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277 views13 pagesChromosomes PDF
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/ 13
CLASS: XII 192. BIOLOGY NOTES
CHROMOSOMES
Theiterm'chromosome (Gr: Ciroma = colowfeli,’ “Soma ="body) is used forthe thread
«like coloured bodies which'are found inside the nucleus. ‘This term was introduced by a
German enibrydiogist, Walthér'Fleming in 1882 while examining rapidly dividing celts
Of salamander laryae after weating with Perkin’s Aniline dye. The chromosomes contain
: 0 hiefeditary: characters in the form of genes,;present in pairs in an individual and. theit
¢ ‘mumber remains,constant generation after generation in a given species, 5
The humber of-chroiriosomes varies from species to species.
‘Examples: i
1, ‘Penicillium = 2.chromosomes
2x Mosquito = 6 chromosomes
3,, . Drosophila = 8 chromosomes
Xb 4), Gaiden Pea= 14 chromosomes =~
2 5.,, Feog = 24 chromosomes
6.) Human 16 chromosomes
wi 7S’ Sugar Can = $8hromosomes:
* gt 88)Fem ee chromosomes 2
‘TRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOMES
‘hromosomes can only be seen when the cells are dividing.
i * Each chromosome gonsist of two very thin thread called:chromatids.
me © Thiey’share alcommon point of attachment called centromere. tah
x © Centiomere is small spherical zone on the chromosome, within centromere.
8 diac shape pootein Sucture calle -Ainetochoré is present to which the
spindle fibers attached during cell divisi
* Each chrontatid of a chromosome consist of one oF more thin threads called
> chromoniemgé which contain deeper staining regions along their lengths,
given the thréads like appearanee of strings of beads. These region's are
éalled chromomeres. '
fhe two chromatids of same chromosome are called sister chromatics and
..thei¢liromiatics of different chromosomes are called non-sister chromatids.
Ree ain. :
MOSOME:! Get
Thereare'Tour types jacana 1
s D pant (-Telockittrig, (Terminal deitromere)
ani i pAcroctitiri¢ (Sub-Terminal centromere)
3, y Suba Iie (J-shaped chromosomes) 5
Ag Met ete (V-shaped chirémosomes)
Apes
econ
EF COSCERRE, y.0) Those chromosomes which are morphologically similar with. same ‘set
Os canes are evalled “Hoinblogqus -ehroniesomes”, ¥
wr € CENT ADASEIE cit t
oan’ apn COMO cept 2 3
ave “ ne MOSOMES: 0s ee CoML at : ue i
ee Aliihe-chirdmddomes in a Cel’ tte sex ebshisons we called!Antosamesy 80 Sk
A COACH erat SpA MEH CON write vase CAA 6 oP
ADAMJEE COACHING CENTRE _CLASS: XL -93- BIOLOGY NOTES,
SEX-CHROMOSOMES:
"Those chromosomes in a cell’by which thesex of __organismicah’be
determined are called “Sex ~' chromosomes”.
pn
KARYOTYPE: _ naMaee ate
v The ee tray of chromosomes that an individual ota is walled its
Se
PACE ERBA
AD BRAK an
BR ER “aa ae a
ee ne Me
6Z8Lybe-EEE0.
\yoesey HON £23 ‘ho
YALNAD AdOD VaOr
‘The karyotype of indfvidual is often examined to detect.genetic abmormalities,
suehi as those arising from extra or lost chromosomes.” :
4 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CHROMOSOMES:
‘© Chemically the chromosome is composed of deoxyribonucleo protein.
: ‘ * “Deoxyribonueleo protein is composed of DNA and Protein.
‘+ The most abundant chromosomal proteins are called-Histones.
‘* DNA is made up of billions of units talled nucleotides and there are three
we components of nucleotides ie., Se
1. Phosphate group.
2. Deoxyritise sugar.
3. Nitrogenous base.
‘wiatkA STRUCTURE OF ‘CHROMOSOME:
e ‘Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of chromatin, a complex of DNA
‘~ ignificant arhiunt of [Ais also’ cit ih ‘chromosomes.
ve The of chromoseiies exist.as ene very'iong double stranded fiber, a duplex.
© SIfa'strand ofDNA‘from a single chtomosome:were laid out in-a straight
so Mie, if would more'thari 7 feet long."
ep The!DNA coiléathus 4 ‘filling into aitiuch'smaller'space. The coiling of
DNA ‘takes place in a foflowing manner.
