UMIST

Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 1

Extracts from EC 2 : Design of Concrete Structures

Material

FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS

P(1)

A structure shall be designed and constructed in such a way that

with acceptable probability, it will remain fit for the use for which it is required, having due regard to its
intended life and its cost, and
with appropriate degrees of reliability, it will sustain all actions and influences likely to occur during
execution and use and have adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs.

P(2)

A structure shall also be designed in such a way that it will not be damaged by events like explosions, impact or
consequences of human errors, to an extent disproportionate to the original cause.

2.2

DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

2.2.1

LIMIT STATES AND DESIGN SITUATIONS

2.2.1.1 Limit States are states beyond which the structure no longer satisfies the design performance requirements.
They are classified into :
- Ultimate Limit States (ULS)
: full or partial collapse, or other form of structural failure
- Serviceability Limit States (SLS)
: loss of function, without structural failure.
Serviceability relates to those aspects of the structure which do not immediately affect its safety but adversely
affect its appearance, efficiency or functionality, e.g.
Deflections
Vibrations
Fatigue
Durability
Fire resistance
Weather resistance
2.2.1.2 Design Situations are classified as :
- persistent situations corresponding to normal conditions of use of the structure
- transient situations, e.g. during construction or repair
- accidental situations.
ACTIONS

2.2.2.1 A Direct Action is a force or load applied to the structure.

An Indirect Action is an imposed deformation (e.g. due to temperature effects or settlement).
Actions may also be classified as :
- Permanent Actions (G), e.g. the self-weight of the structure, fixed equipment, etc.
- Variable Actions (Q), e.g. imposed loads, wind or snow loads.
- Accidental Actions (A), e.g. explosions or impacts from vehicles.

Symbol

factor

Concrete

(c)

1.50

Reinforcement

(s)

1.15

CHARACTERISTIC VALUES OF LOADS (as referred to in 2.2.2.2 above)

Examples of design loadings for floors in buildings

load intensity
2
(kN/m )

concentrated
load (kN)

BS 6399
Table

1.5

1.4

hotel bedrooms

2.0

1.8

stationery stores

4.0 for each metre of

storage height

9.0

assembly areas
without fixed seating

5.0

3.6

Public assembly

Stages

7.5

4.5

Offices

offices for general

use

2.5

2.7

Industrial

Foundries

20.0

10

factories, workshops

5.0

4.5

car parks

2.5

5.0

occupancy class

floor area useage

Residential

self-contained
dwellings

Institutional

Vehicular

2.2.2.4 Design values of actions are the characteristic values multiplied by a partial safety factor taking into account
the possibility of relevant deviations and inaccuracies.

Note:

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

2.2.3.1 Characteristic values are statistical values representing a particular property (e.g. strength) of the material and
are obtained by testing and/or from relevant standards.
2.2.3.2 Design values are the characteristic values divided by a partial safety factor taking into account the possibility
of relevant deviations and inaccuracies.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

2.3.1

GENERAL

P(1)

It shall be verified that no relevant limit state is exceeded.

P(2)

All relevant design situations and load cases shall be considered.

2.3.3

PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS FOR ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES

12

5 to 10

over 10

10

20

30

40

50

1. Number of floors (including roof, if appropriate) carried by the member under consideration
2. Percentage reduction in the total imposed load from all floors carried by the member under consideration.
3. The above reductions apply only to imposed loads ( not dead loads).
4. The designer must ensure that it is appropriate to apply the above reductions. (e.g. it may not be appropriate
to reduce the imposed load in a multistorey stationery warehouse)

Roof Loads (Refer to BS6399 : Part 3 : 1988)

Minimum imposed load on roof with access
Where access is provided to a roof, allowance should be made for an imposed load equal to or greater than that which
produces the worst load effect from one of the following:
(a) the uniformly distributed snow load; or
(b) the redistributed snow load; or
2
(c) a uniformly distributed load of 1.5 kN/m measured on plan; or
(d) a concentrated load of 1.8 kN.
Where the roof is to have access for specific usages, the imposed loads for (c) and (d) above should be replaced by the
appropriate imposed floor load.

Table 2.2 : Partial Safety Factors (f) for actions (Loads): Ultimate Limit State
imposed load (Q)
permanent load (G)
load combination
Adverse
beneficial
Adverse
beneficial
permanent
1.35
1.50
0.0
+ imposed
permanent
1.35
1.0
+ wind
permanent +
1.35
1.35
imposed + wind
Note : For earth and water pressures, the partial safety factor should be taken as 1.35

Where a member (e.g. a column) carries more than one floor, the total imposed load on a member carrying several floors
can be reduced as shown in the following table :
number of floors (see note 1
b l )
% reduction (see note 2 below)

2.3

Design 3
page 2

Imposed (Variable) Loads

2.2.2.2 Characteristic values of actions are basic values defined by the client or designer, or obtained from relevant
literature and design codes.

2.2.3

Module 330
H J Newbon

Table 2.3 : Partial Safety Factors (m) for material properties

2.1

2.2.2

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Wind
1.50
1.35

Minimum imposed load on roof with no access

Where no access is provided to a roof (other than that necessary for cleaning and maintenance), allowance should be
made for an imposed load equal to or greater than that which produces the worst load effect from one of the following:
(a) the uniformly distributed snow load; or
(b) the redistributed snow load; or
2
(c) a uniformly distributed load of 0.6 kN/m measured on plan for roof slopes of 30 or less; or a uniformly
2
distributed load of 0.6 [(60 - )/30] kN/m measured on plan for roof slopes () greater than 30 and less
than 60; or zero load for roof slopes greater than 60.
(d) a concentrated load of 0.9 kN.
Environmental Loads may include wind, snow, ice, marine growth, earth pressures, earthquakes, the effects of
temperature changes, etc.

