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MEASURING DISTANCE WITH CEPHEID VARIABLES

Written by T. Jaeger

INTRODUCTION
Cepheid stars (named after the class prototype star, DELTA CEPHEI) are of great interest because their intensity
varies over periods as short as a day to as long as 50-100 days. Furthermore, the observed variation period is
linked to the stars luminosity, allowing astronomers to estimate the ABSOLUTE MAGNITUDE of the star. This
unique property means Cepheid variables can be used as STANDARD-CANDLES, providing the ability to accurately
measure the distance to the host galaxy or cluster.
The science behind a Cepheids variability is quite interesting. The intensity of the star varies due to a repetitive
process in the stars atmosphere. In this process, the helium in the atmosphere ionizes and expands, then deionizes and contracts. As the gas expands, it becomes more opaque to light, making the star appear dimmer. This
process repeats on regular intervals. The period of this process and the change in magnitude provide valuable
information about the luminosity and density of the star.
There are two types of Cepheid variables, classified by their change in luminosity and period.
1.

2.

DCEP - classical Cepheids, Delta Cephei-type variables. These stars are young, POPULATION I (like the
sun) stars that have left the main sequence and are in the instability strip of the Hertzsprung-Russell
diagram. This class of Cepheid Variables obeys a predictable PERIOD-LUMINOSITY RELATIONSHIP which
can be used to estimate the distances to far away objects.
CW - variables of W VIRGINIS type. These Cepheids are POPULATION II (metal rich) stars and can also be
used to estimate distances, but their periods and luminosities are much smaller than classical Cepheids.
They too obey a well-known Period-Luminosity relationship, but its form is different than DECP Cepheids.

In todays exercise, you will study the LIGHT CURVES (plot of star intensity versus time) of various Type I Cepheids
located in distant open clusters. Your goal will be to determine the distance to each cluster by measuring the

period of the Cepheid and comparing its apparent magnitude to the absolute magnitude predicted by the PeriodLuminosity relationship. Take note of the unusual shape to the Cepheid light curve. The variability is not always
symmetric like you might see with other variable stars, but more SAW TOOTH, with a fast increase in intensity and
slow decrease.

PERIOD-LUMINOSITY RELATIONSHIP
The relationship between a Cepheids period and its luminosity was first discovered by HENRIETTA SWAN LEAVITT
in 1912. Henrietta worked as a woman-computer at the Harvard College Observatory, hired to measure and
catalog the brightest stars on the observatory PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES. She noticed that some variable stars
observed in the MAGELLANIC CLOUDS displayed a peculiar property. These stars not only have a periodic
variation in their intensity, but the brighter stars also appeared to have the longest periods. Through further
study, she worked out an empirical relationship (based on observations) which is now referred to as the PERIODLUMINOSITY RELATIONSHIP. This equation has been refined slightly by observations over the last century and in
its current form is the following:

Here, Mv is the absolute magnitude and P is the period in days.

FIGURE 1 - PERIOD-LUMINOSITY RELATIONSHIP FOR TYPE I CEPHEIDS

STANDARD CANDLE
This relationship above for Type I Cepheids is quite accurate and has been verified by observations of nearby
Cepheids. In these cases, the distance and magnitude can be calculated through other means, such as parallax.
The Period-Luminosity relationship however is much more useful when extrapolated to distant sources where
tools such as parallax are inadequate. For these distant objects, Cepheids act as Standard Candles (a star that has
a known Luminosity) and are invaluable for measuring distances. Once the absolute magnitude of a star is known,
it can be used along with the APPARENT MAGNITUDE (how dim/bright the star appears to the observer) to
calculate the stellar distance. The relationship between distance, absolute magnitude and apparent magnitude is
called the MAGNITUDE-DISTANCE FORMULA. It is shown below.

Here, d is the distance in parsecs, Mv is the absolute magnitude and mv is the apparent magnitude.

