1

Introduction
Research is the cornerstone of any science, including both the hard sciences such as
chemistry or physics and the social (or soft) sciences such as psychology, management,
or education. It refers to the organized, structured, and purposeful attempt to gain
knowledge about a suspected relationship.
Many argue that the structured attempt at gaining knowledge dates back to Aristotle and
his identification of deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning refers to a structured
approach utilizing an accepted premise (known as a major premise), a related minor
premise, and an obvious conclusion. This way of gaining knowledge has been called a
syllogism, and by following downward from the general to the specific, knowledge can be
gained about a particular relationship. An example of an Aristotelian syllogism might be:
Major Premise:

All students attend school regularly

Minor Premise:

John is a student

Conclusion:

John attends school regularly

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In the early 1600s, Francis Bacon identified a different approach to gaining knowledge.
Rather than moving from the general to the specific, Bacon looked at the gathering of
specific information in order to make general conclusions. This type of reasoning is
called inductive and unlike Aristotelian logic allows new major premises to be
determined. Inductive reasoning has been adopted into the sciences as the preferred
way to explore new relationships because it allows us to use accepted knowledge as a
means to gain new knowledge. For example:
Specific Premises:

John, Sally, Lenny and Sue attended class regularly

Specific Premises:

John, Sally, Lenny, and Sue received high grades

Conclusion:

Attending class regularly results in high grades

Researchers combine the powers of deductive and inductive reasoning into what is
referred to now as the scientific method. It involves the determination of a major premise
(called a theory or a hypothesis) and then the analysis of the specific examples (research)
that would logically follow. The results might look something like:
Major Premise:

Attending classes regularly results in high grades

Class Attendance:

Group 1:

John, Sally, Lenny and Sue attend classes regularly

Group 2:

Heather, Lucinda, Ling, and Bob do not attend classes

regularly

Group 1:

John, Sally Lenny, and Sue received As and Bs

Group 2:

Heather, Lucinda, Ling, and Bob received Cs and Ds

(Suspected Cause)

Grades:
(Suspected Effect)
Conclusion:

Attending class regularly results in higher grades when compared

with not attending class regularly (the Major Premise or Hypothesis
is therefore supported)

Utilizing the scientific method for gaining new information and testing the validity of a
major premise, John Dewey suggested a series of logical steps to follow when attempting
to support a theory or hypothesis with actual data. In other words, he proposed using
deductive reasoning to develop a theory followed by inductive reasoning to support it.

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Scientific Methods
There are many scientific methods. The two major methods are the inductive method
and the deductive method.
The deductive method involves the following three steps:
1.
2.
3.

State the hypothesis (based on theory or research literature).

Collect data to test the hypothesis.
Make decision to accept or reject the hypothesis.

The inductive method. This approach also involves three steps:

1.
2.
3.

Observe the world.

Search for a pattern in what is observed.
Make a generalization about what is occurring.

Virtually any application of science includes the use of both the deductive and the
inductive approaches to the scientific method either in a single study or over time. The
inductive method is as bottom up method that is especially useful for generating theories
and hypotheses; while the deductive method is a top down method that is especially
useful for testing theories and hypotheses.

What is RESEARCH?
Research comes from two words re and search which implies that research topics
are not new or that such topics have not been discussed before. The present study
serves only as a venue of confirmation, revision, or negation of the previous findings.
Such results are still new which adds knowledge.
Research means searching for a theory, testing a theory, or solving a
problem. When our rice experts look for the best strain of rice in terms of yield per
hectare, palatability and sturdiness, we are looking for a theory. When we say that
modular instruction is the best method of teaching and we would like to test this, actually
we are testing a theory. In all these situations, where the problem can not be solved
immediately, we need research.
Research must give new knowledge, for what is known in the past may not be
applicable to what is contemporary. Past researches, however, constitute what is known
as review of related literature.
To define research formally, according to:

4
CALMORIN (1994), Research is a scientific investigation of phenomena which
includes the collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of facts, that link mans
speculation with reality.
MARTINEZ (1988), Research is a scientific process of critical selection of data,
investigation and analysis of such to gain new knowledge or to complement an existing
one.
KERLINGER (1973), Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena.

Choosing a Research Topic

Choosing one's topic is a very important step. If you have a choice of topics, you want
to pick one that interests you and to which you have at least some access. Many
researchers try to study topics that are fascinating, but cannot really be researched due
to a variety of concerns. Sometimes travel expenses are too high, or the researcher
cannot gain access. Patricia Adler's (1993) study of upper level drug dealers and
smugglers, for example, could not be completed by just any researcher. Adler was
somehow able to gain access to the dealers and their world. Likewise, researchers who
want to know more about serial killers might have problems finding people to interview.
Even "everyday" topics like why kids join gangs means the researcher may have to find
some gang members to study. In other words, don't bite off more than you can chew.
The next problem is the breadth of the topic. You want to pick a topic that is "narrow"
enough that your research is focused, but not so narrow that you can't find any information
on the topic. A researcher who is interested in Filipino indigents in criminal justice, for
example, might easily find him/herself overwhelmed by the breadth of the topic. If the
topic is narrowed to Filipino judges, there will be fewer problems, but the topic is still rather
broad. A better choice would be factors that affect the sentencing of misdemeanants by
Filipino judges. An example of a "too narrow" topic might be child custody decisions by
lesbian judges. No doubt it's an interesting topic, but it probably doesn't have enough
information for a student to do a research study on it.
EXERCISE: Which of the following would be the best topic for a graduate student working
on a one-term class project?
A. teenagers' attitudes
B. organized crime figure's beliefs about how to reduce poverty in city areas
C. the factors that students feel were important in their decisions to attend your
college/university
D. how the Philippine courts operate

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What are the different sources of Research Problem?
The following are the possible sources of research problem:
1. Experiences
2. Problems in the work environment
3. Classroom discussions
4. Technological and scientific advancements
5. Offshoots of other researches
6. Suggestions from friends and administrators

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Mans faculties enable him to speculate and theorize about reality. However,
discrepancy exists in various degrees between what he thinks is happening and what is
really happening. What he thinks happens is the theoretical domain, whereas what
really happens is the experiential dimension. What research does is to bridge the gap
between these two domain polarities. The Theoretical Pole consists largely of the
researchers speculation regarding reality. The Empirical Pole contains the basic
elements of what actually is happening in reality, in social groups and within the individual.
The Research Process links the two poles together. Below is a diagram that
demonstrates how the research process links the theoretical to the empirical pole.