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

WIND LOADS

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 3

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

(with reference to CP3 : Chapter V: Part 2)

Design procedure
1.
Determine the basic wind speed (V) from the national map. (For Manchester, V = 45 m/s)
2.
Determine the design wind speed (VS) by applying factors S1 to S4 as required.
VS (m/s) = V x S1 x S2 x S3 x S4
where S1 is a topography factor
S2 is a factor relating to ground roughness, building size and height above ground
S3 is a statistical factor which takes into account the acceptable degree of risk and the period of
exposure
S4 is a directional factor which depends on the orientation of the prevailing wind
(for further details of these factors, refer to the following sheet)
3.
Determine the dynamic wind pressure (q)
2
2
where q (N/m ) = 0.613 x (VS)
4.
Either apply pressure coefficients to q, to determine pressure variations around the building.
(Cpe = external pressure coefficient; Cpi = internal pressure coefficient)
Or
apply a force coefficient (Cf) and/or drag coefficient (Cd) to obtain overall wind forces on the building.
The following tables are extracted from CP3 : Chapter V : Part 2
Topography factor S1
Value of S1

Topography
A

All cases except those in b and c below

1.0

Very expose hill slopes and crests where acceleration of the

wind is known to occur.
Valleys shaped to produce a funnelling of the wind.

1.1

Steep sided, enclosed valleys sheltered from all winds

0.9

Ground roughness, building size and height above ground, factor S2

Ground roughness category
(2)
(3)

(1)

(4)

Height
(m)

Class
B

Class
B

Class
B

Class
B

up to 3

0.83

0.78

0.73

0.72

0.67

0.63

0.64

0.60

0.55

0.56

0.52

0.47

0.88

0.83

0.78

0.79

0.74

0.70

0.70

0.65

0.60

0.60

0.55

0.50

10

1.00

0.95

0.90

0.93

0.88

0.83

0.78

0.74

0.69

0.67

0.62

0.58

15

1.03

0.99

0.94

1.00

0.95

0.91

0.88

0.83

0.78

0.74

0.69

0.64

20

1.06

1.01

0.96

1.03

0.98

0.94

0.95

0.90

0.85

0.79

0.75

0.70

30

1.09

1.05

1.00

1.07

1.03

0.98

1.01

0.97

0.92

0.90

0.85

0.79

40

1.12

1.08

1.03

1.10

1.06

1.01

1.05

1.01

0.96

0.97

0.93

0.89

50

1.14

1.10

1.06

1.12

1.08

1.04

1.08

1.04

1.00

1.02

0.98

0.94

60

1.15

1.12

1.08

1.14

1.10

1.06

1.10

1.06

1.02

1.05

1.02

0.98

Note :

ground roughness

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

open country with no obstructions

open country with scattered wind breaks
country with many windbreaks; small towns; outskirts of large cities
surface with large and frequent obstructions, e.g. city centres

building classes

A
B

all units of cladding, glazing and roofing and their immediate fixings
all buildings and structures where neither the greatest horizontal or vertical
dimension exceeds 50m
all buildings and structures whose greatest horizontal or vertical dimension
exceeds 50m

Statistical factor S3
For most cases this factor is taken as 1.0.
Directional factor S4
If data regarding the prevailing winds is not available, this factor may be conservatively taken as 1.0.

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 4

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Module 330
H J Newbon

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Design 3
page 5

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 6

Internal pressure coefficients (Cpi)

Table 8. Pressure coefficients Cpe for pitched roofs of rectangular clad
buildings
Building height

Roof

ratio

angle
(degs)

h b 0.5
w
h
w

h
0.5 < w b 1.5
h
w

< 6.0
1.5 < h
w
h
w

Wind angle = 0

Wind angle = 90

EF

EG

GH

If the face of a building has a significant opening, the external pressure at the opening will be transferred to the interior of
the building. Where an opening occurs in the leeward face, the interior of the building may be subjected to a
corresponding suction. If the building has no internal walls, this suction will be applied to the internal face of the windward
wall and will therefore be added to the positive external pressure on that wall.

Local Coefficients

It is therefore necessary to consider the possibility of dominant openings and their effects on the wind pressure
distribution.

FH

Where dominant openings are unlikely to occur in severe wind conditions, the code suggests an internal pressure
coefficient of +0.2 or 0.3 (whichever causes the more onerous condition).

-0.8

-0.4

-0.8

-0.4

-2.0

-2.0

-2.0

-0.9

-0.4

-0.8

-0.4

-1.4

-1.2

-1.2

10

-1.2

-0.4

-0.8

-0.6

-1.4

-1.4

-1.2

3.0

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

20

-0.4

-0.4

-0.7

-0.6

-1.0

-1.1

3.1

CONCRETE

30

-0.4

-0.7

-0.6

-0.8

-1.1

Tables 3.1 & 3.2 : Concrete Strength Classes

Strength
C20/25
C25/30
C30/37
class

-1.0

45

+0.3

-0.5

-0.7

-0.6

-1.1

60

+0.7

-0.6

-0.7

-0.6

-1.1

-0.8

-0.6

-1

-0.6

-2.0

-2.0

fck

-2.0

20

25

30

C35/45

C40/50

C45/55

C50/60

35

40

45

50

fctm

2.2

2.6

2.9

3.2

3.5

3.8

4.1

Ecm

29.0

30.5

32.0

33.5

35.0

36.0

37.0

-0.9

-0.6

-0.9

-0.6

-2.0

-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

10

-1.1

-0.6

-0.8

-0.6

-2.0

-2.0

-1.5

-1.2

20

-0.7

-0.5

-0.8

-0.6

-1.5

-1.5

-1.5

30

-0.2

-0.5

-0.8

-0.8

-1.0

45

+0.2

-0.5

-0.8

-0.8

60

+0.6

-0.5

-0.8

-0.8

-0.7

-0.6

-0.9

-0.7

-2.0

-2.0

-0.7

-0.6

-0.8

-0.8

-2.0

-2.0

-1.5

-1.0

10

-0.7

-0.6

-0.8

-0.8

-2.0

-2.0

-1.5

-1.2

3.2

20

-0.8

-0.6

-0.8

-0.8

-1.5

-1.5

-1.5

-1.2

30

-1.0

-0.5

-0.8

-0.7

-1.5

40

-0.2

-0.5

-0.8

-0.7

-1.0

50

+0.2

-0.5

-0.8

-0.7

Reinforcement is provided in a range of nominal diameters, as follows :

6
8
10
12
16
20
25
32
40 (mm)
Larger diameters may be available for special requirements, but for most structural applications the maximum diameter
used is 32mm. Straight bars are usually manufactured to a maximum length of 12m.

