TWO MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

SUBJECT CODE/TITLE: EC2203/DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

UNIT-II COMBINATIONAL LOGIC
1. Define combinational logic
When logic gates are connected together to produce a specified
output for certain specified combinations of input variables, with no
storage involved, the resulting circuit is called combinational logic.
2. Explain the design procedure for combinational circuits
The problem definition
Determine the number of available input variables & required O/P
variables.
Assigning letter symbols to I/O variables
Obtain simplified Boolean expression for each O/P.
Obtain the logic diagram.
3. Define half adder and full adder
The logic circuit that performs the addition of two bits is a half
adder. The circuit that performs the addition of three bits is a full adder.
4. Define Decoder
A decoder is a multiple - input multiple output logic circuits that
converts coded
Inputs into coded outputs where the input and output codes are different.
5. What is binary decoder?
A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary
information from n input lines to a maximum of 2 out puts lines.
6. Define Encoder
An encoder has 2 input lines and n output lines. In encoder the
output lines generate the binary code corresponding to the input value.
7. What is priority Encoder?
A priority encoder is an encoder circuit that includes the priority
function. In priority encoder, if 2 or more inputs are equal to 1 at the same
time, the input having the highest priority will take precedence.
8. Define multiplexer
Multiplexer is a digital switch. It allows digital information from
several sources to be routed onto a single output line.
9. What do you mean by comparator?
A comparator is a special combinational circuit designed primarily to
compare the relative magnitude of two binary numbers. Output of
comparator will be A=B, A>B and A<B.
10. Define Demultiplexer
Demultiplexer is a data distributor. It allows digital information from
single source to be distributed onto a several output line.
11. What is propagation delay?
In parallel adder, for the next stage adder carry has to be propagated
from previous stage. The delay caused due to propagation off carry is
called propagation delay
n

12. Write the application of MUX

It is used in Data routing, Logic function generation, waveform
generation and parallel to serial converter.
13. Write the application of DEMUX
It is used in serial to parallel converter.
14. Write the application of Encoder & Decoder
Encoder is used as digital to analog converter. Decoder is used in
counter systems, analog to digital converters and helps to design a circuit
for the given function.
UNIT-III SYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL LOGIC &
UNIT-IV & ASYNCHRONOUS SEQUENTIAL LOGIC
1. What are the classifications of sequential circuits?
The sequential circuits are classified on the basis of timing of their signals
into two
types. They are,
1)Synchronous sequential circuit.
2)Asynchronous sequential circuit.
2. Define Flip flop.
The basic unit for storage is flip flop. A flip-flop maintains its output state
either at 1
or 0 until directed by an input signal to change its state.
3. What are the different types of flip-flop?
There are various types of flip flops. Some of them are mentioned below
they are,
RS flip-flop
SR flip-flop
D flip-flop
JK flip-flop
T flip-flop
4. What is the operation of D flip-flop?
In D flip-flop during the occurrence of clock pulse if D=1, the output Q is
set and if
D=0, the output is reset.
5. What is the operation of JK flip-flop?
When K input is low and J input is high the Q output of flip-flop is
set.
When K input is high and J input is low the Q output of flip-flop is
reset.
When both the inputs K and J are low the output does not change
When both the inputs K and J are high it is possible to set or reset
the flip-flop (i.e.) the output toggle on the next positive clock edge.
6. What is the operation of T flip-flop?
T flip-flop is also known as Toggle flip-flop.
When T=0 there is no change in the output.

