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II YEAR EET
Unit 1 - Cells and Batteries PART 1

Syllabus
Unit-1 Cells and Batteries
Cells- concept of Primary and secondary Cells- Lead Acid Cell- Steps of Construction,
Defects,

Self discharge/shelf life, Capacity and efficiency of battery, Charging and

Discharging, Care and Maintenance.

Sabukumar.S,TVM
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Atom structure
All substance found in solid, liquid, or gaseous states are called matter. Matter is
composed of small particles called molecules. A molecule is the smallest part of a substance
which contains all physical and chemical properties of the substance and which has a free
existence. A molecule can be further subdivided in to smaller particles called atoms.
An atoms consists of a central part called nucleus. There are protons and neutrons in
the nucleus. In the space around nucleus, electrons revolve in circular or elliptical orbits.
Electrons in the outer most orbits are called valance electrons.
Proton: Unit positive charge is called protons. It has charge of 1.6 X 10-19 coulombs. The mass
of a proton is 1845 times of the mass of an electron.
Electron: Unit negative charge is called electrons. It has charge of 1.6 X 10-19 coulombs.
Neutron: It is electrically neutral. Its mass is almost equal to that of a proton.
A normal atoms is electrically neutral .Therefore number of electrons is equal to
number of protons. An atom having a deficit of electrons is termed as positive ion (cat ions)
and an atom having a surplus of electrons is termed as negative ion (anions). The
conversion of atoms in to ions is known as ionization.

Cell
A cell is device which converts chemical energy in to
electrical energy, usually consists of a two different
conducting substance placed in an electrolyte. Each cell
contains two electrodes (anode and cathode) and an
electrolyte. A substance that reacts chemically with each
electrode, generating an electrical current. The first
electrical producing device made by Alexander Volta in the
year 1800 is called a voltaic cell.

Battery
A group of cell connected together to work as single energy source is a battery. A
battery consists of one or more cells, connected in series or parallel depending on the desired
output voltage and capacity.
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Cells are broadly classified into primary and

secondary cells.

Primary cell
A cell which produces electrical energy and after few hours of working becomes inactive
is called primary cell. In a primary cell, the chemical action of forming the solution is not
reversible. The primary cells are the most commonly used cells because of their low cost,
portability and simplicity in use.
Examples are

Dry cells.
Voltaic cell.
Daniel cell.
Alkaline Manganese.

Secondary cell
A cell which is used repeatedly for producing electrical energy after charging it is called a
secondary cell. In secondary cell the chemical action occurring in the electrolyte can be
reversed. Actually it does not produce electrical energy but it merely accumulates the energy
and hence it is also known as accumulator.
Examples are

Lead acid.

Lithium ion.

Nickel-cadmium.

Comparison between Primary and secondary cell

Sl.No.

Primary cell

Secondary cell

It cannot be recharged

It can be recharged

Its chemical reaction is irreversible

Its chemical reaction is reversible

It has low current rating

It has high current rating

Cost is less

Cost is more
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Small in size

Large in size

Light in weight

Heavy in weight

Short life

Long life

For intermittent use

For continuous use

Applications
Primary cell

Secondary cell

Torches.

Automotive.

Portable radio.

Emergency lamps.

Electric bells.

Mobiles.

Wrist watches.

Inverters.

Toys

Solar systems.

Cameras.

Lead Acid Cell

Lead-acid cell, which was developed in 1859 by a French scientist called Raymond Gaston
Plante, is the first practical rechargeable cell. The lead acid battery has become one of the
most successful storage battery today due to number of favorable factors like low cost, ease of
manufacture, long cycle life and high energy density.

Lead-acid batteries store energy using a reversible chemical reaction between lead
plates and dilute sulphuric acid (electrolyte).

Lead peroxide as anode, spongy lead as cathode and dilute sulfuric acid as electrolyte.

There are three basic types of lead acid battery - starter batteries: used to start
engines in cars etc, deep-cycle batteries: used in renewable energy applications and
camping etc, and marine batteries: used both for starting and for deep cycle
applications.