Theoretical
Pole
Basic Elements
1. Concepts
2. Propositions
3. Logical
Relations

Research
Process
Hypotheses Basic Elements
1. Research
Design
2. Sampling Plan
Analyzed
3. Measurement
4. Data Analysis
Data

Empirical
Pole
Operational
Hypotheses *Reality
*Social(groups
and societies)
Collected *Psychological
(Individual)
Data

Figure 1. Components of the Research Process

The diagram indicates that the theoretical pole contains the basic elements of
concepts, propositions and logical relation. Concept is a term and its corresponding
definition. A proposition is a statement specifying the relationship between two or more
variables. However, it may not specify how the two variables are connected. Logical
relations attempt to establish the relationship between two variables.

Research serves as the workhorse for linking the two poles together. The
theoretical pole and research methods are linked together by the hypotheses. On the
other hand, the research methods and the empirical pole are linked together by the
operational hypotheses. Operational hypotheses are a restatement of the original
hypotheses in terms of the specific research design, sampling plan and measurement
procedures. After data is collected the empirical pole is linked with research methods.
And when collected data is analyzed, research methods are also linked with the
theoretical pole. One can see the advantages that can be derived by putting these
elements into operation. First, hypotheses can be generated from the theoretical pole,
thus guiding the research project to completion. Second, the other data collected through
application of data analysis, procedures and tools can generate additional concepts and
hypotheses.
Therefore, research is a continuous movement back and forth between these two
poles, a link between mans speculation and reality.

STEPS IN THE CONDUCT OF RESEARCH

The following are the general steps in the conduct of research:

Figure 2. Steps in Research

FIVE BIG WORDS IN RESEARCH
Here, I want to introduce you to five terms that I think help to describe some of the
key aspects of research.

1. Theoretical. This means that much of it is concerned with developing, exploring

or testing the theories or ideas that social and educational researchers have about
how the world operates.
2. Empirical. Although, sometimes contrasted with theoretical. This means that
research is based on observations and measurements of reality on what we
perceive of the world around us.
3. Nomothetic. This refers to laws or rules that pertain to the general case (nomos
in Greek) and is contrasted with the term Idiographic which refers to laws or rules
that relate to individuals. In any even the point here is, research is concerned with
the nomothetic the general case rather than the individual. We often study
individuals, but usually we are interested in generalizing to more than just the
individual.
4. Probabilistic. This means that research is based on probabilities. The inferences
that we make in research have probabilities associated with them they are
seldom meant to be considered covering laws that pertain to all cases. Part of the
reason we have seen statistics become dominant in research is that it allows us to
estimate probabilities for the situations we study.
5. Causal. (NOTE: Youve got to be very careful with this term. It is spelled causal
not casua)l. This means that most research is interested (at some point) in looking
at cause-effect relationships. This does not mean that most studies that simply
observe for instance, surveys that seek to describe the percent of people holding
a particular opinion. And there are many studies that explore relationships for
example, studies that attempt to see whether there is relationship between gender
and salary.

VARIABLES
Statistical thinking starts with an awareness and understanding that no two things
are alike and that variability is inherent to all things (Levine, et.al. 1995). One may wonder
why scores are variables; why job performance vary from individual to individual; or why
research productivity varies from teacher to teacher. The study of variables is therefore
the focus of statistics and research.
Falik and Brown (1983) defines a variable as any characteristic of objects or
individuals that can vary either in quality or quantity. Thus, for instance, characteristics
of individuals such as I.Q., gender, height, weight, political affiliation, religion, etc. are
examples of variables. In general, variables that can vary in quantity are called
Quantitative Variables while those that can vary in quality are called Qualitative
Variables.
A constant is any characteristic of objects that cannot vary. For instance, skin
color is a variable if we talk about a class in research composed of international students.
If the students in this class are typical residents of Calbayog City, then skin variable can
not vary and hence it becomes a constant.

In research, it is important to know the nature of the variables included in a

particular study. In general, variables maybe classified according to three criteria,
namely: according to functional relationship, according to continuity of scales, and
according to level of measurement.
VARIABLES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP
In a study involving several variables, it is important to determine the nature of
relationships between or among these variables. A variable that is influenced or affected
by another variable is called a dependent variable . The variable that influences the
variation of another variable is called an independent variable.
Dependent and independent variable are distinguished by their temporal
sequence. In terms of cause and effect relationship, the independent variable is the
cause while the dependent variable is the effect. Hence, the independent variable comes
first before any effect on the dependent variable can be ascertained.
Other classification of variable according to functional relationship are moderator
variable, control variable, and nuisance variable. These terms are used to describe
an independent variable whose influence on the dependent variable is viewed in relation
to another independent variable (moderator) or is kept constant (controlled) or is beyond
the control of the researcher (nuisance).
VARIABLES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO CONTINUITY OF SCALE
Quantitative Variables can be discrete or continuous.
Quantitative variables that can only assume a value of a whole number are called
discrete variables. These variables usually result from a process of counting and are
restricted to whole numbers or integers. On the other hand, quantitative variables that
can take on any real value in a specified set of values are called continuous variables.
These variables represent numerical measurements on a continuous dimension or scale
and can take any numerical value within a continuum or interval.
The number of children in a household is an example of a discrete variable. This
variable can not assume a value of or 0.9. The only possible values of this variables
are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. which are obviously whole numbers. The height of school children,
on the other hand, is a continuous (not a discrete!) variable since from a specified range
of heights of the children, this variable can take on infinitely many values within the
specified range of heights of school children.
Other examples of continuous variables are length, weight, age, or the anxiety
level of students in research.

