have fallen into the well or have broken off from the
completion. The geometry of a fish can be identified using an
impression block made of a soft metal such as lead, or a fibreoptic video camera. Once the fish shape has been identified
the correct tool can be used for retrieval. For awkward metallic
components a magnet can be used to retrieve the fish.
The picture directly below shows the top of a fish which was
stuck down a well. The image was taken using a fibre-optic
video camera.
Page 207
9.4.12
Jarring
When the derrick or surface machinery does not have enough

power to simply lift a fish out of the well bore, then a hammer
blow must be delivered to it.
This can be an upward or
downward blow, which is performed by attaching a jarring tool

to the drillstring above the fishing tool.
For extra power a
number of drilling collars may be attached as well.

A jar may be attached to the top of an overshot or a spear. It
jars the equipment with a large bang either upwards or
downwards to free the stuck fish.
A rotary jar uses torque applied to the drillstring to provide the
jolt, and a hydraulic system relies upon the release of hydraulic
pressure contained within the jarring tool.
9.4.13
Summary
Wireline may be used to perform the following jobs:
Further fracturing of the formation to stimulate production.
Fishing for downhole junk and fish.
Coiled tubing is required for the following:
Removal of sand from the wellbore, and sand packing to increase production rates.
Removal of scale and deposits from the inside of the production tubing.
Widening of the production fissures using acid to stimulate production.
To drill new production zones.
Page 208
9.5
9.5.1
Major Workover Operations

What is a Major Workover?
A major workover requires that production be stopped and the well killed. The well is killed by pumping
heavy mud into the annulus. The production tubing must be lifted. This is more easily done in a
horizontal tree, which can remain in place during removal. If a vertical tree is in place over the well
then the tree must be removed before the production tubing can be lifted. A BOP is installed either
subsea or at the surface. If a surface BOP is used then a high pressure riser is necessary. A subsea
BOP does not require the use of a riser at all.
A drilling rig is necessary for a major workover, which is more costly than a light intervention vessel.
Requires tubing to be pulled
Trees
o
Horizontal
Vertical
9.5.2
Pull the tree and tubing
BOP
o
Pull the tubing without tree
Surface or subsea
Drill rig
Casing Failure
A failure in the casing may cause fluids to leak into the formation or vice versa. Casing failures may be
caused by corrosion of the metal by acids, water or carbon dioxide which may all be present in the
drilling mud and the produced oil. Acid jobs may have caused failure of the casing through corrosion.
Abrasion and erosion from produced fluids and gas lift may cause wear and rupture the casing.
A collapse of the formation around the casing may cause it to rupture or buckle inwards.
Corrosion
o
H2O, H2S, CO2
Abrasion
Mechanical collapse
Page 209
9.5.3
Casing Repair
When the casing has been damaged one of the following courses of action must be taken:
A new liner can be added which further reduces the

diameter of the casing.
A liner patch may be inserted which reduces the casing

diameter over a short distance. The patch is crimped so
that it may be inserted down the pipe. The outer surface
of the patch is coated with epoxy, and then the patch is
expanded mechanically to cover the damaged section.
The entire casing may be removed and replaced.
If the casing has collapsed then a casing roller using

offset rollers may be able to open up the kinked section.
If it is not possible to repair the casing it may be necessary to plug the

well above the damaged section and then sidetrack.
Patch Plan View
Page 210
9.5.4
Sidetracking
A retractable milling tool is lowered and used to mill out the casing
directly above the blockage. Cement is then poured onto a basket or
removable packer to block up the well.
A whipstock (which is a
hardened steel tool) is lowered to rest on the cement. It acts as a

guide which slowly deviates the drill away from the original bore
course.
Damaged casing or junk

o
Mill out casing section
Cement plug
Insert whipstock
Drill
A Whipstock
9.5.5
Component Replacement
Some pieces of subsea equipment require a major workover to be performed for replacement.
Some subsea safety valves require a major workover and some do not.
The removal of an electric submersible pump (ESP) usually requires a major workover to be performed,
but wireline retrieval is possible.
Page 211
Some wells are fitted with a gas lift, whereby gas is injected via a valve from the annulus to the
production tubing. The gas decreases the density of the well fluids, thus increasing the production
rates. It is necessary to periodically replace the gas-lift valves, and this may be done during a minor
workover, but sometimes requires a major workover.
9.5.6
Summary
Major workover is necessary if the casing becomes damaged, or some components need replacing. It is
often necessary when a wireline or coiled tubing workover has failed to do the job.
9.6
Casing failure
Component replacement
Workover Summary
In this module we first looked at the reasons for performing a workover on a well:
To stimulate production by clearing blockages and widening fissures.
To replace any broken equipment or recover junk and fish.
To drill to another production zone.
We considered minor workover operations using wireline and coiled tubing.

