Guide To Geophysical Equations
Guide To Geophysical Equations
Guide To Geophysical Equations
The advent of accessible student computing packages has meant that geophysics students
can now easily manipulate datasets and gain rst-hand modeling experience essential
in developing an intuitive understanding of the physics of the Earth. Yet to gain a more
in-depth understanding of the physical theory, and to be able to develop new models and
solutions, it is necessary to be able to derive the relevant equations from rst principles.
This compact, handy book lls a gap left by most modern geophysics textbooks,
which generally do not have space to derive all of the important formulae, showing the
intermediate steps. This guide presents full derivations for the classical equations of
gravitation, gravity, tides, Earth rotation, heat, geomagnetism, and foundational seismology, illustrated with simple schematic diagrams. It supports students through the successive steps and explains the logical sequence of a derivation facilitating self-study
and helping students to tackle homework exercises and prepare for exams.
william lowrie was born in Hawick, Scotland, and attended the University of
Edinburgh, where he graduated in 1960 with rst-class honors in physics. He achieved a
masters degree in geophysics at the University of Toronto and, in 1967, a doctorate at the
University of Pittsburgh. After two years in the research laboratory of Gulf Oil Company
he became a researcher at the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory of Columbia
University. In 1974 he was elected professor of geophysics at the ETH Zrich (Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich), Switzerland, where he taught and researched
until retirement in 2004. His research in rock magnetism and paleomagnetism consisted
of deducing the Earths magnetic eld in the geological past from the magnetizations of
dated rocks. The results were applied to the solution of geologic-tectonic problems, and
to analysis of the polarity history of the geomagnetic eld. Professor Lowrie has authored
135 scientic articles and a second edition of his acclaimed 1997 textbook Fundamentals
of Geophysics was published in 2007. He has been President of the European Union of
Geosciences (19879) and Section President and Council member of the American
Geophysical Union (20002). He is a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and
a Member of the Academia Europaea.
A Students Guide
to Geophysical Equations
WILLIAM LOWRIE
Institute of Geophysics
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
Zurich, Switzerland
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
1
page xi
xiii
Mathematical background
1.1 Cartesian and spherical coordinates
1.2 Complex numbers
1.3 Vector relationships
1.4 Matrices and tensors
1.5 Conservative force, eld, and potential
1.6 The divergence theorem (Gausss theorem)
1.7 The curl theorem (Stokes theorem)
1.8 Poissons equation
1.9 Laplaces equation
1.10 Power series
1.11 Leibnizs rule
1.12 Legendre polynomials
1.13 The Legendre differential equation
1.14 Rodrigues formula
1.15 Associated Legendre polynomials
1.16 Spherical harmonic functions
1.17 Fourier series, Fourier integrals, and Fourier transforms
Further reading
Gravitation
2.1 Gravitational acceleration and potential
2.2 Keplers laws of planetary motion
2.3 Gravitational acceleration and the potential of a solid
sphere
2.4 Laplaces equation in spherical polar coordinates
2.5 MacCullaghs formula for the gravitational potential
Further reading
vii
1
1
1
4
8
17
18
20
23
26
28
32
32
34
41
43
49
52
58
59
59
60
66
69
74
85
viii
Contents
Gravity
3.1 The ellipticity of the Earths gure
3.2 The geopotential
3.3 The equipotential surface of gravity
3.4 Gravity on the reference spheroid
3.5 Geocentric and geographic latitude
3.6 The geoid
Further reading
The tides
4.1 Origin of the lunar tide-raising forces
4.2 Tidal potential of the Moon
4.3 Loves numbers and the tidal deformation
4.4 Tidal friction and deceleration of terrestrial and lunar
rotations
Further reading
Earths rotation
5.1 Motion in a rotating coordinate system
5.2 The Coriolis and Etvs effects
5.3 Precession and forced nutation of Earths rotation axis
5.4 The free, Eulerian nutation of a rigid Earth
5.5 The Chandler wobble
Further reading
Earths heat
6.1 Energy and entropy
6.2 Thermodynamic potentials and Maxwells relations
6.3 The melting-temperature gradient in the core
6.4 The adiabatic temperature gradient in the core
6.5 The Grneisen parameter
6.6 Heat ow
Further reading
Geomagnetism
7.1 The dipole magnetic eld and potential
7.2 Potential of the geomagnetic eld
7.3 The Earths dipole magnetic eld
7.4 Secular variation
7.5 Power spectrum of the internal eld
7.6 The origin of the internal eld
Further reading
Foundations of seismology
8.1 Elastic deformation
86
86
88
91
96
102
106
115
116
116
119
124
130
136
137
138
140
142
155
157
169
170
171
172
176
178
179
182
197
198
198
200
205
213
214
217
225
227
227
Contents
ix
8.2 Stress
8.3 Strain
8.4 Perfectly elastic stressstrain relationships
8.5 The seismic wave equation
8.6 Solutions of the wave equation
8.7 Three-dimensional propagation of plane P- and S-waves
Further reading
228
233
239
244
252
254
258
259
265
276
278
Preface
This work was written as a supplementary text to help students understand the
mathematical steps in deriving important equations in classical geophysics. It is
not intended to be a primary textbook, nor is it intended to be an introduction to
modern research in any of the topics it covers. It originated in a set of handouts, a
kind of do-it-yourself manual, that accompanied a course I taught on theoretical
geophysics. The lecture aids were necessary for two reasons. First, my lectures
were given in German and there were no comprehensive up-to-date texts in the
language; the recommended texts were in English, so the students frequently
needed clarication. Secondly, it was often necessary to explain classical theory
in more detail than one nds in a multi-topic advanced textbook. To keep such a
book as succinct as possible, the intermediate steps in the mathematical derivation
of a formula must often be omitted. Sometimes the unassisted student cannot ll
in the missing steps without individual tutorial assistance, which is usually in
short supply at most universities, especially at large institutions. To help my
students in these situations, the do-it-yourself text that accompanied my lectures explained missing details in the derivations. This is the background against
which I prepared the present guide to geophysical equations, in the hope that it
might be helpful to other students at this level of study.
The classes that I taught to senior grades were largely related to potential
theory and primarily covered topics other than seismology, since this was the
domain of my colleagues and better taught by a true seismologist than by a
paleomagnetist! Theoretical seismology is a large topic that merits its own
treatment at an advanced level, and there are several textbooks of classical
and modern vintage that deal with this. However, a short chapter on the
relationship of stress, strain, and the propagation of seismic waves is included
here as an introduction to the topic.
Computer technology is an essential ingredient of progress in modern geophysics, but a well-trained aspiring geophysicist must be able to do more than
xi
xii
Preface
Acknowledgments
In writing this book I have beneted from the help and support of various
people. At an early stage, anonymous proposal reviewers gave me useful
suggestions, not all of which have been acted on, but all of which were
appreciated. Each chapter was read and checked by an obliging colleague.
I wish to thank Dave Chapman, Rob Coe, Ramon Egli, Chris Finlay, Valentin
Gischig, Klaus Holliger, Edi Kissling, Emile Klingel, Alexei Kuvshinov,
Germn Rubino, Rolf Sidler, and Doug Smylie for their corrections and suggestions for improvement. The responsibility for any errors that escaped scrutiny is, of course, mine. I am very grateful to Derrick Hasterok and Dave
Chapman for providing me with an unpublished gure from Derricks Ph.D.
thesis. Dr. Susan Francis, Senior Commissioning Editor at Cambridge
University Press, gave me constant support and friendly encouragement
throughout the many months of writing, for which I am sincerely grateful.
Above all, I thank my wife Marcia for her generous tolerance of the intrusion
of this project into our retirement activities.
xiii
1
Mathematical background
(1:1)
Mathematical background
(a)
(b)
z = r cos
y
x
r sin
y = r sin sin
x = r sin cos
Fig. 1.1. (a) Cartesian and spherical polar reference systems. (b) Relationships
between the Cartesian and spherical polar coordinates.
Imaginary
axis
z = x + iy
+y
r sin
r cos
+x
Real
axis
Familiar examples are , e (the base of natural logarithms), and some square
roots, such as 2, 3, 5, etc. The irrational numbers are real numbers that do
not terminate or repeat when expressed as decimals.
In certain analyses, such as determining the roots of an equation, it is
necessary to nd the square root of a negative real number, e.g. (y2), where
y is real. The result is an imaginary number. The negative real number can be
written as (1)y2, and its square root is then (1)y. The quantity (1) is written
i and is known as the imaginary unit, so that (y2) becomes iy.
A complex number comprises a real part and an imaginary part. For example,
z = x + iy, in which x and y are both real numbers, is a complex number with a
real part x and an imaginary part y. The composition of a complex number can
be illustrated graphically with the aid of the complex plane (Fig. 1.2). The real
part is plotted on the horizontal axis, and the imaginary part on the vertical axis.
The two independent parts are orthogonal on the plot and the complex number z
is represented by their vector sum, dening a point on the plane. The distance r
of the point from the origin is given by
r
p
x2 y2
(1:2)
The line joining the point to the origin makes an angle with the real (x-)axis,
and so r has real and imaginary components r cos and r sin , respectively. The
complex number z can be written in polar form as
z rcos i sin
(1:3)
2!
3!
4!
5!
6!
i2 i4 i6
i3 i5
1
i
2!
4!
6!
3!
5!
2 4 6
3 5
(1:4)
1 i
2! 4! 6!
3! 5!
expi 1 i
Comparison with (1.135) shows that the rst bracketed expression on the
right is the power series for cos ; the second is the power series for sin .
Therefore
expi cos i sin
(1:5)
On inserting (1.5) into (1.3), the complex number z can be written in exponential
form as
z r expi
(1:6)
The quantity r is the modulus of the complex number and is its phase.
Conversely, using (1.5) the cosine and sine functions can be dened as the
sum or difference of the complex exponentials exp(i) and exp(i):
expi expi
2
expi expi
sin
2i
cos
(1:7)
Mathematical background
(1:8)
If the vectors are orthogonal, the cosine of the angle is zero and
ab 0
(1:9)
The vector product of two vectors is another vector, whose direction is perpendicular to both vectors, such that a right-handed rule is observed. The magnitude
of the vector product is the product of the individual vector magnitudes and the
sine of the angle between the vectors:
ja bj ab sin
(1:10)
If a and b are parallel, the sine of the angle between them is zero and
ab0
(1:11)
Applying these rules to the unit vectors (ex, ey, ez), which are normal to each
other and have unit magnitude, it follows that their scalar products are
ex ey ey ez ez ex 0
e x ex e y ey e z ez 1
(1:12)
(1:13)
A vector a with components (ax, ay, az) is expressed in terms of the unit vectors
(ex, ey, ez) as
a ax ex ay ey az ez
(1:14)
The scalar product of the vectors a and b is found by applying the relationships
in (1.12):
a b ax ex ay ey az ez bx ex by ey bz ez
(1:15)
ax bx ay by az bz
The vector product of the vectors a and b is found by using (1.13):
a b ax ex ay ey az ez bx ex by ey bz ez
ay bz az by ex az bx ax bz ey ax by ay bx ez
(1:16)
This result leads to a convenient way of evaluating the vector product of two
vectors, by writing their components as the elements of a determinant, as
follows:
ex ey ez
a b ax ay az
(1:17)
bx by bz
The following relationships may be established, in a similar manner to the
above, for combinations of scalar and vector products of the vectors a, b, and c:
a b c b c a c a b
(1:18)
a b c bc a ca b
(1:19)
a b c bc a ab c
(1:20)
ey ez
x
y
z
(1:21)
The vector operator determines the gradient of a scalar function, which may
be understood as the rate of change of the function in the direction of each of the
reference axes. For example, the gradient of the scalar function with respect to
Cartesian axes is the vector
Mathematical background
r ex
ey ez
x
y
z
(1:22)
The vector operator can operate on either a scalar quantity or a vector. The
scalar product of with a vector is called the divergence of the vector. Applied
to the vector a it is equal to
ax ex ay ey az ez
r a ex ey ez
x
y
z
ax ay az
(1:23)
x
y
z
If the vector a is dened as the gradient of a scalar potential , as in (1.22), we
can substitute potential gradients for the vector components (ax, ay, az). This
gives
r r
(1:24)
x x
y y
z z
By convention the scalar product ( ) on the left is written 2. The resulting
identity is very important in potential theory and is encountered frequently. In
Cartesian coordinates it is
r2
2 2 2
x2 y2 z2
(1:25)
The vector product of with a vector is called the curl of the vector. The
curl of the vector a may be obtained using a determinant similar to (1.17):
ex
ey
ez
r a =x =y =z
(1:26)
ax
ay
az
In expanded format, this becomes
az ay
ax az
ay ax
ex
ey
ez
ra
y
z
z
x
x
y
(1:27)
The curl is sometimes called the rotation of a vector, because of its physical
interpretation (Box 1.1). Some commonly encountered divergence and curl
operations on combinations of the scalar quantity and the vectors a and b
are listed below:
r a r a r a
(1:28)
(1)
To evaluate the rst term on the right, we use rectangular coordinates (x, y, z):
wr r w ex ey ez
xex yey zez
x
y
z
w ex ex ey ey ez ez 3w
(2)
The second term is
w rr
y z
xex yey zez
x
y
z
x ex y ey z ez w
(3)
(4)
1
w r v
2
(5)
Because of this relationship between the angular velocity and the linear
velocity of a uid, the curl operation is often interpreted as the rotation of
the uid. When v = 0 everywhere, there is no rotation. A vector that
satises this condition is said to be irrotational.
r a b b r a a r b
(1:29)
r a r a r a
(1:30)
r a b ar b br a a rb b ra
r r 0
(1:31)
(1:32)
Mathematical background
m3
z0
n3
z
2
3
x0
m1
1
2
n2
y0 m 2
x
n1
Fig. 1.3. Two sets of Cartesian coordinate axes, (x, y, z) and (x0, y0, z0), with
corresponding unit vectors (n1, n2, n3) and (m1, m2, m3), rotated relative to each other.
r r a 0
(1:33)
r r a rr a r2 a
(1:34)
(1:35)
(1:36)
The scalar product (n1 m1) = cos 1 = 11 denes 11 as the direction cosine of
the x0-axis with respect to the x-axis (Box 1.2). Similarly, (n2 m1) = cos 1 = 12
and (n3 m1) = cos 1 = 13 dene 12 and 13 as the direction cosines of the
x0-axis with respect to the y- and z-axes, respectively. Thus, (1.36) is equivalent to
x0 11 x 12 y 13 z
(1:37)
On treating the y0- and z0-axes in the same way, we get their relationships to the
(x, y, z) axes:
y0 21 x 22 y 23 z
z0 31 x 32 y 33 z
(1:38)
(1:39)
1 2
x y2 z2 1
2
r
(1:40)
and
11 21 12 22 13 23 cos 1 cos 2 cos 1 cos 2 cos 1 cos 2 0
(1:41)
The last summation is zero because it is the cosine of the right angle between the
x0-axis and the y0-axis.
These two results can be summarized as
3
X
1;
mn
mk nk
(1:42)
0;
m 6 n
k1
10
Mathematical background
(1)
where (x, y, z) are the components of r with respect to these axes. The scalar
products of r with ex, ey, and ez are
r
ez
ex
ey
Fig. B1.2. Angles , , and dene the tilt of a vector r relative to orthogonal
reference axes (x, y, z), respectively. The unit vectors (ex, ey, ez) dene the
coordinate system.
r ex x r cos
r ey y r cos
r ez z r cos
(2)
(3)
The unit vector u in the direction of r has the same direction as r but its
magnitude is unity:
r
u cos ex cos ey cos ez lex mey nez
r
where (l, m, n) are the cosines of the angles that the vector r makes with
the reference axes, and are called the direction cosines of r. They are
useful for describing the orientations of lines and vectors.
(4)
11
The scalar product of two unit vectors is the cosine of the angle they form.
Let u1 and u2 be unit vectors representing straight lines with direction
cosines (l1, m1, n1) and (l2, m2, n2), respectively, and let be the angle
between the vectors. The scalar product of the vectors is
u1 u2 cos l1 ex m1 ey n1 ez l2 ex m2 ey n2 ez
(5)
Therefore,
cos l1 l2 m1 m2 n1 n2
(6)
The square of a unit vector is the scalar product of the vector with itself and is
equal to 1:
uu
rr
1
r2
(7)
z
(1:44)
32 3
x
13
23 54 y 5 K
z
33
(1:45)
12
Mathematical background
(1:47)
and we write
nx; y; z rf ex
f
f
f
ey e z
x
x
x
(1:48)
tangent
plane
z
x
(x0,y0,z0)
r
er
n
P(x,y,z)
Fig. 1.4. Location of a point (x, y, z) on an ellipsoid, where the normal n to the
surface is parallel to the radius vector at the point (x0, y0, z0).
13
(1:50)
31 x 32 y 33 z 0
which, in matrix form, is
2
11
4 21
31
12
22
32
32 3
x
13
23 54 y 5 0
33
z
(1:51)
12
22
32
13
23 0
33
(1:52)
11
4 21
31
12
22
32
32 3
2
13
x
1
23 54 y 5 4 0
33
z
0
0
1
0
32 3
0
x
0 54 y 5 0
1
z
(1:53)
(1:54)
1 0
I 40 1
0 0
3
0
05
1
(1:55)
14
Mathematical background
(1:57)
Alternatively, the unit vectors can be implied and the expression ai is understood to represent the vector a. Using the summation convention, (1.15) for the
scalar product of two vectors a and b is
a b a1 b1 a2 b2 a3 b3 ai bi
(1:58)
Suppose that two vectors a and b are related, so that each component of a is a
linear combination of the components of b. The relationship can be expressed in
tensor notation as
ai Tij bj
(1:59)
The indices i and j identify components of the vectors a and b; each index takes
each of the values 1, 2, and 3 in turn. The quantity Tij is a second-order (or
second-rank) tensor, representing the array of nine coefcients (i.e., 32). A
vector has three components (i.e., 31) and is a rst-order tensor; a scalar property
has a single (i.e., 30) value, its magnitude, and is a zeroth-order tensor.
To write the cross product of two vectors we need to dene a new quantity,
the Levi-Civita permutation tensor ijk. It has the value +1 when a permutation
of the indices is even (i.e., 123 = 231 = 312 = 1) and the value 1 when a
permutation of the indices is odd (i.e., 132 = 213 = 321 = 1). If any pair of
indices is equal, ijk = 0. This enables us to write the cross product of two vectors
in tensor notation. Let u be the cross product of vectors a and b:
u a b a2 b3 a3 b2 e1 a3 b1 a1 b3 e2 a1 b2 a2 b1 e3 (1:60)
15
(1:61)
(1:62)
(1:65)
(1:66)
(1:67)
Let the same vector be related to the rotated coordinate axes xn by the tensor
T kn:
v0k T 0kn x0n
(1:68)
vk and vk are the same vector, expressed relative to different sets of axes.
Therefore,
v0k kn vn kn Tnl xl
(1:69)
16
Mathematical background
(1:70)
(1:71)
0
nl kn Tnl
T kn
(1:72)
Therefore,
(1:73)
Note that in expanded form the products of direction cosines on the left are
equal to
ml nl m1 n1 m2 n2 m3 n3 mn
(1:74)
as a result of (1.42). Therefore the transformation matrix in the rotated coordinate system is related to the original matrix by the direction cosines between
the two sets of axes:
0
ml kn Tnl
T km
(1:75)
The indices m and k can be interchanged without affecting the result. The
sequence of terms in the summation changes, but its sum does not. Therefore,
0
kl mn Tnl
T km
(1:76)
xi
(1:77)
The gradient of a scalar function with respect to Cartesian unit vectors (e1, e2, e3)
is therefore
r e1
e2
e3
ei
x1
x2
x3
xi
17
(1:78)
Several shorthand forms of this equation are in common use; for example,
ri ;i i
xi
(1:79)
a1 a2 a3 ai
i ai
x1 x2 x3 xi
ak
ijk j ak
xj
(1:80)
(1:81)
(1:82)
(1:83)
The change in potential energy when a force with components (Fx, Fy, Fz)
parallel to the respective Cartesian coordinate axes (x, y, z) experiences elementary displacements (dx, dy, dz) is
dEP dW Fx dx Fy dy Fz dz
(1:84)
The value of a physical force may vary in the space around its source. For
example, gravitational and electrical forces decrease with distance from a
source mass or electrical charge, respectively. The region in which a physical
18
Mathematical background
quantity exerts a force is called its eld. Its geometry is dened by lines
tangential to the force at any point in the region. The term eld is also used to
express the value of the force exerted on a unit of the quantity. For example, the
electric eld of a charge is the force experienced by a unit charge at a given
point; the gravitational eld of a mass is the force acting on a unit of mass; it is
therefore equivalent to the acceleration.
In a gravitational eld the force F is proportional to the acceleration a. The
Cartesian components of F are therefore (max, may, maz). The gravitational
potential U is dened as the potential energy of a unit mass in the gravitational
eld, thus dEP = m dU. After substituting these expressions into (1.84) we get
dU ax dx ay dy az dz
(1:85)
The total differential dU can be written in terms of partial differentials as
dU
U
U
U
dx
dy
dz
x
y
z
(1:86)
U
;
x
ay
U
;
y
az
U
z
(1:87)
(1:88)
(1:89)
(1:90)
(1:91)
19
F
n
dS
dS n
Fig. 1.5. The ux of a vector F across a small surface dS, whose normal n is
inclined to the vector, is equal to the ux across a surface dSn normal to the vector.
dz
Fx
Fx + dFx
y
x
dy
x + dx
x
Fig. 1.6. Figure for computing the change in the ux of a vector in the x-direction
for a small box with edges (dx, dy, dz).
(1:92)
If the distance dx is very small, the change in Fx may be written to rst order as
dFx
Fx
dx
x
(1:93)
20
Mathematical background
Fx
Fx
dx dy dz
dV
x
x
(1:94)
where dV is the volume of the small element. Similar results are obtained for the
net ux in each of the y- and z-directions. The total ux of F through the
rectangular box is the sum of these ows:
d dx dy dz
d
Fx Fy Fz
dV r FdV
x
y
z
(1:95)
(1:96)
We can equate this expression with the ux dened in (1.90). The ux through a
nite volume V with a bounding surface of area S and outward normal unit
vector n is
ZZZ
ZZ
r FdV
F n dS
(1:97)
V
This is known as the divergence theorem, or Gausss theorem, after the German
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss (17771855). Note that the surface S in
Gausss theorem is a closed surface, i.e., it encloses the volume V. If the ux of F
entering the bounding surface is the same as the ux leaving it, the total ux is
zero, and so
rF 0
(1:98)
21
n
S
C
D
dS
C
Fig. 1.7. Conguration for Stokes theorem: the surface S is divided into a grid of
elementary areas dS and is bounded by a closed circuit C.
(x + dx, y + dy)
(x, y + dy)
D
dy
Fy
(x, y)
dx
(x + dx, y)
Fx
Fig. 1.8. Geometry for calculation of the work done by a force F around a small
rectangular grid.
vector component parallel to that segment. The value of F may vary with
position, so, for example, the x-component along AB may differ from the
x-component along CD. Provided that dx and dy are innitesimally small, we
can use Taylor series approximations for the components of F (Section 1.10.2).
To rst order we get
Fx
dy
y
Fy
dx
Fy BC Fy DA
x
Fx CD Fx AB
(1:99)
The work done in a circuit around the small element ABCD is the sum of the
work done along each individual segment:
xZdx
I
Fdl
ABCD
ydy
Z
Fy BC dy
Fx AB dx
x
Zx
Zy
Fx CD dx
xdx
Fy
DA
dy
ydy
(1:100)
22
Mathematical background
xdx
Z
Fdl
Fx AB Fx CD dx
ABCD
ydy
Z
Fy BC Fy DA dy
(1:101)
Substituting from (1.99) gives
xdx
Z
ydy
Z
Fx
Fy
dy dx
dx dy
y
x
Fdl
ABCD
(1:102)
The mean-value theorem allows us to replace the integrands over the tiny
distances dx and dy by their values at some point in the range of integration:
I
Fy Fx
dx dy
(1:103)
Fdl
x
y
ABCD
(1:104)
ABCD
The normal direction n to the small area dS = dx dy is parallel to the z-axis (i.e.,
out of the plane of Fig. 1.8), and hence is in the direction of ( F)z. Thus,
I
F d l r Fn dS
(1:105)
ABCD
The circuit ABCD is one of many similar grid elements of the surface S. When
adjacent elements are compared, the line integrals along their common boundary are equal and opposite. If the integration is carried out for the entire surface
S, the only surviving parts are the integrations along the bounding curve C
(Fig. 1.7). Thus
ZZ
I
r F n dS F d l
(1:106)
S
23
boundary. The direction of dl around the curve is right-handed with respect to the
surface S, i.e., positive when the path is kept to the right of the surface, as in Fig. 1.7.
Note that the surface S in Stokes theorem is an open surface; it is like the
surface of a bowl with the bounding curve C as its rim. The integration of F
around the rim is called the circulation of F about the curve C. If the integral is
zero, there is no circulation and the vector F is said to be irrotational.
Comparison with the left-hand side shows that the condition for this is
rF0
(1:107)
As shown in Section 1.5, this is also the condition for F to be a conservative eld.
m
er
r2
(1:108)
Let be the angle between the radius and the direction n normal to the surface
element, and let the projection of dS normal to the radius be dSn. The solid angle
d with apex at the mass is dened as the ratio of the normal surface element
dSn to the square of its distance r from the mass (Box 1.3):
S
dS
m
aG
er
n
dSn
24
Mathematical background
r d
(b)
d
dA
r
r
dA
r sin d
r sin
Fig. B1.3. (a) Relationship of the solid angle , the area A of an element
subtended on the surface of a sphere, and the radius r of the sphere. (b) The
surface of a sphere divided into rings, and each ring into small surface elements
with sides r d and r sin d.
A
r2
(1)
This denition can be used for an arbitrarily shaped surface. If the surface
is inclined to the radial direction it must be projected onto a surface normal
to the radius, as in Fig. 1.5. For example, if the normal to the surface A
makes an angle with the direction from the apex of the subtended cone, the
projected area is A cos and the solid angle subtended by the area is
A cos
r2
(2)
r2 sin d d
sin d d
r2
(3)
25
sin d d 2 1 cos 0
(4)
0 0
r2
r2
r2
(1:109)
(1:110)
cos dS
Gm d
r2
(1:111)
dN aG n dS G
dN Gm
If we integrate this expression over the entire surface S we get the total gravitational ux N,
ZZ
Z
N
aG n dS Gm d 4Gm
(1:112)
Now we replace this surface integral by a volume integration, using the divergence theorem (Section 1.6)
ZZZ
ZZ
r aG dV
aG n dS 4Gm
(1:113)
V
This is valid for any point mass m inside the surface S. If the surface encloses
many point masses we may replace m with the sum of the point masses. If mass
26
Mathematical background
is distributed in the volume with mean density , a volume integral can replace
the enclosed mass:
ZZZ
ZZZ
r aG dV 4G
dV
(1:114)
V
ZZZ
r aG 4GdV 0
(1:115)
(1:116)
(1:117)
(1:118)
27
B
m
a1
a2
dS1
n1
dS2
er
n2
dN1 Gm d
(1:121)
The gravitational acceleration at B is a2 and its ux through the surface area dS2 is
dN2 a2 n2 dS2 Gm
cos 2 dS2
r22
dN2 Gm d
(1:122)
(1:123)
(1:124)
For this result to be valid for any volume, the integrand must be zero:
r aG r rUG 0
(1:126)
r2 UG 0
(1:127)
28
Mathematical background
2 UG 2 UG 2 UG
0
x2
y2
z2
(1:128)
Spherical polar coordinates are curvilinear and the curvature of the angular
coordinates results in a more complicated form:
1 2 UG
1
UG
1 2 UG
0 (1:129)
r
sin
r2 r
r2 sin
r2 sin2 2
(1:130)
2a
;
3 2a3
2
dx2 x0
dx3 x0
n
d f
nn 1n 2 . . . 3 2 1an n!an
dxn x0
29
(1:133)
On inserting these values for the coefcients into (1.130) we get the power
series for (x):
df
x2 d 2 f
x3 d 3 f
fx f0 x
dx x0 2! dx2 x0 3! dx3 x0
(1:134)
xn d n f
n! dxn x0
This is the MacLaurin series for (x) about the origin, x = 0. It was derived in the
eighteenth century by the Scottish mathematician Colin MacLaurin (1698
1746) as a special case of a Taylor series.
The MacLaurin series is a convenient way to derive series expressions for
several important functions. In particular,
x3 x5 x7
x2n1
1n1
3! 5! 7!
2n 1!
x2 x 4 x6
x2n2
cos x 1 1n1
2! 4! 6!
2n 2!
(1:135)
x2 x3
xn1
x
expx e 1 x
2! 3!
n 1!
x2 x3 x4
xn
ln1 x loge 1 x x 1n1
2
3
4
n
sin x x
2!
dx xx0
dx2 xx0
x x0 3 d 3 f
x x0 n d n f
dx3 xx0
dxn xx0
3!
n!
(1:136)
30
Mathematical background
(1:137)
n 3 : a x3 a3 3a2 x 3ax2 x3
n 4 : a x4 a4 4a3 x 6a2 x2 4ax3 x4
The general expansion of (x) is therefore
nn 1 n2 2
a x
12
nn 1 . . . n k 1 nk k
a x xn
k!
a xn an nan1 x
(1:138)
k!
k!n k!
(1:139)
n
X
n!
xk
k!
n
k
!
k0
(1:140)
Innite series
If the exponent in (1.140) is not a positive integer, the series does not terminate,
but is an innite series. The series for (x) = (1 + x)p, in which the exponent p is
not a positive integer, may be derived as a MacLaurin series:
df
dx
p1 xp1
x0
x0
31
d 2f
pp 11 xp2
pp 1
2
x0
dx x0
n
d f
pp1 . . . pn11xpn x0 pp 1 . . . p n 1
dxn x0
(1:141)
On inserting these terms into (1.134), and noting that (0) = 1, we get for the
binomial series
pp 1 2 pp 1p 2 3
x
x
12
123
pp 1 . . . p n 1 n
x
n!