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VARIABLES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the assignment of numbers or codes to observations. Levels of
measurement are distinguished by ordering and distance properties. The traditional
classification of levels of measurement into nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales
was developed by S.S. Stevens (1946). This remains the basic typology or classification.
NOMINAL MEASUREMENT. The Nominal Measurement is the lowest in the typology
because no assumptions are made about relations between values. Each value defines
a distinct category and serves merely as a label or name (hence, nominal level) for the
category. For instance, the birthplace of an individual is a nominal variable. For most
purposes, there is no inherent ordering among cities or towns. Although cities can be
ordered according to size, density, or air pollution, a city thought of as place of birth is a
concept that is normally not tied to any order. When numeric values are attached to
nominal categories, they are merely identifiers. None of the properties of numbers such
as relative size, addition or multiplication, can be applied to these numerically coded
categories. Therefore, statistics that assume ordering or meaningful distances between
the values do not ordinarily give meaningful information about nominal variables.
ORDINAL MEASUREMENT. When it is possible to rank or order categories according
to some criterion, the ordinal level of measurement is achieved. For instance,
classifying employees into clerical, supervisory, and managerial categories is an ordering
according to responsibilities or skills. Each category has a position lower or higher than
another category. Furthermore, knowing that supervisory is higher than clerical and that
managerial is higher than supervisory automatically means managerial is higher than
clerical. However, nothing is known about how much higher; no distance is measured.
Ordering is the sole mathematical property applicable to ordinal measurements, and the
use of numeric values does not imply that any other property of numbers is applicable.
INTERVAL MEASUREMENT. In addition to order, interval measurements have the
property of meaningful distance between values. A thermometer, for example, measures
temperature in degrees which are the same size at any point on the scale. The difference
between 20oC and 21oC is the same as the difference in 5oC and 6oC. However, an
interval scale does not have an inherently determined zero point. In the familiar Celsius
and Fahrenheit systems, 0o is determined by the agreed-upon definition, not by the
absence of heat. Consequently, interval-level measurement allows us to study
differences between items but not their proportionate magnitudes. For example, it is
incorrect to say that 80oF is twice as heat as 40oF.
RATIO MEASUREMENT. Ratio measurements have all the ordering and distance
properties of an interval scale. In addition, a zero point can be meaningfully designated.
In measuring physical distances between objects using feet or meters, a zero distance is
naturally defined as the absence of any distance. The existence of a zero point means
that ratio comparisons can be made. For example, it is quite meaningful to say that a 6foot-tall adult is twice as tall as a 3-foot-tall child or that a 500-meter race is five times as
long as a 100-meter race.

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Because ratio measurements satisfy all the properties of a real number system,
mathematical manipulations appropriate for real numbers can be applied to ratio
measures. However, the existence of a zero point is seldom critical for statistical
analyses.

EVALUATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Before the proposed research problem can be considered appropriate, several
searching questions should be raised. Only when these questions are answered in the
affirmative can the problem be considered a good one:
1. Is this the type of problem that can be effectively solved through the process
of research? Can relevant data be gathered to test the theory or find the answer
to the question under consideration?
2. Is the problem significant? Is an important principle involved? Would the solution
make any difference as far as educational theory or practice is concerned? If not,
there are undoubtedly more significant problems waiting to be investigated.
3. Is the problem a new one? Is the answer already available? Ignorance of prior
studies may lead a student to spend time needlessly on a problem already
investigated by some other worker. However, although novelty or originality is an
important consideration, simply because a problem has been investigated in the
past does not mean that it is no longer worthy of study. At times it is appropriate
to replicate (repeat) a study to verify its conclusions or to extend the validity of
its findings to a different population or situation.
4. Is research on the problem feasible? After a research project has been
evaluated, there remains the problem of suitability for a particular researcher. The
student should ask: although the problem may be a good one, is it a good problem
for me? Will I be able to carry it through to a successful conclusion? Some of the
questions the students should consider are the following:
a. Am I competent to plan and carry out a study of this type? Do I know
enough about this field to understand its significant aspects and to interpret
my findings? Am I skillful enough to develop, administer, and interpret the
necessary data-gathering devices and procedures? Am I well grounded in
the necessary knowledge of research design and statistical procedures?
b. Are pertinent data accessible? Are valid and reliable data-gathering
devices and procedures available? Will school authorities permit me to
contact the students, conduct necessary experiments or administer
necessary tests, interview teachers, or have access to important cumulative
records? Will I be able to get the sponsorship necessary to open doors that
otherwise would be closed to me?

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c. Will I have the necessary financial resources to carry on this study? What
will be the expense involved in data-gathering equipment, printing, test
materials, travel, and clerical help? If the project is an expensive one, what
is the possibility of getting a grant from a philanthropic foundation or from
governmental agencies?
d. Will I have enough time to complete the project? Will there be time to
devise the procedures, select the data-gathering devices, gather and
analyze the data, and complete the research report? Because most
academic programs impose time limitations, certain worthwhile projects of
a longitudinal type are precluded.
e. Will I have the determination to pursue the study despite the difficulties
and social hazards that may be involved? Will I be willing to work
aggressively when data are difficult to gather and when others are reluctant
to cooperate? Controversial problem areas such as sex education and
multiculturalism are probably not appropriate for a beginning research
project.
5. Is the research question clear? Since the research question is the focus of a
research investigation, it is particularly important that the question is clear. What
exactly is being investigated? Let us consider two examples of questions that are
not clear enough.
First, Is humanistically oriented classroom effective? Although the phrase
humanistically oriented classroom may seem quite clear, many people
may not be sure exactly what it means. Another term which is ambiguous
is the term effective. Does it mean results in increased academic
proficiency?, results in happier children, or costs less money? Maybe it
means all these things!
Second, How do teachers feel about special classes for the educationally
handicapped? The first term that needs clarification is teachers. What
age group does this involve? Level of experience?, etc. Likewise the
phrase feel about is also ambiguous. Does it mean opinions? Emotional
reactions? Or what? The terms special classes and educationally
handicapped also need to be clarified.
Defining terms operationally is a helpful way to clarify the meaning of the
ambiguous terms.
6. Will the investigation be ethical? Research to be ethical must consider or
observe the following things:
a.
b.
c.
d.

voluntary participation
informed consent
risk of harm
confidentiality

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e. anonymity
f. right to service