MEASURING THE DISTANCE TO DISTANT CEPHEIDS

You are provided with five observations of Cepheid Variables located in distant clusters to implement the concepts
discussed earlier in the lab. Your final goal is to measure the distance to each cluster. To accomplish this, follow
the steps below for each dataset. Make sure to enter your results in the table located at the end of the lab.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Each observation folder (S###) contains 40 FITS images and one JPEG image. The JPEG image is called a
FINDING CHART and can be used to locate the various stars you will need for this lab. An example
Finding Chart is shown to the right.
Each chart will contain the location of
the three stars you will need to locate
for each observation (two cluster stars
and the Cepheid).
Open the FITS images in MaxIM DL.
This may take a minute, so dont be
alarmed if the screen freezes for a
short time.
Now open the JPEG Finding Chart in
MaxIM DL. Try and locate the three
stars indicated on the chart. You will
need each star for the next step.
You will use the PHOTOMETRY TOOL in
MaxIM DL to generate a light curve of
the Cepheid Variable. While Henrietta
Swan Leavitt was working at the
Harvard College Observatory, this
would have been done by hand using a
photometer to measure how much light FIGURE 2 - SAMPLE FINDING CHART
could still pass through the region of
photographic plate or film exposed by the target star. For comparison, this measurement would be made
for a known, non-varying star called a Reference Star and multiple other stars called Check Stars. These
plates could be many feet across and would have carefully made this measurement for each image and

5.

6.

7.

recorded her results in a table, noting the time each image was taken. To generate a light curve, the final
step would be to plot the measurements from the photometer (compared to the Reference Star) versus
the observation time. For a skilled worker such as Henrietta, this process may have taken days to hours.
Today, computers can do this calculation in a few seconds, but the basic principles are still the same.
The photometry tool in MaxIM DL can be found under Analyze -> Photometry. First mark the Cepheid
(indicated as S### on the image). Do this by setting the MOUSE CLICK TAG AS: option to NEW OBJECT
and clicking on the target star. The green Photometry Tool should just fit around the star. If the tool is
too large, you can change the size of the tool components by right-clicking inside the image. A typical
setup is to set the APERTURE RADIUS, GAP WIDTH and ANNULUS THICKNESS each to a value of 5.
Now mark the Reference Star by changing the MOUSE CLICK TAG AS: option to NEW REFERENCE STAR
and clicking on the Reference Star. Set the REF MAG value to the magnitude indicated in your results
table (Table 1) at the end of the lab write-up. This will properly scale your magnitudes for later.
Finally, mark the Check Star by changing the MOUSE CLICK TAG AS: option to NEW CHECK STAR and
clicking on the indicated Check Star. This step is important because it allows you to verify that the
variation in the Object is due to the Object itself, and not due to variation in the Reference Star. If the
Check Star has a flat light curve, then the Reference Star too must be non-varying.

FIGURE 3 - USING PHOTOMETRY IN MAXIM DL

8.

To see the light curve for the three selected stars, press the VIEW PLOT button. MaxIM DL will perform
all the needed calculations (along with finding the stars in all 40 images automatically) and generate a
light curve.
9. Save your light curve data to the desktop by pressing the SAVE DATA button. Make sure to give your file
a name that will help you remember which object you are analyzing, as you will save a light curve for each
cluster.
10. Repeat the above steps and create/save light curves for each Cepheid and Open Cluster. When complete,
you will have 5 files in all.
11. Now that you have saved each light curve has been calculated and saved, you can use LOGGER PRO to
examine the data closer and estimate the Cepheid period. To open your data, select FILE -> IMPORT
FROM -> TEXT FILE. The time axis of your photometry data is plotted as Julian Date (JD, decimal days
since noon, Jan 1st, 4713 BC). The Julian Date for midnight on the first observing day is 2454542.

a.
b.
c.
d.

Optional: To scale the time axis in Logger Pro, do the following:

Navigate to DATA -> NEW CALCULATED COLUMN.
Type a Name and Short Name of MJD, and for Equation, type "Column" - 2454411
Change x axis to use MJD by clicking on axis name
Rescale x axis. This can be done by pressing CTRL-J or right clicking on axis for menu and
selecting AUTOSCALE.