(Bvery'200 nucleotides, tte DNA, duplexis cotfed about a complex of
ii), Each of thesé Histones. fromthe dare of an assemibly called a micleosome.
iil) The Histones' are positively sate therefore’ DNA i is strongly attached to ,
1 “the'Histones. Re TING CHiN
ae iv) Further coiling of the DNA oceuts!When the seis a rae eoeaeS wraps
info higher order obi talled super @eils. G
ge cone ee open prEwe cf ANGCENTRE
ADAMJEE COACHING CENTRE GLASS: XII 94. BIOLOGY NOTES.
\), Highly condensed proteins of the chromatin are called Heterochromatin,
while the lower condensedjproteins of chromatin are called Buchromatin.
pam
“ c cikomosintes AS CARRIER OF GENES:
4a ie ‘ehrompsomes scan be, sepaxateiy identified visually, but the genes are
oe c its ands far have,not bees? Séen even with’best microscope
< mesiand dete behave as heredjtary-units-but the genes can
« shathd vinsidered outside the chromosomes. ~
Et 3. Ab thé ltime of mmeinsis: the! separation ofshiomdlegous chromosomes wke,
apie ti in the segregation of gene-pairs
In the, genotype of every. individual one member ‘of each.pairiof genes is
Contributed by’drie parent andthe dther by the-other parent.
% A VER COSCHEL CENTRE
+) 0 CHROMOSOMAL THEORY. OF HEREDITY: ANG OEE
ape COM aye ck NYE" The chromidsdi nal theory oflnihefitinice y ‘yeas first tr (Pormiated 8 thes pi f
sane O* Abe Oy rates ae it 1992 IRE Oy » coxcH a.
ADAMJEE COACHING CENTRE CLASS: Xl -95- BIGLOGY NOTES 3:
\-- “The main postulates of this theory ate as under. 5 fn
Reproduction involves the initial union of only two cells, egg and-sperm. If
Mendel’s model is, eqrrect thei these two ‘gametes must make equal
hereditary \eontribitions.,ySperm, “however contains little cytoplasm,
therefore ithe hereditary, maferid? must, reside; within the nuclei vof the
gametes sec?
©: ‘Chromosomes. segregate during ¢meidsis in a, manner siniilan..to: that
exhibited by. the elements'of Mendel’s niddel. oe
4 Gametes have one capy'of'éach pair of homologous. chromosomes, iploides 22
» individuals have two copies. +e Be
1 : of f° Of homologous “hromosomes orienis) Qa, thé>
‘metaphase plate independent of any other pair: Seee
DNA AS A HEREDITARY MATERIAL: 238
‘The material which transmits the parental characters into | ‘the comings se
generation is called “Hereditary material” # S a
“DHE HEREDITARY MATERIAL OF BACTERIA: a:
Fred Griffith in 1928 provided the evidence of hereditary material in’ bacteria.
*~'In this regard'he discovered the mechanism of transformation in bacteria \@treptococcos
pneumoniae). < , P
Transformation
‘The pidtess in which a bacteriitt takes the nakefl DNA of dead bacteria’ is
calledTransformation. ct
« Fred’Griffith did his experiments on two strains of Strept. Pneumoniae ici; s
Mand RI strains.
S-III STRAIN: Smooth colonies on culture medium ,
Sat capsulated, virulent,» ts
‘ 7 i R-II STRAIN: Rough colonies. on culbige medium, mon- N
' capsulated, non-virulent. Beles _ R
' EXPERIMENTS |: RESULTS© |:
AEs "| SAllLinjected in Mice Died” | i
i> |) TRAIL injected in Mice Alive
+> \ “TSAI (Boiled injectedin,.Mice) Alive
xc CY * ! PSII Boiled) + R-I1 injected : ‘Died.
E.. cn Mice s
wt , Injtansformation was confirmed by Avery, Maclegd, end MeCarty in 4944,
; v ” They;performed the following experiment, N
‘ wrRE 8 ote * Endonuclease + R-llinjgstedia\ Mice and they-yemained alive
Conclusion: © yee 60" CENSS Cg ae
In Virus the hereditary material ‘Wal Getected,by Hershey, and:~.Chase © in
1952 Hershey ‘aid ‘Chase began’ series began ia series of. experiments
involving, a ‘particular type of vinis ‘which specifically attacks. bacterial cells
and ‘is called a sbatlerliphages Bacteriophage ,T3 attacks’ the -bacterinih"
Eschertthia coli, (E:e6l) which livessin the human.gut, The plage causes’.
colitd produce, Jargenurnbers of Taphage patric’. acvery'short time. 7¥
Theyessence of Hetshey:and Chase's, experintient involved growing Ta-nhagei’
partigles:in E° colf which had been 2 grown ona Vmedium containing Pai active |.
isotopes of either sulphur, (5S) of # phosphorus Py The} phage protein’ ‘tin ai
sulphur ut ivi’ Esulphu phosphorus, ahd, the DNA eéitalns 5 Phosphorus bat Rt x t
ye st ; %
t ‘ NG © p ACHING Cert
ADAMJEE COACHING CENTRE
ADA GLASS: XII -96- BIOLOGY NOTES
sulphur. Thetefore the. phage ‘particles , formed “in E.coli Yubéled with
railioactive sulphur had incorporated this into their protein coats, whereas those
formed in phosphorus-labeled ..coli contained radioactively labeled “P DNA.