NwSSU RESEARCH MANUSCRIPT FORMAT

Title Page
Approval Sheet
Acknowledgment
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Appendices
Thesis Abstract
CHAPTER 1 The Problem and Its Setting
Introduction
Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework
Statement of the Problem
Null Hypotheses
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitations of the Study
Definition of Terms
CHAPTER 2 Related Literature and Studies
Related Literature
Related Studies
CHAPTER 3 Methodology
Research Design
Locale and Time of the Study
Respondents/Subjects of the Study
Sampling Technique
Instrumentation
Validation Procedure
Data Gathering Procedure
Statistical Treatment
CHAPTER 4 Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
CHAPTER 5 Summary of Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations
Bibliography
Appendices
Curriculum Vitae/About the Author

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WRITING THE TITLE OF THE INVESTIGATION

This should serve as the frame of reference for the entire study (Adanza, 1995).
This must be brief, specific, and relevant to the researcher, to his work, and the
community (Vizcarra, 2003).
Included in the title are words or phrases under which, in an index, a scholar
would search for a paper containing the particular content included in the report
(De Belen, 1984).
It answers the what, who, and where. The when is NOT included because
it can be treated in Scope and Delimitation part of the study.
Avoid the use of articles a, an, and the as a beginning word in the title.
Avoid using the terms An Analysis of , A Study of , An Investigation of
, An Evaluation of , An Assessment of , and the like. All these things
are understood to have been done or to be done when a research is conducted
(De Belen, 1984; Calderon and Gonzales,2004). These words just lengthen the
title unnecessarily without adding much meaning to it.
It must be eye-catching and thought-provoking in order to:
Catch the readers attention.
Arouse the readers intellectual curiosity into reading further the text of the
manuscript.
Achieve brevity.
If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted
pyramid. All words in capital letters (Calderon and Gonzales, 2004).
Humorous or catchy titles are not appropriate for research papers (De Belen,
1984).
The research title should demarcate an indication of the ENVISAGED
SOLUTION or possible NEW PRODUCT.
The title must contain the subject matter of the study, the locale of the study, the
population involved, and the period when the data were gathered or will be
gathered. For example,

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF CALBAYOG CITY AS

PERCEIVED BY THE SCIENCE TEACHERS AND STUDENTS DURING THE
SCHOOL YEAR 2007-2008
The contents as required by the guideline are:
Subject Matter
Locale of the Study
Population involved
Period of the Study

:
:
:
:

The Teaching of Science

High Schools of Calbayog City
The Science Teachers and Students
School Year 2007 2008

However, by observing all the other guidelines in title formulation we can write a brief
and concise form of the given title and a better one as follows:

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TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS OF CALBAYOG CITY
It will be noted that the article THE, the population, the science teachers and students
as well as the period of the study, 2007-2008, are omitted when writing the concise form
but they have to be mentioned in the scope and limitations of the study.

WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

This explains the background of the study (Castillo, 2001).

This provides information on the setting like the geographical location, cultural
and demographic characteristics, political or economic information, etc.
The introductory statement must be eye-catching.
Discussion in this section is mostly deductive in approach (Macro to micro). It
starts with a very general view of the background of the problem and ending up
in a localized setting.
This provides a thorough justification on the choice of the research problem by
citing situations or statements of authorities to explain why the study is being
conducted.
Statistics that may help to justify and concretize the existence of the problem
should form a part of the discussion.
The last part of the discussion is a brief situational analysis to present information
on the specific problem and what prompts the researcher to venture into such a
study (Vizcarra, 2003).
HOW TO START:
Start with a brief but provocative quotation that is applicable to the theme
of the study.
Use striking facts or statistics that portray objectively the problem
situation.
Present a very brief background or resume of events depicting truly the
present state of the issue abroad, in the country, and in the locality.
Work on the researchers firm stand on the need to bridge the gap
between existing bodies of knowledge and the prevailing problem
situation.
Develop the researchers rationale concerning the need to replicate a
completed study.
Challenge some pertinent universally held theories which is being
envisioned for the study:

15

Start with a broad general

statements and narrows
down progressively to a
point where it is finally
linked to the rationale of
the research project

Figure 3. The Inverted-Pyramid Approach in Writing Introduction

THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This portion justifies the rationale for the investigation (Castillo, 2001).
Theory/ies on which the study is premised should be cited in order to establish
the relationship among the variable/s in the study.
Thorough documentation on the sources of the theory/ies cited should be made.
For example,
The researcher is working on a thesis entitled Determinants of Job Satisfaction
and Productivity of Secondary School Teachers in Calbayog City.

The variables in the study are Job Satisfaction and Productivity, underscoring
Maslows Theory of Motivation and McClellands Theory, some of the theories on
motivation which discuss the level of motivation influencing job satisfaction and
productivity.
Theory Construction How to?
Step 1. Facts observed
Step 2. Evolvement of the researchers own theory
Step 3. Citing well-known authority sources to support the researchers
evolved theory.

THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This refers to the researchers concepts or ideas in carrying out the study as it
relates to the theoretical framework. Various consideration in the formulation of
the researchers own concept is placed on the localized situation. That is,

16

making the theoretical framework more applicable to local situation and

workable.
A conceptual paradigm is made usually consisting of inputs, process, and
outputs (Castillo, 2001). This paradigm should be explained in detail by the
researcher.
This should serve as an inductive approach towards the specific statement of the
problem in the study.

THE STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This sets the direction of the inquiry or the verbalization of the question which
the study proposes to answer (Castillo, 2001).
This is divided into two (2) major parts: The General Problem Statement and the
Specific Problem Statement.
The general problem statement is the whole focus, which is reflected in the title
of the study. It can be stated by briefly pointing out objectives, the subject, and
the coverage as well as the time frame (Vizcarra, 2003).
The specific problem statements maybe stated declaratively or interrogatively.
These are the subdivisions or the breakdown of the main variable into its
component. The pattern of stating or asking question should be based upon the
three (3) levels of inquiry as suggested by Dickoff (as quoted by Adanza, 1995).