60

+0.5

-0.5

-0.8

-0.7

-2.0

Wind
y

y
Note 1. h is the height to eaves or parapet and w is the lesser horizontal
dimension of a building.

Note 2. The pressure coefficient on the underside of any roof overhang

should be taken as that on the adjoining wall surface

Where no local coefficients are given the overall coefficients apply

-1.0
-1.0

y = h or 1.5w, whichever is the lesser.

All values shown are in N/mm .

characteristic concrete cylinder compressive strength
fck
C20/25 means C (cylinder strength) / (cube strength)
fctm
mean value of axial tensile strength of the concrete
short-term secant modulus of elasticity of the concrete
Ecm
REINFORCING STEEL

Two grades of reinforcement are generally used :

High-yield steel
Round bars (usually with a ribbed surface) normally used as the main bars in beams, slabs and
columns to resist flexure and axial loads.
2
Yield strength, fyk = 460 N/mm Notation : T25 = 25mm dia high-yield steel bar
Plain round bars (normally not greater than 16mm diameter) mainly used for links and stirrups, since
Mild steel
they can be bent to a relatively tight radius.
2
Yield strength, fyk = 250 N/mm Notation : R16 = 16mm dia mild steel bar
4.0

SECTION AND MEMBER DESIGN

4.1

DURABILITY REQUIREMENTS

4.1.3.3 Concrete cover

P(1)

The concrete cover is the distance between the outer surface of the reinforcement (including links and stirrups)
and the nearest concrete surface.

P(2)

A minimum concrete cover shall be provided in order to ensure:

- the safe transmission of bond forces;
- that spalling will not occur;
- an adequate fire resistance;
- the protection of steel against corrosion.

P(3)

The protection of reinforcement against corrosion depends upon the continuing presence of a surrounding
alkaline environment provided by an adequate thickness of good quality, well-cured concrete. The thickness of
cover required depends both upon the exposure conditions and on the concrete quality.

P(4)

The minimum concrete cover required for the criterion in P(3) above shall first be determined. This shall be
increased by an allowance (h) for tolerances, which is dependent on the type and size of structural element,
the type of construction, standards of workmanship and quality control, and detailing practice. The result is the
required nominal cover which shall be specified on the drawings.

P(6)

The minimum concrete cover to all reinforcement including links and stirrups should not be less than the
appropriate values given in Table 4.2, for the relevant exposure class defined in table 4.1.

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Module 330
H J Newbon

Table 4.1 : Exposure classes related to environmental conditions

Exposure class
1 - dry environment
2 - humid environment

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

1.35Gk + 1.50Qk

- interior of buildings where humidity is high

- exterior components
- components in non-aggressive soil and/or water

b - with frost

- exterior components exposed to frost

- components in non-aggressive soil and/or water and
exposed to frost
- interior components when the humidity is high and exposed
to frost
- interior and exterior components exposed to frost and deicing agents

a - without frost

- components completely or partially submerged in seawater

or in the splash zone

b - with frost

- components partially submerged in seawater or in the splash

zone and exposed to frost

alternate spans
adjacent spans
* NB : CP110 specifies a minimum dead (permanent) load of 1.0Gk and in sensitive cases EC2 (2.3.3.1(3))
recommends a minimum value of 0.9Gk
DESIGN STRENGTH CHECKS
BENDING
4.3.1.2 Design resistance to bending and longitudinal force
P(1)

- slightly aggressive chemical environments (gas, liquid or

solid)

- moderately aggressive chemical environment (gas. Liquid or

solid)

- highly aggressive chemical environment (gas, liquid or solid)

In analysing a cross-section to determine its ultimate resistance, the assumptions given below shall be used :
(i)
(ii)

Plane sections remain plane.

The strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or compression, is the same as that in the
surrounding concrete.
(iii) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
(iv) The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived from the design stress-strain curve in either
Figure 4.2 or 4.3 of EC2.
(v) The stresses in the reinforcing steel are derived from the design curves in Figure 4.5 of EC2.
(viii) For cross-sections not fully in compression, the limiting compressive strain is taken as 0.0035.
(6)

In the analysis of a cross-section which has to resist bending and only a small amount of longitudinal force, the
effect of the design ultimate longitudinal compressive force may be ignored if it does not exceed 0.08 fck times
the cross-sectional area.

For a singly-reinforced section (i.e. with tension reinforcement only) subject to a design moment M, these assumptions
are represented in the following diagram :

Table 4.2 : Minimum cover requirements for normal weight concrete

Exposure class, according to Table 4.1
1

2a

2b

4a

4b

5a

5b

5c

Minimum cover

Reinforcement

15

20

25

40

40

40

25

30

40

(mm)

Prestressing steel

25

30

35

50

50

50

35

40

50

P(9)

Design 3
page 8

- interior of buildings for normal habitation or offices

The following classes may occur alone or in combination with the above classes:
5 - aggressive chemical
environment

Module 330
H J Newbon

1.35Gk
( *a more conservative value may be used see note below )

Examples of environmental conditions

a - without frost

3 - humid environment with frost and de-icing salts

4 - seawater environment

Design 3
page 7

For concrete cast against uneven surfaces, the minimum covers given in Table 4.2 should generally be increased
by larger allowances for tolerance. For example, for concrete cast directly against the earth, the minimum cover
should be greater than 75mm; for concrete cast against prepared ground (including blinding) the minimum cover
should be greater than 40mm. Surfaces having design features, such as ribbed finishes or exposed aggregate,
also require increased cover.

The minimum cover must also be sufficient to satisfy any other criteria, e.g. fire resistance.

EC2 (2.5.3.4.2) places limits on x which vary according to concrete class :

either

DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS

(a)
(b)

for fck 35 N/mm , x 0.45d

2
for fck 40 N/mm , x 0.35d

Calculation of maximum values of bending and shear (Patterned Loading)

At the limit for (a) with fck = 35 N/mm , x = 0.45d, so that z = d 0.4 * (0.45d) = 0.82d

2.5.1.2 Load cases and combinations

The ultimate moment at this limit,

P(1)

For the relevant combination of actions, sufficient load cases shall be considered to enable the critical design
conditions to be established at all sections within the structure or party of the structure considered.

Generally, x will be less than its limit, with z required for the calculation of As.