‘The labeled Te-phage particles;were allowed to infect non-radioactively labeled
-£. oli and after a.few minutes the polls Were agitated in a blender or, liquidizer
which stripped offithe philge particlas ey
ACHING
eros
see
ADAMJEE COACHING CENTRE 2CLASS: Xi) 103. BIOLOGY NOTES.
1. PSEUDO-DOMINANCE: waMyt
Deletion may cause pseudd dominance in sheterées)gous,
2. LETHALEFFECT: 4 i
{fdeletion takes placein Kath'homologous chromosomies
then it}has the lethal effect mM. ey, COMHE organism: A yy RINE] CONS ae
DUPLICATION: ane NES pase ¢
Keri Pettion: Of a chromosomal. seginent on a /chrbmosorne, xs \éalled wi
_ duplication,
Effects of duplicatioi
Due to the duplication different physiological and imorphological
funotions are disturbed. ECO SWS
INVERSION: ¥ Re agpaNtlRe OOF
When the arrangement of genes on a chromosorte is. changed then the..i.1"' je
mutation is called inversion, .
ABCDEF
+ inversion
D gq 4A
Effect? OF Inversion:
__ Inversion reduced crossing over,
TRANSLOCATION: ”
The transfer of segment of chromosome
chromosome is called translocation. <
ABCDEH ~ Gary
ABCDGH EFUKY ae
EFFECTS OF TRANSLOCATION: a
‘Translocation may give rise to varieties within species
GENE MUTATION: * . sGcenret
‘When one or few nucleotides are changed on DNA then ‘Nath hifalign is 35
called. Gene mutation or Point Mutation, ~~ 4 CENTRE
‘This, mutation is invisible under the microscope, ang CONTR
weet
ADAM:
pawl
nVPe €
aban
DNA ‘DAMAGE: (CAUSES OF MUTATTO!
5 CENTRE
‘There arehroenidjor important buses oF.DNA danke ly are << UNG CENTRE
% — slonizinig radiation MAIER COACHING rR
% ited Violet radiation . Smee, CORCHIRE Crt
¢ —— Chortichl Mutagens: Bo SFT CON neTRE ST
IONIZING RADIATIO? i ugee COACHING CoB DAM!
+. High." energy radiation’ "Bich ‘ag_X The chemicals that act on DNA fall irito'three classes. u
1 chetnials that look like DNA smuéleotides.that pair incorreetly with'the DNA
molecule, i : ae «
2, «Chemicals that remove the amino:group from, Adenine or ‘Cytosine, veadsitig’
‘hem to'impair. % MEE “i
3. Chemieals that add hydrocarbon. gropps to nucleotide, i anises SS
bases, also causing them to impair.
HEREDITARY DISEASES DUE TO DNA DAMAGE: |...
1) SECKILE CELL ANAEMIA “
‘ Siakle cell anaemia is a hereditary disorder in which fhe affected individuals re unable fos!
transport Oxygen to thir tissues properly because the molecules with red boot! cells that +t s
matt
carry-onygen, molecules of the protein hemoglobin, are detective.
EXPLANATION: ~~ ete: oe we
‘This ,disorder occurs due to the, presence ‘ofabnofmal hemgiobin (Glutamic acit
replaced by Valiné'i 6-chain at Sth position)) a AN
‘Tee hemoglobin plays an important role to maintain the normal biconcave shape Of ret”
-looil cells. But hen the hemoglobin becomes abnormal the RBCs becomes sickle oF °
crescent shaped. i x
EFFECTS OE SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA: ese spiel
® The abnormattiemoglobin has low binding capacity with oxygen... FRE pAM
+ These RBCs form clumps in blood ‘vessel and cause their obstruction. This abstibetion,y) sit
‘mayiresult in hemorrhage. Xe yn fit
Sate aps ,
2) PHENYLKETONURIA: coynree
+ Phenylketoruiria is a hereditary conc
beak down the amino acid Phenylalanine.» EES
‘¢