Three Levels of Inquiry

Level 1: These are questions asked when the researcher has limited knowledge of the
topic. They usually start with what and are exploratory in nature. They are prominent
in descriptive researches.
Illustration: 1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1 age,
1.2 sex, and
1.3 educational attainment?
Level 2: These are questions on relationships or effects of variables.
Illustration: 2. Is there a significant relationship between home environment and
academic performance of Fourth Year High School students in the SlS in TTMIST,
Calbayog City?
Level 3: These are questions which assume relationships and effects and ask why of
the results. This type of questions involves more variables, outcomes and predictions.

17
Illustration: 3. To what extent do mental ability and home environment factors
influence the learning of students in Topology?
4. How effective is the prediction on grades in English 1 when
information on hours of study habits and mental ability are known?

Stating the Problems of the Study

The statement of the problem may be stated in question form or topical form:

QUESTION FORM
Specifically, the study seeks to answer the following questions:
1. What are the leadership skills of the managers of the ABC Corporation in terms
of:
1.1 human relations
1.2 technical
1.3 administrative, and
1.4 institutional skills
as perceived by themselves and their subordinates?
2. Is there a significant difference in the perceptions of the two groups of
respondents on the leadership skills of managers, in terms of:
2.1 human relations
2.2 technical
2.3 administrative, and
2.4 institutional skills?

TOPICAL FORM
The study seeks to determine the following:
2. The leadership skills of the managers of the ABC Corporation in terms of:
1.4 human relations
1.5 technical
1.6 administrative, and
1.4 institutional skills
as perceived by themselves and their subordinates.
2. The significant difference of the perceptions of the two groups of respondents
on the leadership skills of managers, in terms of:
2.5 human relations
2.6 technical
2.7 administrative, and
2.8 institutional skills.

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THE NULL HYPOTHESIS

These are statements of no significant relationship/difference which is mainly a

negation of the second level specific problem statements.
The order or arrangements of the statements follow from the second level
specific problem statements.

The hypothesis is directly related to a theory but contains operationally defined variables
and is in testable form. Hypotheses allow us to determine, through research, if our theory
is correct. For example, does prior work experience results in better grades? When
doing research, we are typically looking for some type of difference or change between
two or more groups. For example, we wanted to test the difference between having work
experience and not having work experience on college grades. Every study has two
hypotheses; one stated as a difference between groups and one stated as no
difference between groups.
When stated as a difference between groups, our hypothesis would be, students with
prior work experience earn higher grades than students without prior work experience.
This is called our research or scientific hypothesis. Because most statistics test for no
difference, however, we must also have a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is always
written with the assumption that the groups do not differ. For example, the null hypothesis
would state that, students with work experience will not receive different grades than
students with no work experience.
The null hypothesis is what we test through the use of statistics and is abbreviated Ho.
Since we are testing the null, we can assume then that if the null is not true then some
alternative to the null must be true. The research hypothesis stated earlier becomes our
alternative, abbreviated H1. In order to make research as specific as possible we typically
look for one of two outcomes, either the null or the alternative hypothesis. To conclude
that there is no difference between the two groups means we are accepting our null
hypothesis. If we, however, show that the null is not true then we must reject it and
therefore conclude that the alternative hypothesis must be true. While there may be a lot
of gray area in the research itself, the results must always be stated in black and white.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The following points are important to note in the significance of the study:
This notes the contribution of the proposed study either to a body of scientific
knowledge, to practitioners in the area of research, or to any other group who will
benefit from the results of the study.

19

This is started with an introductory statement implying an enumeration of the

individuals or groups who served as the beneficiary of the results of the
investigation.
The beneficiaries should be arranged according to importance and the extent of
the benefits they will get, that is macro to micro approach, or from general to
specific approach is ideal, vis--vis the statements specifically indicating the
benefits each could be derived.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Some points to remember in this section are the following:
Included in this portion are the boundaries like geographic, population, time, and
variables to be discussed (Castillo, 2001).
Limitations of the study emanating from certain weaknesses/shortcomings should
be noted in this section. Reasons for excluding them in the investigation should
be discussed.

THE DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Researchers should remember the following points in formulating the section on
definition of terms:
This section provides a definition for the terms repeatedly used throughout the
discussion which is usually the variables of the study. The definition usually
starts with conceptual definition and followed by the operational definition.
Conceptual definition is mostly concerned with attributing authorities like books,
magazines, etc., including unpublished materials (Vizcarra, 2003).
Operational definition of terms is done when a researcher defines the terms as
he uses them in the study (Vizcarra, 2003). They can be defined according to
the measurements of variables.
Technical studies usually define terms as an explanatory device (Vizcarra, 2003).

Illustration:
Variable

Conceptual
Definition

Operational Definition

Work
Effort

Speed

My job requires me to work fast

for ___ hours per day (1-2, 3-5, 6+)

Hardness

My job requires me to work hard

for ___ hours per day (1-2, 3-5, 6+)

20

Effort

My job requires a lot of effort

for ___ hours per day (1-2, 3-5, 6+)

Dexterity

My job requires a lot of dexterity for ___ hours per day (1-2, 35, 6+)

Repetitiveness

My job is doing repetitive things

for ___ hours per day (1-2, 3-5, 6+)

RELATED LITERATURE
Points to remember:
This is an exhaustive, comprehensive, and selective discussion of the theories
not included in the theoretical framework, but which have relation to the proposed
study on the problem dimension.
The theories discussed in this section should come from books, documents,
articles, etc. which are closely related to the present study (Castillo, 2001).
Literatures cited in this section should be properly documented.
The discussion is organized logically usually making use of the order of the
specific problem statement as basis for organization. At some point, organization
maybe is according to the arrangement of the variables.
The discussion should include the links, the similarities, and the dissimilarities
among the works cited and the proposed research.

RELATED STUDIES
Points to remember:
This is an exhaustive, comprehensive, and selective discussion of the ideas from
previous researches which have relation to the proposed study on the problem
dimension.
The ideas discussed in this section should come from theses/dissertations,
research journals, etc. which are closely related to the present study (Castillo,
2001).
Studies cited in this section should be properly documented.
The discussion is organized logically usually making use of the order of the
specific problem statement as basis for organization.
The discussion should include the links, the similarities, and the dissimilarities
among the studies cited and the proposed research.