1 xp 1 px
(1:142)
cos x 1
ln1 x x
fx fx0 x x0
df
dx
(1:143)
xx0
32
Mathematical background
(1:144)
(1:145)
(1:146)
n
X
k nk
n!
D u D v
k!n k!
k0
(1:148)
(1:149)
12
cos
u R
R
r
R
!2 #1=2
(1:150)
33
Fig. 1.11. Relationship of the sides r and R, which enclose an angle , and the side
u opposite the angle, as used in the denition of Legendre polynomials.
1 2xh h2
1 t1=2
u R
R
(1:151)
2 12 2
123 2
!n
1 3 5 . . . 2n 1 t
(1:152)
1 2 3...n
2
The innite series of terms on the right-hand side of the equation can be written
1 t1=2
1
X
an t n
(1:153)
n0
1 3 5 . . . 2n 1
2n n!
(1:154)
1 2xh h2
1=2
1
X
n0
1
n X
an 2xh h2
an hn 2x hn
(1:155)
n0
hn Pn x
n0
(1:156)
34
Mathematical background
Equation (1.156) is known as the generating function for the polynomials Pn(x).
Using this result, and substituting h = r/R and x = cos , we nd that (1.151)
becomes
!n
1
1 1X
r
Pn cos
(1:157)
u R n0 R
The polynomials Pn(x) or Pn(cos ) are called Legendre polynomials, after the
French mathematician Adrien-Marie Legendre (17521833). The dening
equation (1.157) is called the reciprocal-distance formula. An alternative formulation is given in Box 1.4.
(1:158)
x h 1 2xh h2
x h3
h
(1:159)
h3
h 1 2xh h2
x
1
3
h x
2
3h2 5
3h2
2
x
x
1 2
5 2 2
3h x
(1:160)
(1:161)
h h
hx h3
h
h
(1:162)
35
(1)
12
cos
u r
r
r
Following the same treatment as in Section 1.12, but now with h R=r and
x = cos , we get
1=2 1
1 1
1 t1=2
1 2xh h2
u r
r
(3)
hn Pn x
x; h 1 2xh h2
(4)
n0
u r n0 r
h
hx h32
x 2h3
h
h
h2
x h3 3hx h2 5 x 2h3
2x 3h3 3hx h2 5
Now substitute for 3, from (1.160), and 5, from (1.161), giving
(1:163)
36
Mathematical background
2
1
1 2
2
2x
3h
3h
x
h
h2
h x
3h2 x2
(1:164)
Multiply throughout by h:
2
2
2
h 2 h 2x 3h
x h
h
x
x2
2
2x
3h
x h 2
x
x
x2
(1:165)
The second term on the right can be replaced as follows, again using (1.160) and
(1.161):
3h
1 2
3h2 3 2 2
x
x
2
1 2xh h2
x2
2x
h 2 h x h2 1 2xh h2
x2
x
h
2
2
h 2 h x2 1
2x
h
x2
x
(1:166)
(1:167)
(1:168)
1
X
hn1 Pn x
(1:169)
n0
We differentiate this expression twice and multiply by h to get a result that can
be inserted on the left-hand side of (1.168):
1
X
n 1hn Pn x
h
h
n0
(1:170)
1
X
2
h
nn 1hn Pn x
2
h
n0
(1:171)
Using (1.156), we can now eliminate and convert (1.168) into a second-order
differential equation involving the Legendre polynomials Pn(x),
37
Pn(x)
Pn(cos )
0
1
1
x
1 2
3x 1
2
1 3
5x 3x
2
1
35x4 30x2 3
8
1
cos
1
3 cos2 1
2
1
5 cos3 3 cos
2
1
35 cos4 30 cos2 3
8
2
3
4
1
X
hn
n0
1
X
n0
X
1
2
d 2 Pn x
dPn x
x 1
2x
nn 1hn Pn x (1:172)
dx2
dx
n0
hn
2
d 2 Pn x
dPn x
x 1
2x
x
0
nn 1Pn
dx2
dx
(1:173)
If this expression is true for every non-zero value of h, the quantity in curly
brackets must be zero, thus
d 2 Pn x
dPn x
2x
1 x2
nn 1Pn x 0
2
dx
dx
(1:174)
An alternative, simpler form for this equation is obtained by combining the rst
two terms:
d
2 dPn x
(1:175)
1x
nn 1Pn x 0
dx
dx
This is the Legendre differential equation. It has a family of solutions, each of
which is a polynomial corresponding to a particular value of n. The Legendre
polynomials provide solutions in potential analyses with spherical symmetry,
and have an important role in geophysical theory. Some Legendre polynomials
of low degree are listed in Table 1.1.
3
X
i1
ai bi 0
(1:176)
38
Mathematical background
By analogy, two functions of the same variable are said to be orthogonal if their
product, integrated over a particular range, is zero. For example, the trigonometric functions sin and cos are orthogonal for the range 0 2, because
Z2
Z2
sin cos d
2
1
1
sin2d cos2 0
2
4
0
(1:177)
The Legendre polynomials Pn(x) and Pl(x) are orthogonal over the range 1 x 1.
This can be established as follows. First, we write the Legendre equation in short
form, dropping the variable x for both Pn and Pl, and, for brevity, writing
d
Pn x P0n
dx
and
d2
Pn x P00n
dx2
(1:178)
Thus
1 x2 P00n 2xP0n nn 1Pn 0
1 x2 P00l 2xP0l ll 1Pl 0
(1:179)
(1:180)
1 x2 Pl P00n 2xPl P0n nn 1Pl Pn 0
1 x2 Pn P00l 2xP0l Pn ll 1Pl Pn 0
(1:181)
(1:182)
1 x2 Pl P00n Pn P00l 2x Pl P0n P0l Pn nn 1 ll 1Pl Pn
0
(1:183)
Note that
d
Pl P0n P0l Pn Pl P00n P0l P0n P0l P0n P00l Pn Pl P00n P00l Pn
dx
(1:184)
and
d
Pl P0n P0l Pn 2x Pl P0n P0l Pn
dx
d
1 x2 Pl P0n P0l Pn
dx
1 x2
(1:185)
39
Thus
d
1 x2 Pl P0n P0l Pn nn 1 ll 1Pl Pn 0
dx
(1:186)
Now integrate each term in this equation with respect to x over the range
1 x 1. We get
1x
Pl P0n
P0l Pn
1
x1
Z1
nn 1 ll 1
Pl Pn dx 0
x1
(1:187)
The rst term is zero on evaluation of (1 x ) at x = 1; thus the second term
must also be zero. For n l the condition for orthogonality of the Legendre
polynomials is
Z 1
Pn xPl xdx 0
(1:188)
2
x1
1=2
hn Pn x 1 2xh h2
(1:189)
1=2
hl Pl x 1 2xh h2
(1:190)
n0
1
X
l0
1
hnl Pn xPl x 1 2xh h2
(1:191)
l0 n0
Now let l = n and integrate both sides with respect to x, taking into account
(1.188):
1
X
n0
Z1
h
Z1
2
Pn x dx
2n
x1
x1
dx
1 h2 2xh
(1:192)
40
Mathematical background
ln 1 h 2xh
1 h2 2xh 2h
x1
Z1
x1
1
ln 1 h2 2h ln 1 h2 2h
2h
(1:194)
and
Z1
x1
dx
1
1
2 1
2
ln
1
h
ln
1 h2 2xh h
2
2
1
ln1 h ln1 h
h
(1:195)
Using the MacLaurin series for the natural logarithms as in (1.135), we get
ln1 h h
h2 h3 h4
hn
1n1
2
3
4
n
ln1 h h
h2 h3 h4
hn
1n1
2
3
4
n
(1:196)
(1:197)
1
dx
2
h3 h5
2X
h2n1
2
3
5
1 h 2xh h
h n0 2n 1
(1:198)
0
h2n @
Z1
x1
Z1
h
Pn x2 dx
2n
x1
1
2X
h2n1
h n0 2n 1
1
2
A0
Pn x2 dx
2n 1
(1:199)
(1:200)
41
This is true for every value of h in the summation, so we obtain the normalizing
condition for the Legendre polynomials:
Z1
Pn x2 dx
x1
2
2n 1
(1:201)
1=2
It follows that n 12
Pn x is a normalized Legendre polynomial.
x 1 2nx x2 1
dx dx
(1:203)
(1:204)
2
df
2nxf
x 1
dx
(1:205)
Now we use Leibnizs rule (1.144) to differentiate both sides of this equation
n + 1 times with respect to x. Writing D = d/dx as in Section 1.11,
Dn1 uv
n1
X
n 1! k n1k
v
D u D
k!n 1 k!
k0
(1:206)
On the left-hand side of (1.205) let u(x) = (x2 1) and v(x) = d/dx = D.
Applying Leibnizs rule, we note that after only three differentiations of (x2 1)
the result is zero and the series is curtailed.
On the right-hand side let u(x) = 2nx and v(x) = . Note that in this case the
series is curtailed after two differentiations.
Thus, using Leibnizs rule to differentiate each side of (1.205) n + 1 times,
we get
42
Mathematical background
n 1n n
x2 1 Dn2 f 2xn 1Dn1 f 2
D f 2nx Dn1 f
12
2nn 1Dn f
(1:207)
(1:208)
n
dn 2
x 1
n
dx
(1:209)
and we have
d 2y
x2 1
dx2
2x
dy
nn 1y 0
dx
(1:210)
On comparing with (1.174), we see that this is the Legendre equation. The
Legendre polynomials must therefore be proportional to y(x), so we can write
Pn x cn
n
dn 2
x 1
n
dx
(1:211)
(1:212)
then we apply Leibnizs rule to the product on the right-hand side of the
equation:
n
n X
dn 2
n!
dm
d nm
x
1
x 1n nm x 1n
n
m
dx
dx
m!n m! dx
m0
(1:213)
(1:214)
43
Each differentiation in (1.214) is zero at x = 1, except the last one. Thus each
term in the sum in (1.213) is also zero except for the last one, for which m = n.
Substituting x = 1 gives
n
n
n
d 2
nd
n
x
1
x
1
2n n!
(1:215)
n
dxn
dx
x1
x1
Putting this result and the condition Pn(1) = 1 into (1.211) gives
n
n
d 2
x
1
cn 2n n! 1
Pn 1 cn
dxn
x1
(1:216)
where
cn
1
2n n!
(1:217)
1 dn
2n n! dxn
x2 1
n
(1:218)
(1:220)
On noting that we can equally write P 00n d=dxP0n and P0n d=dxPn , this
can be written alternatively as
1 x2
d 00
d
d
P 4x P0n nn 1 2 Pn 0
dx n
dx
dx
(1:221)
44
Mathematical background
d 00
d
d
Pn 22x P0n nn 1 12 Pn 0
1 x2
dx
dx
dx
(1:222)
Next, we differentiate this expression again, observing the same rules and
gathering terms,
d 2 00
d 00
d 0
d2 0
d2
1x
P
2x
4x
P
Pn 0
4
1
2
P
P
n
n
n
n
dx2
dx2
dx2
dx
dx
2
(1:223)
d 2 00
d2 0
d2 0
d2
P
2x
P
4x
P
2
4
Pn 0
1 x2
dx2 n
dx2 n
dx2 n
dx2
(1:224)
1 x2
d 2 00
d2 0
d2
P
6x
P
6
Pn 0
n
n
dx2
dx2
dx2
(1:225)
1 x2
d 2 00
d2
d2
Pn 23x 2 P0n nn 1 23 2 Pn 0
2
dx
dx
dx
(1:226)
1 x2
d 3 00
d3 0
d3
P
2
4
x
P
3
Pn 0
n
n
dx3
dx3
dx3
(1:227)
Equations (1.222), (1.226), and (1.227) all have the same form. The higherorder differentiation is accompanied by systematically different constants. By
extension, differentiating (1.219) m times (where m n) yields the differential
equation
1 x2
d m 00
dm
dm
Pn 2m 1x m P0n nn 1 mm 1 m Pn 0
m
dx
dx
dx
(1:228)
(1:229)
dm 0
Q0
P
n
m=2
dxm
1 x2
!
m
Q
2x
m=21
2
1 x 2
m2=2
dm 0
P n 1 x2
1 x2 Q0 mxQ
m
dx
45
(1:230)
(1:231)
d m 00
P
dxm n
(1:232)
n
d m 00
2 m2=2
P
1
x
1 x2 Q00 m 2xQ0 mQ m 2xQ0
n
dxm
mm 2x2 Q
(1:233)
1 x2
00
d m 00
mm 2x2 Q
2 m2=2
2
0
P
1
x
1
x
2mxQ
mQ
Q
dxm n
1 x2
(1:234)
Now we substitute (1.231) and (1.234) into (1.228). Unless the multiplier
(1 x2) (m + 2)/2 is always zero, Q must satisfy the following equation:
2
1 x2 Q00 2mx 1 x2 Q0 m 1 x2 Q mm 2x2 Q
2m 1x 1 x2 Q0 2mm 1x2 Q
nn 1 mm 1 1 x2 Q 0
(1:235)
m2
Q0
1 x Q 2xQ nn 1
1 x2
2
00
(1:236)
46
Mathematical background
The functions Q(x) involve two parameters, the degree n and order m, and are
written Pn,m(x). Thus
d2
d
m2
Pn;m x 0
P
1 x2
P
2x
n;m
n;m
dx2
1 x2
dx
(1:237)
This is the associated Legendre equation. The solutions Pn,m(x) or Pn,m(cos ),
where x = cos , are called associated Legendre polynomials, and are obtained
from the ordinary Legendre polynomials using the denition of Q in (1.229):
m=2 d m
Pn;m x 1 x2
Pn x
dxm
(1:238)
Substituting Rodrigues formula (1.218) for Pn(x) into this equation gives
m=2
n
1 x2
d nm 2
x 1
Pn;m x
n
nm
2 n!
dx
(1:239)
The highest power of x in the function (x2 1)n is x2n. After 2n differentiations
the result will be a constant, and a further differentiation will give zero.
Therefore n + m 2n, and possible values of m are limited to the range 0 m n.
0
m2
1 x Pn;m 2x Pn;m nn 1
Pn;m 0
1 x2
00
0
m2
2
1 x Pl;m 2x Pl;m ll 1
Pl;m 0
1 x2
2
00
(1:240)
(1:241)
47
00
0
m2
1 x2 Pl;m Pn;m 2x Pl;m Pn;m ll 1
Pn;m Pl;m 0
1 x2
(1:243)
(1:244)
o
0
0
d n
1 x2
Pn;m Pl;m Pl;m Pn;m
nn 1 ll 1Pn;m Pl;m
dx
0
(1:245)
On integrating each term with respect to x over the range 1 x 1, we get
n
o1
0
0
1 x2
Pn;m Pl;m Pl;m Pn;m
x1
Z1
nn 1 ll 1
Pn;m Pl;m dx 0
(1:246)
x1
The rst term is zero on evaluation of (1 x2) at x = 1; thus the second term
must also be zero. Provided that n l, the condition of orthogonality of the
associated Legendre polynomials is
x1
Z
(1:247)
x1
x1
2
Pn;m x dx
2 n m!
2n 1 n m!
(1:248)
48
Mathematical background
The squared functions do not integrate to 1, so they are not normalized. If each
polynomial is multiplied by a normalizing function, the integrated squared
polynomial can be made to equal a chosen value. Different conditions for this
apply in geodesy and geomagnetism.
The Legendre polynomials used in geodesy are fully normalized. They are
dened as follows:
Pm
n x
2n 1 n m! 1=2
Pn;m x
2
n m!
(1:249)
n m!
2
n m!
P0n x Pn;0 x;
1=2
Pn;m x;
m0
m 6 0
(1:250)
(1:251)
Pm
n cos ; Schmidt,
partially normalized
cos
sin
1
3 cos2 1
2
3 sin cos
3 sin2
15 sin2 cos
15 sin3
cos
sin
1
3 cos2 1
2p
p3 sin cos
3
sin2
2
1
cos 5 cos2 3
2p
6
sin 5 cos2 1
4
p
15
15 sin2 cos
p2
10
sin3
4
1
1
0
1
1
cos 5 cos2 3
2
3
sin 5 cos2 1
2
49
1 X
n
X
m
Bn
m
An rn n1 am
n cosm bn sinm Pn cos (1:252)
r
n0 m0
m
Here An, Bn, am
n , and bn are constants that apply to a particular situation. On the
surface of the Earth, or an arbitrary sphere, the radial part of the potential of a
point source at the center of the sphere has a constant value and the variation
over the surface of the sphere is described by the functions in and . We are
primarily interested in solutions outside the Earth, for which An is zero. Also we
can set the constant Bn equal to Rn+1, where R is the Earths mean radius. The
potential is then given by
1 X
n n1
X
m
R
m
am
U
n cosm bn sinm Pn cos
r
n0 m0
(1:253)
m
Let the spherical harmonic functions Cm
n ; and Sn ; be dened as
m
Cm
n ; cosm Pn cos
m
Sm
n ; sinm Pn cos
(1:254)
The variation of the potential over the surface of a sphere may be described by
these functions, or a more general spherical harmonic function Ym
n ; that
combines the sine and cosine variations:
m
Ym
n ; Pn cos
cosm
sinm
(1:255)
Like their constituent parts the sine, cosine, and associated Legendre
functions spherical harmonic functions are orthogonal and can be
normalized.
50
Mathematical background
ZZ
2
Cm
n ;
Z2
Cm
n ;
2
sin d d
0 0
Z2
cosmPm
n cos
2
sin d d (1:256)
0 0
>
:
0
9
>
Z1
=
2
m 2
2
m
cos md Pn x dx
Pn x dx
>
;
(1:257)
x1
Cm
n ;
2
d
2
n m!
2n 1 n m!
(1:258)
1 X
n
X
m
m m
am
n Cn ; bn Sn ;
(1:259)
n0 m0
m
The coefcients am
n and bn may be obtained by multiplying the function g;
m
m
by Cn ; or Sn ; , respectively, and integrating the product over the
surface of the unit sphere. The normalization properties give
51
ZZ
2n 1 n m!
g; Cm
n ; d
2
n m!
S
ZZ
2n
n
m
!
bm
g; Sm
n
n ; d
2
n m!
am
n
(1:260)
(1:261)
Fig. 1.12. Appearance of (a) zonal, (b) sectorial, and (c) tesseral spherical
harmonics, projected on a meridian plane of the reference sphere.
52
Mathematical background
nodal lines of latitude and the longitudinal lines separate sectors in which the
potential is greater or less than the uniform value. An example of a sectorial
spherical harmonic is Y55 ; , shown in Fig. 1.12(b).
In the general case (m 0, n m) the potential varies with both latitude and
longitude. There are n m nodal lines of latitude and m nodal great circles (2m
meridians) of longitude. The appearance of the spherical harmonic resembles a
patchwork of alternating regions in which the potential is greater or less than the
uniform value. An example of a tesseral spherical harmonic is Y45 ; , which
is shown in Fig. 1.12(c).
1
a0 X
an cosnt bn sinnt
2
n1
(1:262)
where = 2/ and the factor 12 in the rst term is included for reasons of
symmetry. This representation of (t) is known as a Fourier series. The
orthogonal properties of sine and cosine functions allow us to nd the coefcients an and bn of the nth term in the series by multiplying (1.262) by sin(nt)
or cos(nt) and integrating over a full period:
2
an
Z=2
ftcosntdt
t=2
bn
(1:263)
Z=2
ftsinntdt
t=2
53
cosnt
(1:264)
expint
expint
(1:265)
2
2
n0
n0
ft
1
X
an
expint expint
The summation indices are dummy variables, so in the second sum we can
replace n by n, and extend the limits of the sum to n = ; thus
ft
1
X
an ibn
n0
1
X
0
X
an ibn
expint
expint
2
n1
(1:266)
(1:267)
1
X
cn expint
(1:268)
n1
Z=2
ftexpintdt
t=2
(1:269)
54
Mathematical background
j ftj2 dt51
(1:270)
t1
The innite sum in (1.268) is replaced by a Fourier integral and the complex
coefcients cn are replaced by an amplitude function g():
Z1
ft
gexpitd
(1:271)
1
Z1
ftexpitdt
(1:272)
t1
The transition from Fourier series to Fourier integral is explained in Box 1.5.
The function g() is called the forward Fourier transform of (t), and (t) is
called the inverse Fourier transform of g(). Fourier transforms constitute a
powerful mathematical tool for transforming a function (t) that is known in the
time domain into a new function g() in the frequency domain.
55
ft
cn expint
(1)
n1
1
cn
ftexpintdt
(2)
t=2
cn
2
fuexpinudu
(3)
u=2
1
X
B
@
2
n1
Z=2
1
C
fuexpint uduA
(4)
u=2
F
u=2
(5)
56
Mathematical background
ft
1
1 X
F
2 1
(6)
We now let the incremental frequency become very small, tending in the
limit to zero; this is equivalent to letting the period become innite. The
index n is dropped because is now a continuous variable; the discrete sum
becomes an integral and the function f(t) is
Z1
1
f t
2
Fd
(7)
1
(8)
u1
2
1
(9)
u1
Z1
ftexpitdt
(10)
t1
gexpitd
(11)
1
57
Fourier series that represent odd or even functions consist of sums of sines or
cosines, respectively. In the same way, there are sine and cosine Fourier integrals
that represent odd and even functions, respectively. Suppose that the function (t)
is even, and let us replace the complex exponential in (1.272) using (1.5):
1
g
2
Z1
ftcost i sintdt
(1:273)
t1
The sine function is odd, so, if (t) is even, the product (t)sin(t) is odd, and the
integral of the second term is zero. The product (t)cos(t) is even, and we can
convert the limits of integration to the positive interval:
Z1
1
g
2
ftcostdt
t1
Z1
ftcostdt
(1:274)
t0
Thus, if (t) is even, then g() is also even. Similarly, one nds that, if (t) is
odd, g() is also odd.
Now we expand the exponential in (1.271) and apply the same conditions of
evenness and oddness to the products:
Z1
ft
gcost i sintd
1
Z1
gcostd
(1:275)
ft
0
2
g
(1:276)
Z1
ftcostdt
t0
58
Mathematical background
The even functions (t) and g() are Fourier cosine transforms of each other.
A similar treatment for a function (t) that is odd leads to a similar pair of
equations in which the Fourier transform g() is also odd and
Z1
ft
gsintd
0
2
g
(1:277)
Z1
ftsintdt
t0
The odd functions (t) and g() are Fourier sine transforms of each other.
further reading
Boas, M. L. (2006). Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences, 3rd edn. Hoboken,
NJ: Wiley, 839 pp.
James, J. F. (2004). A Students Guide to Fourier transforms, 2nd edn. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 135 pp.
2
Gravitation
mM
er
r2
(2:1)
M
er
r2
(2:2)
The acceleration aG may also be written as the negative gradient of a gravitational potential UG
aG rUG
(2:3)
The gravitational acceleration for a point mass is radial, thus the potential
gradient is given by
UG
M
G 2
r
r
UG G
59
M
r
(2:4)
(2:5)
60
Gravitation
P*
Q*
aphelion
S
b
P(r, )
perihelion
Fig. 2.1. Illustration of Keplers laws of planetary motion. The orbit of each planet
is an ellipse with the Sun at its focus (S); a, b, and p are the semi-major axis, semiminor axis, and semi-latus rectum, respectively. The area swept by the radius to a
planet in a given time is constant (i.e., area SPQ equals area SP*Q*); the square of
the period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis. After Lowrie ( 2007).
61
3. The square of the period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of
the orbit.
The fundamental assumption is that the planets move under the inuence of a
central, i.e., radially directed force. For a planet of mass m at distance r from the
Sun the force F can be written
Fm
d 2r
frer
dt2
(2:6)
dr
dt
(2:7)
(2:8)
The rst term on the right-hand side is zero, because the vector product of a
vector with itself (or with a vector parallel to itself) is zero. Thus
dh
d 2r
rm 2
dt
dt
(2:9)
(2:10)
This equation means that h is a constant vector; the angular momentum of the
system is conserved. On taking the scalar product of h and r, we obtain
dr
rh r r m
(2:11)
dt
Rotating the sequence of the vectors in the triple product gives
rh m
dr
r r 0
dt
(2:12)
This result establishes that the vector r describing the position of a planet is
always perpendicular to its constant angular momentum vector h and therefore
denes a plane. Every planetary orbit is therefore a plane that passes through the
Sun. The orbit of the Earth denes the ecliptic plane.
62
Gravitation
d
dt
(2:13)
In a short interval of time t the radius vector from the Sun to the planet
moves through a small angle and denes a small triangle. The area A of
the triangle is
1
DA r2 D
2
The rate of change of the area swept over by the radius vector is
dA
DA
1 2 D
lim
lim
r
Dt!0 Dt
Dt!0 2
dt
Dt
(2:14)
(2:15)
dA 1 2 d
r
dt
2 dt
(2:16)
dA
h
dt
2m
(2:17)
Thus the area swept over by the radius vector in a given time is constant. This is
Keplers Second Law of planetary motion.
(2:18)
The rst term here is the planets linear (radial) kinetic energy, the second term
is its rotational kinetic energy (with mr2 being the planets moment of inertia
63
about the Sun), and the third term is the gravitational potential energy. On
writing
dr dr d
dt d dt
(2:19)
(2:20)
1
r
(2:21)
Then
dr
d 1
1 du
2 du
2
r
d d u
u d
d
Substituting from ( 2.22) into ( 2.20) gives
2
d 2 du 2
d
S
E
r2
r2
2G 2
dt
d
dt
r
m
(2:22)
(2:23)
r2
dt
m
d
1 h
h
r
u
dt
r m
m
On replacing these expressions, ( 2.23) becomes
2 2
2
h
du
E
2 h
u
2uGS 2
m
d
m
m
du
d
2
u2 2uGS
m2
Em
2 2
2
h
h
(2:24)
(2:25)
(2:26)
du
d
2
u2 2uGS
2
2
m2
m2
Em
m2
GS
GS
h2
h2
h2
h2
(2:27)
64
Gravitation
du
d
2
m2
u GS 2
h
2
2
Em
m2
2 2 GS 2
h
h
(2:28)
Next, we move the second term to the right-hand side of the equation, giving
du
d
du
d
2
2
2
Em
m2
m2
2 2 GS 2 u GS 2
h
h
h
2
2
2
m2
2Eh2
m2
GS 2
1 2 2 3 u GS 2
h
GS m
h
(2:29)
(2:30)
m2
h2
(2:31)
2Eh2
G2 S2 m3
(2:32)
e2 1
(2:35)
The angle is dened to be zero at perihelion. The negative square root in ( 2.34)
is chosen because, as increases, r increases and u must decrease. Let
p
1
h2
u0 GSm2
(2:36)
p
1 e cos
(2:37)
This is the polar equation of an ellipse referred to its focus, and is the proof of
Keplers First Law of planetary motion. The quantity e is the eccentricity of the
ellipse, while p is the semi-latus rectum of the ellipse, which is half the length of
a chord passing through the focus and parallel to the minor axis ( Fig. 2.1).
These equations show that three types of trajectory around the Sun are
possible, depending on the value of the total energy E in ( 2.18). If the kinetic
65
energy is greater than the potential energy, the value of E in ( 2.32) is positive,
and e is greater than 1; the path of the object is a hyperbola. If the kinetic energy
and potential energy are equal, the total energy is zero and e is exactly 1; the path
is a parabola. In each of these two cases the object can escape to innity, and the
paths are called escape trajectories. If the kinetic energy is less than the potential
energy, the total energy E is negative and the eccentricity is less than 1. In this
case (corresponding to a planet or asteroid) the object follows an elliptical orbit
around the Sun.
(2:38)
(2:39)
The distance of the focus of the ellipse from its center is by denition ae. The
length p of the semi-latus rectum is the value of y for a chord through the focus.
On setting y = p and x = ae in ( 2.38), we obtain
p2
ae2
1 2 1 e2
2
b
a
2
p 2 a 2 1 e2
(2:40)
(2:41)
Now consider the application of Keplers Second Law to an entire circuit of the
elliptical orbit. The area of the ellipse is ab, and the period of the orbit is T, so
dA ab
dt
T
(2:42)
h 2ab
m
T
(2:43)
Using (2.17),
66
Gravitation
From ( 2.36) and ( 2.43) we get the value of the semi-latus rectum,
1 h 2
1 2ab 2
p
GS m
GS
T
(2:44)
1 e2
GST 2
GST 2
(2:45)
a3
GS
(2:46)
The quantities on the right-hand side are constant, so the square of the period is
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis, which is Keplers Third Law.
UG
C
r
(2:48)
UG C
2
r
r
(2:49)
67
UG
C
2 er
r
r
(2:50)
aG r4R
(2:51)
The boundary condition at the surface of the sphere is that the accelerations
determined outside and inside the sphere must be equal there. We use this to
derive the value of the constant C. On comparing ( 2.51) and ( 2.60) we have
C GM
(2:52)
M
er
r2
(2:53)
M
r
(2:54)
(2:55)
UG 4
Gr3 C1
r
3
(2:56)
(2:57)
This equation has to be valid at the center of the sphere where r = 0, so the
constant C1 = 0 and
68
Gravitation
UG 4
Gr
r
3
UG
aG r5R
r
(2:58)
4
Gr er
3
(2:59)
(2:60)
(2:61)
To obtain the potential inside the solid sphere, we must integrate ( 2.58). This
gives
2
UG Gr2 C2
3
(2:62)
(2:63)
C2 2GR2
(2:64)
The gravitational potential inside the uniform solid sphere is therefore given by
2
UG Gr2 2GR2
3
(2:65)
2
UG G r2 3R2
3
(2:66)
69
r /R
0
1
inside
sphere
outside
sphere
0.5
1
U G (R)
1.5
U G(r)
r=R
Fig. 2.2. Variation with radial distance r of the gravitational potential inside and
outside a solid sphere of radius R. The potential of the surface of the sphere is
UG(R).