drillstring workover which requires a MODU and that production is stopped.
We went on to learn about the specifics of various workover jobs.
Reasons for workover

o
Stimulate production
Remediation
Produce from another zone
Workover operations
Wireline, coiled tubing or drillstring workover
Page 212
Then we looked at
10.0
Abandonment of Subsea Developments
10.1 Introduction
This module explains the requirements for decommissioning and abandoning of subsea systems. It
focuses primarily on the abandonment of wells since this is a complex operation compared to the
retrieval of subsea equipment.
Understand the international and national requirements for decommissioning subsea

structures
Understand how subsea structures are decommissioned
10.2 Subsea Abandonment Regulations

10.2.1
International Regulations
Article 5 of the Geneva convention was the first international regulation for removal of marine
structures. At this time no one has envisaged the requirement for deep sea structures. In 1982 article
5 of the Geneva convention was superceded by the United Nations convention on the law of the seas
(UNCLOS), article 60(3) of which permitted partial removal of offshore structures provided the
International Maritime Organisation (IMO) criteria were met. This convention entered into force in 1994
and was ratified in the UK in 1997.
The IMO published its first guidance on decommissioning in 1989 which required the complete removal
of offshore structures in water less than 75 m (246 ft). This was increased to 100 m (328 ft) in 1998.
Page 213
10.2.2
UK/EU Abandonment Regulations
OSPAR is the name given to the Oslo and Paris convention for the protection of the marine environment
of the north-east Atlantic. It comprises the following members:
Belgium
Ireland
United Kingdom
Denmark
Netherlands
European Union
Finland
Norway
Luxembourg
France
Portugal
Switzerland
Germany
Spain
Iceland
Sweden
UK Petroleum Act 1998

o
Implementation of European OSPAR decision 98/3
Reaction to public dissatisfaction over Brent Spar disposal in 1995
Page 214
Installation
(excluding
topsides)
Weight
(tonnes)
Complete
removal to
land
Partial
removal to
land
Leave wholly
in place
Re-use
Disposal at
sea
<10,000
>10,000
Any
Any
Any
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
Fixed Steel
Fixed Steel
Concrete gravity
Floating
Subsea
As can be seen from the above, all subsea structures must be completely removed or re-used.
10.2.3
US Abandonment Regulations
In the US the approach is more pragmatic, partially due to the number of subsea structures in deep
water, and allows those subsea structures in water depth greater than 800 m (2624 ft) to be left in
place.
Minerals Management Service (MMS)

o
Implementation of Federal Register 30 CFR Parts 250 and 256
Plug and abandon wells within year of lease expiring
Must remove structures and flowlines
Tow to land for salvage
Re-use
Reef structure in approved offshore sites
Subsea equipment
o
Remove if <800 m (2624 ft)
Leave in place if >800 m (2624 ft)
Page 215
10.2.4
Subsea Abandonment Regulations Summary
The requirements for abandonment of subsea systems are laid down in international conventions. The
EU and USA have their own regulations which clarify the IMO and UNCLOS requirements.
International regulations developed in 1980s and 1990s
Strict regulations in USA and UK
Local regulations in other parts of the World

o
Follow IMO guidelines
10.3 History and Future of Subsea Abandonment

10.3.1
Platform Abandonment in North Sea
This section focuses on the abandonment of platforms in the North Sea, however, a similar situation has
developed in other mature offshore markets such as the Gulf of Mexico.
The first structure to be abandoned in the North Sea was the Piper
Alpha platform (right) in 1988 following the catastrophic fire. This
was toppled over onto an unused part of the seabed.
The next milestone was the decommissioning of the Brent spar in
1995. Although adhering to international regulations at the time by
applying to sink the spar, a public outcry led to the spar being cut up
and used in a quay construction.
The next big milestone in the North Sea was the removal of the
Maureen platform.
This was removed by floating the four legs.
Unfortunately, despite the best efforts of the operator, the platform