When T=1 the output switch to the complement state (i.e.) the output
toggles.
7. Define race around condition.
In JK flip-flop output is fed back to the input. Therefore change in the
output results change in the input. Due to this in the positive half of the
clock pulse if both J and K are high then output toggles continuously. This
condition is called race around condition.
8. What is edge-triggered flip-flop?
The problem of race around condition can solved by edge triggering flip
flop. The term edge triggering means that the flip-flop changes state
either at the positive edge or negative edge of the clock pulse and it is
sensitive to its inputs only at this transition of the clock.
9. What is a master-slave flip-flop?
A master-slave flip-flop consists of two flip-flops where one circuit serves
as a master and the other as a slave.
10. Define rise time.
The time required to change the voltage level from 10% to 90% is known
as rise time (tr).
11. Define fall time.
The time required to change the voltage level from 90% to 10% is known
as fall time (tf).
12. Define skew and clock skew.
The phase shift between the rectangular clock waveforms is referred to as
skew and
the time delay between the two clock pulses is called clock skew.
13. Define setup time.
The setup time is the minimum time required to maintain a constant
voltage levels at the excitation inputs of the flip-flop device prior to the
triggering edge of the clock pulse in order for the levels to be reliably
clocked into the flip flop. It is denoted as tsetup.
14. Define hold time.
The hold time is the minimum time for which the voltage levels at the
excitation inputs must remain constant after the triggering edge of the
clock pulse in order for the levels to be reliably clocked into the flip flop. It
is denoted as thold
15. Define propagation delay.
A propagation delay is the time required to change the output after the
application of the input.
16. Define registers.
A register is a group of flip-flops can store one bit information. So an n-bit
register has a group of n flip-flops and is capable of storing any binary
information/number containing n-bits.
17. Define shift registers.
The binary information in a register can be moved from stage to stage
within the register or into or out of the register upon application of clock
pulses. This type of bit movement or shifting is essential for certain
arithmetic and logic operations used in microprocessors. This gives rise to
group of registers called shift registers.

18. What are the different types of shift type?

There are five types. They are,
Serial In Serial Out Shift Register
Serial In Parallel Out Shift Register
Parallel In Serial Out Shift Register
Parallel In Parallel Out Shift Register
Bidirectional Shift Register
19. Give the flip-flop excitation tables for RS FF.
Q
Q(T+1) S R
0
0
0 d
0
1
1 0
1
0
0 1
1
1
d 0
20. Define sequential circuit?
In sequential circuits the output variables dependent not only on the
present input variables but they also depend up on the past history of
these input variables.
21. Give the comparison between combinational circuits and
sequential circuits.
Combinational
Sequential
Memory unit is not
Memory unit is required
required
E.g.: Serial adder
E.g.: Parallel adder
22. What do you mean by present state?
The information stored in the memory elements at any given time defines
the present state of the sequential circuit.
23. What do you mean by next state?
The present state and the external inputs determine the outputs and the
next state of the sequential circuit.
24. Define synchronous sequential circuit
In synchronous sequential circuits, signals can affect the memory
elements only at discrete instant of time.
25. Define Asynchronous sequential circuit?
In asynchronous sequential circuits change in input signals can affect
memory element at any instant of time.
26. Give the comparison between synchronous & Asynchronous
sequential circuits?
Synchronous sequential
circuits
1.Memory elements are
clocked flip-flops

Asynchronous
sequential circuits.
1.Memory elements
are either unlocked flip
-

2.Easier to design

Flops or time delay

elements.
2. More difficult to
design

27. The following wave forms are applied to the inputs of SR

latch. Determine the Q waveform Assume initially Q = 1

Here the latch input has to be pulsed momentarily to cause a change in

the latch output state, and the output will remain in that new state even
after the input pulse is over.
28. Give the comparison between
counters.
Asynchronous counters
1. In this type of counter
flip-flops are
connected in such a way
that output of 1st
flip-flop drives the clock for
the next flip-flop.
2. All the flip-flops are Not
clocked simultaneously

synchronous & Asynchronous

Synchronous counters
1. In this type there is no
connection between
output of first flip-flop and
clock input of
the next flip flop
2. All the flip-flops are
clocked
simultaneously

29. The time propagation delay (t pd)for each flip-flop is 50 ns.

Determine the maximum operating frequency for MOD - 32 ripple
counter
f max (ripple) = 1/(No. of FFs X t pd )=1/( 5 x 50 ns )= 4 MHZ
30. What are secondary variables?
Present state variables in asynchronous sequential circuits
31. What are excitation variables?
Next state variables in asynchronous sequential circuits
32. What is fundamental mode sequential circuit?
Input variables changes if the circuit is stable
Inputs are levels, not pulses
Only one input can change at a given time
33. What is pulse mode circuit?
Inputs are pulses