UG
1 2 UG
0
r
sin
r2 r
r2 sin
r2 sin2 2
(2:67)
(2:68)
Here , , and are all functions of a single variable only, namely r, , and ,
respectively. Multiplying ( 2.67) by r2 and inserting ( 2.68) for UG gives
2 < <
< 2
0
r
sin
2
r r sin
sin 2
(2:69)
70
Gravitation
1 2
0
r
sin
< r r sin
sin2 2
(2:70)
Next we isolate the radial terms on the left-hand side of the equation, so that
1 2 <
1
1 2
r
sin
< r r
sin
sin2 2
(2:71)
The left-hand side of the equation is a function of r only, while the right-hand
side does not depend on r. Whatever the value of the left-hand side, the righthand side must always equal it. But r, , and are independent variables, so the
identity can exist only if the opposite sides of the equation are equal to the same
constant. Let this constant be K. For the opposite sides of ( 2.71) we get
1 2 <
r
K
< r r
(2:72)
1 2
K
sin
sin
sin2 2
(2:73)
If we multiply the last equation throughout by sin2, the variables can again be
separated:
sin
1 2
sin
K sin2
2
(2:74)
The variables on the opposite sides of ( 2.74) are independent, so each side must
be equal to the same constant, which we write temporarily as K2. Thus we can
replace equation ( 2.70) with three equations, consisting of ( 2.72) and the
following two:
sin
sin
K sin2 K2
(2:75)
1 2
K2
2
(2:76)
71
1 2
m2
2
2
m2 0
2
(2:77)
(2:78)
This is the equation of simple harmonic motion, which has periodic solutions of
the form
am cosm bm sinm
(2:79)
sin
K sin2 0
sin
K 0
sin
1
1
sin2
K 0
sin
sin
(2:80)
(2:81)
(2:82)
1
x sin
(2:83)
2
1x
K 0
x
x
(2:84)
Comparison with (1.175) shows that this is equivalent to the Legendre differential equation, with n(n + 1) = K. If we make this choice of constant, we ensure
72
Gravitation
that the Laplace equation will have periodic solutions in polar angle (co-latitude),
namely the Legendre polynomials. The equation is
2 Pn x
1x
nn 1Pn x 0
(2:85)
x
x
and its solutions are
n Pn x Pn cos
(2:86)
(2:87)
(2:88)
1
X
ap rp
(2:89)
p0
r
p0
(2:90)
pap rp1
r
p0
(2:91)
1
2 < X
r
pp 1ap rp
r r
p0
(2:92)
r2
pp 1ap rp nn 1
1
X
73
ap rp 0
(2:93)
ap rp pp 1 nn 1 0
(2:94)
p0
p0
1
X
p0
For this result to be true for any value of r, the expression in square brackets
must equal zero,
pp 1 nn 1 0
(2:95)
p2 p nn 1 0
(2:96)
That is,
Thus p can have the values p = n or p = (n + 1) and the radial variation of the
potential is given by
<n r An rn
Bn
rn1
(2:97)
sin
K sin2 m2
sin
sin
K sin2 m2 0
(2:99)
(2:100)
74
Gravitation
m2
1 x2
K1
0
1 x2
x
x
(2:101)
1 x2
2
m2
0
2x
nn
1
1 x2
x2
x
(2:102)
This equation is equivalent to the associated Legendre equation (1.237), and the
functions are the associated Legendre polynomials:
m
Pm
n x Pn cos
(2:103)
ac
a
(2:105)
75
(b)
b
c
b
a
(c)
(d)
c
c
a
x
c
x
a
y
Fig. B2.1. (a) General ellipsoid with three unequal principal axes, a > b > c; (b)
elliptical cross-section through the center of an ellipsoid; b is the radius of a
circular section, inclined to the short axis c at an angle ; (c) prolate ellipsoid;
and (d) oblate ellipsoid.
x2 y2 z2
1
a2 b2 c2
(1)
where a, b, and c the intercepts of the ellipsoid with the x, y, and z reference
axes, respectively are the lengths of its principal axes. The volume of the
ellipsoid is
4
V abc
3
(2)
76
Gravitation
a
tan
c
r
b2 c2
a2 b2
(3)
(4)
4
V a2 c
3
(5)
Its volume is
collection of discrete point masses mi like the one at Q with Cartesian coordinates (xi, yi, zi). This point mass is distant ri from the center and ui from the
observation point at P. The gravitational potential at P can be written (compare
with ( 2.54)) as the sum of contributions from all the point masses in the body:
X mi
UG G
(2:106)
u
i
77
Symbol
14
Value
3 2
10 m s
1024 kg
km
km
km
103
GE
E
a
c
R
1/
J2
ge
m
1/m
C/(Ea2)
B/(Ea2)
A/(Ea2)
H
1/H
103
105 rad s1
m s2
103
103
(i ,i ,i )
z
(xi ,yi ,zi)
Q m
r
i
i
Units
ui
P
(x,y,z)
r
y
Let the radius to the point mass at Q make an angle i with the radius to the
external point P. The reciprocal distance formula (1.157) for the Legendre
polynomials can be applied to the sides of the triangle OPQ:
1 n
1 1X
ri
Pn cos i
(2:107)
ui r n0 r
Substituting this into ( 2.106) gives for the gravitational potential of the body
78
Gravitation
( i , i ,i )
Q
( , , )
Fig. 2.4. Angle i bounded by straight lines OP, with direction cosines (, , ), and
OQ, with direction cosines (i, i, i).
UG G
X
i
mi
1 n
1X
ri
Pn cos i
r n0 r
(2:108)
1X
1X
1X
mi G 2
mi ri cos i G 3
mi r2i P2 cos i
r i
r i
r i
(2:109)
U 0 U1 U 2
Each term after the rst involves cos i, which can be computed ( Box 1.2,
equation (6)) from the direction cosines (, , ) of OP and the direction cosines
(i, i, i) of OQ, the lines bounding the angle i ( Fig. 2.4):
cos i i i i
(2:110)
The direction cosines of the two lines are as follows: for OP,
x
;
r
y
;
r
z
r
(2:111)
xi
;
ri
yi
;
ri
zi
ri
(2:112)
1
xxi yyi zzi
rri
(2:113)
Now we take a closer look at the individual terms in ( 2.109) for the potential.
For the case n = 0, potential U0:
U0 G
1X
GM
mi
r i
r
79
(2:114)
1X
mi ri cos i
r2 i
(2:115)
(2:116)
(2:117)
The origin of the coordinate system is at the center of mass of the body. The
center of mass is dened as the point about which the sums of the moments of
the point masses that make up the body are zero:
X
X
X
m i xi
m i yi
mi z i 0
(2:118)
i
(2:119)
1X
mi r2i P2 cos i
r3 i
(2:120)
U2 G
X
1 X
2mi r2i 3
mi r2i sin2 i
3
2r
i
i
#
(2:122)
The principal moments of inertia A, B, and C of a body about the x-, y-, and
z-axes, respectively, are dened in Box 2.2:
80
Gravitation
(2)
B
C
X
i
X
mi z2i x2i
(4)
mi x2i y2i
Another property that affects the rotational behavior of a body is its product
of inertia about the axis of rotation. The products of inertia H, J, and K of a
body relative to the x-, y-, and z- reference axes are dened as
X
H
mi yi zi
i
m i z i xi
(5)
m i xi y i
mi y2i z2i ;
mi z2i x2i ;
81
mi x2i y2i
(2:123)
Adding these moments of inertia gives
ABC2
mi r2i
(2:124)
(2:125)
Let the moment of inertia of the body about the line OP joining the center of the
ellipsoid and the point of observation be I ( Box 2.2). The distance of the point Q
from the line OP ( Fig. 2.3) is ri sin i and the moment of inertia I is given by
X
mi r2i sin2 i
(2:126)
I
i
1
A B C 3I
2r3
(2:127)
Combining the expressions for U0 and U2, the gravitational potential of the
spheroid at P is
UG G
M
A B C 3I
G
r
2r3
(2:128)
82
Gravitation
X
mi r2i
mi x2i y2i z2i 2 2 2
(2:130)
mi xi yi zi 2
i
Expanding the squared expression and taking the direction cosines outside the
sums gives
X
X
X
X
mi r2i cos2 i 2
mi x2i 2
mi y2i 2
mi z2i
i
mi xi yi 2
mi yi zi 2
mi zi xi
(2:132)
On combining ( 2.130) and ( 2.132), we have that the moment of inertia of the
ellipsoid about the line OP is
X
X
X
I 2
mi y2i z2i 2
mi z2i x2i 2
mi x2i y2i
i
2
X
i
mi xi yi 2
i
X
i
mi yi zi 2
mi zi xi
(2:133)
The rst three sums on the right are recognizable as the denitions of the
principal moments of inertia A, B, and C, while the nal three terms are
denitions of the products of inertia H, J, and K (see Box 2.2). Thus the
moment of inertia I about an axis with direction cosines (, , ) is related to the
principal moments and products of inertia by
I A2 B2 C2 2K 2H 2J
(2:134)
In an ellipsoid the xy, yz, and zx planes are planes of symmetry, so the
products of inertia are H = J = K = 0. The expression for I reduces in the case of
an ellipsoid to
I A2 B2 C2
Substituting this expression for I in MacCullaghs formula gives
!
A B C 3 A2 B2 C2
M
UG G G
2r3
r
(2:135)
(2:136)
83
= cos
= sin sin
sin
= sin cos
Fig. 2.5. Relationship between the direction cosines of a line and the angles and
that dene its direction.
The symmetry of the Earth about its rotation axis means that the moment of
inertia about any axis in the equatorial plane has the same value, i.e., A = B. For
the spheroidal Earth this results in
!
2A C 3A 2 2 3C2
M
UG G G
(2:137)
2r3
r
Now we revert from the direction cosines of OP to the direction of the line in
terms of the angles and , corresponding respectively to co-latitude and
longitude in geographic terms. These angles and the direction cosines are
related as in Fig. 2.5:
sin cos
sin sin
cos
Squaring and summing the direction cosines and gives
2 2 sin2 cos2 sin2 sin2
1 cos2
Replacing the direction cosines with the above expressions gives
2A C 3A 1 cos2 3C cos2
M
UG G G
r
2r3
M
1 3 cos2
UG G GC A
r
2r3
(2:138)
(2:139)
(2:140)
(2:141)
84
Gravitation
UG G
M
CA
G 3 P2 cos
r
r
(2:142)
1
X
Un
(2:143)
n0
Each term of order n is proportional to (1/r)n and decreases in relative importance with increasing distance r. An alternative form for the gravitational
potential UG of the Earth at an external point is to write it as an innite series
of terms involving the Legendre polynomials and using Earths mass E and
equatorial radius a:
"
#
n
1
X
E
a
Jn
Pn cos
(2:144)
UG G
1
r
r
n2
The sum inside the square brackets modies the potential U0 of a sphere to
reect the real mass distribution in the Earth. The coefcients Jn describe the
relative importance of successive terms in the series. The sum begins at n = 2
because U1 = 0 when the coordinate system is centered at the Earths center of
mass, as in ( 2.119). Values for the coefcients Jn are obtained from satellite
geodesy. They are very small, of order 106, except for J2, which is about 1,000
times larger and has the value 1.082 103. J2 is called the dynamic form factor
of the Earth. The coefcient J3 has the value 2.54 106; it describes a slight
deviation from a spheroid, being more depressed at the south pole and elevated
at the north pole. This makes the Earth slightly pear-shaped. The coefcient J4 is
equal to 1.59 106 and is needed in order to obtain a more exact description
of the gravitational potential for a model Earth whose mass distribution is
symmetric about the equator.
Writing (2.144) to rst order:
"
#
2
E
a
1 J2
UG G
P2 cos
(2:145)
r
r
Further reading
85
(2:146)
where
J2
CA
Ea2
(2:147)
This result shows that the dynamic form factor J2 is dependent on the difference
between the principal moments of inertia, C and A. The polar attening of
Earths gure results from the centrifugal acceleration of its rotation. The
redistribution of mass nds expression as a difference between the principal
moments of inertia. This difference, in turn, affects how the Earth reacts to
external gravitational torques, which cause the rotation axis to precess about the
pole to the ecliptic. The difference between C and A even affects the free
rotation of the Earth, creating a longer-period wobble that is superposed on
the daily rotation.
further reading
Blakely, R. J. (1995). Potential Theory in Gravity & Magnetic Applications. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 441 pp.
Lowrie, W. (2007). Fundamentals of Geophysics, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 381 pp.
Ofcer, C. B. (1974). Introduction to Theoretical Geophysics. New York: Springer,
385 pp.
Stacey, F. D. and Davis, P. M. (2008). Physics of the Earth, 4th edn. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 532 pp.
3
Gravity
At any point on the Earth gravity acts in a direction normal to a surface on which
the potential of gravity is constant. This equipotential surface is the best-tting
geometric gure to mean sea-level on the Earth. Its shape is that of a slightly
attened spheroid, for which the radius at any point can be computed. The
potential of gravity on this spheroid the geopotential is computed by
combining the gravitational potential and the potential of the centrifugal acceleration due to Earths rotation. Gravity measurements are made with a high
degree of accuracy. In order to compute a theoretical value of gravity for
comparison at any latitude similar accuracy must be attained. Consequently,
each step in computing the formula for the reference gravity must be carried out
to second order in the attening f and related parameters.
(3:1)
A position on the reference spheroid is specied by the polar angle and radius r,
dened relative to the axis of rotational symmetry and center of the spheroid,
repectively (Fig. 3.1). Consider a polar cross-section that includes the x- and
z-axes, so that x = r sin and z = r cos . By substituting into (3.1) we get the
equation of the elliptical section in polar coordinates:
r2 sin2 r2 cos2
1
a2
c2
86
(3:2)
87
c
r
a
R
Fig. 3.1. Polar cross-section of a spheroid with principal axes a and c (c < a),
compared with a sphere (dashed) with radius R and the same volume as the spheroid.
r2
cos2
sin2
2
a
1 f 2
!
1
(3:3)
a2 1 f 2
cos2 1 f 2 sin2
(3:4)
(3:5)
(3:6)
By substituting into (3.4) and taking the square root, we get an equation for the
radius:
r
1f
1=2
2
a
1 f sin2 f 2 sin2 cos2
!1=2
1f
f 2 sin2 cos2
1
2
1 f sin2
1 f sin2
(3:7)
88
Gravity
Applying the binomial theorem twice to the last line and expanding to order f 2
gives an equation for the surface of a spheroid
r
1f
1 2 2
1f
2
1 f sin cos
(3:8)
2
a 1 f sin
2
1 f sin2
The expansions for the gravitational potential and for gravity on the reference
ellipsoid require the ratio a/r. Upon inverting (3.8) with the aid of the binomial
expansion we get, to order f 2,
a 1 f sin2
1
1 f 2 sin2 cos2
r
1f
2
1
1 f sin2 1 f 2 sin2 cos2 1 f f 2
2
1
1 f f 2 f sin2 f 2 sin2 f 2 sin2 cos2
(3:9)
2
a
1
1
1 f cos2 f 2 cos2 f 2 cos2 f 2 cos4
r
2
2
3
1
1 f 1 f cos2 f 2 cos4
2
2
(3:10)
For some purposes it sufces to know the equation of the ellipticity only to rst
order in f. This is derived in Box 3.1.
(3:11)
89
a 1 f sin2
This equation can be expanded using the binomial theorem:
1
r
1 f 1 f sin2
1 f 1 f sin2
a
(1)
(2)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Upon invoking the binomial expansion and ignoring terms of second order
and higher in f, this reduces to
r
f
2
(7)
1
1 fP2 cos
a
3
3
Let R be the radius of a sphere with the same volume as the spheroid
(Fig. 3.1). Then, omitting the factor 4/3 common to each volume, we have
R 3 a 2 c a 3 1 f
(8)
90
Gravity
Taking the cube root and using the binomial expansion to rst order gives
f
1=3
R a 1 f
(9)
a 1
3
Thus the equation for the radius of an elliptical polar section of the Earth in
terms of the Legendre polynomial P2(cos ), the attening f, and the mean
radius R of an equivalent sphere is
2
r R 1 fP2 cos
(10)
3
This is a useful rst-order approximation to the shape of the Earth.
x
ac
GE
UG
a
3
5
a
a
a
J2
P2 cos J4
P4 cos
r
r
r
91
(3:12)
(3:13)
Let x be the perpendicular distance from the rotation axis to a point on the
surface at latitude and let be the angular rate of rotation of the Earth
(Fig. 3.2). The centrifugal acceleration is equal to 2x, so, for a constant rate
of rotation, Uc varies only with x. Therefore
2 x
Uc
x
(3:14)
(3:15)
The potential is zero at the axis of rotation, where x = 0, and the constant of
integration Uc = 0. The equation for the centrifugal potential in terms of the
polar angle is
1
1
Uc 2 x2 2 r2 sin2
2
2
(3:16)
92
GE
Ug
a
Gravity
"
#
2
3
5
a
a
a
1 2 a3
r
P2 cos J4
P4 cos
sin2
J2
r
r
r
2 GE
a
(3:18)
3
The geopotential involves the ratios a/r, (a/r) , and (a/r) , which we develop
using (3.10). Note that the term in (a/r)3 is multiplied by J2 so it must be
evaluated only to rst order in f; the coefcient J4 is itself of order 106, so the
ratio (a/r)5 on the equipotential surface of gravity may be set equal to 1. Then
3
a
3
1
1 3 f 1 f cos2 f 2 cos4 1 3f cos2
(3:19)
r
2
2
For succinctness, let the last term inside the brackets in (3.18) be called . The
ratio r/a is obtained from (3.8), thus
2
1 2 a3
r
sin2
2 GE
a
(3:20)
1 2 a3 1 f 1 f sin2
2
2
GE
1 f sin2
1 1 f sin2
m
2
2
1 f sin2
(3:21)
Here m is the centrifugal acceleration ratio dened in Box 3.2, equation (3),
m
2 a3 1 f
GE
(3:22)
(3:23)
(3:24)
In the equation for the geopotential, the centrifugal term must be combined with
a term in J2P2(cos ), which has the form cos2, and a term in J4P4(cos ), which
93
2 a
2 a3
GE
GE=a2
(1)
(2)
2 R3 2 a3 1 f
GE
GE
(3)
(3:25)
(3:26)
Now we can return to (3.18). By writing the full expressions for P2(cos ) and
P4(cos ) from Table 1.1, and the ratios a/r from (3.10) and (a/r)3 from (3.19),
94
Gravity
and using (3.26) for the centrifugal term, we get the geopotential as a function of
cos2 and cos4:
3
1 f 1 32 f cos2 12 f 2 cos4
2
cos4 =2 7
GE 6
6 J2 1 31 f cos 9f
7
Ug
6
7
5
a 4 J4 3 30 cos2 35 cos4 =8
1
2
4
2 m 1 f 1 3f cos 2f cos
2
(3:27)
After gathering terms to get the coefcients that multiply cos2 and cos4, we
get the nal expression for the geopotential:
2
3
1 f 12 m 12 J2 38 J4
GE 6
7
J4 cos2 5
Ug
4 f 32 f 2 12 m 32 fm 32 1 f J2 15
4
1 2
a
4
2 f mf 92 fJ2 35
8 J4 cos
(3:28)
(3:29)
1 2
9
35
f mf fJ2 J4 0
2
2
8
(3:30)
Since J4 is much smaller than J2, we can neglect it initially and write (3.29) to
rst order:
1
3
f m J2 0
2
2
1
J2 2f m
3
(3:31)
(3:32)
This value for J2 is now inserted into (3.30) to obtain a second-order equation
for J4:
95
J4
(3:33)
By inserting this expression back into (3.29) we eliminate J4 and get an equation
for J2:
2
1
5 4
4 2
2
(3:34)
1 f J2 f m f fm
fm f
3
3
2 7
5
2
1
3
1 f J2 f m f 2 fm
3
3
7
Applying the binomial theorem to rst order in f gives
2
1
3
2
J2
f m f fm 1 f
3
3
7
(3:35)
(3:36)
CA CA
Ea2
ER2
(3:38)
By combining this result with (3.32) we obtain a relationship among the difference in the principal moments of inertia, the attening responsible for the
difference, and the centrifugal acceleration that causes the deformation:
CA 1
2f m
ER2
3
(3:39)
96
Gravity
Hollow cylinder
Hollow sphere
C = MR 2
C=
MR 2
Solid sphere
C=
MR 2
Fig. 3.3. Moments of inertia of a hollow cylinder, hollow sphere, and uniform solid
sphere about an axis of symmetry.
which is manifest in the precession of the equinoxes (see Section 5.3). The rate
of precession is determined by the dynamic ellipticity H, dened as
H
C A B=2 C A
C
C
(3:40)
(3:42)
ER2 3
H
3
1
C ER2
3
(3:43)
Figure 3.3 shows the moments of inertia of some standard objects about an axis
of symmetry. With increasing distribution of the mass of the object closer to its
center, the factor preceding the product MR2 decreases from 1 for an openended hollow cylinder to 0.67 for a hollow spherical shell and 0.4 for a
homogeneous solid sphere. The numerical factor is 0.33 for the Earth, indicating that the density of the Earth is not uniform but increases towards its center,
i.e., the density of the Earth increases with depth.
97
(3:44)
The polar component g is much smaller than the radial component gr, but it has
important effects. It deects the vertical from the radial direction at every point
on the Earth, except at the poles and on the equator. This deection results in a
difference between geocentric and geographic latitude; the maximum difference
is less than 0.2, but this has a large effect on measurements of gravity. The polar
component cannot be neglected, since this would be akin to assuming that
gravity acts in a radial direction at all points. To determine the theoretical
gravity on the reference spheroid we must combine expressions for the radial
and polar components:
!
1=2
1 g 2
2
2
g g r g
(3:45)
gr 1
2 gr
As we will see, the polar component g is of order f, so its effect on gravity is
proportional to f 2. To determine the variation of gravity on the reference
ellipsoid we will have to evaluate the radial component to second order as
well. This makes it necessary to express the shape of the spheroid and the
geopotential to second order in the small quantities f, m, and J2. We must also
use an expression for the gravitational potential up to the coefcient J4, which is
about the same size as the squares and products of these parameters.
(3:46)
The rst term is independent of and drops out of the differentiation. We can
take the centrifugal term inside the square brackets and use the denition of the
centrifugal ratio m as in (3.22):
"
6
4
GE
a
g 2 J2
P2 cos J4
P4 cos
a
r
1
m
r
2
sin
(3:47)
2 1 f a
98
Gravity
The Legendre polynomials P2(cos ) and P4(cos ) are listed in Table 1.1.
Differentiating them with respect to gives
3 cos2 1
P2 cos
3 cos sin
(3:48)
2
35 cos4 30 cos2 3
P4 cos
5
(3:49)
cos sin 7 cos2 3
2
On substituting these into (3.47) and simplifying, we obtain
"
#
6
4
GE
a
5
a
m
r
J4
7 cos2 3
g 2 sin cos 3J2
a
r
2
r
1f a
(3:50)
As explained above, we need to evaluate g only to rst order in f, so terms with
J4 and the products fJ2 and fm may be neglected. The ratios (a/r)4, (a/r)6, and r/a
may be set effectively equal to 1. We dene
g0
GE
a2
(3:51)
(3:52)
Now we recall the relationship among J2, f, and m established in (3.32) and
substitute for J2, which gives the rst-order expression
g g0 f sin2
(3:53)
Note that g is positive for 90 and negative for 90 180, i.e., in each
hemisphere g acts in the direction from the pole to the equator.
3
5
GE a
a
a
P2 cos J4
P4 cos
J2
gr
r
a
r
r
r
#)
2
1 2 a3
r
sin2
(3:54)
2 GE
a
GE
gr 2
a
"
4
6
2
a
a
a
P2 cos 5J4
P4 cos
3J2
r
r
r
m
r
2
sin
1f a
99
(3:55)
(3:56)
For term T1, using the ratio a/r dened in (3.10), and neglecting terms of higher
order than f 2, the rst term in square brackets is
2
a
3
1
1 2f 1 f cos2 f cos4
r
2
2
2
3
1
f 2 cos4 1 f f cos2
(3:57)
2
2
Thus
T1 1 2f 3f 2 cos2
(3:58)
For term T2, the term in (a/r)4 is multiplied by J2, so we need only expand it to
order f :
4
a
3
1
2
4
1 4 f 1 f cos f cos
(3:59)
r
2
2
4
a
1 4f cos2
(3:60)
r
Using the expansion of the Legendre polynomial P2(cos ) given in Table 1.1,
3
T2 3J2 1 4f cos2 P2 cos J2 1 4f cos2 3 cos2 1
2
(3:61)
3
3
T2 J2 3 2f J2 cos2 18fJ2 cos4
(3:62)
2
2
For term T3, the term in (a/r)6 is multiplied by J4, which is of order 106, so
we can neglect products of J4 with f. Effectively we can set (a/r)6 equal to 1.
Using the expansion of P4(cos ),
5
T3 5J4 P4 cos J4 3 30 cos2 35 cos4
8
(3:63)
100
Gravity
For term T4, the ratio r/a is given by (3.8), and to second order this term is
m
1f
sin2
(3:64)
T4
m sin2 1 f sin2
2
1f
1 f sin
On converting the sines to cosines for compatibility with the other terms we obtain
T4 m1 f m1 2f cos2 mf cos4
Now we can insert these four terms into (3.56):
2
3
1 f 2 3f cos2
6 3
7
6 J2 3 3 2f J2 cos2 18fJ2 cos4 7
2
2
6
7
gr g0 6
7
4 58 J4 3 30 cos2 35 cos4
5
2
4
m1 f m1 2f cos mf cos
(3:65)
(3:66)
3
1 32 J2 15
J4 m1 f
8
2 7
6
gr g0 4 f 2 3f 3 32 2f J2 75
4 J4 m1 2f cos 5
4
mf 18fJ2 175
8 J4 cos
(3:67)
J2 and J4 can be replaced by expressions in f and m, as in (3.37) and (3.33),
respectively. After expanding and grouping the terms, the radial gravity component becomes
2
3
1 f 32 m f 2 27
14 fm
6
72
2
2 7
(3:68)
gr g0 4 52 m f 13
2 f 7 fm cos 5
15
2
4
2 fm 11
2 f cos
(3:69)
101
3
1 f 32 m f 2 27
14 fm
2 7
6 5
2
39
7
gr g0 6
4 2 m f f 14 fm sin c 5
18 f15m 11f sin2 2c
(3:70)
Note that the polar component g (see (3.53)) referred to geocentric latitude is
unaltered:
g g0 f sin2 g0 f sin2c
(3:71)
Gravity on the reference gure of the Earth acts normal to the ellipsoidal
equipotential surface. It is computed by combining the radial and polar components as in (3.45):
2 !
2 !
1 g
1 2 2
3
gr 1 f sin 2c 1 f m
g gr 1
2 gr
2
2
(3:72)
1
g gr 1 f 2 sin2 2c
2
(3:73)
Thus the polar component affects only the sin2(2c) term in (3.70), and gravity
on the reference ellipsoid is given by
2
3
1 f 32 m f 2 27
14 fm
6 5
2 7
2
39
7
g g0 6
(3:74)
4 2 m f f 14 fm sin c 5
18 f15m 7f sin2 2c
Let the value of gravity at the equator, where sin c = sin(2c) = 0, be
3
27
ge g0 1 f m f 2 fm
2
14
(3:75)
Taking this out of the bracketed expression and using the binomial expansion to
rst order in f gives
1
3
27
g ge 1A sin2 c f15m7f sin2 2c 1 f m f 2 fm
8
2
14
(3:76)
2
where, for succinctness, A 52 m f f 2 39
14 fm. The coefcient of sin (2c)
is already of second order, so, when we multiply the terms, only the coefcient
A of sin2c is affected. It expands to
102
Gravity
5
39
3
27
m f f 2 fm 1 f m f 2 fm
2
14
2
14
5
39
5
15 2 3
2
2
m f f fm fm f m fm
2
14
2
4
2
5
15
17
m f m2 fm
2
4
14
(3:77)
The nal expression for the variation of gravity with geocentric latitude is
5
15
17
1
g ge 1
m f m2 fm sin2 c f15m 7f sin2 2c
2
4
14
8
(3:78)
5
gp ge 1
mf
(3:79)
2
Rearranging this equation gives
gp ge 5
mf
ge
2
(3:80)
This is the Clairaut formula for the difference between the gravity at the pole
and that at the equator, attributed to a French mathematician and astronomer,
Alexis Claude de Clairaut (17131765).
103
ac
aG g
(a)
(b)
r d
vertical
H
dr
N
horizontal
H
N
Fig. 3.5. (a) The difference ( c) between geographic latitude and geocentric
latitude c is the same as the angle between the horizontal and a plane perpendicular
to the radius. (b) Details of the construction of a small triangle whose sides PN and
PH contain the angle ( c).
at P form the same angle. Consider a small increase d in the polar angle for the
point P. The radius to the surface increases by a small amount dr, and there is an
angular displacement r d perpendicular to the radius. These increments displace the intersection of the radius with the surface along the ellipsoid. The three
displacements form a small triangle PNH (Fig. 3.5(b)), whose sides PN and PH
contain the angle ( c). In the triangle PNH
tan c
dr
r d
(3:81)
104
Gravity
r d r d 1 f sin2
a f2 sin cos
r 1 f sin2 2
(3:82)
f sin2
Because is the complement of c, we can replace sin(2) by sin(2c) and obtain
the result
tan c f sin2c
(3:83)
The difference = c is very small, because the tangent of the angle is less
than f,
c tan1 f 0:19
(3:84)
The small difference allows us to replace the tangent in (3.83) with the angle (in
radians), so that
c f sin2c
c f sin2c
(3:85)
(3:86)
(3:87)
On comparing (3.87) with (3.78), we note that the constant b1 contains terms of
both rst and second order in f and m, whereas b2 is entirely of second order.
This allows us to simplify the conversions.