was not reused as a platform and was cut up for a quay construction.
Page 216
Brent Spar
Maureen platform
Piper Alpha
o
Brent Spar
o
1988 - Toppled
1995 to 1999 Reused in quay
Maureen
o
2001 to 2002 Reused in quay
The first North Sea subsea development to be abandoned was the Crawford field in 1991. This was
removed using a heavy lift vessel and returned to shore to be scrapped. The Blair field is the only field
to date where the subsea equipment has been re-used.
Crawford
o
Blair
o
2003 Removal to shore
Ardmore
o
2000 - Removed to shore
Frigg
o
Durward and Dauntless

o
1992 - Reused
Staffa
o
1991 Removed to shore
142 wells abandoned to date
Page 217
10.3.2
History and Future of Abandonment in UK
The graph below is taken from the UK Department of Industry website and represents the historical and
predicted number of abandonments in the North Sea up to 2030. It can be seen that the number of
subsea fields which require abandonment is increasing and will peak at about 2015.
10.3.3
Summary
International and national regulations have been developed for abandoning offshore structures. In the
UK and EU these typically require the removal of all subsea structures, in the USA subsea structures can
be left on the seabed if they are in a water depth of 800 m (2624 ft) or more.
Page 218
10.4 Abandonment of Subsea Wells

Abandonment can be carried out by a drilling vessel or
workover vessel.
Drilling vessels are expensive, especially if
the field is remote from the drilling vessel base, however, they
can usually abandon a well fairly quickly and most of the
subsea equipment can also be retrieved on the drill string.
Multi-service vessels are much cheaper than drilling vessels
and recent developments now allow complete abandonment to
be undertaken from them using a combination of coiled tubing
Drilling Rig
and wireline.
The process of abandoning the well is similar for both types of
vessel and is described in the following slides.
Vessels
o
Multi-Service Vessel (MSV)
Drilling rig
Expensive
Quick
Use drill string to kill and plug wells and to remove subsea equipment
Multi-service vessel (MSV)
Cheaper
Use coiled tubing to kill well
Use wireline to set plugs
Use A-frame to retrieve subsea equipment
The first stages of abandonment are:
Shut-in production at the tree. The production to the flowline must be isolated before
disconnection.
Depressurise flowline. The flowline is blow down to remove as much of the contents as
possible.
Page 219
Disconnect flowline from tree. The flowline is

removed by reversing the installation process.
Connect coiled tubing or drill string to tree. Coiled

tubing or a drill string is attached to the tree,
depending on the vessel used to abandon the well.
Kill well using heavy mud. Heavy mud is pumped

into the well to kill it; the hydrostatic pressure of the
mud is greater than the formation pressure at the
perforations, therefore stopping further production.
The next stages in the abandonment process are:
Pump cement into producing zone. The cement is

pumped down the coiled tubing or drill string and
pushed through the perforations.
Hydrotest plug.
Once set the cement plug is
pressure tested to ensure that it has set correctly.
Install wireline lubricator. This is used to run the

perforator guns.
Page 220
The next stages in the abandonment process are:
Cut tubing below SCSSV. This is done with a

perforating gun or special cutting tool.
Release tubing hanger and tubing.
The
tubing is now retrieved on the wireline to the

vessel.
Perforate upper casings. This ensures that

any annulus pressure is bled.
Set packers and plugs.

perforations
and
provides
This seals the

a
secondary
barrier.
Remove wireline lubricator.
The wireline operations are now complete and the
lubricator can be removed.
The final stages in the abandonment process are:
Unlatch and retrieve tree. The tree is

now removed on a drill string or using
an A-frame on the MSV.
Cut casings 4.5 m (15 ft) below mud

line.
This allows the casing to be
retrieved.
Retrieve wellhead and casing stump.