Width of pulses are long for circuit to respond to the input

Pulse width must not be so long that it is still present after the new
state is reached.
34. What is the significance of state assignment?
In synchronous circuits-state assignments are made with the objective of
circuit reduction
Asynchronous circuits-its objective is to avoid critical races
35. When does race condition occur?
Two or more binary state variables change their value in response to the
change in i/p variable
36. What are races?
When 2 or more binary state variables change their value in response to a
change in an input variable, race condition occurs in an asynchronous
sequential circuit. In case of unequal delays, a race condition may cause
the state variables to change in an unpredictable manner.
37. Define non critical race.
If the final stable state that the circuit reaches does not depend on the
order in which the state variable changes, the race condition is not
harmful and it is called a non critical race.
38. Define critical race
If the final stable state depends on the order in which the state variable
changes, the race condition is harmful and it is called a critical race.
39. What is a cycle?
A cycle occurs when an asynchronous circuit makes a transition through a
series of unstable states. If a cycle does not contain a stable state, the
circuit will go from one unstable to stable to another, until the inputs are
changed.
40. What are the different techniques used in state assignment?
Shared row state assignment, multiple row method,
One hot state assignment
41. What are the steps for the design of asynchronous sequential
circuit?
construction of primitive flow table
reduction of flow table
state assignment is made
realization of primitive flow table
42. What is hazard?
Unwanted switching transients
43. What is static 1 hazard?
Output goes momentarily 0 when it should remain at 1
44. What is static 0 hazards?
Output goes momentarily 1 when it should remain at 0
45. What is dynamic hazard?
Output changes 3 or more times when it changes from 1 to 0 or 0 to
1

46. What is the cause for essential hazards?

Unequal delays along 2 or more path from same input
47. What is flow table?
State table of an synchronous sequential network
48. What is primitive flow chart?
One stable state per row
49. What is combinational circuit?
Output depends on the given input. It has no storage element.
50. Define merger graph.
The merger graph is defined as follows. It contains the same number of
vertices as the state table contains states. A line drawn between the two
state vertices indicates each compatible state pair. It two states are
incompatible no connecting line is drawn.
51. Define closed covering
A Set of compatibles is said to be closed if, for every compatible contained
in the set,
all its implied compatibles are also contained in the set. A closed set of
compatibles, which contains all the states of M, is called a closed
covering.
52. Define state table.
For the design of sequential counters we have to relate present states and
next states. The table, which represents the relationship between present
states and next states, is called state table.
53. Define total state
The combination of level signals that appear at the inputs and the outputs
of the delays define what is called the total state of the circuit.
54. Define primitive flow table
It is defined as a flow table which has exactly one stable state for each
row in the table. The design process begins with the construction of
primitive flow table.
55. What are the types of asynchronous circuits?
1. Fundamental mode circuits
2. Pulse mode circuits
56. Write a short note on fundamental mode asynchronous
circuit.
Fundamental mode circuit assumes that. The input variables change only
when the circuit is stable. Only one input variable can change at a given
time and inputs are levels and not pulses.
57. Write a short note on pulse mode circuit.
Pulse mode circuit assumes that the input variables are pulses instead of
level. The width of the pulses is long enough for the circuit to respond to
the input and the pulse width must not be so long that it is still present
after the new state is reached.
58. Define flow table in asynchronous sequential circuit.
In asynchronous sequential circuit state table is known as flow table
because of the behavior of the asynchronous sequential circuit. The stage

changes occur in independent of a clock, based on the logic propagation

delay, and cause the states to flow from one to another.
59. A pulse mode asynchronous machine has two inputs. It
produces an output whenever two consecutive pulses occur on
one input line only. The output remains at 1 until a pulse has
occurred on the other input line. Write down the state table for
the machine.

60. What is fundamental mode?

A transition from one stable state to another occurs only in response to a
change in the input state. After a change in one input has occurred, no
other change in any input occurs until the circuit enters a stable state.
Such a mode of operation is referred to as a fundamental mode.
61. Write short note on shared row state assignment.
Races can be avoided by making a proper binary assignment to the state
variables.
Here, the state variables are assigned with binary numbers in such a way
that only one state variable can change at any one state variable can
change at any one time when a state transition occurs. To accomplish this,
it is necessary that states between which transitions occur be given
adjacent assignments. Two binary are said to be adjacent if they differ in
only one variable.
62. Write short note on one hot state assignment.
The one hot state assignment is another method for finding a race free
state assignment. In this method, only one variable is active or hot for
each row in the original flow table, i.e., it requires one state variable for
each row of the flow table. Additional row are introduced to provide single
variable changes between internal state transitions.
UNIT-IV MEMORY AND PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
1. List basic types of programmable logic devices.