105
(3:90)
Next, we combine (3.88) and (3.89) to get an expression for sin2(2c), which is,
to rst order in ,
sin2c 2sin cos cos sin
2 sin cos 2 cos2 sin2 22 sin cos
sin2 2 cos2
(3:91)
(3:93)
(3:94)
(3:95)
Substituting (3.93) and (3.95) into (3.87) gives the gravity formula for geographic latitude :
(3:96)
gn ge 1 b1 sin2 f sin2 2 b2 sin2 2
gn ge 1 b1 sin2 b2 fb1 sin2 2
(3:97)
106
Gravity
The coefcient of sin2 is the same as that of sin2c in the gravity formula (3.87)
for geocentric latitude, but the coefcient of sin2(2) is modied to
1
5
15 2 17
b2 f b1 f15m 7f f m f m fm
8
2
4
14
(3:98)
1
f f 5m
8
On replacing b1 and b2 by the corresponding expressions in (3.78), we get the
normal gravity formula
(3:99)
gn ge 1 1 sin2 2 sin2 2
in which gn is the normal gravity at geographic latitude on the International
Reference Ellipsoid, ge is its value at the equator, and 1 and 2 are small
constants, given by
5
15
17
1 m f m2 fm
2
4
14
1 2
2 f 5fm
8
(3:100)
From (3.51) and (3.75) the value of gravity on the equator is given by
GE
3
27
ge 2 1 f m f 2 fm
a
2
14
local
gravity
107
geoid
G
h
E
ellipsoid
mass
excess
Fig. 3.6. Elevation of the geoid above the reference ellipsoid due to an excess of
mass below the ellipsoid, and related local deections of the direction of gravity.
After Lowrie (2007).
decit depresses the geoid below the spheroid. The undulations of the geoid
with respect to the spheroid correlate with the gravity anomalies caused by the
inhomogeneity of density. The height of the geoid relative to the spheroid may
be calculated from an analysis of these gravity anomalies.
W
g
(3:101)
Gravity observations are rst corrected for local topography and transient tidal
effects. The corrected value is then reduced to the reference surface by compensating for the altitude of the measurement station. A gravity anomaly is
computed by subtracting the theoretical gravity for the latitude of the measurement station. However, altitudes are specied relative to mean sea-level, so the
altitude adjustment reduces the gravity value to the geoid rather than the
ellipsoid. The gravity anomaly after corrections and reduction is specied at
the point G on the geoid, but the reference value is computed for the point E on
the ellipsoid (Fig. 3.6). The height difference corresponds to the geoid undulation, which must be taken into account in an accurate gravity survey.
The gravity anomaly g at the point G arises from two superposed effects.
The main effect is the gravitational attraction of the additional mass. This causes
108
Gravity
W
r
(3:102)
The second contribution g2 to the gravity anomaly is the effect of the distance
h between the geoid and spheroid. This can be computed in an analogous way to
the gravity free-air correction:
g
r
g
GE
g
2 2
r r
r
r
Dg2 h
(3:103)
(3:104)
On combining the two contributions, we get for the gravity anomaly of the
anomalous mass
W
W
Dg Dg1 Dg2
2
(3:105)
r
r
The geoid undulations h are much smaller than the Earths radius R, so it is
unimportant if this expression is evaluated on the spherical Earth rather than on
the actual spheroid. We can conveniently use the surface of the sphere r = R, in
which case
1 2
(3:106)
r W
Dg 2
r r
rR
1 X
n
X
n0 m0
m
gm
n Yn ;
(3:107)
109
1 X
n
X
Bm Ym ;
n
rn1
n0 m0
(3:108)
Multiplying by r2 gives
r2 W
1 X
n
X
Bm Ym ;
n
n0 m0
rn1
(3:109)
1 X
n
2 X
Bm Ym ;
n 1 n n n
rW
r
r
n0 m0
(3:110)
Upon inserting this expression into (3.106) and evaluating on the surface r = R,
we have
Dg;
1 X
n
X
n 1
n0 m0
m
Bm
n Yn ;
Rn2
(3:111)
Note that there is no term for n = 1 in this sum; also, the term for n = 0 is a
constant, which may be considered part of the overall potential, but is not of
interest for the anomalies. Thus the summation begins at n = 2. On comparing
the coefcients of Ym
n ; in (3.107) and (3.111), we have
Dgm
n n 1
Bm
n
Bm
n
Rn2
Rn2 m
g
n1 n
(3:112)
(3:113)
This expression can now be substituted into (3.108) for the potential,
n1
1 X
n
X
1
R
m
WR
Dgm
(3:114)
n Yn ;
n
1
r
n2 m0
Computation of the height of the geoid is simplied by introducing a zonal
approximation. The distribution of gravity anomalies Ym
n ; is replaced by
zonal harmonics, which are essentially the zeroth-order Legendre polynomials
Pn(cos ). Effectively, the gravity anomalies at co-latitude are summed over
longitude . Compared with (3.107), we make the replacement
110
Gravity
D
gn Pn cos
n
X
m
gm
n Yn ;
(3:115)
m0
As a result the gravity anomalies on the surface of the sphere are now represented by
1
X
Dg;
D
gn Pn cos
(3:116)
n2
1
X
Z2 Z
n2
Pn cos 2 sin d d
D
gn
0 0
(3:117)
Let cos = x, then sin d = dx, and, on integrating with respect to , we have
ZZ
Dg; Pn cos d 2
1
X
n2
Z1
Pn x2 dx 4
D
gn
x1
D
gn
2n 1
(3:118)
The last step uses the normalization of the Legendre polynomials (Section 1.13.2).
We can now obtain D
gn from (3.118) and insert it into (3.114) to nd the
potential W of the geoid elevation. Using (3.101), we get the height of the geoid
undulation:
h
1
R X
4g n2
ZZ
S
2n 1 R n1
Pn cos Dg; d
n1 r
(3:119)
The summation under the integration reduces to a function of the angle only,
which we designate F(). With this function the height of the geoid is
ZZ
R
FDg; dS
(3:120)
h
4g
S
111
n1
1
X
2n 1 R
n2
n1
Pn cos
(3:121)
Pn cos
2
rn1
u r n0 r
r
r
n2
(3:122)
(3:123)
1 n1
X
R
n2
n1
1
R
Pn cos 3
Pn cos (3:124)
n1 r
n2
1
X
The rst term on the right is simply 2R times the left-hand side of (3.123).
To evaluate the second term on the right we note that
1
r2
Z1
r
dr
1
1
rn n 1 rn1
(3:125)
This relationship can be used to change the second expression on the right of
(3.124) to
n1
Z1 X
1
1
R
3
Rn1
3
Pn cos 2
Pn cos dr
rn
n1 r
r
n2
n2
1
X
3R
r2
Z1 X
1
Rn
r
Pn cos dr
rn1
n2
r
112
Gravity
n1
Z1
1
R
3R
r
R cos
3
Pn cos 2
1
dr
n1 r
r
u
r
n2
r
9
8
Z1
=
<
3R
r dr
2
r R cos log r1
r
;
r :
u
1
X
(3:126)
The integration on the right must be done in several steps because the denominator u is a function of r. We must rst rewrite the equation in a more tractable
form:
Z1
r dr
Z1
r
r dr
p
r2 2rR cos R2
Z1
r
r R cos R cos
q dr
r R cos 2 R2 sin2
(3:127)
Z1
r
r dr
Z1
r
r R cos dr
q
r R cos 2 R2 sin2
Z1
r
R cos dr
q
r R cos 2 R2 sin2
(3:128)
Next, we carry out each of these integrations separately: the rst part is simply
Z
r R cos dr
q
r R cos 2 R2 sin2
q
r R cos 2 R2 sin2 u (3:129)
For the second part we make use of the following standard integration:
Z
p
a
p dy a log y y2 b2
(3:130)
y2 b2
Letting y = r R cos , a = R cos , and b = R sin in this equation, the second
integration becomes
Z
R cos dr
q R cos log r R cos :
r R cos 2 R2 sin2
p
r2 2rR cos R2
R cos logr R cos u
Combining (3.128), (3.129), and (3.131) gives
(3:131)
r dr
u R cos logr R cos u1
r
u
113
(3:132)
(3:133)
At the limits of the integration we cannot insert r = directly. However, for very
large r,
1=2
2R cos R2
1 2R cos
ur 1
2
r R cos
r 1
r
r
2
r
(3:134)
Now we substitute this result into (3.133) to get the upper limit of the bracketed
expression:
u R cos logr R cos u r R cos log r1
R cos R cos log2r R cos R cos log r
r R cos
R cos log 2
1
r
R cos log 2 1
(3:135)
Now we add this result to 2R times (3.123) to get the solution of (3.124):
1 1 R cos
Fr; 2R
u r
r2
3R
r R cos u
2 R cos u r R cos log
r
2r
(3:137)
114
Gravity
P
u/2
r =R
u/2
/2
Fig. 3.7. Geometry for calculation of the geoid height at a point P from gravity
measurements. G is a point on the surface of the Earth at which gravity was
measured.
The point P at which the geoid height is to be calculated and the point G at
which a gravity measurement is known lie on the surface of the Earth, where r =
R, as in Fig. 3.7. These points form an isosceles triangle with the center of the
Earth at O, so that u 2R sin(/2) and
r R cos u 1
1 cos 2 sin
sin
sin
2r
2
2
2
2
(3:138)
On substituting into (3.137), and noting that on the surface of the sphere F(r,)
becomes F(), we have
1
1 cos
F 2
2 sin=2
1 6 sin
5 cos
F
sin=2
2
Further reading
115
150
100
F( )
50
180
0
0
30
60
90
120
polar angle, ( )
150
180
Fig. 3.8. Variation with angular distance of the function F() in Stokes formula
for the height of the geoid.
further reading
Bullen, K. E. (1975). The Earths Density. London: Chapman and Hall, 420 pp.
Groten, E. (1979). Geodesy and the Earths Gravity Field. Bonn: Dmmler, 409 pp.
Hofmann-Wellenhof, B. and Moritz, H. (2006). Physical Geodesy, 2nd edn. Vienna:
Springer, 403 pp.
Torge, W. (1989). Gravimetry. Berlin: de Gruyter, 465 pp.
4
The tides
The gravitational attractions of the Moon and Sun deform the Earth, giving rise
to the periodic uctuations of the oceanic surface known as the marine tides.
The same forces also give rise to bodily tides in the solid Earth. The Moons
mass is much smaller than that of the Sun, but the lunar tidal effect is greater
than the Suns, because the Moon is much closer to the Earth. We rst analyze
the lunar tides, then take account of the solar tidal effects.
(4:1)
and hence
d
M
rL
EM
(4:2)
The mass-ratio of Moon and Earth M/E is equal to 0.0123, and the distance
between Earth and Moon is 384,400 km, so the distance d is 4,670 km; i.e., the
barycenter lies within the Earth. The center of the Earth moves around this point
with the same rotational angular velocity L as does the Moon (Fig. 4.1), and
describes a circle with radius d.
116
117
M
R
d
O
rL
F
Fig. 4.1. Geometry of Earth and Moon in the plane of the Moons orbit. The
barycenter of the rotation is at B; L is the rotation rate of the Moon about its axis
and about the Earth; is the Earths own rotation rate, assumed normal to the
Moons orbit.
Let the EarthMoon barycenter be at B and the center of the Earth at O; let the
Earths radius be R, the Moons mass be M, and the distance between the centers
of Earth and Moon be rL, as in Fig. 4.1. At the center of the Earth, the gravitational acceleration aO towards the Moon exactly balances the centrifugal
acceleration ac = L2 d of the Earths motion around the circle with radius d, thus
GM
2L d
r2L
(4:3)
The point F on the far side of the Earth is at distance rL + R from the Moon
and R + d from the barycenter. The gravitational acceleration at F towards the
Moon is balanced by the centrifugal acceleration away from the Moon, and the
net acceleration at F towards the Moon is
aF
GM
rL R2
2L R d
(4:4)
(4:5)
The term L2d is again the centrifugal acceleration of a rotation about a circle
with radius d, and is directed away from the Moon. The centrifugal acceleration
L2R is also directed away from the Moon. It corresponds to motion of the point
F about a circle with radius R. This rotation displaces F to F in Fig. 4.1 and is a
component of the Earths rotation about its own axis. It does not contribute to
the lunar tidal acceleration. Omitting this term and using the result of (4.3), we
have for the tide-raising acceleration at F
118
The tides
GMR
GMR2
aF 2 3 3
r4L
rL
(4:6)
The negative sign indicates that the net acceleration at F is away from the Moon.
This causes a tide on the far side of the Earth from the Moon.
Similar arguments can be applied to the accelerations at N on the near side of the
Earth, which is at distance rL R from the Moon and R d from the barycenter.
The centrifugal acceleration of the common rotation augments the gravitational
acceleration of the Moon, and the net acceleration aN towards the Moon is
aN
GM
rL R2
2L R d
(4:7)
The binomial expansion leads to the following equation for the acceleration at N
towards the Moon:
GM
GMR
GMR2
2 3 3
(4:8)
aN
2L d 2L R
r2L
r4L
rL
As before, the bracketed term is the lunar gravitational attraction and the
centrifugal acceleration L2d is away from the barycenter. The centrifugal
acceleration L2R is now directed towards the Moon, as expected for a rotation
about the Earths axis. The tide-raising acceleration at N is
GMR
GMR2
aN 2 3 3
(4:9)
r4L
rL
This acceleration acts towards the Moon and is responsible for the tide on the
near side of the Earth.
The balance of the tidal forces is summarized in Fig. 4.2. The centrifugal
acceleration L2d away from the Moon is present at all points of the Earth.
Earth
ac
F
aF
ac
a O ac
O
aN
Moon
Fig. 4.2. Accelerations responsible for the lunar tides on the Earth: aF, aO, and aN
are the gravitational accelerations of the Moon at the furthest point (F), center of the
Earth (O), and nearest point (N) to the Moon; ac is the constant acceleration due to
the Earths rotation about the barycenter, excluding the component of this rotation
about Earths own axis.
119
It arises from the rigid-body rotation of the Earth about the barycenter (see
Lowrie (2007) for a graphical explanation).
Comparison of (4.6) and (4.9) shows that the tidal accelerations at F and N are
unequal. As a result, the lunar tide on the near side of the Earth is higher than
that on the far side. A more detailed analysis of the tidal components and the
direction of the tide-raising forces on the Earth is obtained by examining the
tidal potential.
M
Mr cos
Mr2 P2 cos
Mr3 P3 cos
G
G
G
2
3
rL
rL
r4L
rL
(4:11)
E
r
O x Q
u
M
rL
Fig. 4.3. Calculation of the lunar potential for a point P in the Earth at distance r
from Earths center and distance u from the Moon.
120
The tides
This equation is equivalent to a sum of individual potential terms, the rst few of
which give
W W0 W1 W 2 W3
(4:12)
M
rL
(4:13)
(4:14)
This potential does not play a role in the tidal deformation of the Earth.
Potential W1
W1 G
Mr cos
M
G 2 x
r2L
rL
(4:15)
Here we have dened OQ in Fig. 4.3 as x = r cos . The x-axis is along the
direction to the Moon. The gradient of the potential W1 gives
W1
GM
;
0;
0
(4:16)
a1 rW1
x
r2L
This acceleration acts in the direction of positive x, i.e., towards the Moon. It is
independent of the position coordinates (r, ) and is therefore constant throughout the body of the Earth. It does not contribute to the tide-raising forces but
balances the centrifugal acceleration of the EarthMoon rotation about their
common barycenter. An equal and opposite acceleration acts on the Moon and
holds it in orbit around the Earth.
Potential W2
W2 G
Mr2 P2 cos
r3L
(4:17)
This is the potential of the main tidal deformation. It is much larger than all
following terms and is regarded as the tidal potential, except in detailed
analyses. It is proportional to the second-order Legendre polynomial
(a)
121
(c)
(b)
P2
P2 + P3
P3
Fig. 4.4. Components of the lunar potential (not to scale): (a) main symmetric
deformation proportional to a second-order Legendre polynomial; (b) next-largest
component of deformation, proportional to a third-order Legendre polynomial; and
(c) superposition of these components that gives rise to the diurnal tidal inequality.
P2(cos ) and so has rotational symmetry about the EarthMoon axis and gives
equal tides on opposite sides of the Earth (Fig. 4.4(a)). For use in later discussions, let
A G
M
r3L
(4:18)
This enables us to write the tidal potential in the more compact form
W2 Ar2 P2 cos Ar2 P2
(4:19)
Potential W3
W3 G
Mr3 P3 cos
r4L
(4:20)
W3
r3 P3 cos
r
P3
r3L
This and higher-order terms in the tidal potential are usually disregarded except
in detailed evaluation of the tidal heights.
122
The tides
ar
(4:22)
a
(4:23)
These accelerations cause tidal displacements that are vertical (i.e., radial) on the
EarthMoon axis at = 0 and = , as well as at an angular distance = /2
from the axis. At intermediate locations the tide-raising forces have a horizontal
as well as a radial component (Fig. 4.5).
+/2
to the
Moon
/2
Fig. 4.5. Direction of the lunar tidal-raising force as a function of angular distance
from the EarthMoon axis.
123
Table 4.1. Rotational and orbital parameters of the Earth and Moon (sources:
Groten, 2004; McCarthy and Petit, 2004).
Parameter
Symbol
Units
Value
Mass of Sun
Heliocentric gravitational constant
Mass of Earth
Geocentric gravitational constant
Solar mass ratio, S/E
Mass of Moon
Selenocentric gravitational constant
Lunar mass ratio, M/E
Mean geocentric radius of the
Moons orbit
Mean heliocentric radius of Earths
orbit
Present rotation rate of the Earth
Moment of inertia of Earth about its
rotation axis
Angular momentum of EarthMoon
system
Earths mean radius
Moons mean radius
S
GS
E
GE
S
M
GM
L
rL
1030 kg
1014 m3 s2
1024 kg
1020 m3 s2
105
1022 kg
1012 m3 s2
108 m
1.988 92
3.986 004 418
5.973 7
1.327 124 4
3.329 46
7.347 7
4.902 799
0.012 300 034
3.844
rS
1011 m
1.495 874 4
0
C
105 rad s1
1037 kg m2
7.292 1
8.019
1034 kg m2 s1
3.435
R
RL
106 m
106 m
6.371 000 4
1.738
and distance from the Earth is contained in the factor A dened in (4.18), which
we will call AL for this comparison. The tidal effect of the Sun depends on a
similar factor AS, in which the mass S of the Sun replaces the lunar mass M, and
the EarthSun separation rS replaces the EarthMoon separation rL. At any
given point (r, ) on the Earth the ratio AL/AS expresses the relative effects of the
lunar and solar tide-raising accelerations:
aL AL GM=r3L M rS 3
2:2
(4:24)
aS A S
S rL
GS=r3S
The masses of Sun and Moon, and their distances from the Earth are listed in
Table 4.1. The ratio of the Suns mass to the Moons mass (S/M) is about
27,000,000. The ratio of the Suns distance to the Moons distance (rS/rL) is
389. However, in comparing the lunar and solar tidal effects the distance-ratio is
cubed, which attenuates the tidal effect of the Sun more than it does that of the
Moon. Consequently, the Sun is responsible for only about one third of the
observed tide, with two thirds being caused by the Moon.
124
The tides
The lunar and solar tidal accelerations depend on the relative phases of the
Sun and Moon. When they are aligned, on the same side of the Earth (known as
conjunction) or on opposite sides (opposition), their tidal accelerations reinforce
each other and give rise to extra-high spring tides. When the directions to Sun
and Moon are perpendicular, the tidal accelerations are in quadrature and tend
to cancel each other out partially, causing extra-low neap tides.
W2
g
(4:25)
Tidal deformations are the elastic response of the Earth to the lunar deforming
forces. The redistribution of mass gives rise to an additional potential, which
must be taken into account in analyzing the tidal potential. In 1911, A. E. H.
Love, an English mathematician, reasoned that the extra potential U2 of the
deformation should be proportional to the deforming potential W2, i.e.,
U2 kW2
(4:26)
W 2 U2
W2
1 k
g
g
(4:27)
The solid body of the Earth is involved in the tidal response. The potential of
the solid surface displacement is also proportional to the perturbing potential
125
(1 + k )W2
W2
U(R + H 0)
H0
H1
H2
U(R)
Fig. 4.6. Factors involved in computation of the height of the equilibrium tide on
an elastic Earth. W2 is the lunar tidal potential and k is Loves rst number.
W2, with proportionality constant h, so the height H2 of the bodily tide can be
expressed as
H2 h
W2
g
(4:28)
On combining the results, the height H of the equilibrium tide is seen with
reference to Fig. 4.6 to be
H H1 H2 1 k h
W2
H0
g
(4:29)
where
1kh
(4:30)
Here is the ratio of the observed vertical tidal height to the theoretical height
on a rigid Earth (k = h = 0). Empirical values can be obtained from direct
measurements of tidal height. However, restrictive conditions for direct tidal
observations must be observed. The body of water must be small enough that it
has a short reaction time to the perturbing potential and there is no phase lag.
The shape and bathymetry of the body of water must not amplify the tidal
effects. For these reasons enclosed bodies of water with natural periods less than
a day have been favored in direct measurements. These give a value 0.7.
126
The tides
deformation. For the rst of these it is adequate to substitute the Earths gravitational potential, while the second potential is the lunar deforming potential W2.
As explained in the previous section, the lunar tide corresponds to a mass
redistribution within the Earth, which has a potential kW2. We need to determine
the potential of this deformation outside the Earth on the measurement surface.
Equation (4.19) shows that the deformation potential kW2 is equal to
kAr2P2(cos ). This is a solution of Laplaces equation for a space in which r
can be zero, i.e., inside the Earth. We seek a solution that is valid outside the
Earth. In general, a potential satisfying Laplaces equation may be written
B
2
(4:31)
Ar 3 P2 cos
r
We separate this potential into two potentials for different realms:
i Ar2 P2 cos ; r 5 R
B
e 3 P2 cos ; r R
r
(4:32)
The rst part, i, is valid inside the Earth, where r can be zero; the second part,
e, is valid outside the Earth, where r can be innite. The two solutions vary
differently with radial distance. At the same azimuth from the symmetry axis
they are in the ratio
e B=r3
B 1
(4:33)
i
Ar2
A r5
The potential must be continuous at the Earths surface, i.e., e = i where r = R,
thus
B
R5
A
(4:34)
5
R
e
i
r
(4:35)
and
By applying this result to the lunar tidal deformation, we nd that its potential
inside the Earth is kW2, so its potential outside the Earth is kW2(R/r)5. Thus the
potential UT of the tidal gravity anomaly, as measured outside the Earth, is
UT G
5
E
R
W2 kW2
r
r
(4:36)
127
The rst term represents the gravity potential of the undeformed Earth, the
second term that of the Moon. The third term is the gravity potential associated
with the tidal deformation. The acceleration due to gravity is the radial gradient
due to UT:
5
UT
E
R
G 2 W2 k W2
(4:37)
gr
r
r
r
r
r
Each term must be evaluated at the surface of the solid Earth. The tidal displacement
of the solid surface (4.28) raises this to the position
H0
(4:38)
r R H2 R 1 h
R
The tidal elevation H0 is very small compared with the Earths radius, so we can
make use of the binomial expansion to rst order, by writing
H0 n
H0
1h
1 nh
(4:39)
R
R
On differentiating the rst term in (4.36) and using this simplication, we get
E
E
H0 2
G 2 1 h
G 2
R
r rR1hH0 =R
R
H0
(4:40)
gR 1 2h
R
Differentiating the second term and neglecting terms of order (H0/R)2 and
higher gives
2
W2
W2 Ar P2 cos 2
r rR1hH0 =R
r
r
H0
H0
1h
2g
R
R
H0
2gR
(4:41)
R
By applying the same rules to expand the third term in (4.37) we obtain
5
R
R5
k W2
kAP2 cos
r
r
r r3
R5
3kAP2 cos 4
r
(4:42)
128
3kAP2 cos
The tides
R5
R5
H0
3kAP
cos
1
4h
2
r4 rR1hH0 =R
R4
R
W2
H0
1 4h
3k
R
R
5
R
H0
k W2
3kgR
R
r
r
(4:43)
(4:44)
(4:45)
(4:46)
The difference between g(r) and g(R) is the gravity anomaly g caused by the
lunar tide on the deformed Earth:
H0
3
1h k
(4:47)
Dg gr gR 2gR
R
2
If the Earth were rigid (k = h = 0) and unable to deform in response to the lunar
tidal forces, there would still be a tidal gravity anomaly, corresponding to the
gravitational attraction of the Moon
Dg0 2gR
H0
R
(4:48)
Thus,
3
Dg Dg0 1 h k g0
2
(4:49)
3
1h k
2
(4:50)
where
is the ratio of the observed tidal gravity anomaly on the deformed Earth to the
theoretical value for a rigid Earth. Direct measurements give 1.15.
The simultaneous solution of (4.30) and (4.50) using the measured values for
and yields values k 0.3 and h 0.6 for the Love numbers.
129
(4:51)
The effect of the horizontal tide is to deect the vertical direction. The
deforming tidal potential W2 produces horizontal components of gravity g
and g in the directions of increasing polar angle and longitude , respectively. At the Earths surface r = R these are given by
1 Wh
R
1 Wh
g
R sin
g
(4:52)
(4:53)
The deections of the vertical of tidal origin are obtained by combining (4.51),
(4.52), and (4.53):
1 W2
gR
1
W2
1 k l
gR sin
1 k l
(4:54)
(4:55)
130
The tides
The quantity
1kl
(4:56)
represents the ratio of the observed deection of the vertical caused by the lunar
tide on an elastic Earth to the theoretical deection for a rigid Earth. Analysis of
the tidal deection of the vertical shows that Shidas number is a very small
quantity (l 0.08).
131
E
2.9
P
F1
F2
Fig. 4.7. Relationship of the torque that decelerates the Earths rotation to the delay
of the lunar tidal bulge due to inelastic and frictional effects.
to the Moon than P, the force F2 is stronger than F1; also, the acute angle at Q is
larger than the acute angle at P, so the component of F2 normal to the axis of the
tidal bulge is larger than that of F1. The forces cause a torque on the spinning
Earth opposite to its direction of rotation. The frictional torque slows the Earths
rotation, causing the length of the day to increase by about 2.4 seconds per
century. To maintain constant angular momentum of the closed EarthMoon
system, the rates of rotation of the Moon about its axis and about the Earth also
decrease, and the EarthMoon separation increases. The Moons rotation rate
about its axis has decreased to the extent that it is now synchronous with its
rotation rate about the Earth. As a result an observer on Earth always seems to
see the same face of the Moon.
In fact, the maximum amount of the Moons surface visible at any time from
the Earth is about 40%, because the curvature of the Moons surface means that
the periphery of the lunar globe is not visible from Earth. However, the Moons
orbit is slightly elliptical, its axis is slightly tilted to the pole to its orbit around
the Earth, and due to Earths rotation an observer views the Moon from slightly
different angles at different times of day. These effects cause irregularities in the
Moons motion as viewed from Earth called librations that over time enable
us to see 59% of the Moons surface.
132
The tides
The angular momentum of the system consists of contributions from (1) the
Earth about its rotation axis, C; (2) the Moon about its rotation axis, CLL;
(3) the Earth about the barycenter, Ed2L; and (4) the Moon about the barycenter, M(rL d)2L. The sum of these terms is
h C CL L Ed 2 L MrL d2 L
(4:57)
It was shown in Section 3.3.2 that the moment of inertia of a sphere is proportional to its mass times the square of its radius. The proportionality constants for
most Earth-like planets are around 0.3, so the ratio of the angular momenta of
the Earth and Moon can be estimated:
CL L M RL 2 L
1 1 1
3:3 105
(4:58)
C
E R
81 13 27
In this comparison the lunar mass ratio is M/E = 0.0123 = 1/81, the equatorial
radius of the Moon is RL 1,738 km, that of the Earth is R = 6,378 km, and the
lunar sidereal rotation rate is 27.3 days. The very small value of the ratio shows
that the angular momentum of the Moons own rotation can be ignored in this
discussion.
From (4.2) the distance of the center of the Moon from the barycenter is
rL d
E
rL
EM
(4:59)
By inserting this and (4.2) into (4.57), we get the angular momentum of the
EarthMoon system:
2
2
M
E
2
2
h C EL rL
ML rL
(4:60)
EM
EM
EM
(4:61)
h C L r2L
EM
(4:62)
133
(4:63)
and thus
GE M 2L r3L
(4:64)
This is, in fact, Keplers Third Law for the EarthMoon system. Now we square
both sides, getting
G2 E M2 4L r6L
(4:65)
EM
EM
3
(4:66)
G2 E M2 E3 M3
L
E M 3
(4:67)
Simplifying so that only the constant terms G, E, and M are on the right of the
equation, we have
L h C3
G2 E3 M3
EM
(4:68)
The lunar tidal friction acts as a brake on the Earths rotation, slowing it down
and increasing the length of the day by about 2.4 ms per century. The total
angular momentum of the system, h, is constant, as is the right-hand side of the
equation. Thus, if on the left-hand side of the equation is decreasing, the lunar
rotation L must also be decreasing. At the same time, in order to maintain
(4.64), the distance between the Earth and Moon, rL, must be increasing. At
present the increase amounts to about 3.7 cm per year.
134
The tides
to move further from the Earth. How far will the Moon be from the Earth when
the rotations are synchronous? We can answer this question by setting L = in
(4.68). For convenience we also normalize the rotation in terms of 0, the
present rate of rotation of the Earth:
h
3
G2 E 3 M3
(4:69)
3 4
0 C0 0
C 0 E M
Let the normalized rotation rate be n = /0 and the normalized angular
momentum be a = h/(C0), and let the expression on the right-hand side of the
equation be b. Both a and b are constants, so we have to solve an equation with
the form
na n3 b
(4:70)
This fourth-order equation in n has four roots, of which two are imaginary
and of no interest, and two are real. The real roots, obtained numerically or
graphically as in Box 4.1, are n = 0.213 and n = 4.92. The rst solution
(1)
in which the normalized rotation rate is n = /0, and the constants a and b
are
a
h
C0
G2 E3 M3
M
C3 40 E
(2)
(3)
(4)
135
(5)
4:272
n
(6)
F2 n
and nding the values of n that give F1(n) = F2(n). Alternatively, the
functions can be plotted as in Fig. B4.1 and the points of intersection of the
curves determined.