(4)

For continuous beams and slabs in buildings without cantilevers subjected to dominantly uniformly distributed
loads, it will generally be sufficient to consider only the following load cases :
(a)

alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent load (Q Qk + G Gk); other spans carrying only
the design permanent load (G Gk).

(b)

any two adjacent spans carrying the design variable and permanent load (Q Qk + G Gk); all other spans
carrying only the design permanent load (G Gk).

Mu

0.882 M
= d 0.5 + 0.25
bd 2 * fck

0.167 fck * bd

BS 8110 stipulates an upper bound for z of 0.95d (in effect a lower limit for x).
As

M
0.87( f yk ) * z

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 9

For a doubly-reinforced section (i.e. with both tension and compression reinforcement) is required when the design
moment M exceeds the ultimate moment M u that can be carried by a singly-reinforced section without the limiting value of
x being exceeded.
2

Firstly, x is taken as its limiting value (0.45d for fck = 35 N/mm ), with z = 0.82d, as shown below.

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 10

4.3.2.4 Elements requiring design shear reinforcement

4.3.2.4.1 General
P(1)

In beams, bent-up bars shall not be used as shear reinforcement except in combination with stirrups. At least
50% of VSd shall be resisted by vertical stirrups.

VRd2 = 0.3 . . fck . bw . d (where = 0.7 - fck / 200 and 0.5)

If VSd > VRd2, the section size should be increased.
4.3.2.4.3 Standard method
If VRd1 < VSd VRd2, shear reinforcement is required.

A sw
Sw

The area (Asw) and spacing (Sw) of the stirrups are given by :

1.11 * ( VSd VRd1 )

0.87 * f ykw * d

DESIGN OF FLANGED BEAMS (T-BEAMS AND L-BEAMS)

A flanged beam may be designed as a singly-reinforced rectangular section with effective width beff providing that the
neutral axis lies within the depth of the slab, i.e. x h
2.5.2.2.1 Effective width of flanges

Compression reinforcement at effective depth d carries a compressive force Ns. Usually d is such that the compression
reinforcement will have yielded at failure. Additional tension reinforcement also carries Ns.
As

(M Mu )
0.87(fyk ' ) * (d d' )

beff
(tension / compression steel grades may differ)

The total area of tension reinforcement

As

Mu
Ns '
+
0.87(f yk ) * z
f yk

( )

Mu
(M Mu )
+
0.87(f yk ) * z
0.87 fyk * (d d' )

( )

SHEAR

(1)

The method for shear design is based on the following values of design shear resistance :
VRd1

the design shear resistance of the member without shear reinforcement

VRd2

the maximum design shear force that can be carried without crushing of the notional concrete
compressive struts

T-BEAM
(3)

The effective width for a symmetrical T-beam may be taken as :

VRd1 = [ Rd * k(1.2 + 40 1 ) + 0.15 cp ] * b w d

2

(N/mm )

Rd (N/mm )
depth factor
2

steel ratio
and
axial stress

20

25

30

35

40

0.26

0.30

0.34

0.37

0.41

k
k

= 1, where d 0.6m or more than 50% of the bottom reinforcement is curtailed.

= (1.6 d) elsewhere, with d in metres

As
=
(where As extends at least an anchorage length beyond the section considered)
bwd

cp

If the design shear force VSd VRd1, designed shear reinforcement is not required. However, shear reinforcement should
be provided for all beams (except those of minor importance, such as lintels with a span of 2m or less) and EC2 specifies
minimum amounts of shear reinforcement that should be provided in any event.
For a slab, if VSd VRd1, no shear reinforcement is required. (If VSd > VRd1, the slab thickness should be increased.)

1
Lo b1 + bw
10

BOND AND ANCHORAGE OF REINFORCEMENT

P(1)

The ultimate bond stress shall be such that no significant relative displacement between the steel and concrete
occurs under service loads, and that there is an adequate safety margin against bond failure.

(2)

In conditions of good bond, the design values for the ultimate bond stress fbd are given in table 5.3. In all other
cases (e.g. in the upper part of slabs over 250mm thick) the tabulated values should be multiplied by 0.7

Table 5.3 : Design bond stress ( fbd = fbk /1.5 )

12

16

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

plain round bars

fyk = 250 N/mm2

0.9

1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

high bond bars ( 32mm)

fyk = 460 N/mm2

1.6

2.0

2.3

2.7

3.0

3.4

3.7

4.0

4.3

fck
(normally zero, except in columns)

1
Lo b
5

5.2.2.2 Ultimate bond stress

1 0.02

N Sd
=
Ac

beff = bw +

where Lo is the distance between points of zero moment and may be taken as follows:
for a simply-supported beam
:
Lo = effective span
for the end-span of a continuous beam
:
Lo = 0.85 x (effective span)
for an internal span of a continuous beam
:
Lo = 0.70 x (effective span)

The maximum shear force that a section without shear reinforcement can carry may be checked at a distance d from the
face of a direct support and is given in EC2 as
Table 4.8 : Basic shear strength Rd (including a partial safety factor c = 1.5)

bw

L-BEAM

and for an edge beam (L-beam) : beff = bw +

4.3.2.3 Elements not requiring design shear reinforcement

fck

b1

bw

4.3.2.2 Design method for shear

5.2.2.3. Basic anchorage length

P(1)

The basic anchorage length ( Lb ) is the straight length required for anchoring the force (As fyd) assuming
constant bond stress equal to fcd.

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

(2)

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 11

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

The basic anchorage length required for the anchorage of a bar of diameter is given by:

f yd
L b =
4 fbd

(2)

5.2.3.4 Required anchorage length

The required anchorage length L b,net

L b,min

coefficient a = 1 for straight bars; 0.7 if the side cover to a bent bar in tension 3.
Lb,min = 0.3lb, 10, for tension anchorages
Llb,min = 0.6lb, 100mm, for compression anchorages

Where at least the minimum reinforcement given by 4.4.2.2 is provided, the limitation of crack widths to
acceptable values and avoidance of uncontrolled cracking between widely-spaced bars may generally be
achieved by limiting bar spacings and/or bar diameters. Tables 4.11 and 4.12 below are designed to ensure that
crack widths will not generally exceed 0.3mm for reinforced concrete.