The most widely used high capacity rechargeable battery.

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Typical lead acid battery consists of 6 cells connected in series.

Lead acid batteries with liquid electrolyte usually fall in to one of three classes:
1. Conventional, with filling holes and vents to permit the addition of distilled
water lost from evaporation or during high rate charge or discharge.
2. Maintenance- free, from which gas may escape but water cannot be added.
3. Sealed- gelled electrolyte are used.

Parts of lead acid Battery

a) Container
The container is made of hard rubber which accommodates plates, separators,
electrolyte etc. in it.
b) Plates (electrodes)
The active material of positive plate (Anode) of the cell is lead peroxide (PbO 2) and
that of negative plate (cathode) is spongy lead (Pb). The plates are made up of lead grid
(mesh) plates and the spaces of the plates are packed with paste of active materials. The
positive plates are so arranged that they are in between the negative plates. So the number of
the negative plates is always one greater than that of positive plates.
c) Electrolyte
Dilute sulphuric acid (Dil.H2SO4) is used as the electrolyte. Usually the proportion of acid
and water is 1: 3.
d) Separators
These are used to prevent electrical contact between positive and negative plates.
Separators are placed in between the plates and the electrolyte should be able to pass through
the separators. They are made up of perforated rubber, specially treated wood, celluloid etc.
e) Cell cover
It is made up of hard rubber and is seated to cover the cell. They prevent spitting of acid.
f) Vent plugs
It is provided on the cell cover so that the gases formed during chemical reaction is
escaped through this. It is also used for pouring distilled water and acid whenever necessary.
The specific gravity of the electrolyte inside the cell can be measured through this vent hole
using hydro meter.
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g) Plate connector

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They are made up of pure lead. Positive and negative plates are welded separately with it
forming positive group and negative group terminals. An extension from each connecting bar
forms the terminal pole.
h) Cell connector
One cell is connected to the next by a cell connector to form a battery.
I) sealing compound
It is used to form an acid tight joint between the cover and the container.
j) Ribs and mud house
There is space provided at the bottom of the plates to collect the deposits of the chemical
reaction. This arrangement is called mud house. Mud house is formed between two ribs at the

bottom of the container.

Steps for construction of Battery

The battery manufacturing process involves the following steps
1. Casting the positive and negative grids.
2. Applying the active material (pasting) on the grids.
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3. Covering the positive plate with micro porous separators.

4. Combining the positive and negative plates.

5. Arrange the plate sets and form the plate blocks.
6. Forming cells and filling the electrolyte.
7. Finalizing battery (carrying out initial charging (forming), testing, closing vent plugs,
cleaning and sticking labels.

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Defects of secondary cell

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1. Sulphation.
All the positive and negative plates of a cell get changed in to lead sulphate (PbSO4)
during discharging. If lead acid batteries are allowed to remain discharged for very long time
(more than 2 -3 weeks), the lead sulphate become hard enough and cell remains no longer
chargeable. This defect is commonly referred to as sulphation. The plates will be covered in
lead sulphate and the capacity of the battery greatly reduced as the lead sulphate insulates
the plates from having contact with the electrolyte. Lead sulphate as white powder often seen
on the outside of the old batteries or on the terminals.
To avoid sulphation.
Avoid over discharging.
Recharge soon when a battery is discharged.
Add carbonate of soda to electrolyte.
Trickle charge the battery
Trickle charging
Due to leakage action and other open circuit losses, a fully charged battery losses its charge even
when open circuit. Hence to keep the battery always in charging condition, the battery is charged by a
very small current for a long period. This type of charging is called trickle charging.

2) Buckling of plates.
If a cell is charged or discharged above its rated ampere (usually 25 amperes) value, its
plates can buckle and the cell may become useless due to short circuit between the plates. This
effect is known as buckling. If the battery has a buckled plate, it must be replaced.
To avoid buckling.
Should not be charged or discharged above 25 amperes in normal case.