The equation has only two real roots, which are n = 0.0213 and n = 4.92.
300
= 0.213
0
F1(n), F2(n)
200
F2(n)
100
F1 (n)
= 4.92
0
0.02 0.05
0
0.01
0.10
1.0
relative rotation rate, n = /0
10
Fig. B4.1. Graphical solution for , the synchronous rotation rate of the Earth
and Moon; 0 is the present rotation rate of the Earth.
136
The tides
further reading
5
Earths rotation
The Earth is not rigid and its rotation causes it to deform, attening at the poles
and bulging at the equator. The gravitational attractions of Sun and Moon on the
equatorial bulge result in torques on the Earth, which cause additional motions of
the rotation axis, known as precession and nutation. These motions occur relative
to a coordinate system xed in space, for example in the solar system. The
rotation axis is inclined to the pole to the ecliptic plane at a mean angle of
23.425; this angle is the obliquity of the axis. Precession is a very slow motion
of the tilted rotation axis around the pole to the ecliptic, with a period of 25,720 yr.
The nutation is superposed on this motion and consists of slight uctuations in the
rate of precession as well as in the obliquity.
The other planets also affect the Earths rotation, causing small but signicant
cyclical changes on a very long timescale. These are observable directly by
precise measurement of the position of the rotation axis using very-longbaseline interferometry (VLBI). The uctuations inuence the intensity of
solar radiation incident on the Earth and produce cyclical climatic effects that
are evident in sedimentary processes, where they are known as the
Milankovitch (or Milankovi) cycles. They correspond to retrograde precession
of the rotation axis (period ~ 26 kyr), changes in the angle of obliquity (period ~
41 kyr), prograde precession of Earths elliptical orbit (period ~ 100 kyr), and
variation of the ellipticity of the orbit (period ~ 100 kyr).
In addition to these phenomena, the Earths rotation is affected on a shorter
timescale by the planets mass distribution. When the instantaneous rotation
axis deviates from the axis of gure determined by the long-term rotation, a
cyclical motion of the rotation axis about its mean position arises. This is known
as the Chandler wobble. In contrast to the precession and nutation resulting
from external forces, the wobble results from the imbalance in mass distribution
with respect to the instantaneous rotation axis. It takes place in the Earths
coordinate system and is evident as small variations in latitude with a period of
435 days.
137
138
Earths rotation
(b)
(a)
r sin
A
Fig. 5.1. Rotation of a displacement vector r inclined at angle to the rotation axis.
5.1.1 Velocity
Consider an orthogonal spherical coordinate system with unit vectors (er, e, e).
Let r be a displacement vector that makes an angle with the axis of rotation
(Fig. 5.1(a)). If the Earth rotates about this axis with angular velocity relative to
xed axes, then, in an innitesimal time t, the vector r rotates through an angle
. This produces a rotational displacement r1 = (r sin ) e (Fig. 5.1(b)).
If, in the same time, r undergoes a local incremental change r, the total displacement relative to the xed coordinate system is
r r r1 r r sin e
(5:1)
139
dr r
w r
dt t
(5:4)
vf v w r
(5:5)
Thus, we have
where vf is the velocity relative to the xed axes, v is the velocity in the rotating
system, and ( r) is an additional velocity component due to the rotation of
the moving set of axes.
5.1.2 Acceleration
Equation (5.4) can be rewritten as
d
r
dt
w r
t
(5:6)
r
r
w
wr
(5:7)
dt2
dt dt
t
t
Evaluating the right-hand side step-by-step gives
d 2 r 2 r
r
2 w r w
w w r
dt2
t
t
t
(5:8)
If we assume that the angular velocity of the rotating system is constant, then
d 2 r 2 r
r
22 w
w w r
(5:9)
dt2
t
t
On rearranging terms, we get
2 r d 2 r
2 w w r 2w v
t2
dt
(5:10)
ar af aR aC
(5:11)
or
140
Earths rotation
(a)
(b)
eN
vN
eN
v
v = vN e N + vE eE
eE
DvN
eD
vE
DvE
eE
aC = 2 D( vE e N + vN e E)
Fig. 5.2. (a) Directions of the north (eN), east (eE), and vertically downward (eD)
unit vectors of orthogonal reference axes, and the horizontal velocity v, in relation
to the rotation vector . (b) Vectors in the horizontal plane, showing that the
Coriolis acceleration aC acts perpendicularly to the right of the direction of
motion v in the northern hemisphere.
(5:12)
(5:13)
141
(5:14)
(5:16)
(5:17)
(5:18)
142
Earths rotation
Its direction is normal to the velocity of the moving body, as can be veried by
taking the scalar product of aH and v, which is zero:
aH v 2D vE eN vN eE vN eN vE eE 0
(5:19)
The angular velocity of rotation has a constant direction. Its vertical component
D is negative (upward) in the northern hemisphere and positive (downward) in
the southern hemisphere. As a result, the Coriolis acceleration acts to the right of
the direction of motion in the northern hemisphere, as can be seen by inspection
of Fig. 5.2(b); it acts to the left in the southern hemisphere. The Coriolis effect
causes deection of the motion of bodies, such as air masses, moving across the
surface of the Earth. In meteorology it gives rise to cyclonic and anticyclonic
wind systems.
equinox
T= 0
(a)
143
(b)
h
T
T
Sun
winter
summer
F2
to Sun
trace of
ecliptic
F1 > F2
T
summer
Fig. 5.3. (a) A torque of variable magnitude but constant direction is exerted by the
Sun on the spinning Earth as it moves around its orbit. (b) A section through the
inclined Earth in a plane normal to the ecliptic that includes the direction to the Sun,
showing how the solar torque arises from unequal gravitational attraction on the
equatorial bulge.
(a)
(b)
pole to
ecliptic
nutation
ssion
prece
h
3
2
1
Earth's
rotation
axis
successive
angular
momentum
vectors
T
F2
F1
or
t
equa
to
the
Sun
successive
positions of
line of
equinoxes
4
3
2
to the
Sun
1
torque
Fig. 5.4. (a) Precessional motion of the rotation axis about the pole to the ecliptic,
on which nutation of the axis is superposed. (b) Incremental displacements of the
angular momentum vector dene the surface of a cone whose axis is the pole to the
ecliptic. After Lowrie (2007).
(5:20)
144
Earths rotation
ez 0
ez
ez
(a)
ez 0
ey
(b)
z s
Earth
ex
Sun
equator
ey
ey 0
ex 0
equator
line of
equinoxes
ex 0
ecliptic
ey 1
ey 0
ex
Fig. 5.5. (a) Denition of orthogonal reference axes relative to the Earth (ex, ey, ez)
and to the ecliptic (ex0, ey0, ez0). (b) Rotations involved in the transformation of
vector components from Earth coordinates to the Suns coordinate system.
Now suppose that the reference axes are able to rotate with angular velocity
relative to a xed set of coordinates, so that it has components (x, y, z) along
the respective reference axes of the Earth (Fig. 5.5(b)). Thus
w x ex y ey z ez
(5:21)
Let the principal moments of inertia of the Earth about the reference axes be
A, B, and C, respectively. The Earths angular momentum is
h hx ex hy ey hz ez
(5:22)
(5:23)
where hz includes both the Earths own spin and the z-component of the rotating
coordinate system. The angular momentum is
h Ax ex By ey Cz sez
(5:24)
h h w h
dt
t
(5:25)
145
ez
z
hz
(5:26)
hx
y hz z hy
t
(5:28)
For succinctness we use the short form _ x x =t in the following timedifferentiations. We assume that the principal moments of inertia (A, B, C) are
constant and that the changes in angular momentum result only from changes in
angular rotation. Using the expressions in (5.23) for the components of angular
momentum (hx, hy, hz), we get
L A_ x Cy z s By z
(5:29)
The equations of motion for the y- and z-components of the torque, M and N, are
obtained in similar fashion and give the following:
M B_ y Cx z s Az x
(5:30)
N C_ z s_ B Ax y
(5:31)
For the spheroidal Earth, the moments of inertia about all axes in the equatorial
plane are equal, thus A = B and (5.31) becomes
N C_ z s_
(5:32)
As explained above, the gravitational torque of the Sun acts parallel to the
line of equinoxes, and thus normal to the rotation axis. It has no component
along the rotation axis, i.e., N = 0. Thus,
_ z s_ 0
(5:33)
z s
(5:34)
and
146
Earths rotation
(5:35)
M A_ y Cx Az x
(5:36)
The torque components L and M result from the gravitational attraction of the
Sun on the spheroidal Earth (Fig. 5.3) and vary with the orbital position of the
Earth, which is dened relative to the xed axes. The angular velocity components are dened relative to Earths reference axes, which are free to rotate. To
solve the equations of motion it is necessary to establish a relationship between
the xed and rotating coordinate systems. The Suns torque on the Earth must be
derived and its components L and M along the rotating axes resolved.
(5:37)
A second rotation of about the pole to the ecliptic aligns ex with ex0 and ey
with ey0. The ez0-components are not changed by this rotation, which gives the
equations
ex0 ex cos ey1 sin
ey0 ex sin ey1 cos
(5:38)
ez
(b) Earth
(a)
147
ey 0
d
ex 0
Su n
Fig. 5.6. (a) Denition of the angle between the Earths rotation axis ez and the
radial direction d to the Sun. (b) Denition of the angular orbital position of the
Earth and the reference axes ex0 and ey0 in the ecliptic plane.
(5:39)
(5:40)
After arranging terms, we get a set of equations relating the unit vectors (ex0, ey0,
ez0) in the xed coordinate system to the unit vectors (ex, ey, ez) in the rotating
coordinate system:
ex0 ex cos ey cos sin ez sin sin
ey0 ex sin ey cos cos ez sin cos
(5:41)
M
CA
P2 cos
G
d
d3
(5:42)
Multiplying by the mass S of the Sun gives the potential energy UPE of the
gravitational interaction of Sun and Earth:
UPE G
ES
C AS
P2 cos
G
d
d3
(5:43)
148
Earths rotation
UPE
(5:44)
d3
2
T 3G
C AS
cos sin
d3
(5:46)
The Suns torque on the equatorial bulge depends on the difference between
the principal moments of inertia (C A), which would not exist for a spherical
Earth. The torque depends on the angle between the rotation axis ez and the
radius vector d from the Earth to the Sun, which varies as the Earth moves
around its orbit. From Fig. 5.6(a) the following relationships are obtained:
d ez d cos
(5:47)
d ez d sin
(5:48)
The cross product (d ez) gives the correct sense of the torque of the Sun on the
Earth. We can now substitute for sin and cos in (5.46), obtaining
T 3G
C AS
d ez d ez
d5
(5:49)
(5:50)
If the Earth orbits the Sun with constant angular velocity p, then in time t the
radius vector moves through an angle = pt. Therefore
(5:51)
d d ex0 cos pt ey0 sin pt
The scalar product of d and ez is
d ez d cos ptex0 ez d sin pt ey0 ez
(5:52)
149
We now substitute the expressions for ex0 and ey0 from (5.39) and (5.40),
respectively, keeping in mind the following orthogonal relations between the
unit vectors:
ex ez ey ez 0;
ez ez 1
(5:53)
This gives
ex0 ez ex cos ey cos sin ez sin sin ez
sin sin
ey0 ez ex sin ey cos cos ez sin cos ez
sin cos
(5:54)
(5:55)
(5:56)
(5:57)
(5:58)
By again substituting for ex0 and ey0 from (5.39) and (5.40) we get
ex0 ez ex cos ey cos sin ez sin sin ez
ex ez cos ey ez cos sin
ey cos ex cos sin
ey0 ez ex sin ey cos cos ez sin cos ez
ex ez sin ey ez cos cos
ey sin ex cos cos
and, on inserting these expressions into (5.57), we have
d ez d cos pt ey cos ex cos sin
d sin pt ey sin ex cos cos
(5:59)
(5:60)
(5:61)
150
Earths rotation
(5:62)
(5:63)
By combining the results for the scalar product (5.56) and cross product (5.63)
we get the nal expressions for the torque components L and M along the x- and
y-axes, respectively:
C AS 2
d sin cos sin2 pt
d5
C AS
3G
sin cos 1 cos2pt
2d 3
L 3G
C AS 2
d sin sinpt cospt
d5
C AS
sin sin2pt
3G
2d 3
(5:64)
M 3G
(5:65)
Upon inserting the equations for L and M into (5.35) and (5.36) we get
A_ x Cy Ay z 3G
A_ y Cx Ax z 3G
C AS
sin cos 1 cos2pt
2d 3
(5:66)
C AS
sin sin2pt
2d 3
(5:67)
(5:68)
in which stands for either of the angular velocities x and y. The driving force
on the right-hand side of the equation is periodic with angular frequency 2p.
151
The solution of the equation must also be periodic, so we may expect that
j_ x j 2px and _ y 2py .
The rotation of the Earth about its axis has period 2/ = 1 day; the angular
velocity p of the Earth about the Sun has period 365 days, so = 365p. The
angular velocity components of the rotating coordinate system are much smaller
than the daily rotation rate of the Earth: x ~ y . On comparing the rst
and second terms on the left of (5.67) and (5.68) we see that the rst term can be
neglected because
j_ j 2p
(5:69)
Similarly, the magnitude of the third term may be neglected compared with the
second term because
y z 2
(5:70)
Thus Cx and Cy are the dominant terms on the left of the equations and
the other terms on the left may be neglected by comparison. This leads to
simpler equations of motion, such as
C AS
sin sin2pt
2d3
(5:71)
3GS C A
x
sin sin2pt
2d3
C
(5:72)
3GS C A
sin cos 1 cos2pt
2d3
C
(5:73)
Cx 3G
from which
Similarly,
y
The angular velocities of the rotating coordinate axes are related to the rates
of change with time of the angles and . It is evident by reference to Fig. 5.5(b)
that
x
;
t
y sin
;
t
z cos
(5:74)
The same parameters appear on the right of each equation of motion. We can
substitute
3GS C A
FS
(5:75)
2d3
C
152
Earths rotation
FS sin sin2pt
t
(5:76)
(5:77)
CA
C
(5:78)
is the dynamic ellipticity of the Earth. It can be calculated from the observed rate
of precession and has the value 3.273 787 5 103 (1/305.457).
The term on the right of (5.76) describes a periodic uctuation in the obliquity
. This nodding motion is called the nutation in obliquity of the rotation axis.
A similar uctuation of the angle is shown by the second term on the right of
(5.77). This uctuation occurs in the plane of the ecliptic and is known as the
nutation in longitude. These forced nutations each have the same frequency, 2p,
corresponding to a period of half a year (183 days). They are called the semiannual nutations. Their amplitudes are very small and unequal, amounting to
only a few seconds of arc. Using for convenience the short form for timedifferentiations, we can write
_
sin2pt
FS sin
_ FS cos
cos2pt
FS cos
(5:79)
(5:80)
153
2
_
FS sin 2
(5:81)
(5:82)
On comparing (5.79) and (5.80) we see that the two forced nutations
combine to produce an elliptical motion of the rotation axis about its mean
position, superposed on the steady motion around the precession cone
(Fig. 5.4(a)).
(5:83)
(5:84)
Here the angles L and L locate the rotation axis relative to the Moons orbit,
and pL is the angular velocity of the Moon around the Earth. This gives a
nutation component with a period of half a month. Because the Moons orbit is
only slightly inclined to the ecliptic, the solar and lunar effects can be added as
scalars.
The constant FL depends on the mass M of the Moon and its distance dL from
the Earth:
3GM C A
FL
(5:85)
2dL3
C
It is interesting to compare this term for the lunar effect with the corresponding
term for the Suns inuence on the precession (using subscript S for the
respective solar parameters):
154
Earths rotation
3GM C A
3
FL
M
dS
2dL3
C
C
A
FS
d
S
L
3GS3
C
2dS
(5:86)
The masses of the Sun and Moon and their distances from the Earth are given in
Table 4.1. Inserting the appropriate values gives
3
FL
M
dS
2:2
(5:87)
S
FS
dL
The ratio is the same as that involved in comparing the tide-raising accelerations
of the Sun and Moon (Section 4.2.3), and the explanation of the result is the
same. The mass of the Moon is much smaller than that of the Sun, but the ratio
of their inuences depends on the cube of the distance ratio, so the Moon
accounts for about two thirds of the combined lunisolar precession and nutation,
and the Sun about one third.
(5:88)
For the Moon kL is equal to 0.394. For a uniform sphere kL = 0.4. A smaller
value indicates that density increases with depth, e.g., for the Earth kE = 0.3308.
The orbital angular momentum is
hO Mr2L pL
where rL is the radius of the Moons orbit (384,400 km)
On comparing the spin and orbital angular momenta, we have
2
hL kL MR2L pL
RL
kL
hO
rL
Mr2L pL
(5:89)
(5:90)
Upon inserting appropriate values, it is evident that the Moons spin angular
momentum is much less than its orbital angular momentum.
The Moons orbit and its angular momentum vector are inclined at a small
angle (5.145) to the ecliptic plane. The Suns attraction results in a torque that
attempts to turn the inclined angular momentum vector normal to the ecliptic.
155
Similarly to the effect of the Sun on Earths angular momentum (Fig. 5.4(b)), the
solar torque causes the Moons orbit to precess about the pole to the ecliptic. The
effective inclination of the Moons orbit to the Earths rotation axis varies between
18.28 and 28.58 (i.e., 23.43 5.15) with a period of 18.6 yr, which results in a
corresponding component in the nutation of Earths rotation axis. The precession
of the Moons orbit causes the largest part of the nutation, with amplitudes of 9.2
arcsec in obliquity and 17.3 arcsec in longitude. The semi-annual nutation has
amplitudes of only 1.3 arcsec in longitude and 0.6 arcsec in obliquity.
( , , )
y
y
156
Earths rotation
velocity z about the z-axis is the same as the Earths spin . A displacement of
the instantaneous spin vector is represented by angular velocities x and y
about the equatorial axes. The instantaneous rotation vector is then
w x ex y ey z ez
(5:91)
Using as before A, B, and C for the principal moments of inertia about the x-, y-,
and z-axes, respectively, the angular momentum is given by
h Ax ex By ey Cz ez
(5:92)
In contrast to the forced motion of the rotation axis caused by solar and lunar
attraction, the motion of the rotation axis is in this case free of external torques.
Thus
T
d h h
w h 0
dt
t
(5:93)
Assuming that the Earth rotates as a rigid body, the equations of motion for each
of the reference axes can be developed as in the case of forced nutation
(see Section 5.3.1):
A_ x C By z 0
B_ y A Cx z 0
C_ z B Ax y 0
(5:94)
The symmetry of the Earths gure implies that the equatorial moments of
inertia are equal, A = B:
A_ x C Ay z 0
(5:95)
A_ y C Ax z 0
(5:96)
C_ z 0
(5:97)
The last equation requires that the angular velocity about the z-axis is constant:
z
Rewriting (5.95) and (5.96) gives
CA
y 0
_ x
A
CA
_ y
x 0
A
(5:98)
(5:99)
(5:100)
157
(5:101)
We can now substitute from (5.100) into (5.101), which gives an equation for
x:
CA 2 2
x
x 0
(5:102)
A
This equation represents a simple harmonic motion and has the solution
CA
x 0 cos
t
(5:103)
A
where 0 is the amplitude and the phase. By substituting this result into
(5.100) and solving for y we get
CA
t
(5:104)
sin
y
0
A
Equations (5.103) and (5.104) describe a periodic motion of the instantaneous spin axis about the axis of gure. It is called the free nutation (or Euler
nutation). Its period is
2
A
0
(5:105)
CA
The factor 2/ represents the daily rotation of the Earth, so the period of the free
nutation is A/(C A) days. The dynamic ellipticity obtained from the precession
period (5.78) indicates that this period is about 305 days (~10 months). However,
astronomers in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were unable to
detect a motion of Earths axis with this period. The reason lies in the assumption
that the Earth rotates as a rigid body. In fact its elasticity allows it to deform
slightly as a result of the displacement of the instantaneous rotation axis from
the axis of gure, and this extends the period to 435 days (~14 months). The
observed motion is called the Chandler wobble.
158
Earths rotation
100
2008
Apr 5
2009
May 20
2007
Mar 12
2010
Jul 1
100
2006
Aug 24
2007
Sep 28
2009
Dec 6
2008
Nov 1
200
300
500
400
300
200
100
Fig. 5.8. The instantaneous rotation axis of the Earth exhibits a nearly circular
motion with period 435 days the Chandler wobble and an annual circular
motion. These motions are superposed on a slow drift of about 20 m per century
along longitude 80 W. Data source: International Earth Rotation and Reference
Systems Service.
159
(5:106)
(5:107)
where the symmetric inertia tensor Iij (Box 5.1) represents the elements of the
matrix
(1)
The linear momentum of the particle is mivi and its contribution to the
angular momentum of the rotating body is
h i r i mi v i
The angular momentum of the body is
X
X
h
mi ri vi
mi ri w ri
i
(2)
(3)
(4)
The x-component hx is
X
X
mi x2i y2i z2i
mi xi x xi y yi z zi
hx x
i
(6)
160
Earths rotation
hx x
X
X
mi y2i z2i y
mi xi yi z
m i z i xi
(7)
hz x
m i z i xi y
m i z i yi z
mi x2i y2i
(9)
Using the denitions of moments and products of inertia in Box 2.2, the
angular momentum components are
hx Ax Ky Jz
hy Kx By Hz
hz Jx Hy Cz
(10)
i 1; 2; 3; j 1; 2; 3
(13)
The symmetric, second-order tensor Iij, whose components are the moments
and products of inertia, is called the inertia tensor.
I11
Iij @ I21
I31
I12
I22
I32
1
I13
I23 A
I33
161
(5:108)
Equation (5.93) for the free motion of the displaced instantaneous rotation
axis becomes
h_i w hi 0
(5:109)
(5:110)
The x-, y-, and z-components of the cross product have the form
w h1 2 I3k k 3 I2k k
(5:111)
(5:112)
162
Earths rotation
(5:116)
This leads to the same result as for the Euler precession of the rigid Earth,
namely that the angular velocity about the axis of gure is constant:
3
(5:117)
(5:118)
(5:119)
163
These can now be rewritten with the more easily recognizable parameters for the
moments and products of inertia:
_ 0
A_ 1 2 C A 2 H J
(5:120)
_ 0
A_ 2 1 C A 2 J H
(5:121)
The displacement of the instantaneous axis of rotation from the z-axis is very
small, amounting to less than 0.25 arcsec. The direction cosines of the rotation
axis may therefore be written as (, , 1) and the angular velocities as (1 = ,
2 = ). Upon inserting these values into the equations of motion and dividing
throughout by , we get the simultaneous equations
A_ C A H J_ 0
(5:122)
A_ C A J H_ 0
(5:123)
(5:124)
164
Earths rotation
(a) rigid
(b) elastic
e
x
Fig. 5.9. (a) Displacement of the rotation axis of a rigid Earth results in Euler
nutation without additional deformation. (b) The elastic Earth adjusts its shape to
the displaced spin axis by deforming further, so that regions e lie above and
regions d lie below the elliptical section (dashed) of the rigid body.
Let the Cartesian coordinates of the point be (x, y, z). The direction cosines
(0, 0, 0) of the radius through the point at (r, ) are
x
0 ;
r
y
0 ;
r
z
r
(5:125)
(5:126)
(5:127)
(5:128)
(5:129)
(5:130)
The rst term here is the centrifugal potential due to rotation about the axis of
gure. The second term is the extra centrifugal potential 2 due to the displacement of the instantaneous rotation axis in the Chandler wobble,
2 2 zx y
165
(5:131)
2
2
2
zx yz 0
x2 y2 z2
(5:132)
(5:133)
B
Ar 3 P2 cos i e
r
2
(5:134)
where the rst part i is valid inside and the second part e outside a volume of
interest. The two solutions vary differently with radial distance r, but their ratio
for the Earth with radius R is
5
R
e
i
(5:135)
r
On substituting for i from (5.133), the potential of the deformation caused by
the wobble is
e
R5 2
k zx y
r5
(5:136)
k2 R5 0 0 0
r3
(5:137)
166
Earths rotation
E
A B C 3I
G
r
2r3
(5:138)
I is the moment of inertia about a radial line passing through the point of
observation. Substituting (5.106) for I with direction cosines (0, 0, 0) gives
E
r
!
ABC3 A20 B20 C20 2K0 0 2H0 0 2J0 0
G
2r3
UG G
(5:139)
The terms involving products of inertia describe contributions to the potential
from features that deviate from symmetry with respect to the xy, yz, and zx
planes. The potential of the deformation associated with the Chandler wobble
depends on the products of direction cosines 00 and 00. On comparing the
coefcients of these products in (5.137) and (5.139) we get the following
expressions for the products of inertia:
H
2 R5 k
3G
(5:140)
J
2 R5 k
3G
(5:141)
3 R5 k
2 R5 k _
0
3G
3G
(5:142)
A_ C A
3 R5 k
2 R5 k
_ 0
3G
3G
(5:143)
167
(5:144)
(5:145)
Analogous equations (5.95) and (5.96) for the rigid Earth yielded the period of
the free, Eulerian nutation,
2
A
(5:146)
0
CA
Proceeding in the same manner, the solutions of the nutation equations for an
elastic Earth are reduced to a simple harmonic motion of the rotation axis with
period
2
A 2 R5 k=3G
(5:147)
C A 2 R5 k=3G
This is the period of the Chandler wobble. The numerator in (5.147) is larger
than that in (5.146) and the denominator is smaller than that in (5.146). Thus the
period of the Chandler wobble for the elastic Earth is longer than the period of
the Eulerian nutation for a rigid Earth. The difference in periods can be used to
compute a measure of the Earths elastic yielding.
2 a
2 a3
GE=a2
GE
(5:148)
Ignoring the small differences between the equatorial radius and mean radius,
and using for the Earths rotation, we can replace this denition of m by
168
Earths rotation
m
2 R3
GE
(5:149)
3G
3
2
A kmER2 =3
C A kmER2 =3
2
A
1 kmER2 =3A
C A 1 kmER2 =3C A
1 kmER2 =3A
0
1 kmER2 =3C A
(5:150)
(5:151)
(5:152)
ER2
3
(5:153)
and from (3.43) we know that the approximate values of A and C are
1
A C ER2
3
(5:154)
1 km1
0
2f m
(5:155)
km
1
0
2f m
0
2f m
(5:156)
0
2f m
By rearranging terms and solving for Loves number we get
(5:157)
Further reading
0 2f m
k 1
169
(5:158)
Upon inserting the known values for , m, 0, and we get k = 0.28, in good
agreement with the value obtained from the theory of the tides.
further reading
Lambeck, K. (1980). The Earths Variable Rotation: Geophysical Causes and
Consequences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 464 pp.
Moritz, H. and Mueller, I. I. (1988). Earth Rotation: Theory and Observation. New York:
Ungar, 617 pp.
Munk, W. H. and MacDonald, G. J. F. (1975). The Rotation of the Earth: A Geophysical
Discussion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 384 pp.
6
Earths heat
The early thermal history of the Earth is a matter of some speculation. Current
scientic consensus is that planet Earth formed by accretion of material with the
same composition as chondritic meteorites. Accretion, a process that generated
heat as colliding material gave up kinetic energy, led to differentiation of the
planetary constituents into concentric layers. When the temperature of the early
Earth reached the melting point of iron, the dense iron, accompanied by other
siderophile elements such as nickel and sulfur, sank towards the center of the planet
to form a liquid core. Meanwhile lighter elements rose to form an outer layer, the
primitive mantle. Further differentiation took place later, creating a chemically
different thin crust atop the mantle. Only the outer core is now molten, surrounding
a solid inner core of iron that solidied out of the core uid. Lighter elements left
behind in the core rise through the core uid and result in a composition-driven
convection in the outer core, which is in addition to thermal convection. Although
the short-term behavior of the mantle is like that of a solid, allowing the passage of
seismic shear waves, its long-term behavior is characterized by plastic ow, so heat
transport by convection or advection is possible. In the solid lithosphere and inner
core heat is transported dominantly by thermal conduction.
The physical states of the Earths mantle and core are well understood, but the
variation of temperature with depth is not well known. Direct access is impossible
and it is very difcult in laboratory experiments to achieve the temperatures and
pressures in the Earths deep interior. Consequently, some important thermodynamic parameters are inadequately known. Points on the melting-point curve can
be determined from experiments at high temperature and pressure. Convection
ensures that the temperature prole in the mantle and outer core is close to the
adiabatic temperature curve, which can be calculated. From these considerations
an approximate temperature prole in the Earths interior can be estimated
(Fig. 6.1). The temperatures in the mantle and outer core are close to the adiabatic
curve, little temperature change occurs in the solid inner core, and comparatively
rapid change occurs in the asthenosphere and lithosphere.
170
5000
Asthenosphere
(partial melting)
Temperature (C)
4000
171
geotherm
Lithosphere
solidus
3000
2000
1000
670
400
MANTLE
(solid silicate)
1000
2000
OUTER CORE
(liquid iron alloy)
3000
4000
INNER
CORE
(solid iron
alloy)
5000
6000
Depth (km)
Fig. 6.1. Models of the adiabatic temperature prole (geotherm, solid curve) and
the melting-point curve (solidus, dashed curve) in the Earths interior. Data sources:
tables in appendix G of Stacey and Davis (2008); for mantle solidus, Stacey (1992),
appendix G.
(6:1)
Heat added to (or removed from) a closed system is used to increase the internal
energy and to perform external work. For example, the gas molecules in a heated
balloon are more energetic, and, if it is able to expand, the volume, V, increases. The
external work dW due to the change in volume at constant pressure, P, is
dW P dV
(6:2)
(6:3)
172
Earths heat
dQ
T
(6:4)
(6:5)
This important relation, uniting the First and Second Laws, is the central
equation of thermodynamics. It is important in the analysis of thermal conditions inside the Earth, because it denes adiabatic conditions.
An adiabatic thermodynamic process is one in which heat cannot enter or
leave the system, i.e., dQ = 0. The entropy of an adiabatic reaction remains
constant, because dS = dQ/T = 0. The adiabatic temperature gradient in the Earth
serves as an important reference for estimates of the actual temperature gradient
and for determining how heat is transferred.