21
SYNTHESIS

These are concluding statements which provide a synthesis of the results of the
review of literature and studies.

THE RESEARCH DESIGN

This deals with the research design and the technique to be used in the study.
It also include an overview of how the respondents/subjects will be chosen, how
the rational size will be determined, the instruments to be used and their
validation, and the data analyses scheme which include the application of
statistical tools for treatment of data yielded by the study.

There are two types of study designs, experimental and quasi-experimental.

Experimental: The experimental design uses a control group and applies treatment to
a second group. It provides the strongest evidence of causation through extensive
controls and random assignment to remove other differences between groups. Using the
evaluation of a job training program as an example, one could carefully select and
randomly assign two groups of unemployed welfare recipients. One group would be
provided job training and the other would not. If the two groups are similar in all other
relevant characteristics, you could assume any differences between the groups
employment one year later was caused by job training.
Whenever you use an experimental design, both the internal and external validity can
become very important factors.
Internal validity : The extent to which accurate and unbiased association
between the IV and DVs were obtained in the study group.
External validity: The extent to which the association between the IV and
DV is accurate and unbiased in populations outside the study group.
(Please see a separate Handout for EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS Appendix
A)
Quasi-experimental: The quasi-experimental design does not have the controls
employed in an experimental design (most social science research). Although internal
validity is lower than can be obtained with an experimental design, external validity is
generally better and a well designed study should allow for the use of statistical controls
to compensate for extraneous variables.
Types of quasi-experimental design:

22
1. Cross-sectional study : obtained at one point in time (most surveys)
2. Case study : in-depth analysis of one entity, object, or event
3. Panel study : (cohort study) repeated cross-sectional studies over time with the same
participants
4. Trend study : tracking indicator variables over a period of time (unemployment, crime,
dropout rates)
(Please see a separate Handout for OTHER RESEARCH DESIGNS)
Common Types of Research Designs
Three commonly used research types or designs are quantitative, qualitative, and mixed
research.

Quantitative research follows a deductive research process and involves the

collection and analysis of quantitative (i.e., numerical) data to identify statistical
relations of variables. Common quantitative research methods include: content
(relational) analysis, experiments, observations (scaled ratings, checklists), and
surveys (closed-ended, validated scales)
Qualitative research follows an inductive research process and involves the
collection and analysis of qualitative (i.e., non-numerical) data to search for
patterns, themes, and holistic features. Common qualitative research methods
include: content (conceptual) analysis, focus groups, observations (narrative,
comments), interviews, and surveys (open-ended).
Mixed research combines or mixes quantitative and qualitative research
techniques in a single study. Two sub-types of mixed research includes mixed
method researchusing qualitative and quantitative approaches for different
phases of the studyand mixed model researchusing quantitative and
qualitative approaches within or across phases of the study.

Research approaches are generally categorized into quantitative and qualitative design.
Each research design may be further classified into any of the four different research
purposes: to explore (an attempt to generate ideas about educational phenomenon),
describe (an attempt to describe the characteristics of educational phenomenon),
predict (an attempt to forecast an educational phenomenon), and explain (an attempt to
show why and how an educational phenomenon operates).
Because both quantitative and qualitative approaches have weaknesses that limit the
research purposes for which they are appropriate, a mixed research approach may be
used that takes advantage of the complementary strengths of the qualitative and
quantitative approaches.

23

Research purpose
Explore
Describe
Predict
Explain

Qualitative
X
X

Preferred approach
Quantitative

X
X

Mixed
X
X
X
X

TIME AND LOCALE OF THE STUDY

This is a discussion about the time when the study conducted and the setting or
place

THE SUBJECTS/RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY

This section describes the population, why and how the respondents/subjects are
to be chosen.
The sampling technique may also be discussed in passing.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

It begins with the definition of the population. To define the population is to

indicate the characteristics of the elements from which the sample will be taken
(Castillo, 2001).
A careful explanation of how to choose the units that will provide the data should
follow.
Indicate the sample size and the population frame from which the samples well
be taken.

(Please see a separate Handout for SAMPLING)

INSTRUMENTATION

This contains a description of the instrument/s used in the investigation and a

discussion of how to use the same instrument. Explanation of the developmental
processes involved in the creation of the instrument should form a part of the
discussion.

(Please see a separate handout for RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS)

24

VALIDATION OF THE INSTRUMENT

This includes a discussion on the validation aspects employed when the

instrument was developed, the sample used in the try out, as well as the place
where the validation where conducted.
The reliability estimate used should also be discussed and the resulting reliability
coefficient should be described.

THE GATA GATHERING PROCEDURE

A discussion on the steps undertaken in gathering the needed data from seeking
permission for the fielding of the instrument up to the process of retrieval of the
data. This should be explained in detail, step by step that will lead the readers to
follow through the process engaged in by the researcher.

Tabulated Example
ENHANCING SCHOOL LEADING PERFORMANCE OF
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATORS IN PHILIPPINE
PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
Summary Table of Data Requirements and Data Gathering Techniques
Research
objective
1. Develop
researchbased
criteria of
effective
performance

Research
activity
-Identification
and description
of actual tasks
and activities of
school leaders
(principals, head
teachers, and
teacher-incharge)
-Identification of
determinants of
effective
performance
-Formulation of a
model of
performance
-Validation of the

Source of
information/
Key information
- School
leaders
- Division and
district
- DECS officials
- Performance
rating and
reports
- DECS
memoranda
- Previous
researches
and
studies
- Records of
meetings,
seminars,

Methodology

Result/ Output

- Literature
review
- Interviews
- FGD
- Participants

- Tasks and
activities
identified
and
calcified into
specific
areas of

observation
- Document
analysis

responsibilities
- Determinants
of
effective
school
leader
- Performance
model for
school

25

2. Assess the
managerial
capabilities
of
selected
groups of
school
leaders

model
-Development of
instruments

workshops,
etc.