3) Sedimentation.
Due to overcharging & over discharging or due to continuous use, small parts from the
plate break and keep on depositing at the bottom. In this way, sufficient amount of sediments
get deposited at the bottom of the cell within a few months of working. This defect is known as
sedimentation. After some time this deposited material starts short circuiting.
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If it happens,

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Replace the electrolyte and clean the bottom surface.

Use distilled water as and when required.

4) Corrosion.
Terminals of a lead acid cell are made of copper coated with lead. An oxide layer is
formed on the terminals due to acid (H2SO4) and humidity. The oxide layer acts as an
insulator between the terminal and the connecting wire lead clamped on it. The defect is
known as corrosion. In order to remove this defect, the cell terminals should be periodically
cleaned with a piece of cloth and warm water and coated with a thin layer of grease.

Self Discharge/ Shelf life.

It is the charge consumed when battery is not in use for a long time, i.e. sits on the shelf.
The reason for self discharge is the electrochemical process within the cell. Self discharge of
battery increases with increase in temperature of battery. Therefore it is recommended to
store batteries at optimum temperature to reduce self discharge and to increase efficiency.
The rate of self discharge depends upon the type of battery. Lead acid battery loses 50 %
of the stored charge in 3 to 4 months. Li-ion cells stored at 300 typically lose 25% of the stored
charge in 3 months and Ni-Cd loses the same charge within 3-4 weeks.

Capacity of a battery.
It is the useful quantity of electricity that can be taken from a battery at the specified rate of
discharge before its voltage falls to the specified value. The capacity of a battery is expressed in
Ampere- Hour (Ah).
If a battery can deliver one ampere current for one hour, its capacity is one ampere- hour.
Factors affecting capacity of battery

Number of plates connected as one unit in cell

Size of plate connected as one unit in cell

Rate of discharge

Amount and density of electrolyte

Temperature
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Efficiency of a battery

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There are two types of efficiency

a) Ampere Hour efficiency
b) Watt Hour efficiency
Ampere Hour efficiency

Ampere Hour efficiency is the ratio of ampere hour on discharge to ampere hour on
charge.
Ampere hour on discharge
Ampere Hour efficiency =
Ampere hour on charge
Watt Hour efficiency

Watt Hour efficiency is the ratio of energy (watt hour) during discharge to the energy
(watt hour) during charge.
Watt hour on discharge
Watt Hour efficiency =
Watt hour on charge
Watt hour efficiency of a battery will always be less than its ampere hour efficiency
because discharge voltage is less than charge voltage.
Factors affecting efficiency of a cell
Charging rate
Discharging rate
Internal resistance
The period of time between the end of discharge and starting of recharge
Temperature

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How lead acid battery works?

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A lead-acid battery is composed of a series of

plates immerse in a solution of sulfuric acid. It has two
groups of plates; one is positive group and other
negative. The number of plates of negative group is one
more than the number of plates of positive group. In
this way, each positive plate remains active from both
the sides. The plate groups are connected to the terminals projected outside the top cover of
the cell marked as P and N indicating positive and negative respectively. A vent hole is made
in the top cover.
A fully charged battery can discharge its current when connected to a load. During the
process of discharge, the sulphuric acid combines with the active plate of positive and
negative plates resulting in the formation of lead sulphate. During this process, the hydrogen
atoms from the sulphuric acid react with the oxygen to form water. This results in the release
of electron from the positive plates which will be accepted by the negative plates. This leads to
the formation of an electric potential across the battery.
The electrolyte in the lead acid battery is a mixture of sulphuric acid and water which
has a particular specific gravity. Specific gravity is the weight of the acid water mixture
compared to equal volume of water. The specific gravity of pure ions free water is 1.
When a battery is recharged, the opposite occurs: the lead sulfate reverts back to
active material, and the electrolyte becomes more acidic with a higher specific gravity.
One charging and discharging operation of a battery is referred as one cycle of
battery. Due to each charge-discharge cycle, the capacity of battery decreases slightly.