12. Estimate the period for each Cepheid and record your results in Table 1 at the end of the lab exercise. To
do this, use Logger Pro to fit the light curve using a SINE function. A Sine function is desirable because it
is a periodic function and has a shape close to that of the saw-tooth shaped Cepheid data. The general
form of a sine function is as follows:

Dont worry if you dont understand all the particulars. Logger Pro will do all the heavy lifting. Navigate
in Logger Pro to Analyze -> Curve Fit. This will open a new window where you can fit your Cepheid data
to the function above. Select Sine from the General Equations list and press Try Fit. This should close
the window and display the results along with the original data. The Fit Parameters (A,B,C,D) are now
listed in a box attached to Logger Pros solution. Write down the following information:
a. The Fit Parameter B represents the frequency. You may recall that period is inversely related to
the frequency. The period of the Cepheid is then:

b.

The Fit Parameter D represents the average magnitude of your data. It you entered your
reference magnitude correctly, D will equal the apparent magnitude of the Cepheid.

13. Once the Cepheid periods have been estimated, use the PERIOD-LUMINOSITY RELATIONSHIP (or
corresponding graph) to find the absolute magnitude of the variable star. Record you results as well.

14. Finally, use the absolute magnitude and apparent magnitude of the Cepheid to calculate the distance to
each cluster. Use the MAGNITUDE-DISTANCE FORMULA to calculate the distance. Move on to the final
section.

HUBBLE LAW AND THE CURRENT HUBBLE CONSTANT

The rate at which the universe is expanding is called the Hubble Constant, named after the astronomer Edwin
Hubble. Hubble (along with Milton Humason) realized through observations of distant objects that the observed
velocity of objects (seen through the red shifting of light) were proportional to their distance. This proportionality
is denoted as H and is typically measured in km/sec/Mpc (106 pc). Scientists soon realized that the magnitude of
this expansion must have changed over the life of the universe, so we denote the present-day value of the Hubble
constant as Ho. We can estimate Ho by using the following formula (where v is the velocity (or redshift) in km/s
and d is the distance in Mpc):

Below is an observation of a M100 Cepheid Variable taken by the Hubble Space Telescope. The background light
from the galaxy was subtracted from each image so the star could be seen more easily. Notice the star change
intensity. This Cepheid has a period of approximately one month.

FIGURE 4 - CEPHEID VARIABLE IN M100 OBSERVED BY THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE

Cepheids observations provide a valuable tool for measuring the Hubble constant. The clusters analyzed in this lab
are all inside the Milky Way Galaxy (distances less than 10-20 kpc), but Cepheids are also be observed in distant
Galaxies (distances greater than 10s of Mpc). At these large distances, Standard Candles like Cepheid Variables
are crucial for estimating distances and the expansion rate of the Universe.
Table 2 contains a list of famous Galaxies and Cepheid Variables, along with a few helpful parameters. Often,
dozens of Cepheid are observed in a Galaxy, but for ease, only one is listed. Use the given velocity and period for
each Galaxy/Cepheid listed to estimate the Hubble constant in km/sec/Mpc. To get a more accurate value, plot
the given velocities versus calculated distance and use a ruler to draw a best fit line to your data. The slope of this
line will be your estimate of the current Hubble Constant.
The Hubble Constant also indicates the age of the Universe. If the number of kilometers in a parsec (or in this case,
Mega-parsec) is known, then the age of the universe is simply n (km/Mpc) divided by Ho. Once you have
completed your graph, use the current value of n = 3.0857 1019 km/Mpc to make an estimate of the Universes
age. Your answer will be in seconds, so use 1 yr = 3.156 x 107 sec to express your answer in years.

TABLE 1 OPEN CLUSTER RESULTS TABLE

Cepheid

Ref

S011

9.56

S204

7.69

S366

8.23

S435

8.10

S797

7.54

P (days)

mv

Mv

d (kpc)

Work Space

TABLE 2 - HUBBLE CONSTANT

Galaxy

Observed
Cepheid
Velocity (km/s) Period (days)

Apparent
Magnitude

M100

1571

2.7

28.4

M94

308

72.1

21.8

NGC 7331

816

22.6

25.2

M82

203

43.1

21.7

M49

997

38.4

25.0

Absolute Distance
Magnitude
(Mpc)

Hubble Constant

(km/sec/Mpc)

Age of Universe

(years)