This complies with the regulations to
remove equipment which could interact
with fishing gear.
Page 221
Remove manifold and template.
These structures are now removed or made fisher
friendly, depending on their size and construction.
Abandonment complete. This process is now complete.
Watch an animated flash movie of this process on the modules WebCT site. You can find the
file at > Resources > Lecture Note Animations > Abandonment of Subsea Wells
Log onto the modules WebCT site and watch the video entitled Abandonment at
> Resources > Video Files > Abandonment
The video is courtesy of Norse Cutting & Abandonment. It shows how subsea casing is
retrieved to the surface during the decommissioning of a well.
The casing and concrete is cut using a high-pressure water-cutter run in on coiled tubing
(shown below):
The picture below shows the horizontally-mounted drill, which is used to bore through the
pipe so that a pin may be inserted. Once the pin is in place, a cutter slices the pipe so that
the upper section may be lifted out and removed.
Page 222
The picture below shows lengths of casing that have been removed using this method. The
cement between the conductor and the casing can be seen in the cross section, as well as
the pin which was used to hold the inner tubing in place.
10.4.1
Summary
Abandonment of subsea wells is a complex operation that is traditionally carried out by drilling vessels,
however, new methods have been developed which use multi-service vessels at much cheaper day
rates.
Complex operation
Can be carried out using multi-service vessels

o
Wireline and coiled tubing
10.5 Abandonment of Subsea Developments Summary

The abandonment of subsea wells and structures is now a mature technology. Given the extent of
facilities to be abandoned over the coming years a significant effort has been made to reduce the cost
of abandonment and decommissioning operations, with some success.
6 subsea developments with 142 wells abandoned in UK North Sea to date
149 subsea developments left in North Sea

o
Large requirement for abandonment over next 20 years
Decommissioning technology mature
Page 223

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MSC SUBSEA ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION TO SUBSEA SYSTEMS & NETWORKS

Jee Limited 2008

MSC SUBSEA ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION TO SUBSEA SYSTEMS & NETWORKS

THE HISTORY OF SUBSEA PRODUCTION

HISTORICAL OIL PRICES

THE FIRST OIL WELL

EARLY OIL DEVELOPMENT

THE NORTH SEA

GRAVITY BASE STRUCTURES

TENSION LEG PLATFORM

SEMI-SUBMERSIBLE FLOATING PRODUCTION SYSTEM

OFFSHORE DRILLING UNITS

OTHER IN-FIELD LINES AND CABLES

SUBSEA PRODUCTION TREES

PLETS AND PLEMS

SPM AND SALM

CLUSTER AND SATELLITE WELLS

MSC SUBSEA ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION TO SUBSEA SYSTEMS & NETWORKS

INCREASED OIL RECOVERY

RISERLESS WELL INTERVENTION

SUBSEA PROCESSING AND PUMPING

ALL-ELECTRIC CONTROL SYSTEM

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS SUMMARY

OVERVIEW OF FIELD DEVELOPMENT OPTIONS - SUMMARY

2.0 OWNERSHIP, INTERFACES AND OFFSHORE LEGISLATION

CASE STUDY SAKHALIN PHASE II

WHO ARE TYPICAL STAKEHOLDERS?

CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS (CFR)

LAW WEST OF AFRICA (WOA)

LICENCES & LEASES

MSC SUBSEA ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION TO SUBSEA SYSTEMS & NETWORKS

3.0 DRILLING AND COMPLETING A SUBSEA WELL

SUBSEA DRILLING OVERVIEW

DRILLING SEQUENCE AND COMPONENTS

DRILLING EQUIPMENT ON DECK

INSIDE THE DERRICK

OFFSHORE DRILLING UNITS

TGB INSTALLATION AND WELL INITIATION

WELLHEAD CASING HANGERS

RUNNING THE CASING

CEMENTING THE CASING IN PLACE

DRILLING SEQUENCE AND COMPONENTS SUMMARY

WELL LOGGING AND TESTING

COMPLETION SEQUENCE AND COMPONENTS

DRILLING AND COMPLETION

COMPLETION SEQUENCE AND COMPONENTS SUMMARY

DRILLING AND COMPLETING A SUBSEA WELL SUMMARY

MSC SUBSEA ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION TO SUBSEA SYSTEMS & NETWORKS

4.0 SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS

DAISY CHAIN CONFIGURATION

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES

SUBSEA SYSTEM CONFIGURATION SUMMARY

5.0 SUBSEA PRODUCTION CONTROL

COMPONENTS OF SUBSEA PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

SUBSEA PRODUCTION STANDARDS

DUAL BORE CONVENTIONAL PRODUCTION TREES

HORIZONTAL PRODUCTION TREES

THROUGH FLOWLINE TREES