Discharge:
When a fully charged battery is put into use,(ie. connected to a load) a current flows
through the electrolyte and dilute H2SO4 decomposes giving H+ ions and SO4- - ions. The H+ ions

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move towards the positive PbO2 plate (anode) and

SO4-

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ions move towards the negative Pb plate

(cathode).
Electrolyte
2H2SO4

4 H+ + 2SO42- -

At anode
PbO2 + 4H+ + SO42- -

PbSO4 + 2H2O

At cathode
Pb + SO4- -

PbSO4

As water (H2O) is formed during discharging, the specific gravity of electrolyte is

decreased. Also the positive (PbO2) plate and negative (Pb) plates are converted into lead
sulphate (PbSO4) which is white in colour. The voltage of the battery also decreased during
discharging.

Charging
At anode
PbSO4 + 2H2O

PbO2 + 4H+ + SO42--

At cathode
Pb + SO4- -

PbSO4
Electrolyte
4 H+ + 2SO42- -

2H2SO4

During charging the concentration of electrolyte is increased. The plates changes back into PbO 2
(lead peroxide) which is chocolate brown in colour and Pb (spongy lead) which is grey in colour.
Voltage of the cell is increased.
At the end of the charge, electrolysis of water also occurs, producing hydrogen gas is
liberated at negative plates (cathode) and oxygen gas is liberated at positive plates. (Anode).

Specific gravity
It is the weight of the substance compared to the weight of the water. This reading gives a
very good indication of the state of charge of a cell.
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In a fully charged cell the specific gravity is in the vicinity of 1.280 (which means the
density of the electrolyte is 1.280 times that of water).When the specific gravity is down to about

1.150 the cell is fully discharged. As a lead acid cell discharges, the specific gravity or density of
its electrolyte decreases (it turns more towards water).

Indications of a fully charged battery

1) Visual indication.
a) Colour of the electrodes.

If the battery is fully charged, positive plate will be of chocolate brown colour and the
negative plate will be of grey colour. If the battery is discharged both the plates will be of white
in colour.
b) Gassing at the electrodes.
When the battery is fully charged gases will be evolved at the electrodes. Hydrogen gas is
liberated at negative plate and oxygen gas is liberated at positive plate. So gas bubbles at the
electrode are an indication of a fully charged battery.
2) Electrical indication.
If the voltage of the cell is 2.1 V, it is fully charged and 1.8 V if it is fully discharged.
3) Physical indication.
If the specific gravity is 1.21 on a hydrometer scale, it is fully charged and if it is 1.18, it is
fully discharged.

Care & maintenance of a lead acid battery

The maintenance of battery is very important as it increases the life of the battery. Battery
maintenance depends on the type of battery used. Physical maintenance includes cleaning of
contact points, checking of specific gravity, observation of charging and discharging cycles.
Before doing maintenance, the battery should be disconnected from the circuit. While
maintaining battery, the following points should be observed.
Level of the electrolyte should always above the plates.
Keep battery terminals clean and coated with petroleum jelly.

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 During charging vent plugs should kept open.

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While preparing the electrolyte, water should not be poured into acid, but acid should be
added to water drop by drop.
While preparing the ratio of acid and water should be 1:3
Evaporation of the electrolyte should be compensated by adding distilled water.
Battery should not be kept in discharged condition for a long period.
Open flames near the battery should be avoided.
Charging and discharging should be at normal current rate.
No metal object should contact the battery terminals which causes short circuit.
Charge the battery with the specified charger only.
Battery should be kept clean and dry.
Watch cell temperature, as excessive heat will damage lead-acid cells. Acid temperature
should not exceed 36C.
Warning

Lead acid cells release hydrogen when being charged, which is highly flammable gas.
If a lead acid cell is short circuited, very large current will be drawn from the battery. It will
overheat in seconds and explode spraying sulphuric acid everywhere. It happens car accidents.

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