Tables 4.11 & 4.12 :

service stress*
( N/mm2 )

Anchorages may be straights, bends, hooks or loops. Straights should be used for compression anchorages, but
straights or bends should not be used to anchor smooth bars in tension with > 8mm.

Maximum diameter ( ) and

spacing for high bond bars
max. spacing
max.
( mm )
( mm )

160

32

300

At a simple support at least 50% of the span reinforcement must be continued to provide an anchorage.

200

25

250

MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM REINFORCEMENT AREAS IN BEAMS

240

20

200

5.4.2.1 Longitudinal reinforcement

280

16

150

320

12

100

360

10

50

400

(1)

Design 3
page 12

The relevant provisions of 5.4.3. may be summarised as :

a) Main bending reinforcement in slabs should be spaced at 3h and 500mm.
b) Secondary reinforcement of at least 20% the area of the main reinforcement should be spaced at 3h and
500mm.

where fyd = fyk /1.15

A s,req
= a Lb
A s,prov

Module 330
H J Newbon

The effective cross-sectional area of the longitudinal tensile reinforcement (As) should not be less than :

0.6 bd
As
and As 0.0015 b.d (whichever gives the greater value)
f yk

Note*

the service stress should be evaluated for

the characteristic dead load + a proportion of
the characteristic imposed loads :
0.2 - for dwellings
0.3 - for offices
0.6 - for car parks
0.0 - for snow or wind loads
For beams 1m deep, additional longitudinal
reinforcement to the sides is required to
control cracking. There are also restrictions
on shear link spacing in beams which ensure
that diagonal cracking between the links is
not excessive.

For a flanged beam, only the width of the web (bw) is taken into account.
(2)

The cross-sectional area of the tension reinforcement (As)and of the compression reinforcement (As) should not
be greater than 0.04 Ac (except at laps).

5.4.2.2 Shear reinforcement

(5)
The shear ratio is given by :

w
where
Asw
Sw
bw
sin

=
=
=
=

A sw
=
S w .b w . sin

the total area of the stirrup(s)

the spacing of the stirrups
is the breadth of the web of the beam
1.0 for vertical stirrups

Table 5.5 : Minimum values of w

Concrete strength
class

Steel grade
250

4.4.3

P(1)

The deformation of a member or structure should not be such that it adversely affects its proper functioning or
appearance.

P(2)

Appropriate limiting values of deflection taking into account the nature of the structure, of the finishes, partitions
and fixings and upon the function of the structure should be agreed with the client.

P(5)

The appearance and general utility of the structure may be impaired when the calculated sag of a beam, slab or
cantilever subjected to the quasi-permanent loads exceeds [span/250].

P(6)

Deflections may cause damage to partitions, to members attached to, or in contact with the member considered,
and to fixtures or finishes, if the calculated deflection occurring after construction of the elements which could
suffer damage is excessive. An appropriate limit will depend upon the nature of the elements which could suffer
damage but, as a guide, a limit of [span/500] is considered reasonable for most circumstances.

460

C12/15 & C20/25

0.0015

0.0008

C25/30 & C35/45

0.0022

0.0012

C40/50 & C50/60

0.0028

0.0014

DESIGN SERVICEABILITY CHECKS

4.4.2

LIMIT STATES OF CRACKING

4.4.2.1 General considerations

P(1)

Cracking shall be limited to a level that will not impair the proper functioning of the structure or cause its
appearance to be unacceptable.

P(2)

Cracking is almost inevitable in reinforced concrete structures subject to bending, shear, torsion or tension
resulting from either direct loading or restraint of imposed deformations.

4.4.2.2 Minimum reinforcement areas

Equ.(4.78)
where

kc =
fct,eff
Act
s

A s k c k fct,eff

A ct
s

0.4 for a section in pure bending, 1.0 for a section in pure tension.
k=
0.8 where cracking is due to normal loading, shrinkage or early-age thermal contraction, (0.5
where h 800mm) and 1.0 where due to imposed deformations (e.g. foundation settlement).
is the concrete tensile strength at the time when cracking is expected to occur, with an upper limit of 3
2
N/mm .
is the area of concrete within the tension zone.
is the maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately after cracking of the concrete (s
fyk)

4.4.2.3 Control of cracking without direct calculation

(1)

For reinforced slabs in buildings subjected to bending without significant axial tension, measures specifically to
control cracking are not necessary where the overall depth does not exceed 200mm and the provisions of 5.4.3
have been applied.

LIMIT STATES OF DEFORMATION (DEFLECTION)

4.4.3.1 Basic considerations

4.4.3.2 Cases where calculations may be omitted

P(1)

Generally, it is not necessary to calculate the deflection explicitly as simple rules, such as limits to span/depth
ratio may be formulated which will be adequate for avoiding deflection problems in normal circumstances. More
rigorous checks are necessary for members which lie outside such limits or where deflection limits other than
those implicit in simplified methods are appropriate.

(2)

Providing reinforced concrete beams or slabs in buildings are dimensioned so that they comply with the limits of
span to depth given in this clause, their deflections should not normally exceed the limits set out in 4.4.3.1.(5)
and (6).

Table 4.14 :

Basic ratios of span/effective depth for

concrete members without axial compression

Structural System

reinforced

Concrete
highly
stressed

Concrete
lightly
stressed

1.

Simply supported beam, one or two-way

spanning simply-supported slab

18

25

2.

End span of continuous beam or one-way

continuous slab or two-way spanning slab
continuous over one long side

23

32

3.

Interior span of beam or one-way or two-way

spanning slab

25

35

4.

Slab supported on columns without beams (flat

slab) - based on longer span

21

30

5.

Cantilever

10

These values provide a useful

guide in determining an initial
depth of the beam or slab for
use in further calculations.
However, they may need to be
modified to take into account
any special considerations, e.g.
very large spans where applied
finishes
or
partitions
are
sensitive
to
excessive
deflections. Alternatively, it may
be necessary to carry out a
rigorous analytical check of the
deflection.

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 13

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Where a calculation is deemed necessary, the deformation shall be calculated under load conditions which are
appropriate to the purpose of the check.

P(2)

The calculation method adopted shall represent the true behaviour of the structure under relevant actions to an
accuracy appropriate to the objectives of the calculation.