(6:6)
(6:7)
173
dH dU P dV V dP
(6:8)
(6:9)
The Helmholtz energy (A) is dened from the relationship between the
thermodynamic properties of macroscopic materials and their behavior on a
microscopic level through statistical mechanics. It is a measure of the work
obtainable from a closed thermodynamic system at constant temperature and
constant volume, and is dened as
A U TS
(6:10)
(6:11)
dA P dV S dT
(6:12)
The Gibbs energy (G) is dened in a similar way to the Helmholtz energy, but
for constant pressure and temperature. It represents the maximum amount of
energy obtainable from a closed system (i.e., one isolated from its surroundings)
without increasing its volume, and is dened as
G A PV
(6:13)
(6:14)
(6:15)
x y x x y y x y x y
174
Earths heat
(1)
U
S
dU
dS
U
V
dV
(2)
U
S
(4)
V
P
2 U
S
T S
(5)
T
2 U
V T S
(6)
T
V
P
S V
S
(7)
This is one of the Maxwell thermodynamic relations. The three others are
obtained in a like manner.
The enthalpy, H, changes with P and T as in (6.9):
dH T dS V dP
(8)
H
S
H
dS
dP
P S
P
175
(9)
(10)
P S
S P
The Helmholtz energy, A, changes with V and T as in (6.12):
dA P dV S dT
(11)
(13)
T V
V T
The Gibbs energy, G, changes with P and T as in (6.15):
dG V dP S dT
(14)
176
Earths heat
T
P
V S
S V
T
V
P S
S P
P
S
T V
V T
V
S
T P
P T
(6:16)
(6:17)
(6:18)
(6:19)
dQ mL
T
Tm
(6:20)
(6:21)
dP S
dS P mL=Tm
where VL is the volume occupied by the mass of iron in a liquid state, and VS is
its volume in a solid state. We can write (6.21) as
dTm
Tm
VL VS
(6:22)
dP S mL
This is known as the ClausiusClapeyron equation for the change of state.
During solidication the density changes from L for the liquid to S for the
solid. The volume of a mass m of the material changes from VL = m/L before
the change of state to VS = m/S after the change of state, so that
1 dTm 1 1
1
(6:23)
Tm dP
L L S
177
This equation must now be converted into a function of depth. The pressure
inside the Earth is assumed to be hydrostatic. Under these conditions an increase
in depth dz results in an increase in pressure dP solely because of the extra
material added to the vertical column. If the local gravity at depth z is g(z) and
the local density is L(z), the hydrostatic pressure increase is
dP gzL zdz
(6:24)
1
(6:25)
S
Tm dz
L
The conditions in the core can be estimated from experiments and modeling.
The melting temperature and the latent heat of fusion of iron at the enormous
pressure in the core are not accurately known. For example, temperature
estimates lie within the range 5,0006,000 K. Some representative values of
physical properties in the core are given in Table 6.1. Using values for the
boundary between the inner and outer core in the modied ClausiusClapeyron
equation (6.25) the gradient of the melting temperature curve at that boundary is
dTm
1:4 K km1
dz
(6:26)
Table 6.1. Values of some physical parameters in the outer and inner core near
to the coremantle boundary (CMB) and inner-core boundary (ICB) (sources:
(1) Dziewonski and Anderson, 1981; (2) Stacey, 2007)
Outer core
at CMB
Outer core
at ICB
Inner core
at ICB
Source
m s2
kg m3
GPa
m2 s2
J K1 kg1
K
10.7
9,900
646
67.3
815
3,700
1.44
4.4
12,160
1,300
107
794
5,000
1.39
4.4
12,980
1,300
107
728
5,000
1.39
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
106 K1
18.0
10.3
9.7
9.6
Physical property
Units
Gravity, g
Density,
Bulk modulus, KS
= KS/
Specic heat, cP
Temperature, T
Grneisen parameter,
Volume expansion
coefcient,
Latent heat of melting,
L
105 J kg1
178
Earths heat
(6:27)
Q
T
mcP
(6:28)
(6:31)
Equation (6.28) can be used in the rst term on the right, and the Maxwell
relation from (6.19) can be used in the second term:
V
dP
(6:32)
T dS mcP dT T
T P
The condition for an adiabatic process, in which no heat is gained or lost by
the system, is that the entropy remains constant, dS = 0, so
mcP dT TVP dP
T
P
TVP TP
mcP
cP
(6:33)
(6:34)
179
This gives the adiabatic change of temperature with increasing pressure. Using
(6.24), we convert the change in pressure to a change in depth and obtain the
adiabatic temperature gradient,
T
gTP
(6:35)
cP
z S
The depth prole of the adiabatic temperature is important for understanding
conditions in the uid core. If the actual temperature prole deviates from the
adiabatic curve, this gives rise to convection currents, which redistribute the
temperature to maintain adiabatic conditions. The physical parameters in
Table 6.1 give an adiabatic temperature gradient in the uid core of
T
0:88 K km1
(6:36)
z S
at the coremantle boundary, and
T
0:29 K km1
z S
(6:37)
180
Earths heat
for heat conduction in the solid and the long-wavelength phonons transport
sound. A change in the temperature of a solid causes a change in volume, which
alters the inter-atomic distances and thus the vibrational modes (phonon frequencies) of the crystal lattice. In solid-state physics this change is described by
the Grneisen parameter, . This is a dimensionless parameter, originally
dened to represent the dependence of a particular mode of lattice vibration
(phonon frequency) on a change of volume V. The microscopic denition of a
Grneisen parameter for a particular mode with frequency i is
ln i
(6:38)
i
ln V T
It is difcult to adapt this denition to measurable quantities, because to do so
requires detailed knowledge of the lattice dynamics. A more useful macroscopic denition of the Grneisen parameter relates it to thermodynamic properties such as the bulk modulus, KS, density, , specic heat, c, and coefcient of
thermal expansion, . The denition at constant pressure is
P K S
cP
(6:39)
(6:40)
cP
dz S
KS
Inserting the macroscopic denition of allows the temperature gradient to be
written as
dT
gT
(6:41)
dz S
KS
This equation can be rened further by using the velocities of seismic waves
through the Earth, which are determined by the elastic constants. The relations
Gr neisen parameter
0.8
1.2
0.4
181
1.6
0
400
670
2000
Depth
(km)
4000
6000
between the P-wave velocity and S-wave velocity and the bulk modulus KS,
rigidity , and density are developed in Section 8.5, giving
4
KS
3
KS
4
2 2
(6:42)
(6:43)
(6:44)
is called the seismic parameter and is well known as a function of depth in the
Earth because of the precise knowledge of seismic velocities on which Earth
models such as PREM (Dziewonski and Anderson, 1981) are founded. Using
this function, the equation for the adiabatic temperature gradient reduces to
dT
gT
(6:45)
dz S
182
Earths heat
dT
gT
T
dz
dP
KS
KS
(6:46)
(6:47)
KS V
dV S
d S
On rearranging this relationship we obtain
dP d
KS
(6:48)
T
KS
(6:49)
T2
ln 2
T1
1
T2
2
T1
1
(6:50)
(6:51)
In this way, knowing the Grneisen parameter for a particular domain allows the
variation of temperature to be estimated from the variation of density with
depth, which is well known.
6.6 Heat ow
When a straight conductor is heated so that one end is maintained at temperature
T1 and the other at a higher temperature T2 (Fig. 6.3), the amount of heat Q
owing out of the cooler end is inversely proportional to the length L of the
conductor, and directly proportional to its cross-sectional area A, the measurement time t, and the temperature difference between the ends:
DQ / A
T2 T1
Dt
L
(6:52)
We use this observation to dene the vertical ow of heat at the Earths surface.
6.6 Heat ow
183
T2 >T1
Q
A
T1
Fig. 6.3. The ow of heat Q along a conductor of length L and cross-section A, with
ends maintained at different temperatures T1 and T2 (T2 > T1).
(6:53)
The minus sign indicates that the heat ows in the direction of decreasing z (i.e.,
upwards). The proportionality constant is a material property of the conductor,
namely its thermal conductivity. The heat ow qz is dened as the heat crossing
unit area per second:
qz
1 dQz
dT
k
Az dt
dz
(6:54)
This gives the vertical heat ow along the z-axis; it is possible to dene
horizontal components along the x- and y-axes in a similar way, so in general
we can write the heat ow as a vector,
q k rT
(6:55)
184
Earths heat
qz
x
z
z
qz + dq z
T + dT
Az
z + dz
dy
dx
Fig. 6.4. Heat Qz + Qz ows vertically into the base Az of a small box with sides
x, y, and z, whereas the amount of heat that leaves the top of the box is Qz.
z with top surface at depth z, where the temperature is T (Fig. 6.4). The heat
ow through the top surface is qz, and the area of the surface normal to the ow
is Az = x y, so the total vertical loss of heat Qz in time t is
Qz qz Dx DyDt
(6:56)
At depth z + dz the heat entering the bottom end of the box is Qz + Qz, where
Qz DQz Qz
Qz
Dz
z
(6:57)
The amount of heat remaining in the box is the difference between the amounts
entering and leaving it; on substituting from the right-hand side of (6.56) we have
DQz
Qz
qz
Dz
DzDx DyDt
z
z
(6:58)
Now we substitute the denition of the heat ow from (6.54) to obtain the
amount of heat Qz retained in the box
T
2 T
DQz
(6:59)
DV Dt k 2 DV Dt
k
z
z
z
Let cP be the specic heat at constant pressure and the density of the material
in the box, and let the rise in temperature caused by the extra heat be T. The mass
of matter in the box is m = V, so, using the denition of specic heat,
DQz cP m DT cP DV DT
(6:60)
By equating this with (6.59) and deleting the factor V on each side, we get
6.6 Heat ow
cP
185
T
2 T
k 2
t
z
(6:61)
2
T
k T
t
cP z2
(6:62)
k
cP
(6:63)
(6:64)
t
x2 y2 z2
or
T
r2 T
t
(6:66)
186
Earths heat
Let the z-axis again be the vertical direction. The temperature satisfying
(6.64) is a function of both depth and time: T = T(z, t). As in other cases, we
apply the method of separation of variables. The depth variation is described by
the function Z(z) and the time variation by (t). Then
Tz; t Zzt
(6:67)
This expression is inserted into the heat-conduction equation, and both sides are
then divided by the product Z(z)(t). We have
2 Z
2
t
z
(6:68)
1
1 2 Z
t
Z z2
(6:69)
(6:70)
On comparing this with the left-hand side of (6.69), we see that the common
constant in this equation must equal i:
1
i
t
(6:71)
(6:72)
Because both sides of (6.69) equal the same constant, the depth function
satises
1 2 Z
i
Z z2
2 Z
i Z0
z2
(6:73)
(6:74)
6.6 Heat ow
187
2 Z
n2 Z 0
z2
(6:75)
Z Z1 expinz Z0 expinz
(6:76)
with solution
in i
n2 i
(6:77)
(6:78)
Thus
and
(6:79)
i exp i
2
(6:80)
p
1
i exp i
cos
i sin
p 1 i
4
4
4
2
(6:81)
in
1 i
2
(6:82)
Upon inserting this into (6.76), the variation of temperature with depth becomes
r
r
1 iz Z0 exp
1 iz
(6:83)
Z Z1 exp
2
2
In this problem of solar heating we are interested in the ow of heat downwards into the Earth, in the +z-direction. The temperature uctuation related to
solar heating decreases with increasing depth, thus dZ/dz must be negative. The
rst term in (6.83) increases exponentially with depth, so we exclude it by
setting Z1 = 0 and obtain
r
Tz; t Z0 exp
1 iz 0 expit
(6:84)
2
188
Earths heat
The initial conditions at the surface (depth z = 0, time t = 0) are that the
temperature is equal to T0. Thus Z00 = T0 and the solution to the heatconduction equation is
r
r
z exp i t
z
(6:85)
Tz; t T0 exp
2
2
The temperature variation with time and depth is the real part of this solution:
z
z
Tz; t T0 exp
cos t
(6:86)
d
d
We have simplied the result by using
r
2
d
(6:87)
This is a characteristic depth for the problem, often called the penetration
depth. It is the depth at which the temperature uctuation has decreased to 1/e of
its surface value. It depends both on the frequency of the uctuation and on the
material properties of the ground. The thermal diffusivity is dened on the basis
of the specic heat, density, and thermal conductivity, all of which vary with
temperature. Consequently the thermal diffusivity is temperature-dependent; in
common rocks it decreases with increasing temperature. Assuming representative values of the physical properties of some common near-surface rock types,
typical penetration depths can be calculated (Table 6.2). The penetration depth
of the daily temperature variation (period = 86,400 s, = 7.27 105 rad s1) is
around 18 cm; that of the annual uctuation (period = 3.15 107 s, = 1.99
107 rad s1) is around 3.5 m.
Units
Mean value
Thermal conductivity, k
Specic heat, cP
Density,
Thermal diffusivity,
Penetration depth of daily uctuation
Penetration depth of annual uctuation
W m1 K1
J kg1 K1
kg m3
106 m2 s1
m
m
2.5
800
2,750
1.1
0.18
3.4
6.6 Heat ow
189
Note that the penetration depth d is not the maximum depth to which the
solar energy can penetrate, but merely the depth at which the amplitude sinks
to 1/e. The surface temperature change is felt well below the penetration
depth. At a depth of 5d the signal has attenuated to about 1% of the surface
value.
The attenuation of the surface temperature uctuation is accompanied by a
shift in phase of the signal. We can write (6.86) as
z
Tz; t T0 exp
(6:88)
cost t0
d
The time t0 represents a delay in the time at which the surface extreme values are
felt at depth z:
s
z
z
z
t0
p
(6:89)
d
2
2
Figure 6.5 shows the attenuation and phase shift of the temperature for a
hypothetical sedimentary rock, using the data in Table 6.2. The surface temperature is assumed to vary periodically between +10 C and 10 C. At depths
below about 1 m the daily surface change is barely discernible; the corresponding depth for the annual uctuation is about 19 m. At depth z = d (around 11 m
in this case) the phase shift of the annual variation with respect to surface values
is 180; i.e., when the surface temperature is at its peak, the temperature at this
depth is minimum.
(a) 10
(b) 10
0 cm
0m
1m
Temperature (C)
12 cm
20 cm
100 cm
5
0
2m
5m
10 m
5
10
10
0
12
Time of day
18
24
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Temperature (C)
4 cm
Month of year
190
Earths heat
t Z z2
(6:90)
(6:91)
1 2 Z
n2
Z z2
(6:92)
(6:93)
(6:94)
1
X
exp n2 t Bn sinnz
(6:95)
n0
exp n2 t Bnsinnzdn
(6:96)
6.6 Heat ow
191
Suppose that at t = 0 the cooling half-space has an initial temperature distribution T(z):
Z1
Bnsinnzdn
(6:97)
Tz; 0 Tz
n0
This is a Fourier integral equation, in which the amplitude function B(n) must
be determined. This is obtained by using the properties of Fourier sine transforms, which are explained briey in Section 1.17. The Fourier sine transform
allows us to write the amplitude function as
2
Bn
Z1
z0
2
Tzsinnzdz
Z1
T sinn d
(6:98)
In the nal expression the integration variable has been changed from z to to
avoid subsequent confusion when we insert the result back into (6.96). The
substitution gives
2 1
3
Z
Z1
2
T 4
exp n2 t sinnzsinn dn5d
(6:99)
Tz; t
n0
"
Z1
Z1
T
0
(6:100)
expn2 tcosn z:
n0
(6:101)
Each of the integrals inside the square brackets has the same form, namely
R1
2
n0 exp n cosnudn, with = t and u = z or u = + z, respectively.
The integration of this function is shown in Box 6.2 to be
Z1
n0
1
exp n2 cosnudn
2
r
2
u
exp
(6:102)
Applying this solution to each integral in the square brackets in (6.101), with
= t, gives
192
Earths heat
(1)
n0
nZ1
n exp n2 sinnudn
(2)
n0
1
Z1
exp n2
Y
u
u
exp n2 cosnudn Y (3)
sinnu
u
2
2
2
0
0
1 Y
u
lnY
Y u u
2
(4)
u2
lnY0
4
Here we have introduced Y0 as a constant of integration, and the solution to
the integration is
u2
Y Y0 exp
(5)
4
lnY
exp x2 dx
x0
0
Y0 2 @
Z1
Z1
exp y2 dy
(6)
y0
1
10 1
Z
C
B
exp x2 dxA@
exp y2 dyA
x0
Z1 Z1
x0 y0
y0
exp x2 y2 dx dy
(7)
6.6 Heat ow
193
Z=2
2
Y0
0
1
Y0
2
r0
1
Z=2
exp r2
1
d
d
2
2
4
r0
0
(10)
1
Tz; t p
2 t
(9)
Z1
0
"
z2
T exp
4t
z 2
exp
4t
(11)
!#
d
(6:103)
If the cooling body has initially a uniform temperature T0, then T(z) = T0 and
the temperature distribution can be written
8
9
!
! >
>
Z1
Z1
2
2
<
=
T0
z
z
Tz; t p
d
d
exp
exp
>
4t
4t
2 t >
:
;
0
(6:104)
p
In the rst integration, on writing w z=2 t, we have
p
dw 1=2 td and the upper and lower limits of the integration change
p
p
to and z=2 t, respectively. Similarly, on writing v z=2 t in
the second integration, we get an equivalent expression for dv, but the integrap
tion limits become and z=2 t, respectively. Equation (6.104) becomes
194
Earths heat
8
>
T0 <
Tz; t p
>
:
Z1
Z1
p
wz=2 t
expw2 dw
p
vz=2 t
expv2 dv
9
>
=
>
;
(6:105)
The integration variables w and v in this equation are interchangeable, and can
be combined in a single integration, modifying the integration limits accordingly. This gives
8
9
8
9
p
p
z=2
z=2
>
>
>
>
Z t
Z t
<
=
<
=
T0
2T0
expw2 dw p
expw2 dw
Tz; t p
>
>
>
>
:
;
:
;
p
wz=2 t
w0
(6:106)
8
>
< 2
Tz; t T0 p
>
:
p
z=2
Z t
expw2 dw
w0
9
>
=
(6:107)
>
;
(1)
The error function erf() is dened as the area under this curve from the origin
at u = 0 to the value u = :
2
erf p
exp u2 du
(2)
Z1
exp u2 du
(3)
6.6 Heat ow
195
The value of erf() or erfc() for any particular value of may be obtained
from standard tables, or from a graph like Fig. B6.3(b).
(b) 1.0
(a) 1.2
1.0
0.8
0.8
F(u ) 0.6
erf()
0.6
erf()
0.4
0.4
erfc()
0.2
0.2
u =
1.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
Fig. B6.3. (a) The error function erf() is dened as the area under the normal
distribution curve from the origin at u = 0 to the value u = . (b) Graphs of the error
function erf() and complementary error function erfc().
2
erf p
exp u2 du
(6:108)
u0
Values of the error function are tabulated for any nite argument. The solution
for the temperature distribution as a function of time and depth in the cooling
half-space is therefore
z
Tz; t T0 erf p
(6:109)
2 t
This equation allows us to understand the heat ow measured over oceanic
crust.
196
Earths heat
and a plate model that considers the lithosphere to be a cooling boundary layer
with its top surface at sea-oor temperature, and with its base and the edge at the
spreading ridge at the temperature of the asthenosphere. The rst of these is
discussed further here.
The half-space model divides the lithosphere into narrow vertical columns,
initially at the same uniform temperature as the ridge material. When a block is
transported away from the ridge, it cools and emits a vertical heat ow;
horizontal heat conduction is ignored. In this simple model the temperature T
of an oceanic plate at a time t after forming at temperature T0 at the ridge is given
by an equation such as (6.109). The heat ow qz over oceanic crust of age t is
obtained from the vertical temperature gradient:
qz k
dT
dT d
k
dz
d dz
dT
d
2T0 d
T0 erf p
d
d
d
(6:110)
exp u2 du
u0
2T0
p exp 2
d
d
z
1
p p
dz dz 2 t
2 t
(6:111)
(6:112)
(6:113)
(6:114)
Further reading
197
250
Heat-flow data:
hydrothermal filter
detailed site control
200
Cooling model:
plate
half-space
150
100
50
50
100
Age (Ma)
150
Fig. 6.6. Oceanic heat-ow data from all the oceans, plotted versus lithospheric
age. The data have been ltered to exclude sites where sediment thickness is less
than 325 m and those which are within 85 km of a seamount. Solid dots show
median heat ow for 2-Myr age bins; open squares represent high-quality data from
sites where the environment of the site is known from seismic imaging of the sea
oor and other geophysical investigations. The dashed and solid lines represent
heat ow for the half-space and plate cooling models, respectively. After Hasterok
(2010).
7
Geomagnetism
The existence of a magnetic force was known for centuries before William Gilbert
pointed out in 1600 that the Earth itself behaved like a huge magnet. Gradually
maps were made of the geomagnetic elements. Systematic investigation of
magnetic behavior was undertaken in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries. The French scientist Charles Augustin de Coulomb showed experimentally that forces of attraction and repulsion exist between the ends of long thin
magnetized rods, and that they obey rules similar to those determining the
interaction of electrical charges. A freely suspended magnet was observed to
align approximately northsouth; the north-seeking end became known as its
north pole, the opposite end as its south pole. The origin of magnetic force was
attributed to magnetic charges, which, through association, became known as
magnetic poles. Subsequently, it was shown that individual magnetic poles, or
monopoles, do not exist. All magnetic elds originate in electric currents. This is
true even at atomic dimensions; circulating (and spinning) electrical charges
impart magnetic properties to atoms. However, the concept of multiple pole
combinations (e.g., the dipole, quadrupole, and octupole) proved to be very useful
for describing the geometries of magnetic elds.
199
= mB
(7:1)
Br
2 cot 2 tan
B
(7:6)
This equation forms the basis of paleomagnetic determination of ancient paleolatitudes from the inclinations of remanent magnetizations measured in oriented rock samples.
200
Geomagnetism
(7:7)
Ampres law showed that an electric current produces a magnetic eld in the
surrounding space, and it relates the strength of the magnetic eld B to the
electric eld E that causes the current:
r B 0 E 0 0
E
t
(7:8)
The rst term on the right is the electric current associated with the ow of free
charges in a conductor and relies on Ohms law; the second term is the electric
displacement current that results from time-dependent motions of charges
bound to a parent atom. The parameter 0 is the magnetic eld constant, or
permeability of free space, and 0 is the electric eld constant, or permittivity of
free space; is the electrical conductivity of the medium.
In a region that is free of sources of the magnetic eld (such as the space just
above the Earths surface in which the eld is measured), we can assume that
there are no electric or displacement currents, thus
rB0
(7:9)
(7:10)
On substituting for B in (7.7) the potential W of the Earths magnetic eld is seen
to satisfy Laplaces equation:
r2 W 0
(7:11)
201
originates outside the Earth, e.g., from current systems in the ionosphere. Let Wi
be the potential of the eld of internal origin and We be the potential of the eld
of external origin. The total geomagnetic potential W at Earths surface is
W We Wi
(7:12)
1 X
n n
X
r
n1 m0
m
m
5R
Gm
n cosm Hn sinm Pn cos ; r
(7:13)
1 X
n n1
X
R
n1 m0
m
m
gm
n cosm hn sinm Pn cos ; r 4 R
(7:14)
Terms with n = 0 are absent from these expressions because magnetic monopoles do not exist. At the Earths surface the expressions simplify to
We R
1 X
n
X
m
m
Gm
n cosm Hn sinm Pn cos
(7:15)
n1 m0
Wi R
1 X
n
X
m
m
gm
n cosm hn sinm Pn cos
(7:16)
n1 m0
202
Geomagnetism
m
m
m
(gm
n , hn ) and (Gn , Hn ) are called the Gauss (or GaussSchmidt) coefcients of
the elds of internal and external origin, respectively. They have the dimensions
of magnetic eld and their magnitudes diagnose the relative importance of the
external and internal sources of the eld.
(7:19)
(a)
Br
geographic magnetic
North
North
N
H
(b)
D
I
B
E
B
V
Fig. 7.1. (a) Relationship between the north (X), east (Y), and vertical (Z)
components of the geomagnetic eld and the spherical polar components Br, B,
and B. (b) The eld may be described by the X, Y, and Z components, or by its
intensity (T), declination (D), and inclination (I). A magnetic compass aligns with
the horizontal component H, which is directed towards magnetic north.
1 X
n
X
n1 m0
203
m
m
m
gm
P cos
n Gn cosm hn Hn sinm
n
(7:20)
1 X
n
X
n1 m0
m m
m
m
gm
P cos
n Gn sinm hn Hn cosm
sin n
(7:21)
Z
1 P
n
P
m
n 1gm
n nGn cosm
n1 m0
m
m
n 1hm
n nHn sinmPn cos
(7:22)
Note that the Gauss coefcients have the same dimensions as the magnetic eld
B, namely tesla. The tesla is a large magnetic eld, so the geomagnetic eld
intensity and the Gauss coefcients are usually expressed in nanotesla (1 nT =
109 T). In the north and east components the Gauss coefcients occur as
m
m
and hm
gn Gm
n
n Hn , and therefore the horizontal components alone
do not allow separation of the external and internal parts. However, the Gauss
coefcients occur in a different combination in the vertical eld, and by virtue of
this the external and internal elds can be separated.
In theory, the summations are over an innite number of terms, but in practice
they are truncated after a certain degree N. The coefcients h0n and H0n do not
exist, because sin(m) = 0 for m = 0, and these terms make no contribution to the
potential. For n = 1 there are three coefcients for the internal eld (g01 ; g11 ; h11 )
and three for the external eld (G01 ; G11 ; H11 ). Similarly, there are ve of each for
n = 2, and in general 2(2n + 1) for degree n. The total number of coefcients Sn
up to and including order N for each part of the eld is
SN 21 1 22 1 23 1 2N 1
2 1 2 3 N N
(7:23)
The sum of the rst N natural numbers is N(N + 1)/2, so the number of
coefcients up to degree and order N of the internal eld is N(N + 2). The same
number is obtained for the external eld. Thus separation requires knowing the
eld values at a minimum of 2N(N + 2) stations.
From 1835 to 1841 Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber organized the
semi-continuous (every 5 minutes, 24 hr/day) acquisition of data from up to 50
magnetic observatories distributed worldwide, albeit unevenly. Gauss in 1839
carried out the rst analysis of the geomagnetic eld up to degree and order 4, and
established that it is dominantly of internal origin; the coefcients of the external
204
Geomagnetism
eld are small compared with those of the internal eld, and may to a rst
approximation be neglected. The potential of the internal eld is given by (7.14).
Magnetic eld components have historically been measured and recorded at
geomagnetic observatories. A drawback of the data from observatories is their
uneven geographic distribution. A superior global coverage has been obtained
during the last decades with the addition of data from satellites. The coefcients
of the modern geomagnetic eld have now been evaluated reliably up to degree
and order 13. The data are updated and published regularly as the coefcients of
the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF). The coefcients up to
degree and order 3, corresponding to the dipole, quadrupole, and octupole
components of the eld at the Earths surface are listed in Table 7.1 for some
selected eld models. The terms with n = 1 describe a dipole eld; the higherorder terms with n 2 are referred to collectively as the non-dipole eld.
32,350
3,110
6,250
510
2,920
120
20
1,570
1885,
Schmidt,
in 1895
31,730
2,360
5,990
520
2,830
720
680
1,500
940
1,230
300
1,430
30
400
680
1922,
Dyson and
Furner (1923)
30,920
2,260
5,920
890
2,990
1,240
1,440
840
1,140
1,650
460
1,200
120
880
230
1965,
DGRF
30,334
2,119
5,776
1,662
2,997
2,016
1,594
114
1,297
2,038
404
1,292
240
856
165
1985,
DGRF
29,873
1,905
5,500
2,072
3,044
2,197
1,687
306
1,296
2,208
310
1,247
284
829
297
2010,
IGRF
29,496.5
1,585.9
4,945.1
2,396.6
3,026.0
2,707.7
1,668.6
575.4
1,339.7
2,326.3
160.5
1,231.7
251.7
634.2
536.8
205
R3 g01 0
R3 g01 cos
P1 cos
2
r
r2
(7:24)
Comparison with (7.3) shows that this is the potential at distance r from the midpoint of a magnetic dipole and at angle from the dipole axis. In Earth coordinates this is the potential at co-latitude of a geocentric dipole aligned with the
rotation axis and pointing to the north pole with magnetic moment m given by
m
4R3 0
g
0 1
(7:25)
The magnetic eld of an axial dipole is horizontal at the equator (see (7.4) and
(7.5)). Its value at Earths surface is
1 R3 g01 cos
B
g01 sin
(7:26)
r
r2
rR
At the equator this is equal to g01 .