 . Read only memory

. Programmable logic Array
. Programmable Array Logic
2. What is ROM?
A read only memory (ROM) is a device that includes both the decoder and
the OR gates within a single IC package. It consists of n input lines and m
output lines. Each bit combination of the input variables is called an
address. Each bit combination that comes out of the output lines is called
a word. The number of distinct addresses possible with n input variables is
2.
3. Define address and word:
In a ROM, each bit combination of the input variable is called on
address. Each bit combination that comes out of the output lines is called
a word.
4. State the types of ROM
. Masked ROM.
. Programmable Read only Memory
. Erasable Programmable Read only memory.
. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read only Memory.
5. What is programmable logic array? How it differs from ROM?
In some cases the number of dont care conditions is excessive, it is
more economical to use a second type of LSI component called a PLA. A
PLA is similar to a ROM in concept; however it does not provide full
decoding of the variables and does not generates all the minterms as in
the ROM.
6. Which gate is equal to AND-invert Gate? ---NAND gate.
7. Which gate is equal to OR-invert Gate? -----NOR gate.
8. Bubbled OR gate is equal to--------NAND gate
9. Bubbled AND gate is equal to------NOR gate
10. Explain PROM.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
It allows user to store data or program. PROMs use the fuses with material
like nichrome and polycrystalline. The user can blow these fuses by
passing around 20 to 50 mA of current for the period 5 to 20s.The
blowing of fuses is called programming of ROM. The PROMs are one time
programmable. Once programmed, the information is stored permanent.
11. Explain EPROM.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM use MOS circuitry. They store 1s and 0s as a packet of charge in a
buried layer of the IC chip. We can erase the stored data in the EPROMs by
exposing the chip to ultraviolet light via its quartz window for 15 to 20
minutes. It is not possible to erase selective information. The chip can be
reprogrammed.
12. Explain EEPROM.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM also use MOS circuitry. Data is stored as charge or no charge on
an insulated layer or an insulated floating gate in the device. EEPROM
n

allows selective erasing at the register level rather than erasing all the
information since the information can be changed by using electrical
signals.
13. What is RAM?
Random Access Memory-Read and write operations can be carried out.
14. What is mask - programmable?
With a mask programmable PLA, the user must submit a PLA program
table to the manufacturer.
15. What is field programmable logic array?
The second type of PLA is called a field programmable logic array. The
user by means of certain recommended procedures can program the
EPLA.
16. List the major differences between PLA and PAL
PLA:
Both AND and OR arrays are programmable and Complex
Costlier than PAL
PAL
AND arrays are programmable OR arrays are fixed
Cheaper and Simpler
17. Define PLD.
Programmable Logic Devices consist of a large array of AND gates and OR
gates that can be programmed to achieve specific logic functions.
18. Give the classification of PLDs.
PLDs are classified as PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory),
Programmable
Logic Array (PLA), Programmable Array Logic (PAL), and Generic Array
Logic (GAL)
19. Define PROM.
PROM is Programmable Read Only Memory. It consists of a set of fixed
AND gates connected to a decoder and a programmable OR array.
20. Define PLA
PLA is Programmable Logic Array(PLA). The PLA is a PLD that consists of a
programmable AND array and a programmable OR array.
21. Define PAL
PAL is Programmable Array Logic. PAL consists of a programmable AND
array and
a fixed OR array with output logic.
22. Why was PLD developed?
PLD is developed to overcome certain disadvantages of PLA, such as
longer delays due to additional fusible links that result from using two
programmable arrays and more circuit complexity.
23. Why the input variables to a PAL are buffered
The input variables to a PAL are buffered to prevent loading by the large
number of
AND gate inputs to which available or its complement can be connected.
24. What does PAL 10L8 specify?
PAL - Programmable Logic Array
10 - Ten inputs

L - Active LOW Output

8 - Eight Outputs
25. Give the comparison between
PROM
1. And array is fixed and
OR array is
programmable
2. Cheaper and simple
to use.

PROM and PLA.

PLA
1. Both AND and OR
arrays are
Programmable.
2. Costliest and complex
than PROMS.