(3)

Appendix 4 of EC2 gives further information on the calculation of deflections.

Design 3
page 14

is a factor to take into account the restraint conditions at the remote end of the beams:
= 1.0 : opposite end elastically or rigidly restrained
= 0.5 : opposite end free to rotate
= 0.0 : for a cantilever beam

4.4.3.3 Checking deflections by calculation

P(1)

Module 330
H J Newbon

Figure 4.27 : Nomogram for the calculation of the effective length

REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS

SWAY AND NO-SWAY FRAMES
A structural frame which induces significant secondary effects is defined as a sway frame. From 4.3.5.3.3 (3), 'frames
may be classified as no-sway if the first-order displacements of the connections do not increase the effects of actions
calculated without considering these displacements by more than 10%' (i.e. if the secondary effects are not more than
10% of the first-order effects).
This is stated more clearly in 4.3.5.1.P(5) : In compression members, the influence of second order effects should be
considered if the increase above the first order bending moments due to deflections exceeds 10%.
In general, an individual column may be considered to be braced (and therefore non-sway) if the bracing element or
system is sufficiently stiff to resist at least 90% of all lateral forces.
COLUMN DESIGN
4.3.5.6 Simplified design methods for isolated columns
4.3.5.6.1 General
(1)

For buildings, a design method may be used which assumes the compression members to be isolated and
adopts a simplified shape for the deformed axis of the column. The additional eccentricity is then calculated as a
function of the slenderness.

4.3.5.6.2 Total eccentricity

(1)

The total eccentricity attributed to columns of constant cross-section (concrete and steel, ignoring laps) in the
most heavily stressed section (critical section) is given by :

(a)

First order eccentricities, equal at both ends

etot = e0 + ea + e2

(b)

where

eo
MSd1
NSd
ea
e2

=
=
=
=
=

first order eccentricity = MSd1 / NSd

first order applied moment
applied longitudinal force
additional eccentricity due to geometrical imperfections
second order eccentricity, related to column slenderness.

Where the first order eccentricities are different at both ends

For columns of constant cross-section (concrete and steel, ignoring laps) subjected to first order moments
varying linearly along their length and having eccentricities at their ends which differ in value and/or sign, an
equivalent eccentricity ee should be used instead of eo for the critical section.

(2)

The equivalent eccentricity ee can be taken as the higher of the following values :
ee = 0.6 . eo2 + 0.4 . eo1
ee = 0.4 . eo2

where

eo1 and eo2 denote the first order eccentricities at the two ends and

eo2 eo1

Both ea and e2 are dependent upon the effective length of the column.
4.3.5.3.5 Slenderness of isolated columns
(1)

For buildings, the effective height or length of a column Lo = . Lcol can be determined by means of Figure 4.27
in which the coefficients kA and kB denote the rigidity of restraint at the columns ends.

Note : The effective length Lo of the column is defined as "the length at which a pin-ended strut would be affected by
slenderness to the same extent as the column under consideration".
Lcol is the height of column measure between idealised centres of restraint.
kA and kB are ratios of column-to-beam stiffnesses at the top and bottom of the column.
kA (or kB) =

E
E

cm

cm

where

Ecm
Icol, Ib
Leff

=
=
=

(I col / L col )
(Ib / L eff )
modulus of elasticity of the concrete (for each individual beam or column)
second moment of area (gross section) of the column or beam respectively
effective span of beam

Isolated columns are considered slender if the slenderness ratio of the column considered exceeds 25 or
15/(u), whichever is the greater.
where

=
Lo / i
Lo
=
effective height or length of the column
i
=
radius of gyration of the column section = (Icol/Ac)
u
=
the longitudinall force coefficient for the column
i.e.
u = NSd / (Ac . fcd)
NSd
=
applied longitudinal force along column axis
Ac
=
gross area of column
fcd
=
concrete design strength = fck / 1.5

If the slenderness ratio is less than the above value, then the column is defined as short and secondary effects need not
be considered.
4.3.5.4 Imperfections
P(1)

Allowance shall be made in the design for uncertainties associated with the prediction of second order effects
and, in particular, dimensional inaccuracies and uncertainties in the position and line of action of the axial loads.
In the absence of other adequate provisions, this may be achieved by the use of equivalent geometrical
imperfections.

(3)

For isolated elements, the equivalent geometrical imperfections may be introduced by increasing the eccentricity
of the longitudinal force by an additional eccentricity ea, acting in the most unfavourable direction.
ea = . Lo / 2
where is the greater of 1/200 or 1/(100L)
L is the total height of the structure in metres

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 15

COLUMN DESIGN CHARTS

4.3.5.5.3
(2)

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Isolated columns in non-sway structures need not be checked for second order effects if the slenderness ratio
is less than or equal to crit even though the columns may be classified as slender by 4.3.5.3.5 above.
crit

where

25 . (2 - eo1 / eo2)

However, in this case the first order column moments should not be less than NSd . h / 20
where
h is the column dimension in the direction of bending.
In general, the slenderness ratio should not exceed 140.
Second order effects due to slenderness - e2
4.3.5.6.3 Model column method
(2)
A model column is a cantilever column which is
- fixed at the base and free at the top
- bent in simple curvature under loads and moments which give the maximum moments at the base
The maximum deflection, which equals the second order eccentricity e2 of such a column may be assumed to be
e2 =

K 2 (L o ) 2 f yk
1035000 d

K2 is a modification factor to take account of the strain conditions in the section and is given by :
K2 =
where

Nud N Sd
1.0
Nud Nbal

Nud is the design ultimate capacity of the section when subject to axial load only
Nud may be taken as 0.567 . fck . Ac + 0.87 . As . fyk
Nbal is the axial load which, when applied to the section, maximises its ultimate moment capacity.
Nbal may be taken as 0.267 . fck . Ac
d is the effective depth of the cross-section in the expected direction of failure.
Ac is the area of concrete
As is the area of reinforcement

It will always be conservative to assume that K2 = 1.0

Alternatively it may be found iteratively taking an initial value of K2 = 1.0
Separate checks should be made for both axes of rectangular columns.
COLUMN DESIGN LOADS
The total eccentricity for which the column section is to be designed is given by :
etot = (eo + ea + e2)
The axial load NRd and bending moment MRd for which the column section is to be designed is therefore given by
NRd = NSd
MRd = NSd . etot
COLUMN DESIGN
The clauses in EC2 used previously in the Ultimate Limit State design of beams in bending are also relevant to the design
of columns :
4.3.1.2 Design resistance to bending and longitudinal force
P(1)

In analysing a cross-section to determine its ultimate resistance, the assumptions given below shall be used :
(i)

Plane sections remain plane.