2
R 0
g1 cos g11 cos sin h11 sin sin
r
(7:28)
206
Geomagnetism
geographic
pole
magnetic
pole
( 0 , 0 )
site
P( , )
=0
Greenwich
meridian
equator
(7:29)
cos
Suppose the axis of a magnetic dipole to be inclined at angle 0 to the z-axis and
at angle 0 to the reference axis = 0. The direction cosines (0, 0, 0) of the
dipole axis are
0 sin 0 cos 0
0 sin 0 sin 0
0 cos 0
(7:30)
If is the angle between OP and the dipole axis, and r the distance of P from the
dipole center, the magnetic potential at P is
W1
0 m
m
cos 0 2 0 0 0
4r2
4r
(7:31)
The components of the dipole moment m along the reference axes (Fig. 7.3) are
207
z
( 0 , 0 , 0 )
mz
m
0
y
my
mx
Fig. 7.3. Relationship between the Cartesian components and direction cosines of
a magnetic dipole m, which is inclined at angle 0 to the rotation axis and has an
azimuth 0 in the equatorial meridian.
mx m cos x m0
my m cos y m0
mz m cos 0 m0
The potential of the inclined dipole becomes
W1 0 2 mx my mz
4r
(7:32)
(7:33)
4R3 1
g
0 1
(7:35)
my
4R3 1
h
0 1
(7:36)
4R3 0
g
0 1
(7:37)
208
Geomagnetism
The points where the dipole axis intersects the Earths surface are called the
geomagnetic poles (Fig. 7.2). At these points the dipole magnetic eld is normal
to the surface. The geomagnetic poles are antipodal to each other, because they
lie at the opposite ends of the inclined axis. The co-latitude 0 of the pole is
equal to the tilt of the inclined axis. From (7.30) and (7.32)
q 4 q
2 2
(7:38)
m sin 0 m2x m2y R3 g11 h11
0
Together with the axial component, this denes the tilt 0 of the dipole axis,
which is also the co-latitude of its pole:
q
1 2 1 2
g1 h1
m sin 0
tan 0
(7:39)
m cos 0
g01
The components of the dipole moment in the equatorial plane, mx and my, dene
the longitude 0 of the pole. From (7.35) and (7.36)
tan 0
0 my h11
0 mx g11
(7:40)
The dipole magnetic moment m is obtained by squaring and summing mx, my,
and mz, giving
q
0 2 1 2 1 2
4
g1 g1 h1
(7:41)
m R3
0
Analysis of the geomagnetic eld for epoch 2010 (Finlay et al., 2010) locates
the north geomagnetic pole at 80.08 N, 287.78 E and the south geomagnetic
pole at 80.08 S, 107.78 E. The places where the total magnetic eld of the
Earth is normal to the surface are the magnetic dip poles. The total eld is
expressed by all the terms in (7.14). Because of the non-dipole components the
magnetic dip poles are not antipodal; also, because of secular variation
(Section 7.4) the pole locations change slowly with time. For epoch 2010, the
north dip pole was at 85.01 N, 227.34 E; the south dip pole was at 64.43 S,
137.32 E, which is outside the Antarctic Circle.
(a)
D
r
S
d
O
(b)
P
209
Fig. 7.4. (a) Geometry for calculation of the potential at P of an axial magnetic
dipole at D, displaced a distance d along the rotation axis from the Earths center at
O. (b) The similar case of an axial magnetic dipole displaced in the equatorial plane.
inside the Earth, there are also no quadrupoles; a complex system of electric
currents deep in the Earth causes the magnetic phenomena that we measure. The
n = 2 coefcients are responsible for an offset of the magnetic dipole from the
Earths center. This can be shown as follows.
Let the axial magnetic dipole be displaced a small distance d along the dipole
axis, as in Fig. 7.4(a). The position P is now a distance u from the center of the
dipole at D, and the line DP makes an angle with the dipole axis. The dipole
potential at P is now
W
0 m cos
4 u2
(7:42)
The line DP makes a small angle with the radius OP of length r. In the triangle
ODP = + , so
cos cos cos cos sin sin
d
u2 r2 d2 2rd cos r2 1 2 cos
r
(7:43)
(7:44)
DS d sin
u
u
(7:45)
For a very small displacement d r, the distances r and u are almost equal, so
the following relationships are approximately true to rst order:
sin
d sin
r
cos cos
and
d
sin2
r
cos 1
(7:46)
(7:47)
210
Geomagnetism
(7:48)
Using the binomial expansion and truncating it after the rst order in d/r,
m
d
d
W 0 2 cos sin2 1 2 cos
(7:49)
4r
r
r
0 m
d
d
2
2
cos sin 2 cos
(7:50)
W
4r2
r
r
W
0 m
md
cos 0 3 3 cos2 1
2
4r
4r
(7:51)
W
0 m 0
2md
P cos 0 3 P02 cos
4r2 1
4r
(7:52)
The rst term is the potential of a geocentric axial dipole; the second term is that
of a geocentric axial quadrupole. An axial displacement of the dipole is equivalent to introducing the quadrupole term. The two terms are equivalent to the g01
and g02 terms in (7.14) for the multipole expansion of the potential.
0 m cos
4 u2
(7:53)
d
2
2
2
2
r 1 2 sin
u r d 2rd cos
2
r
(7:54)
(7:55)
For a very small displacement d r, the distances r and u are almost equal, so to
rst order
sin
d sin
r
and
cos 1
(7:56)
d
sin2
r
In the triangle SDP, created by drawing DS perpendicular to OP,
DS d
d
sin cos
sin
u
u
2
r
cos cos
211
(7:57)
(7:58)
Using the binomial expansion and truncating it after the rst order in d/r, the
potential of the equatorially displaced dipole (7.53) may now be written
,
0 m
d
d
2
sin
sin
cos
1
2
W
4r2
r
r
(7:59)
0 m
d
d
2
cos sin 1 2 sin
4r2
r
r
m
d
d
W 0 2 cos 2 sin cos sin2
(7:60)
4r
r
r
W
0 m
2md
md
cos 0 3 sin cos 0 3 sin2
2
4r
4r
4r
(7:61)
Reference to Table 1.2 shows that the angular dependence of each term can be
replaced by an associated Legendre polynomial, which gives
W
0 m 0
2md=3 1
md=3 2
P cos 0
P2 cos 0
P2 cos (7:62)
4r2 1
4r3
4r3
As before, the main term is the centered axial dipole. The additional terms result
from the equatorial displacement, and are equivalent to the terms governed by
coefcients g12 and g22 in (7.14).
212
Geomagnetism
1973) was found to be offset by about 200 km in the same direction, suggesting
the existence of persistent non-axial components in the global eld.
It is important to remember that the multipole method of expressing the
geomagnetic potential is a mathematical convenience. In reality there are no
213
rotation
axis
Greenwich
meridian
x
z0
y0
m
x0
North
Pacific
equator
y
East
Fig. 7.5. The location of the best-tting eccentric dipole for IGRF 2010 is offset
into the northern hemisphere and the Pacic hemisphere. The orientation of the
dipole is not changed by the offset.
Longitude of pole ( E)
Geomagnetism
12
32
Tilt of axis ( )
214
31
30
1900
Year
2000
11
10
1900
2000
Year
292
290
288
1900
2000
Year
Fig. 7.6. Geomagnetic secular variations: the dipole magnetic moment, the tilt of
the dipole axis relative to the rotation axis, and the longitude of the geomagnetic
pole.
When the dipole component is subtracted from the total eld, the remainder
described by the Gauss coefcients with n 2 is called the non-dipole eld.
Maps of the non-dipole eld are characterized by large positive and negative
anomalies that can have amplitudes amounting to a large fraction of the dipole
eld. These anomalies have a cell-like appearance, and change position and
intensity with time. The non-dipole eld has a standing (stationary) part, which
exhibits intensity uctuations without signicant displacement, and a drifting
(mobile) part. The best-known feature is a westward drift of many of the
mapped cells at an average rate of about 0.3 per year.
n
X
gm
n
2
2
hm
n
(7:63)
m0
The term of degree n in the geomagnetic potential varies with radial distance r as
r(n+1), so the strength of the eld varies as r(n+2). The power, or energy density,
is proportional to the square of the amplitude, and thus varies as r2(n+2). If the
m
coefcients gm
n and hn have been determined on the surface of a sphere of radius
r, the power spectrum on a surface of radius R closer to the center of the Earth is
found by augmenting the spectrum by the ratio (r/R)2(n+2). The process is called
downward continuation. The power spectrum on the surface of radius R is then
given by
215
2n2
r
<n R
<n r
R
(7:64)
2n2 X
n
2 m 2
r
<n R n 1
gm
hn
n
R
m0
(7:65)
108
106
Wn (nT2)
104
at Earth s surface
102
optimized
100
102
0
at 420 km altitude
10
20
30
40
Degree n
50
60
Fig. 7.7. The energy intensity associated with each degree of the sphericalharmonic analysis of the geomagnetic eld, from measurements by the
MAGSAT satellite at altitude 420 km, after reduction to the Earths surface. Data
source: Cain et al. (1989).
216
Geomagnetism
core sources (n 14) is atter than that at altitude 420 km. This suggests that
if downward continuation is carried out to even deeper surfaces the slope
might become zero. For n > 15 the slope of the line becomes positive. This is
because downward continuation amplies preferentially higher frequencies,
including the noise inherent in the measured signal. When the noise is
removed, the downward-continued spectrum at the Earths surface is almost
at for n > 15 (the smooth curve in Fig. 7.7). The data after removing the
average noise (and without the dipole term) can be tted by a continuous
curve with equation
<n 9:66 108 0:286n 19:10:996n
(7:66)
(7:67)
The power of a signal is dened to be the square of its amplitude. Thus the term
of degree n in the power spectrum has amplitude
p
Bn <n 3:108 104 0:535n
(7:68)
The ratio of the amplitudes of successive terms is
Bn1
0:535
Bn
(7:69)
The Gauss coefcients in the power spectrum of the internal eld are dened
from the solution of Laplaces equation given in (7.14). The amplitude of the nth
term in the potential varies with radial distance according to
n1
R
Wn / Bn
r
The ratio of successive terms in the potential is then
Wn1 Bn1 R
R
0:535
r
r
Wn
Bn
(7:70)
(7:71)
217
If the power spectrum becomes white, then all terms in the potential are equal,
Wn = Wn+1, and
r 0:535R
(7:72)
This result locates the source layer of the non-dipole terms (2 n 14) at a radial
distance of about 3,400 km. The radius of the core is 3,480 km, thus the source
depth of the non-dipole terms is in the outer core, close to the coremantle
boundary.
The power spectrum at the Earths surface, corrected for noise (solid line in
Fig. 7.7), is almost at above n = 15, signifying that the source layer of this part
of the spectrum is very close to the surface and hence can be associated with
crustal sources.
0 m sin=2
03m
R3
4
4R
(7:73)
0 4R3
M 0M
3
4R 3
3
(7:74)
The equatorial eld is equal to g01 (i.e., ~30,000 nT), which gives a mean
magnetization of 70 A m1. This greatly exceeds the magnetization of the
most common strongly magnetized rocks (M is about 1 A m1 in basalt).
Moreover, it does not take into account that the temperature inside the Earth
soon exceeds the Curie temperature of magnetic minerals, above which no
permanent magnetization is possible, so only the thin outer shell could be
permanently magnetized. This would require an even greater magnetization
than that calculated. Finally, the concept of a permanent magnet does not
account for the observed secular variation of the magnetic eld.
The experiments of Ampre and rsted in the early nineteenth century
showed that magnetism was caused by electric currents. It is reasonable to
assess whether the geomagnetic eld has an electromagnetic origin.
218
Geomagnetism
jEj
jE j
jJj
(7:75)
Coulombs law
r B 0 J
rB 0
rE
Ampres law
Gausss law
B
t
Faradays law
(7:76)
(7:77)
(7:78)
(7:79)
(7:80)
B
t
(7:81)
Using the vector identity of (1.34), the left-hand side can be expanded, giving
rr B r2 B 0
B
t
(7:82)
B
t
(7:83)
219
B
1 2
r B m r2 B
t 0
(7:84)
This differential equation has the same form as the diffusion equation (6.66),
and the parameter m = 1/(0) is called the magnetic diffusivity.
The magnetic eld B must satisfy Gausss law, having a solution such as
B rW r A
(7:85)
rW r A m r2 rW r A
t
W
2
m r W r A m r2 r A
r
t
t
(7:86)
(7:87)
Both sides of this equation have the same form as the thermal conductivity
equation, if each side is set to zero. The solutions depend on space and time, and
can be obtained by separating the variables with appropriate boundary
conditions.
In a three-dimensional problem this can be complicated, but we can get an
order-of-magnitude solution by considering a one-dimensional case. Let the
scalar equation depend only on x and t,
W
2 W
m 2
t
x
(7:88)
220
Geomagnetism
1
4 2 m
W
W
L2
(7:90)
0 L2
4 2
(7:91)
(7:92)
In the case of the Earths core it gives rise to an additional electric eld EL given by
EL
F
vB
q
(7:93)
The total electric eld experienced by the material of the core is now Et = E +
EL, and for Ohms law we get
J Et E EL E v B
Ampres equation (7.77) becomes
(7:94)
221
(7:95)
With the additional term we now proceed as for the electromagnetic model,
taking the curl of both sides of the equation:
r r B 0 r E r v B
B
2
rvB
rr B r B 0
t
(7:96)
(7:97)
The rst term is zero because of Gausss law; rearranging the other terms gives
B
m r2 B r v B
t
(7:98)
This is known as the magnetohydrodynamic induction equation. The constant m is the magnetic diffusivity, as before. As a result of the additional term
on the right, the magnetic eld no longer decays exponentially with time. The
rst term describes the tendency of the eld to decay by diffusion; the second
term provides additional energy to regenerate the eld from the interaction of
the eld with the motion of the conducting uid. The ratio of the terms on the
right is called the magnetic Reynolds number, Rm, dened as
Rm
jr v B j
jm r2 Bj
(7:99)
jr v Bj 0 L1 vB
m j r 2 B j
L2 B
Rm 0 vL
(7:100)
(7:101)
222
Geomagnetism
(7:102)
This equation would be exactly true for a material with innite conductivity,
but the nite conductivity of the core means that there is some leakage of the
magnetic ux. However, the assumption of innite conductivity allows deeper
insight into the generation of the geomagnetic eld.
Suppose that the conducting uid moves with velocity v. In a short time increment
t the loop is displaced through a small distance dx = v t. This denes a cylinder
of volume V with a total surface area A, made up of (1) the bottom surface with
nT
T, B(t + t)
LT
Q
n
dx
nQ
S, B(t)
L
dl
Fig. 7.8. Conguration for derivation of the frozen-ux theorem. At time t the
magnetic eld B(t) intersects a surface S moving with velocity v through a
conducting uid; at time t + t the eld has changed to B(t + t) and the surface
area has changed to T. Relative to the enclosed volume, the normal directions nT
and nQ to surfaces T and Q are outward; the normal direction n to the bottom
surface S is inward.
223
area S bounded by loop L, (2) the top surface with area T bounded by loop LT, and
(3) the side surfaces with area Q. During the elapsed time t the magnetic eld
itself changes to B(t + t). The ux 2 through the top surface T is
Z
2 Bt Dt dS
(7:104)
T
We can apply the divergence theorem (Section 1.6) and Gausss law for magnetism to the volume V cut by the eld lines of B. At any time
Z
Z
B dS r BdV 0
(7:105)
V
The integration on the left is the ux of the magnetic eld through all the
surfaces bounding the volume V. It can be written as the sum of the ux through
each end surface plus the ux through the side surface: thus, at time t + t,
Z
Z
Z
Bt Dt dS Bt Dt dS Bt Dt dS 0 (7:106)
S
The negative sign in the rst term is necessary because the normal direction to
each surface is outward, but we have dened the ux of the eld to be inward
across S and outward across T. On rearranging terms, the ux across the top
surface T is given by
Z
Z
Z
2 Bt Dt dS Bt Dt dS Bt Dt dS (7:107)
T
The change in ux has two causes: the rst is the change in the magnetic eld
with time, and the second is the change of surface area through which the eld
passes. If the time t is short, we can write the rst term on the right to rst
order as
Bt Dt Bt
Bt
Dt
t
(7:108)
Z
Bt dS Dt
Bt
dS
t
Z
Bt Dt dS
Q
(7:109)
224
Geomagnetism
Z
D 2 0 Dt
S
Bt
dS
t
Z
Bt Dt dS
(7:110)
The ux through the side surfaces must now be calculated. In time t the
displacement parallel to the local velocity vector of the uid is dx = v t.
Together with an incremental distance dl along the loop L, this displacement
denes an element of the surface Q with area
d S d l dx d l vDt
(7:111)
(7:112)
We can change the variable of integration by using the vector identity in (1.18).
The surface integration over Q is converted into a linear integration along dl,
i.e., around the closed loop L:
Z
Z
Bt Dt dS Dt v Bt Dt d l
(7:113)
L
Now we again use (7.108) to replace B(t + t) by B(t) and its time-derivative:
Z
Z
Bt
Bt Dt dS Dt
v Bt
Dt d l
t
L
Q
Z
Z
Bt
v Bt d l Dt2
Dt
v
dl
t
L
(7:114)
By inserting this expression into (7.110) we obtain the change in ux in time t:
Z
Z
Z
Bt
Bt
2
v Bt d l Dt
v
dS Dt
dl
D Dt
t
t
L
(7:115)
On dividing throughout by t, we have
Z
Z
Z
D
Bt
Bt
dS v Bt d l Dt
d l (7:116)
v
Dt
t
t
S
Further reading
225
dS v Bt d l
(7:117)
Dt0 Dt
dt
t
L
The integral around the closed loop L can be converted into an integral over the
open bounded surface S by applying Stokes theorem (Section 1.7):
Z
Z
v Bt dl r v Bt dS
(7:118)
L
r v Bt dS
(7:119)
dt
t
S
(7:120)
and
Z
Bt dS constant
(7:121)
This result states that the magnetic ux in a uid with innite electrical
conductivity does not change as the uid moves. This is known as the frozenux (or frozen-in-ux) theorem. It was formulated in 1943 by H. Alfvn, a
Swedish physicist, for an electrically conductive plasma (such as the solar
wind). The theorem can be applied as an approximation for any conducting
uid with a high magnetic Reynolds number, such as the Earths liquid core. It
describes how, in an ideal case, magnetic eld lines are trapped by the high
conductivity and compelled to move with the uid. As a result, uid motions in
the core, in particular thermally and compositionally driven convection, provide
the energy source and feedback mechanism for a self-sustaining magnetic eld.
further reading
Campbell, W. H. (2003). Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 337 pp.
226
Geomagnetism
8
Foundations of seismology
Our knowledge of Earths internal structure has been obtained from detailed
analysis of the travel-times of seismic waves in the Earth. A standard model of
the layered interior PREM, the Preliminary Reference Earth Model
(Dziewonski and Anderson, 1981) that gives the variations with depth of
seismic velocities, density, pressure, and elastic parameters has been derived.
This chapter handles the dependence of seismic-wave velocities on the elastic
properties of the medium in which they are transmitted.
The propagation of a seismic wave takes place by innitesimal elastic displacements of the material it passes through. An elastic displacement is reversible, i.e.,
after the disturbing force has been removed the material returns to its original
condition. The elastic properties and density of the material determine the type of
wave that passes through it, and the speed with which the wave travels.
(8:1)
Stress and strain are dened for a small volume of a continuous medium as
limiting cases when the volume shrinks to zero, i.e., when both the length x and
the cross-sectional area A become very small. The limit of the force per unit area
(F/A) is the stress, , which has the units of pressure (pascal):
227
228
Foundations of seismology
x
x
F
A
F
lim
A!0 A
(8:2)
The limit of the fractional change in dimension (x/x) is the strain, , which is
dimensionless:
x
(8:3)
lim
x!0 x
Hookes law states that in an elastic deformation the stress and strain are
proportional to each other:
/
(8:4)
The law describes the initial deformation of a material; the stressstrain relationship is linear, and the behavior is said to be perfectly elastic. If the stress
increases continuously, the linearity breaks down, but the behavior is still elastic
and no permanent deformation results (Fig. 8.2). Eventually the limit of elastic
behavior is reached, permanent deformation results, and nally failure occurs.
The propagation of seismic waves takes place within the elastic range of
behavior.
8.2 Stress
The forces acting on an elastic body can be divided into body forces (e.g.,
gravity, centrifugal force) and surface forces (e.g., pressure, tension, and shear).
Imagine a small volume V bounded by a surface S within a continuous larger
body of uniform density . The body forces acting on V (including inertial
forces) produce acceleration of V and of the body as a whole. The material
surrounding V exerts inward forces on the surface S; to maintain equilibrium,
equal and opposite surface forces act outwards across S. They cause the small
volume to change shape and dene the state of stress in the body.
8.2 Stress
229
elastic
plastic
deformation
deformation
failure
elastic
limit
Stress
Hooke s
law
linear
range
Strain
Fig. 8.2. Hypothetical stressstrain relationship, showing the regions of elastic and
plastic deformation, and the linear range within which Hookes law holds.
x3
x 2
A3
x1
F3
x3
x1
x2
F1
F2
A1
A2
230
Foundations of seismology
x3
33
32
31
23
22
13
11
21
12
x2
x1
Fig. 8.4. Denition of the components of normal and shear stress.
11 lim
A1 !0
F1
;
A1
12 lim
A1 !0
F2
;
A1
13 lim
A1 !0
F3
A1
(8:5)
8.2 Stress
(a)
13 +
13
x1
23+
x2
11
21
13
x3
11 +
x3
(b)
x3
x1
x1
12
x1
231
x2
12 +
11
x1
12
x1
x1
x1
33 +
(c)
31 +
31
x3
x1
x3
x2
33
31
x3
23
21 +
x2
22 +
22
x1
x3
23
21
x2
22
x2
x2
x2
x2
x3
32+
32
x3
x3
x2
32
33
Fig. 8.5. Forces acting on the surfaces of a small rectangular box in the directions
of (a) the x1-axis, (b) the x2-axis, and (c) the x3-axis.
12
x1
x1
12 A1
12 x1 A1 12 x1 x2 x3
12
x1 A1
x1
2
2
12 V
(8:7)
A further couple is exerted about the x3-axis by the shear stresses on the faces
normal to x2 (Fig. 8.5(b)). This acts in the opposite sense to the rst couple and
(also to rst order) is equal to
21
x2
x2
x2 A2
(8:8)
21 A2
21 x2 A2 21 V
21
x2
2
2
The resulting couple about the x3-axis is the difference between (8.7) and (8.8).
For the box to be in equilibrium, the sum of the moments about the x3-axis must
be zero; therefore
12 21 V 0
(8:9)
(8:10)
Similar evaluations of the moments about the x1- and x2-axes show, respectively, that 23 = 32 and 31 = 13. The equilibrium of moments acting on the
232
Foundations of seismology
elementary volume requires the stress tensor to be symmetric (kn = nk), which
reduces the number of different elements in the matrix to six.
2 un
t2
(8:11)
If the density of the material in the small box is and the volume of the box is V,
its mass m is equal to V. Let the body force per unit mass have components F1,
F2, and F3. The resultant force along the x1-axis is due to the normal stresses
acting on the surfaces with area A1 (Fig. 8.5(a)) and the shear stresses on the
surfaces with areas A2 (Fig. 8.5(b)) and A3 (Fig. 8.5(c)), respectively. The
resultant of the surface forces in the x1-direction is
11
21
A
x
x
11
1
11
1
21
2
21 A2
x1
x2
31
31
x3 31 A3
x3
11
21
31
x1 x2 x3
x2 x3 x1
x3 x1 x2
x
x
x3
1
2
11 21 31
(8:12)
V
x1
x2
x3
The equation of motion in the x1-direction as a result of the inertial, body, and
surface forces is
11 21 31
ma1 mF1
V
(8:13)
x1
x2
x3
11 21 31
(8:14)
a1 F1
x1
x2
x3
Similar expressions are obtained for the net forces along the x2- and x3-axes.
Using the summation convention (where the repeated index implies the sum for
k = 1, 2, and 3), we get the tensor equation
an Fn
kn
xk
(8:15)
8.3 Strain
233
If the body force per unit mass Fn can be neglected, we can write the acceleration as in (8.11), and this equation reduces to the homogeneous equation of
motion:
2 un kn
t2
xk
(8:16)
8.3 Strain
Let the vector x dene a point P in an arbitrary body and let Q be another point
of the body at an innitesimal distance y from P, as in Fig. 8.6. In a general
displacement of the body the point P is displaced to a new position P1 by the
vector u, and Q is displaced to Q1 by the vector v. If the difference between the
displacements is du, then
v u du u
u
u
u
y1
y2
y3
x1
x2
x3
(8:17)
Here y1, y2, and y3 are the components of y in the directions of the coordinates
x1, x2, and x3, respectively. In tensor notation
vk uk duk uk
uk
yn
xn
(8:18)
The relationship is not changed if we subtract the term 12 un =xk , and then add
it back again, giving
Q1
du
P1
u
v = u + du
u
y
P
x
O
234
Foundations of seismology
v k uk
1 uk un
1 uk un
yn
yn
2 xn xk
2 xn xk
vk uk kn yn kn yn
(8:19)
(8:20)
The rst term on the right-hand side of this equation represents a rigid-body
translation of the entire body by the vector u. This takes place without internal
deformation of the body.
The second term on the right contains the tensor kn, whose elements are
1 uk un
kn
(8:21)
2 xn xk
Comparison with (1.27) and Box 1.1 shows that kn are the components of a
rotation about u = 0, i.e., the point P. The elements kk = 0 and kn = nk; the
tensor is antisymmetric and its diagonal elements are all zero:
2
3
0
12 13
kn 4 12
0
23 5
(8:22)
13 23 0
The product of this tensor with the relative position vector yn gives, in matrix
form,
3
2
32 3 2
12 y2 13 y3
0
12 13
y1
kn yn 4 12 0
(8:23)
23 54 y2 5 4 12 y1 23 y3 5
13 23 0
y3
13 y1 23 y2
The column matrix on the right-hand side of this equation has the same
components as the vector
e1
e2
e3
(8:24)
23 13 12 j y
y1
y2
y3
Here e1, e2, and e3 are unit vectors for the x1-, x2-, and x3-axes, respectively. The
vector represents a rotation, while y denotes the position of an arbitrary point
Q of the body relative to the point P, so y describes an innitesimal rigidbody rotation of the body about an axis through P. The direction of the rotation
axis is the vector with components (23, 13, 12). Following (8.21), this
can also be written
u3 u2
u1 u3
u2 u1
e1
e2
e3
(8:25)
j
x2 x3
x3 x1
x1 x2
8.3 Strain
e1
j =x1
u1
e2
=x2
u2
235
e3
=x3 r u
u3
(8:26)
The rigid-body rotation is a displacement of the entire body without deformation. Neither the translation u nor the rotation of the rigid body takes part in
the propagation of seismic waves.
The quantity kn in (8.20) is the strain tensor. It describes a deformation in
which different parts of the body are displaced relative to each other. As long
as these displacements are small, the deformation is elastic and the strains can
be described by a (3 3) strain matrix, whose general term is dened by
(8.19):
1 uk un
kn
(8:27)
2 xn xk
It is evident from this denition that interchanging the indices does not change
the general term; i.e., the strain matrix is symmetric (kn = nk). The diagonal
terms of the strain matrix (i.e., kk) describe normal strains, which correspond to
changes in elongation of the body; the non-diagonal terms describe shear
strains, which arise from angular distortion of the body.
u1
1 2 u1
x1
x1 2
x1
2 x21
x1 + x1
x1
(a)
u1
u1 + u1
(b)
x1 + u1
(x1 + x1)
+ (u1 + u1)
(8:28)
236
Foundations of seismology
If the displacements are innitesimally small, we can truncate the power series
at rst order, getting
u1
u1
x1
x1
(8:29)
The original separation of the two points was x1; after extension their separation
is (x1 + u1). The normal strain parallel to the x1-axis is the fractional change in
length resulting from an innitesimal displacement parallel to the x1-axis and is
denoted 11; thus,
11 lim
x1 !0
x1 u1 x1 u1
x1
x1
(8:30)
In a similar way, normal strains are dened for the x2- and x3-directions. If a
point at xk is displaced by an innitesimal amount to xk + uk, then there arise
normal strains kk, corresponding to
kk
uk
xk
(8:31)
The normal strains are not independent of each other in an elastic body.
Consider the change in shape of the bar in Fig. 8.8. When it is stretched parallel
to the x1-axis, it becomes thinner parallel to the x2-axis and parallel to the x3axis. The transverse strains 22 and 33 are of opposite sign to the extension 11,
but are proportional to it; so they can be expressed as
22 33
11 11
(8:32)
(a)
x2
x1 + x1
(b)
F
x2 x2
Fig. 8.8. Illustration of the lateral contraction and the change in the angles between
the diagonals of a rectangular cross-section as a result of longitudinal extension.
8.3 Strain
237
u1, u2, and u3 the edges increase to x1 + u1, x2 + u2, and x3 + u3,
respectively. The fractional change in volume is
V x1 u1 x2 u2 x3 u3 x1 x2 x3
x1 x2 x3
V
x1 u1
x2 u2
x3 u3
(8:33)
1
x1
x2
x3
The limit of the fractional change in volume, for small V, is dened as the
dilatation, . As in (8.30) the limiting values of u1/x1, u2/x2, and u3/x3 are
the longitudinal strains 11, 22, and 33, respectively. Thus
V
1 11 1 22 1 33 1
V!0 V
lim
(8:34)
This expression for contains second- and third-order products of the strains
that can be neglected, thus
11 22 33
u1 u2 u3
x1 x2 x3
(8:35)
(8:36)
uk
xk
(8:37)
238
Foundations of seismology
x 2-axis
C
(u 1 /x 2 ) x 2
u1
C0
D0
x2
2
A
u1
(u 2 /x 1 ) x 1
1
x1
u2
A0
u2
B0
x 1-axis
u1 =x2 x2 u1
x2
x2
(8:38)
u2 =x1 x1 u2
x1
x1
12
2 x1 x2
2
(8:39)
(8:40)
(8:41)
239
The same argument leads to the denition of strain components 23 (=32) and
31 (=13) for angular distortions in the x2x3 and x3x1 planes, respectively. The
shear strains are therefore
1 u2 u1
12 21
2 x1 x2
1 u3 u2
(8:42)
23 32
2 x2 x3
1 u1 u3
31 13
2 x3 x1
They are expressed in tensor form by
kn nk
1 un uk
2 xk xn
(8:43)
The longitudinal and shear strains together form the symmetric strain matrix
0
1
11 12 13
(8:44)
kn @ 21 22 23 A
31 32 33
The elements of the matrix represent the strain tensor kn (k = 1, 2, 3; n = 1, 2, 3),
which, because of its symmetry, has six independent elements.
Youngs modulus
Each normal stress kk is proportional to the corresponding normal strain kk.