- Assessment of
practices
against the
validated model
- Development of
competency
profile of school
leaders

- Results
derived
from the
above
mentioned
activities

- Interviews
- FGD
- Participants
observation
-Field survey
- Statistical
tests

leaders
formulated
- Model tested
and
validated
- Necessary
instruments
prepared
- Observations
on
tasks
understanding
of
school
leaders
- Observations
on
school
leader
performance

3. Identify
training
needs
requirements
of school
leaders

- Analysis of
training needs

4. Recommend
strategies
and
guidelines
for
training of
school
leaders

- Identify possible
training options
and courses for
school leaders

- Results
derived
from the
above
mentioned
activities

- Interviews
- FGD
-Participant
observation
- Field survey
- Statistical
tests

- Results
derived
from the
above
mentioned
activities

- Interviews
- FGD

- Training
needs
requirements
of
school
leaders
identified
- Strategies
and
guidelines
for
INSET of
school
managers

Unobtrusive Measures
Unobtrusive measures are measures that don't require the researcher to intrude in the
research context. Direct and participant observation require that the researcher be
physically present. This can lead the respondents to alter their behavior in order to look

26
good in the eyes of the researcher. A questionnaire is an interruption in the natural stream
of behavior. respondents can get tired of filling out a survey or resentful of the questions
asked.
Unobtrusive measurement presumably reduces the biases that result from the intrusion
of the researcher or measurement instrument. However, unobtrusive measures reduce
the degree the researcher has over the type of data collected. For some constructs there
may simply not be any available unobtrusive measures.
Three types of unobtrusive measurement are discussed here.
1. Indirect Measures
An indirect measure is an unobtrusive measure that occurs naturally in a research
context. The researcher is able to collect the data without introducing any formal
measurement procedure.
The types of indirect measures that may be available are limited only by the researcher's
imagination and inventiveness. For instance, let's say you would like to measure the
popularity of various exhibits in a museum. It may be possible to set up some type of
mechanical measurement system that is invisible to the museum patrons. In one study,
the system was simple. The museum installed new floor tiles in front of each exhibit they
wanted a measurement on and, after a period of time, measured the wear-and-tear of the
tiles as an indirect measure of patron traffic and interest. We might be able to improve
on this approach considerably using electronic measures. We could, for instance,
construct an electrical device that senses movement in front of an exhibit. Or we could
place hidden cameras and code patron interest based on videotaped evidence.
One of my favorite indirect measures occurred in a study of radio station listening
preferences. Rather than conducting an obtrusive survey or interview about favorite radio
stations, the researchers went to local auto dealers and garages and checked all cars
that were being serviced to see what station the radio was currently tuned to. In a similar
manner, if you want to know magazine preferences, you might rummage through the trash
of your sample or even stage a door-to-door magazine recycling effort.
These examples illustrate one of the most important points about indirect measures -you have to be very careful about the ethics of this type of measurement. In an indirect
measure you are, by definition, collecting information without the respondent's
knowledge. In doing so, you may be violating their right to privacy and you are certainly
not using informed consent. Of course, some types of information may be public and
therefore not involve an invasion of privacy.
There may be times when an indirect measure is appropriate, readily available and
ethical. Just as with all measurement, however, you should be sure to attempt to estimate
the reliability and validity of the measures. For instance, collecting radio station
preferences at two different time periods and correlating the results might be useful for

27
assessing test-retest reliability. Or, you can include the indirect measure along with other
direct measures of the same construct (perhaps in a pilot study) to help establish
construct validity.
2. Content Analysis
Content analysis is the analysis of text documents. The analysis can be quantitative,
qualitative or both. Typically, the major purpose of content analysis is to identify patterns
in text. Content analysis is an extremely broad area of research. It includes:
Thematic analysis of text
The identification of themes or major ideas in a document or set of documents. The
documents can be any kind of text including field notes, newspaper articles, technical
papers or organizational memos.
Indexing
There are a wide variety of automated methods for rapidly indexing text documents. For
instance, Key Words in Context (KWIC) analysis is a computer analysis of text data. A
computer program scans the text and indexes all key words. A key word is any term in
the text that is not included in an exception dictionary. Typically you would set up an
exception dictionary that includes all non-essential words like "is", "and", and "of". All key
words are alphabetized and are listed with the text that precedes and follows it so the
researcher can see the word in the context in which it occurred in the text. In an analysis
of interview text, for instance, one could easily identify all uses of the term "abuse" and
the context in which they were used.
Quantitative descriptive analysis
Here the purpose is to describe features of the text quantitatively. For instance, you might
want to find out which words or phrases were used most frequently in the text. Again,
this type of analysis is most often done directly with computer programs.
Content analysis has several problems you should keep in mind. First, you are limited to
the types of information available in text form. If you are studying the way a news story
is being handled by the news media, you probably would have a ready population of news
stories from which you could sample. However, if you are interested in studying people's
views on capital punishment, you are less likely to find an archive of text documents that
would be appropriate. Second, you have to be especially careful with sampling in order
to avoid bias. For instance, a study of current research on methods of treatment for
cancer might use the published literature as the population. This would leave out both
the writing on cancer that did not get published for one reason or another as well as the
most recent work that has not yet been published. Finally, you have to be careful about
interpreting results of automated context analyses. A computer program cannot

28
determine what someone meant by a term or phrase. It is relatively easy in a large
analysis to misinterpret a result because you did not take into account the subtleties of
meaning.
However, content analysis has the advantage of being unobtrusive and, depending on
whether automated methods exist, can be a relatively rapid method for analyzing large
amounts of text.
3. Secondary Analysis of Data
Secondary analysis, like content analysis, makes use of already existing sources of
data. However, secondary analysis typically refers to the re-analysis of quantitative data
rather than text.
In our modern world there is an unbelievable mass of data that is routinely collected by
governments, businesses, schools, and other organizations. Much of this information is
stored in electronic databases that can be accessed and analyzed. In addition, many
research projects store their raw data in electronic form in computer archives so that
others can also analyze the data. Among the data available for secondary analysis is:

census bureau data

crime records
standardized testing data
economic data
consumer data

Secondary analysis often involves combining information from multiple databases to

examine research questions. For example, you might join crime data with census
information to assess patterns in criminal behavior by geographic location and group.
Secondary analysis has several advantages. First, it is efficient. It makes use of data
that were already collected by someone else. It is the research equivalent of
recycling. Second, it often allows you to extend the scope of your study considerably. In
many small research projects it is impossible to consider taking a national sample
because of the costs involved. Many archived databases are already national in scope
and, by using them, you can leverage a relatively small budget into a much broader study
than if you collected the data yourself.
However, secondary analysis is not without difficulties. Frequently it is no trivial matter to
access and link data from large complex databases. Often the researcher has to make
assumptions about what data to combine and which variables are appropriately
aggregated into indexes. Perhaps more importantly, when you use data collected by
others you often don't know what problems occurred in the original data collection. Large,
well-financed national studies are usually documented quite thoroughly, but even detailed
documentation of procedures is often no substitute for direct experience collecting data.