(ii)

The strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or compression, is the same as that in the
surrounding concrete.

(iii)

The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.

(iv)

The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived from the design stress-strain curve in either
Figure 4.2 or 4.3 of EC2.

(v)

The stresses in the reinforcing steel are derived from the design curves in Figure 4.5 of EC2.

(vii) For cross-sections subject to pure longitudinal compression, the compressive strain in the concrete is
limited to 0.002.
(viii) For cross-sections not fully in compression, the limiting compressive strain is taken as 0.0035. In
intermediate situations, the strain diagram is defined by assuming that the strain is 0.002 at a level 3/7 of
the height of the section from the most compressed face.

Rectangular columns (d/h = 0.15)

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 16

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 17

BIAXIAL BENDING OF RECTANGULAR COLUMNS

There are a number of approximate methods of dealing with columns which have applied bending about two axes. The
following is taken from CP110 (but using EC2 notation).

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

where

M
+ y
M uy

1.0

The transverse reinforcement should be adequately anchored.

(3)

The spacing of the transverse reinforcement along the column should not exceed the lesser of the following
three distances :
- 12 times the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars
- the least dimension of the column
- 300mm.

(4)

The spacing should be reduced by a factor of 0.6 :

(i) in sections located above and below a beam or slab over a height equal to the larger dimension of the
column cross-section,
(ii) near lapped joints, if the maximum diameter of the longitudinal bars is greater than 14mm.

(6)

Every longitudinal bar (or group of longitudinal bars) placed in a corner should be held by transverse
reinforcement.

Note :

In addition to the above, CP110 requires that links should be so arranged that every corner and alternate bar or
group in an outer layer of reinforcement is supported by a link passing round the bar and having an included
angle of not more than 135. All other bars or groups within a compression zone should be within 150mm of a
restrained bar.

Muy is the maximum moment capacity, assuming ultimate axial load NSd and bending about the minor
axis only
n

is related to NSd / N ud as given in the following table :

NSd / Nud

0.2

1.00

0.4

1.33

0.6

1.67

0.8

2.00

NSd is the design axial load on the column

where

Nud = 0.567 . fck . Ac + 0.87 . fyk . As

Ac is the cross-sectional concrete area
As is the area of the longitudinal reinforcement
fck is the characteristic strength of the concrete

the diameter of the transverse reinforcement (links, loops or helical spiral reinforcement|) should not be less than
6mm or one quarter of the maximum diameter of the longitudinal bars, whichever is greater; the diameter of the
wires of welded mesh fabric for transverse reinforcement should not be less than 5mm.

(2)

Mx & My are the moments due to ultimate loads, about the major and minor axes respectively
Mux is the maximum moment capacity, assuming ultimate axial load NSd and bending about the major
axis only

PAD FOUNDATIONS
Definitions
Gross loading intensity

The total pressure on the ground beneath the foundation after the structure has been
erected and fully loaded.

Overburden pressure

The total pressure due to the weight of both soil and water acting on any plane at or
below the foundation level before construction operations commence.

Net loading intensity

Net increase in pressure on the ground beneath the foundation due to the dead
(permanent) load and live (variable) loading applied to the structure.
i.e. (net loading intensity) = (gross loading intensity) - (overburden pressure)

fyk is the characteristic strength of the reinforcement

DETAILING ARRANGEMENTS
In order to satisfy the design requirements of EC2, the following rules related to detailing arrangements should be
satisfied :
5.4.1

COLUMNS

Ultimate bearing capacity

the value of gross loading intensity at which the ground fails in shear.

Allowable bearing capacity

The maximum design value of net loading intensity appropriate to the particular type
of ground and foundation, taking into consideration the ultimate bearing capacity,
estimated amount and rate of settlement that will occur, and the ability of the structure
to accommodate settlement.

This clause deals with columns for which the larger dimension is not greater than 4 times the smaller dimension.
Note :

When the larger dimension is greater than 4 times the smaller dimension, the member is classified as a wall.

5.4.1.1 Minimum dimensions

(1)

The minimum permissible transverse dimension of a column cross-section is

- 200mm for columns of solid section, cast in-situ (vertically)
- 140mm for precast columns cast horizontally.

5.4.1.2 Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement

5.4.1.2.1 Longitudinal reinforcement
(1)

Bars should have a diameter of not less than 12mm.

(2)

The minimum amount of total longitudinal reinforcement As,min should be derived from the following condition :

A s,min =
where

0.15 N Sd
0.003 A c
f yd

fyd

is the design yield strength of the reinforcement

NSd

is the design axial compression force

Ac

is the cross-sectional area of the concrete

(3)

Even at laps, the area of the reinforcement should not exceed the upper limit of 0.08Ac

(4)

The longitudinal bars should be distributed around the periphery of the section. For bars having a polygonal
cross-section, at least one bar shall be placed at each corner. For columns of circular cross-section the minimum
number of bars is 6.

Design 3
page 18

5.4.1.2.2 Transverse reinforcement

(1)

A section may be designed for bi-axial bending by checking that the resulting design satisfies the equation :

M x

Mux

Module 330
H J Newbon

DESIGN OF PAD FOUNDATIONS

There are two stages to the design:
1.

Bearing capacity

to ensure that the foundation is of sufficient size so that the allowable bearing capacity
is not exceeded.

Structural design

to ensure that the foundation is strong enough to resist the internal stresses (bending
and shear) imposed by the applied loads.

1. Bearing Capacity (Serviceability Limit State)

Since the allowable bearing capacity is determined by considerations of settlement, it is governed by serviceability criteria
and is therefore based on corresponding load factors,
i.e. design load = 1.0 . Gk + 1.0 . Qk
where
Gk = permanent (dead) load
Qk = variable (live) load
N.B.
In the majority of cases, where the foundation is below ground level, the self-weight of the foundation can be
ignored since it is similar to the weight of soil it has displaced.
In many cases the foundation has an axial load and an applied bending moment, and the maximum and minimum
foundation pressures are determined by:

=
where

N M

A W

N = applied axial load

M = applied bending moment

A = plan area of foundation

W = first moment of area (section modulus)

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 19

If the moment is increased, the minimum pressure will decrease to zero and the pressure distribution will become
triangular.