Thus,
kk Ekk
(8:45)
240
Foundations of seismology
(8:46)
uk
K r u
xk
(8:47)
(8:49)
(8:50)
E 11 22 33 1 2
(8:51)
241
E
22 33
1 2
(8:52)
We can obtain another expression for the sum (22 + 33) from the rst line of
(8.49):
22 33
E11 11
(8:53)
E
E11 11
1 2
(8:54)
11
E
E11 11
1 2
(8:55)
E
E
11
1 21
1
(8:56)
11
E
1 21
(8:57)
E
1
(8:58)
The relationship between normal stress and normal strain in terms of the Lam
constants is
11 211
(8:59)
A similar result would be obtained by using any line in (8.49), so in general the
normal stresses and strains are related by
kk 2kk
(8:60)
The Lam constant is equivalent to the shear modulus. This can be shown by
establishing independently the relationship among Youngs modulus, the shear
modulus, and Poissons ratio (Box. 8.1), which leads to the same equation as
that in (8.58). The shear modulus is dened in (8.46) as the ratio of the shear
stress kn to the shear strain kn. Using the Kronecker-delta symbol, we can
therefore write the more general relationship
kn kn 2kn
(8:61)
242
Foundations of seismology
(1)
The outward stress difference along the x1-axis causes extension, whereas
the inward stress difference along the x2-axis causes contraction
(Fig. B8.1.1(b)). The change of shape of the cross-section results in angular
distortions internally. Thus the normal stresses give rise to both normal
strains and shear strains.
22
(a)
(b)
x2
11
x1
Fig. B8.1.1. (a) Normal stresses 11 and 22 in the x1x2 plane. (b) Deviatoric
stresses , equal to the difference between the normal stresses and their mean
value.
(A)
(a)
(b)
s
x2
s
(A)
s(1 + 11)
s(1 22)
x1
243
(2)
4 2
s1 11 =2 1 11
The trigonometric formula for the tangent of the difference of two angles
gives
tan =4 tan =2
1 tan =2
(3)
tan
4 2
1 tan =4 tan =2 1 tan =2
On equating the two expressions, we have
1 22 1 tan =2
1 11 1 tan =2
(4)
From (8.46), with 33 = 0 and replacing the normal stresses by the deforming
stress differences, we can write expressions for 11 and 22,
11
11
22
1
E
E
E
E
E
(5)
22
22
11
1
E
E
E
E
E
(6)
We now insert these expressions into (4). Note that the angle is very small,
so we can replace the tangent of the angle by the angle itself,
1 =E1 1 =2
1 =E1 1 =2
(7)
244
Foundations of seismology
1
2 E
(8)
The shear modulus is the ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain; in this
case, the ratio of the deforming stress to the angular distortion :
(9)
From (8) we therefore have the following relationship among the shear
modulus , Youngs modulus E, and Poissons ratio :
E
21
(10)
2 un
kn 2kn
2
t
xk
(8:62)
Next we assume that the Lam parameters and do not vary with position, and
therefore can be treated as constants. This implies in effect that there are no
velocity gradients in the medium. On writing = nn and observing the
Kronecker delta, we have
2 un
nn
kn
2
2
t
xn
xk
(8:63)
Now we can insert the denitions of nn from (8.37) and kn from (8.43),
2 un
uk
un uk
2
(8:64)
xn xk
xk xk xn
t
2 un
uk
2 un
uk
2
2
t
xn xk
xk xn
xk
245
(8:65)
Note that the order of differentiation in the last term can be interchanged without
altering the meaning:
uk
2 uk
uk
xk xn xk xn xn xk
After gathering terms and simplifying, we have
2 un
uk
2 un
2
2
t
xk xn
xk
(8:66)
(8:67)
2 u
rr u r2 u
t2
(8:68)
Now we recall the vector identity in (1.34) to obtain an expression for 2u:
r2 u rr u r r u
(8:69)
2 u
rr u rr u r r u
t2
(8:70)
2 u
2rr u r r u
t2
(8:71)
This is the starting point for the treatment of elastic waves in an isotropic
homogeneous medium.
Minerals are individually anisotropic, their properties being controlled by
their crystal structure. However, in a large enough assemblage, random ordering
of the crystals makes a material macroscopically isotropic and justies the
assumption of this condition for the Earths interior. The assumption of homogeneity is unrealistic. For example, the density and elastic parameters that
control the passage of seismic disturbances change with depth and may also
vary laterally at a given depth. However, a heterogeneous medium can be
modeled acceptably by dividing it into smaller elements (e.g., parallel horizontal layers, or small blocks) and assuming homogeneous conditions in each
element. Real conditions can then be approximated by judicious choice of the
thickness, density, and elastic parameters of each element.
246
Foundations of seismology
2 r u
2r rru r r r u
t2
(8:72)
The vector identity (1.33) states that the divergence of the curl of any vector a is
zero, i.e., ( a) = 0. Thus the second term on the right is zero, and we get
2 r u
2r2 r u
t2
(8:73)
2
2r2
t2
(8:74)
2
2 r2
t2
(8:75)
where
2
(8:76)
247
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
2. Youngs modulus, E
When a uniaxial normal stress is applied to a material, there results a
longitudinal extension or shortening that is proportional to the stress. The
constant of proportionality is Youngs modulus. Suppose that the applied
stress is along the x1-axis, so that yy = zz = 0. Hookes law applied to each
axis gives
11 211
0 222
0 233
Adding both sides of these equations gives
(6)
248
Foundations of seismology
11 3 211 22 33 3 2
11
3 2
211
11 1
3 2
3 2
11
11
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
3. Poissons ratio,
The denitions of the Lam constants in (8.57) and (8.58) give, respectively,
E
E
1 21 1 1 2
(13)
E
1
(14)
2
1 2
(15)
(16)
t = t0
t = t0
249
t = t0 +
(a)
P-wave
(b)
S-wave
Fig. 8.10. Schematic illustration of (a) changes of volume and the angles between
intersecting diagonals during passage of a P-wave, and (b) the change of shape due
to shear during passage of an S-wave.
1
2
4
1
4
K
3
3
(8:77)
The velocity of the P-wave depends both on the bulk modulus (or incompressibility) and on the shear modulus. Thus a P-wave can propagate through a uid
phase in which the shear modulus is zero.
The propagation of a one-dimensional compression is illustrated in Fig. 8.10(a),
which shows an undeformed volume at time t0, the compressed volume at an
earlier time t0 t, and the dilated volume at a later time t0 + t. Changes of the
angles between the diagonals of the original square demonstrate that the deformation in the compressional wave also has a shearing aspect.
2 r u
2r rr u r r r u
t2
(8:78)
Again we use a vector identity to simplify the equation. The identity in (1.32)
states that the curl of the gradient of any scalar function f is zero, i.e., f = 0.
Thus the rst term on the right is zero. The remaining equation is
2 r u
r r r u
t2
(8:79)
250
Foundations of seismology
2 r u
rr r u r2 r u
t2
(8:80)
2 r u
r2 r u
t2
(8:81)
2 r u
2 r2 r u
t2
(8:82)
where
2
(8:83)
(8:84)
251
(8:85)
P-waves
On taking the divergence of u and noting that ( ) = 0, we have
r u r2
(8:86)
2
2
2
r 0
r
t2
(8:87)
(8:88)
This equation is always true if the expression in square brackets is zero. The
dening equation for the scalar potential of the P-wave displacement is
therefore
2
2 r2 0
t2
(8:89)
S-waves
Next, taking the curl of u, we have
r u r r r r y
(8:90)
(8:91)
(8:92)
252
Foundations of seismology
2
2 r2 y
2 2
r
ry
t2
2
2
2
2
r y 0
r
t2
(8:93)
(8:94)
Here again the equation is true if the expression in square brackets is zero. This
leads to a dening equation for the vector potential of the S-wave
displacement:
2 y
2 r2 y 0
t2
(8:95)
2 t2 x21
(8:96)
In this equation is a function of both time and position. Invoking the method
of separation of variables, we can write
x1 ; t Xx1 Tt
(8:97)
Upon inserting this into the equation and dividing both sides by we get
1 2 T 1 2 X
k2
t2
X x21
2 T
253
(8:98)
Each side is a function of only one variable, so each side must equal the same
constant, which we write as k2. The negative sign is chosen so as to deliver
periodic solutions. We get the equations
1 2 T
k2
2 T t2
1 2 X
k2
X x21
(8:99)
(8:100)
(8:101)
k is called the wave-number and the angular frequency of the P-wave. The
general solution for a P-wave traveling along the x1-axis is obtained by combining the partial solutions:
x1 ; t A expit k x1 B expit k x1
C expit k x1 D expit k x1
(8:102)
(8:103)
The two parts of the solution have phases (t + kx1) and (t kx1), respectively. The velocity with which a constant phase travels is called the phase
velocity. The propagation of a constant phase of the rst solution is governed by
254
Foundations of seismology
dt
k
(8:104)
The negative sign indicates that this phase is a P-wave propagating with velocity
in the negative x1-direction. The second part of the solution can be treated
in the same way. It is seen to describe a P-wave propagating with velocity in
the positive x1-direction. The velocity is known as the phase velocity of the
wave.
x21
2 t2
(8:105)
This wave equation is solved as for P-waves, yielding solutions akin to (8.103).
For S-waves propagating with velocity , the wave-number is k and the
components of the vector potential are
n x1 ; t Bn1 cos t k x1 Bn2 cos t k x1
(8:106)
The solutions describe shear waves that travel in the negative and positive x1directions with wave-number k and phase velocity = /k.
255
(1)
(2)
k2
2
2
2
t
X1 x1
X2 x2
X3 x23
2 T
(3)
(4)
(5)
1 2 X 1
1 2 X2
1 2 X3
2
k21
k
X1 x21
X2 x22
X3 x23
(6)
1 2 X2
1 2 X 3
k2 k21
k22
2
X2 x2
X3 x23
(7)
1 2 X3
k2 k21 k22 k23
2
X3 x3
(8)
256
Foundations of seismology
Positive and negative values of k1, k2, k3, and satisfy these equations. We
choose a particular solution that corresponds to a wave traveling in the
direction of the positive reference axes:
x1 ; x2 ; x3 ; t 0 expik1 x1 expik2 x2 expik3 x3 expit
0 expit k1 x1 k2 x2 k3 x3
(9)
(10)
(11)
whose magnitude is given by k2 = k12 + k22 + k32. The particular solution of the
wave equation is therefore
x; t 0 expit k x
(12)
(8:107)
e2
e3
x1
x2
x3
(8:108)
uP i0 k expit k x
(8:110)
Now suppose that the P-wave is propagating in a vertical plane and dene the
x1-axis to coincide with the horizontal projection of the direction of propagation. The motions in the P-wave are conned to the x1x3 vertical plane, so there
257
(8:111)
(8:112)
The direction of this displacement is the same as that of the ray path or wavenumber vector; i.e., the P-wave propagates as an alternation of compressions
and rarefactions along the direction of propagation.
(8:114)
(8:117)
258
Foundations of seismology
uSH i 03 k1 01 k3 exp i t k x e2
(8:119)
The displacements are by denition in the horizontal plane and hence are always
normal to the direction of propagation. The horizontal component of a bodily
shear wave is known as the SH wave.
The rst bracketed term on the right of (8.117) describes a shear wave
conned to the vertical x1x3 plane and known as the SV wave. The 2
component of the vector potential in (8.113) is
(8:120)
2 02 exp i t k1 x1 k3 x3
The SV displacement is therefore
uSV 2 e1 2 e3
x
x3
1
k3 e1 k1 e3 i 02 exp i t k1 x1 k3 x3
(8:121)
The scalar product of the amplitude of the SV displacement vector uSV and the
wave-number k is
(8:122)
k3 e1 k1 e3 k1 e1 k3 e3 0
This conrms that the SV displacements, like the SH displacements, are normal
to the direction of propagation of the S-wave.
These results show that the displacements in the wavefront of a shear wave
can be resolved into two orthogonal motions: the SH-component is horizontal
and the SV-component is in the vertical plane containing the ray path.
further reading
Aki, K. and Richards, P. G. (2002). Quantitative Seismology, 2nd edn. Sausalito, CA:
University Science Books, 704 pp.
Bullen, K. E. (1963). An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology, 3rd edn. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 381 pp.
Chapman, C. (2004). Fundamentals of Seismic Wave Propagation. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 172 pp.
Lay, T. and Wallace, T. C. (1995). Modern Global Seismology. San Diego, CA:
Academic Press, 515 pp.
Shearer, P. M. (2009). Introduction to Seismology, 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 410 pp.
Udias, A. (2000). Principles of Seismology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
490 pp.
Appendix A
Magnetic poles, the dipole eld,
and current loops
0 p1 p2
er
4 r2
(A1)
0 p
er
4r2
(A2)
B er dr
0 p
4r
(A3)
260
Appendix A
Z
m
B n dS
(A4)
where n is the normal to the surface. Upon inserting the magnetic eld B of the
pole from (A2) and dening as the angle between n and the radial direction er,
the magnetic ux through a surface surrounding the pole p is
Z
m
0 p
cos dS
4r2
(A5)
Now we make use of the relationship between the solid angle d subtended
at distance r from an inclined surface element dS (Box 1.3), and obtain
Z4
m
0
0 p
d 0 p
4
(A6)
1
1
m
0
0
Z
B n dS
(A7)
Because every magnet has two poles of equal and opposite strength, the sum of
all the poles in a volume is zero. The total magnetic ux through any closed
surface is therefore also zero. On applying the divergence theorem, we have
Z
m
Z
B n dS
r B dV 0
(A8)
(A9)
This result implies that magnetic monopoles cannot exist. It is known as Gausss
law after Carl Friedrich Gauss (17771855), who formalized it. The basic
magnetic eld is that of a dipole.
A2. The magnetic dipole
Two magnetic poles of equal strength but opposite sign, +p and p, are a
distance d apart (Fig. A1). The geometry has rotational symmetry about the
line AB joining the poles, the magnetic axis. The radius of length r from the
point M midway between the poles to the point P, where the magnetic potential
is to be determined, makes an angle with the magnetic axis. Let the distance of
P from the positive pole be r(+) and the distance from the negative pole be r().
Following (A3), the potential of the positive pole at P is
Appendix A
+p
r (+)
d/2
d/2
r( )
Br
P
I
261
Fig. A1. The geometry for calculation of the magnetic potential and the radial and
azimuthal elds of a pair of opposite and equal magnetic poles. In the limit, as the
separation of the poles tends to zero, the potential and elds are those of a magnetic
dipole.
0 p
4 r
(A10)
!
1 n
X
0 p
d
1
Pn cos
4 r
2r
n1
(A11)
Similarly, for the negative pole, the relations of the sides in the triangle BMP
give
!
1 n
X
0 p
0 p
d
1
Pn cos
2r
4 r
4 r
n1
(A12)
(A13)
n
1
dn
1n n x2 1 1n Pn x
dx
2n n!
(A14)
(A15)
Each successive term is smaller than the previous term by the ratio d/(2r). The
rst terms are
262
Appendix A
2
0 pd
0 pd d
P
cos
P3 cos
1
4 r2
4 r2 2r
(A16)
A dipole is the constellation when the two poles are innitesimally close to each
other, so that d r. For innitesimal d/r we can ignore terms of higher than rst
order, so the magnetic potential of the dipole is given by the rst term in the
equation, which we can write
W
0 m cos
4 r2
(A17)
The quantity m = pd is called the magnetic moment of the dipole, for the
following reason. A dipole of length d, whose axis makes an angle with a
uniform magnetic eld B, experiences a force +pB on one pole and an opposite
force pB on the other pole. The perpendicular distance between the lines of
action of these forces is d sin , so the eld exerts a torque of magnitude
pdB sin in the direction normal to both the eld and the dipole.
pdB sin mB sin
(A18)
= mB
(A19)
The magnetic moment m of the dipole is a vector oriented along the dipole axis
from the negative to the positive pole.
A3. The Lorentz force
When an electrical charge q moves with velocity v through a magnetic eld B,
there arises a force F that is normal both to the eld and to the direction of
motion (Fig. A2(a)). This is the Lorentz force, which serves to dene the unit of
magnetic eld,
(a)
B
(b)
B
I
dl
v
F = q (v B)
dF = I (d l B)
Fig. A2. (a) The Lorentz force F on a charged particle moving with velocity v in a
magnetic eld B acts normal to both the velocity and the eld, resulting in a curved
trajectory (dashed line). (b) The BiotSavart law gives the increment of force d F
experienced by a short conductor of length d l carrying a current I in a magnetic eld
B. After Lowrie (2007).
Appendix A
263
F qv B
(A20)
With force measured in newtons (N), charge in coulombs (C), velocity in meters
per second (m s1), and electric current in amperes (A = C s1), the unit of
magnetic eld is the tesla, which has the dimensions N A1 m1.
Imagine the moving charge to be conned to move along a conductor of
length dl and cross-section A (Fig. A2(b)). Let the number of charges per unit
volume be N. The total charge inside the element of length dl is then NAq dl and
the Lorentz force acting on the element d l is
d F NAq dlv B
(A21)
The current v and the element dl of the conductor have the same direction, so we
can write
d F NAqvd l B
(A22)
The electric current I along the conductor is the total charge that crosses a
surface A per second; it is equal to NAqv. The force experienced by the element
d l of a conductor carrying a current I in a magnetic eld B is therefore
dF Id l B
(A23)
(a)
B
S
F = IaB
a
P
(b)
Fx
F = IaB
Fx
F = IaB
x
Q
b sin
F = IaB
Fig. A3. (a) Forces on the sides a and b of a rectangular coil whose plane is
inclined at angle to a magnetic eld B. (b) Cross-section showing how the equal
and opposite, but not collinear, forces produce a torque on the coil. After Lowrie
(2007).
264
Appendix A
normal to the x-axis, making an angle with the direction n. A force Fx equal to
IbB cos acts on the side PQ in the direction of +x, and an equal and opposite
force Fx acts on the side RS in the direction of x; these forces are collinear and
cancel each other out. Forces equal to IaB act in opposite directions on the sides
QR and SP and the perpendicular distance between their lines of action is b sin
(Fig. A3(b)), so the magnitude of the torque experienced by the current loop is
IaBb sin IAB sin mB sin
(A24)
=mB
(A25)
The quantity m = IAn is a vector normal to the plane of the current loop.
Comparison with (A19) shows that it corresponds to the magnetic moment of
the current loop. At distances much greater than the dimensions of the loop, the
magnetic eld is that of a dipole at the center of the loop. Consequently,
magnetic behavior is more correctly explained by replacing ctive magnetic
dipoles by current loops. This is true even at atomic dimensions; circulating
(and spinning) electrical charges impart magnetic moments to atoms. The
denition of m in terms of a current-carrying loop shows that magnetic moment
has the dimensions of current times area, or ampere meter2 (A m2).
Appendix B
Maxwells equations of electromagnetism
1. Coulombs law
Charles Augustin de Coulomb (17361806) discovered experimentally that the
force F between two electrical charges Q1 and Q2 is proportional to the product
of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between
them. Let er be the unit vector from Q1 to Q2. In the international system (SI) of
units Coulombs law is
F
Q1 Q2
er
40 r2
(B1)
Q
er
40 r2
(B2)
If the charge Q is positive, the eld acts outwards, in the direction of increasing
r. The electric potential at distance r is
265
266
Appendix B
Z1
U
E er dr
r
Q
40 r
(B3)
Q
er ndS
40 r2
E n dS
S
(B4)
where n is the unit vector normal to the surface element dS. If is the angle
between n and the radial direction er, the scalar product of the unit vectors
equals cos , therefore
Z
Q
cos dS
40 r2
(B5)
We can use the denition of a solid angle (Box 1.3) to change the surface
integral to an integral over a solid angle around the charge Q:
Z
Q cos
dS
40 r2
Q 0 0
Z4
Q
Q
d
40
0
E n dS
(B6)
(B7)
dV
(B8)
We can apply Gausss divergence theorem to the right-hand side of (B7), which
becomes
Z
Z
dV 0
Z
E n dS 0
r E dV
(B9)
0 r EdV 0
(B10)
The volume V is arbitrary, so the integrand must always be zero. This gives
Coulombs law for the eld of free electrical charges with density distribution :
rE
(B11)
Appendix B
267
P n dS
(B12)
The total charge QT carried by a polarizable material is the sum of the free
charge Q and the bound surface charge QD:
Z
QT Q QD
Z
Z
T dV 0 E n dS P n dS
(B13)
(B14)
Gausss theorem allows us to convert the surface integrals into volume integrals:
Z
Z
T dV 0
Z
r E dV
r P dV
(B15)
It follows that
r 0 E P T
(B16)
(B17)
(B18)
In a homogeneous dielectric material the electric polarization P is proportional to the electric eld E. In SI usage the proportionality constant is written as
the product of the permittivity 0 and the electric susceptibility . Thus
P 0 E
(B19)
D 0 E 0 E
(B20)
D 1 0 E 0 E
(B21)
268
Appendix B
D 0 E
(B22)
(B23)
2. Ampres law
Ampres law describes magnetic elds produced by electric currents.
Experiments begun in 1820 by Andr-Marie Ampre (17751836) and Hans
Christian rsted (17771851) showed that an electric current produces a
magnetic eld. Ampres experiments on a long, straight, electrical conductor
showed that the magnetic eld is in the plane normal to the conductor, and the
eld direction obeys a right-hand rule with respect to the current (i.e., the
directions of current and eld are indicated by the thumb and ngers, respectively). For example, the eld lines around a long straight conductor are
concentric circles (Fig. B1(a)). The strength of the magnetic eld outside the
conductor is proportional to the current I in the conductor and inversely proportional to the distance r from the conductor:
B/
I
r
(B24)
(B25)
(a)
(b)
B(r)
dl
r
L
J
Fig. B1. (a) The lines of magnetic eld B around a long straight conductor carrying
an electric current I are concentric circles. (b) For a path inside an electrical
conductor only the fraction of the current enclosed by the path causes the
magnetic eld B along the path.
Appendix B
269
J n dS
(B26)
Z
B d l 0
J n dS
(B27)
We now use Stokes theorem to convert the left-hand side into a surface integral:
Z
Z
r B n dS 0
J n dS
(B28)
This must be true for any surface intersecting the current, thus
r B 0 J
(B29)
This is Ampres law for the magnetic eld produced by an electric current in a
conductor.
The current density J is proportional to the electric eld E. This follows from
Ohms law, which relates the current (I) and voltage (V) to the resistance (R) of a
circuit:
V IR
(B30)
The electric eld E is the voltage per unit distance along a circuit. In a straight
conductor of length L and cross-sectional area A the voltage V equals EL and
the current I equals JA. The resistance R of a conductor is proportional to its
length L and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area A. The constant of
proportionality is the resistivity; its inverse is the conductivity, . Consequently
R = (1/)L/A and substitution into Ohms law gives
EL JA
L
A
(B31)
(B32)
(B33)
270
Appendix B
This law applies to the magnetic effect produced by a current of free electrical
charges. However, bound electrical charges can also result in an electric current
and produce a magnetic eld.
QT Q QD
t
t
t
(B34)
Using (B26) and writing the volume density of the bound charges as D,
Z
Z
JT n dS
J n dS
S
Z
D dV
(B35)
Applying Gausss theorem to the rst two terms and using the result of (B18)
gives
Z
Z
r JT dV
r JdV
V
Z
r DdV
(B36)
The total current density, combining the free charges and bound charges, is
JT J
D
t
(B37)
D
t
(B38)
Finally, using Ohms law (B32) and the relation between the electric displacement vector and the electric eld (B22), Ampres law for a non-polarizable
medium is
r B 0 E 0 0
E
t
(B39)
Appendix B
271
dB
r
I
dl
er
whether at macroscopic or at microscopic (atomic) level. Ampres investigations were extended by his contemporaries, Jean-Baptiste Biot (17741862)
and Flix Savart (17911841). Their empirical studies of the forces between
straight conductors carrying electric currents showed that the magnetic eld d B
at a distance r from a short conductor of length dl carrying a current I is given by
dB
0
Id l er
4r2
(B40)
The unit vector (direction) er is from the current element to the point of
observation (Fig. B2). The total eld of a current circuit at the point of
observation P is found by integrating (B40) around the circuit, which necessarily depends on the geometry of the circuit.
It follows that the magnetic eld is divergence-free. Taking the divergence of
(B40) gives
rdB
0 I
d l er
r
r2
4
(B41)
The length of the current element dl is constant with respect to the differentiation. The order of the differentiation can be changed, changing sign
accordingly, which gives
rdB
0 I
er
dl r 2
r
4
(B42)
(B43)
Substitution into (B42) leads to the curl of a gradient, which is always zero (see
(1.32)):
rdB
0 I
1
dl r r
0
4
r
(B44)
If this is true for every contribution d B to the eld, it must be true for the entire
eld. This yields Gausss law for magnetism:
272
Appendix B
rB 0
Z
B ndS
r BdV 0
(B45)
The net ux of the magnetic eld through the surface is always zero; the number
of eld lines entering the surface is the same as the number leaving the surface.
Hence magnetic eld lines always form complete loops; they do not begin or
end on charges as the electric eld does. This implies that magnetic monopoles do not exist. The elementary magnetic eld is that of a dipole.
(B46)
(B47)
Mx
Mx
Dy Dx
y
(B48)
The net current at the interface between the loops is in the z-direction. Its
magnitude is the difference between I1 and I2:
I z I1 I 2
Mx
Dy Dx
y
(B49)
Appendix B
273
x
z I1
y
I2
I3
I4
Mx
Mx + Mx
y
If J is the current density in the material, the z-component of current must equal
Jz x y. The x-component of magnetization thus makes a contribution to the
current density in the z-direction equal to
Jz
Mx
y
(B50)
A similar argument can be applied to the current loops in the xz plane, which
carry currents I3 and I4, respectively, causing magnetization components My and
(My + My). Taking into account the sense of the currents around the small
loops, the net current in the z-direction from these loops is
Iz I4 I3
My
Dz Dx
x
(B51)
My
x
(B52)
The net z-component of the current density is found by combining (B50) and
(B52):
Jz
My Mx
r Mz
x
y
(B53)
By treating the current circulation in other pairs of the reference planes, the
other components of J can be obtained. The current density Jm associated with
the magnetization M is therefore
Jm r M
(B54)
274
Appendix B
(B55)
On rearranging, we have
r
B
M
0
J
(B56)
(B57)
B 0 H M
(B58)
(B59)
(B60)
(B61)
4. Faradays law
In 1831 an English scientist, Michael Faraday (17911867), demonstrated that
a change in the magnetic ux m through a coil induced in the coil an electric
voltage V proportional to the rate of change of the ux. The direction of the
induced voltage was shown by Heinrich Lenz (18041865) to oppose the
change in ux through the coil. Thus
V
m
t
(B62)
B n dS
S
(B63)
Appendix B
275
If E is the electric eld induced in the coil, and d l is an element of the wire in the
coil, the voltage induced in a path of length L (e.g., a circumference of the coil) is
Z
V
Edl
(B64)
With the aid of Stokes theorem the linear integral around the closed path L can
be converted into a surface integral over the area S enclosed by L:
Z
V
r E n dS
(B65)
Z
B n dS
(B66)
It follows that
rE
B
t
(B67)
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Index
acceleration, 18
centrifugal, 88, 91, 117, 119, 140
Coriolis, 140, 141
Etvs, 141
gravitational, 23, 59, 66, 68
tide-raising, 117, 119, 122
adiabatic, 178
Ampres law, 200, 268270, 273
angular momentum, 142, 159
conservation of, 61
EarthMoon system, 132
lunar, 154
barycenter, 116, 119121, 131
binomial coefcient, 30
binomial series, 3031, 35
BiotSavart law, 271
bulk modulus, 180, 182, 240, 246, 247
Chandler wobble, 137, 157167
equations of motion, 161, 163
Loves number k, 167
period, 167
circulation, 20, 23
hydrothermal, 196
see also curl
Clairauts formula, 102
ClausiusClapeyron equation, 176
co-latitude, 1, 49, 83, 109, 199, 208
complex number, 2, 53, 150, 187
complex plane, 2
conservation of energy, 62, 171
continuity condition, 20
cooling model
half-space, 190195
oceanic lithosphere, 196
core thermal properties, 177
Coriolis acceleration, 141, 142
Coulombs law, 218, 265268
curl, 6, 7, 17
curl theorem, see Stokes theorem
deformation, 228, 246
elastic, 163, 227
tidal, 121, 124
dielectric constant, 267
diffusion equation, 185
diffusivity
magnetic, 219
thermal, 185, 188
dilatation, 237, 240, 246
dipole, 205, 206, 210, 260262
eccentric, 209213
eld, 199, 204
moment, 199, 206, 207, 208, 262
direction cosines, 9, 10, 15, 78
, 83, 164
Dirichlet conditions, 52
displacement
current, 200, 218, 270
electric vector, 267, 270
innitesimal, 138, 227, 244
P-wave, 256
S-wave, 257
tidal, 122, 124, 127, 129
divergence, 6, 17
theorem, 1820, 25, 223, 266
dynamic ellipticity, 96, 152
278
Index
279
elements, 202
models of origin, 217222
non-dipole, 204, 214
poles, 208
potential, 200, 201
power spectrum, 215
quadrupole component, 210
source depths, 216
geopotential, 86, 8894, 97, 98, 125
Gibbs energy, 173, 175
gravity
anomaly of geoid undulation, 107
anomaly of lunar tide, 125, 128
equatorial value, 106
normal, 101, 104
radial and polar components, 96100
Grneisen parameter, 180, 182
heat
conduction equation, 183185, 186, 190
ow, 183, 196
transport in the Earth, 170
Helmholtz energy, 173, 175
Hookes law, 227228, 239
inertia tensor, 159
internal energy, 172, 174
International Geomagnetic Reference Field,
204, 208, 212
J2 (dynamic form factor), 84, 9094
Keplers laws, 6066
Kronecker delta, 15, 241
Lam constants, 240, 241, 246, 247
Laplaces equation
geomagnetic eld, 200
gravitational potential, 66
spherical polar coordinates, 6974
latitude, 100, 102104
Legendre differential equation
associated, 46, 74
ordinary, 3437
Legendre polynomials, 3234, 37, 98, 110
associated, 4348, 51, 211
generating function, 34, 35, 39
normalization, 3941, 47
orthogonality, 3739, 46
reciprocal-distance formula, 34, 77, 111,
119, 261
280
Index
Index
281