29
One of the most important and least utilized purposes of secondary analysis is to replicate
prior research findings. In any original data analysis there is the potential for errors. In
addition, each data analyst tends to approach the analysis from their own perspective
using analytic tools they are familiar with. In most research the data are analyzed only
once by the original research team. It seems an awful waste. Data that might have taken
months or years to collect is only examined once in a relatively brief way and from one
analyst's perspective. In social research we generally do a terrible job of documenting
and archiving the data from individual studies and making these available in electronic
form for others to re-analyze. And, we tend to give little professional credit to studies that
are re-analyses. Nevertheless, in the hard sciences the tradition of replicability of results
is a critical one and we in the applied social sciences could benefit by directing more of
our efforts to secondary analysis of existing data.

DATA ANALYSIS/STATISTICAL TREATMENT

This provides a description of the statistical tools used in the treatment of the
data. The discussion follows the order in the specific statement of the problem.
The data analysis plan may form a part of the discussion in this section.

Steps to Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is used to establish whether the differences exhibited by random
samples can be inferred to the populations from which the samples originated.
General Assumptions

Population is normally distributed

Random sampling
Mutually exclusive comparison samples
Data characteristics match statistical technique
For interval / ratio data use
t-tests, Pearson correlation, ANOVA, regression
For nominal / ordinal data use
Difference of proportions, chi square and related measures of association

1. State the Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no difference between ___ and ___.
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): There is a difference between __ and __.

30
Note: The alternative hypothesis will indicate whether a 1-tailed or a 2-tailed test
is utilized to reject the null hypothesis.
Ha for 1-tail tested: The __ of __ is greater (or less) than the __ of __.
2. Set the Rejection Criteria
This determines how different the parameters and/or statistics must be before the
null hypothesis can be rejected. This "region of rejection" is based on alpha ( ) -the error associated with the confidence level. The point of rejection is known as
the critical value.
3. Compute the Test Statistic
The collected data are converted into standardized scores for comparison with the
critical value.
4. Decide Results of Null Hypothesis
If the test statistic equals or exceeds the region of rejection bracketed by the critical
value(s), the null hypothesis is rejected. In other words, the chance that the
difference exhibited between the sample statistics is due to sampling error is
remote--there is an actual difference in the population.

SUMMARY OF THE MEASURES OF CORRELATION

(According to Measurement Scale of the Variables)
Classification of the Paired Variables
X (Independent Variable)
Y (Dependent Variable)

Measure of Correlation

Interval/Ratio

Interval/Ratio

Pearson r

Ordinal
(Ranked Data)

Ordinal
(Ranked Data)

Spearmans rho

Categorical
(2 categories)

Interval

Categorical
(3 categories)

Interval

Categorical

Categorical

Categorical

Categorical

Point-Biserial
(Pearsons r can be used
provided the categories
are coded 1 and 0)
ETA Correlation
Phi Coefficient (for 2 x 2)
Cramers V
Contingency Coefficient
(Chi-square)
Lambda Coefficient

31
(Unordered)

(Unordered)

Categorical
(Ordered)

Categorical
(Ordered)

Gamma Coefficient

SUMMARY OF THE MEASURES OF DIFFERENCE

(According to Measurement Scale of the Variables)
Data Type

No. of Groups
2

Ratio or Interval
3 or more

2
Ordinal (Ranks)
3 or more

Nominal
(Frequency Counts)

2
3 or more

Independent
t-test for
Independent
Samples
One-Way Analysis
of Variance
Wilcoxon RankSum Test (MannWhitney U-Test)
Kruskal-Wallis OneWay ANOVA

Dependent
t-test for dependent
samples

Pearson ChiSquare Test

Pearson ChiSquare Test

MacNemars Test

Repeated
Measures ANOVA
Wilcoxon Signed
Ranked Test
Friedmans TwoWay ANOVA

Cochrans Q Test

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCES
This portion of thesis or dissertation is composed of all the works consulted for the
purpose of the study. This includes books, unpublished thesis / dissertation, journals/
periodicals, and public documents.
(Please see a separate Handout on DOCUMENTATION STYLE)

THE APPENDICES
These include the materials which are considered significance in a thesis/
dissertation. Usually, appendices are give titles.

32

Examples:

Appendix A
Sample Letter to Authorities
Appendix B
Sample Questionnaire
Appendix C
Map of the Research Locale
Appendix D

OTHER ATTACHMENTS
Curriculum Vitae/About the Author
This portion gives the needed background of the thesis/ dissertation writer. This section
helps the evaluator of the thesis / dissertation assesses the capability and credibility of the research
proponent to conduct the investigation.

============
REFERENCES:
AcaStat Software (1999-2007). Methods of Research Handbook.
Adanza, Estela G. (1995). Educational Research: Principles and Methods. Manila:
Rex Bookstore.
Calderon Jose F. and Expectacion C. Gonzales. Coord. (2004 Reprint). Methods of
Research and Thesis Writing. Manila: National Bookstore.
Castillo, Fely S. (2001) Modern Concepts on Thesis and Dissertation Writing. Manila:
Booklore Publishing Corporation.
De Jesus, Belen; et.al. (1984). Guidebook on Thesis Writing. Manila: PAGE.
Vizcarra, Florante O. (2003). Introduction to Educational Research. Quezon City:
Great Books Trading.