UMIST
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering

Module 330
H J Newbon

Design 3
page 20

c) Design for Punching Shear

The applied axial load and moment are equivalent to a resultant eccentric load,
where the eccentricity (e) = M / N

4.3.4 PUNCHING

For compatibility and equilibrium, the "volume" of the pressure diagram must be equal to the applied load and the centroid
of the pressure diagram must lie on the line of action of the resultant eccentric load.

P(1)

The principles and rules given in this section complement those given in 4.3.2 (shear see previous notes).
They are concerned with punching shear in slabs containing flexural reinforcement determined according to
4.3.1 (bending see previous notes); they also cover punching shear in foundations and waffle slabs with a solid
section around the loaded area.

P(2)

Punching shear may result from a concentrated load or reaction acting on a relatively small area, called the
loaded area, of a slab or of a foundation.

P(4)

The shear resistance shall be checked along a defined critical perimeter. Outside the critical perimeter the slab
has to satisfy the requirements of section 4.3.2.

(9)

The amount of longitudinal tensile reinforcement in two perpendicular directions, x and y should be greater than
0.5%, calculated allowing for any differences in effective depth in the two directions.

If the applied moment is increased still further, the eccentricity of the resultant load (and the centroid of the pressure
diagram) moves away from the centre-line of the foundation, and part of the foundation is subject to uplift (since it must
be assumed that the underside of the foundation cannot develop negative pressure or suction). The foundation remains
stable as long as the equilibrium conditions are maintained and the maximum pressure does not exceed the allowable
value.
2. Structural Design (Ultimate Limit State)
The following factors are considered in the structural design of the foundation:
a) Flexure

the critical section is at the face of the column

b) Shear

the critical section is at a distance d from the face of the column,

where d is the effective depth of the foundation slab.

c) Punching shear

the critical section is at a distance of 1.5d from the face of the column

4.3.4.1 General

4.3.4.2.2 Critical perimeter

(1)

The critical perimeter for circular or rectangular loaded areas located away from unsupported edges is
defined as a perimeter surrounding the loaded area and at a defined distance from it. It is assumed to be
1.5d.

For Ultimate Limit State calculations, the ground bearing pressure (i.e. ground reaction) has to be converted to an
equivalent Ultimate Load.

4.3.4.3 Design method for checking punching shear

a) Design for Flexure

(1)

(N.B.

where possible, pad foundations should be designed as singly-reinforced, i.e. if necessary, the depth should be
increased to suit.)

z
0.882 M
= 0.5 + 0.25
d
bd 2 * fck
As noted previously, z should not exceed 0.95d

M
As =
0.87(f yk ) * z

Bending in transverse direction

The method for punching shear design set out in the following sections is based on three values of the design
shear resistance at the critical perimeter :
VRd1 - the design shear resistance per unit length of the critical perimeter, for a slab without shear
reinforcement
VRd2 - the maximum design shear resistance per unit length of the critical perimeter, for a slab with shear
reinforcement.
VRd3 - the design shear resistance per unit length of the critical perimeter, for a slab with shear reinforcement.

(2)

No shear reinforcement is required if VSd VRd1

(3)

If VSd exceeds VRd1, shear reinforcement or other forms of shear connector, where their application can be
justified, should be provided such that VSd VRd3

(4)

In the case of a concentrated load or support reaction, the applied shear per unit length is

v Sd =

Note that the bending of the foundation occurs in both directions (irrespective of the bending in the column) and the
transverse direction must also be checked for flexure.
Refer to the pressure diagram above. In this case, for any transverse section the pressure across the section will be
constant but its value will vary depending on the position at which the section is taken. Some judgement may be required
as to a suitable value, but a conservative solution is to assume the mean value used in the main direction.
Anchorage
It is particularly important to check the reinforcement for anchorage. If required, additional anchorage can be achieved by
providing a 90 bend in the bar, with a vertical leg at the edge of the foundation.
b) Design for Shear
Refer to EC2 clauses re. shear in previous notes. In addition :
4.3.2.2. (10)

Because of the increased resistance due to direct transmission of loads close to supports, it will
normally be conservative to evaluate VSd at a distance d from the face of a direct support on beams or
slabs with continuously distributed loading.

The maximum shear occurs at the critical section (distance d from the face of the column).
From previous notes shear resistance when there is no axial load across the section is given by :
VRd1 = Rd * k(1.2 + 40 1 ) * b w d
(note that the axial load in this case refers to lateral forces perpendicular to the critical section, not the axial load in the
column)
If Vsd > VRd1,

A sw
Sw

1.11 * ( VSd VRd1 )

0.87 * f ykw * d

EC2 (5.4.2.2) specifies a minimum amount of shear reinforcement as :

w =

A sw
S w .b w

where

w = 0.0022 for fck = 35 N/mm2 & fyk = 250 N/mm2

VSd

VSd
u

where

is the total design shear force developed. In a slab this is calculated along the perimeter u. For a
foundation this is calculated along the perimeter of the base of the truncated punching shear cone,
assumed to form at 33.7 (to the horizontal), provided this falls within the foundation. (Note that the
cotangent of 33.7 = 1.5)

is the perimeter of the critical section

is a coefficient which takes account of the effects of eccentricity of loading. In cases where no
eccentricity of loading is possible, may be taken as 1.0. In other cases, the values given in figure
4.21 may be adopted. Based on a more rigorous analysis, other values of may be used, when
associated with appropriate methods of ensuring the anchorage of the reinforcement at the edge of the
slab.

The values of in Figure 4.21 are summarised as :

Axially loaded column

1.00

Internal column

1.15

Edge column

1.40

Corner column

1.50

The load on the critical section is the total vertical load

on the foundation, reduced by that part of the load
which is supported by the ground within the critical
section.
Check the amount of flexural reinforcement passing
through the critical section (refer to 4.3.4.1 (9) )