UNIT I BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES

1. Write the names of basic logical operators.
1. NOT / INVERT
2. AND
3. OR
2. What are basic properties of Boolean algebra?
The basic properties of Boolean algebra are commutative property,
associative property and distributive property.
3. State the associative property of Boolean algebra.
The associative property of Boolean algebra states that the OR ing of
several variables results in the same regardless of the grouping of the
variables. The associative property is stated as follows: A+ (B+C) =
(A+B) +C
4. State the commutative property of Boolean algebra.
The commutative property states that the order in which the variables
are OR ed makes no difference. The commutative property is:
A+B=B+A
5. State the distributive property of Boolean algebra.
The distributive property states that AND ing several variables and OR
ing the result with a single variable is equivalent to OR ing the single
variable with each of the several variables and then AND ing the sums.
The distributive property is: A+BC= (A+B) (A+C).
6. Simplify the expression [(x + y) (x + z)]
[(x + y) (x + z)] = xx + xz + xy + yz = x + xz + xy + yz (Qxx = x)
= x(1+z) + xy + yz = x + xy + yz {Q(1+z) = 1}
= x(1 + y) + yz = x + yz {Q(1+y) = 1}]
7. State the absorption law of Boolean algebra.
The absorption law of Boolean algebra is given by x+xy=x & x(x+y)=x.
8. State De-Morgans law.
De-Morgan suggested two theorems that form important part of
Boolean algebra. They are,
1) (ab)=a+b 2) (a+b)=ab
9. Reduce ab+(ac)+abc(ab+c)

ab+(ac)+abc(ab+c)= ab+(ac)+aabbc+abcc = ab+(ac)+abc

[b.b=0,c.c=c]
= ab+a+c+abc [(ab)=a+b]
=a+b+c+abc [a+ab=a+b]
= a+bc+b+c [a+abc=a+bc]
=a+b+c+c [b+bc=c+b]
=a+b+1 [c+c=1]
= 1[a+1=1]
10. Simplify the following expression y=(a+b)(a+c)(b+c)
y=(a+b)(a+c)(b+c)=aa+ac+ab+bc(b+c)
= ac+ab+bc(b+c) [a.a=0]
=abc+abb+bbc+acc+abc+bcc
=abc+abc [a.a=0]
11. Show that (x+y+xy)(x+y)(xy)=0
(x+y+xy)(x+y)(xy)=(x+y+xy)(xxy+xyy) [a.a=0]
=(x+y+xy).0 [a.0=0]
=0
12. Convert the given expression in canonical Sum of products
form y=ac+ab+bc
y=ac+ab+bc
=ac(b+b)+ab(c+c)+bc(a+a)
=abc+abc+abc+abc+abc+abc
=abc+abc+abc+abc [a+a=a]
=(3,5,6,7)
13. Write the maxterms corresponding to the logical
expression
Y=(a+b+c)(a+b+c)(a+b+c)
=M1.M3.M6
=(1,3,6)
14. Find the complement of the function using DeMorgans law
F=[x(yz+yz)]
F=[x(yz+yz)]=x+(yz+yz)
=x+(yz) (yz)=x+(y+z)+(y+z)
15. Define duality property
Duality property states that every algebraic expression deducible from
the postulates of Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and
identity elements are interchanged. If the dual of an algebraic
expression is desired, we simply interchange OR & AND operators and
replace 1s by 0s and 0s by 1s.
16. What are the methods adopted to reduce Boolean function?
i) Karnaugh map ii) Quine Mc-Cluskey or tabulation method
17. What is Karnaugh map?
It is a pictorial form of truth table, in which the map diagram is made
up of squares, with each squares representing one minterm of the
function.
18. State the limitations of K-map.

i) Generally it is limited to six variable map (i.e.) more than six variable
involving expression are not reduced.
ii) The map method is restricted in its capability since they are useful
for simplifying only Boolean expression represented in canonical form.
19. What are called dont care conditions?
In some logic circuits certain input conditions never occur, therefore
the corresponding output never appears. In such cases the output level
is not defined, it can be either high or low. These output levels are
indicated by x or d in the truth tables and are called dont care
conditions or incompletely specified functions.
20. What is prime implicant?
A prime implicant is a product term obtained by combining the
maximum possible adjacent squares in a map.
21. What is an essential implicant?
If a minterm is covered by only one prime implicant, then the prime
implicant is said to be essential.
22. Simplify using K-map f(x,y,z)=(1,3,4,5,6,7)
yz 00 01 11
0 |1 1| 0
|1 |1 1| 1
|

10

F=x+z
23. Draw the truth table for odd and even function.[using 3 bit]
Inputs
x

Outputs
Od Eve
d
n
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
24. Define binary logic?
Binary logic consists of binary variables and logical operations. The
variables are designated by the alphabets such as A, B, C, x, y, z, etc.,
with each variable having only two distinct values: 1 and 0. There are
three basic logic operations: AND, OR, and NOT.
25. What are the basic digital logic gates?
The three basic logic gates are
AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate
26. What is a Logic gate?

Logic gates are the basic elements that make up a digital system. The
electronic gate is a circuit that is able to operate on a number of binary
inputs in order to perform a particular logical function.