English

PROJECT 1

THEME: MADE IN U.K

GROUP V THEME: THE HISTORY OF U.K
LEADER: EDIT DOLLANI
MEMEBERS:
SABINA DEDJA
ANISA BARDHI
JURILDA MUCA
FLORENC STAFA
ELIO HIMCI
ERMIRA PISHA
ENKEL ARIU

JURILDA:PREHISTORIC BRITAIN
The story of prehistoric Britain began when the first humans arrived in Britain. It
ended when the Romans conquered the ancient Britons and Britain became part of
the Roman Empire.
The earliest humans were hunter-gatherers. They survived by hunting animals and finding food
to eat. Then, very gradually people learned new skills. First they learned to herd animals and
grow crops. Later they discovered the secrets of making bronze and iron.
Prehistoric people couldn't read or write, but they were astonishing builders. Their tombs, forts
and monuments have survived for thousands of years.The prehistoric period is divided into three
ages. They are known as the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age.
Stone-Age Britain
The earliest inhabitants of Britain for whom there is compelling evidence are bands of hunters
living in Southern and Western England during the Hoxnian interglacial (about 380,000 to
400,000 BC).
(Some very recent excavations of stone tools on the East Anglian coastline suggest human
presence as early as 700,000 years ago).
However, as temperatures again dropped, Britain was abandoned. Although there are signs of
human habitation during later interglacials, it was not until roughly 14,000 years ago that
occupation became permanent.
Some of the first things that Mesolithic Britons did, were to wipe out the lion, the elephant, and
the hippopotamus, and to domesticate the dog.
By about 6000 BC the melting of the ice sheet had created the English Channel, and Britain
became an island.

The stone circles may have been used to help with the astronomical observations
necessary to establish the correct days for seasonal festivals - midsummer solstice,
the first day of Spring and so on.
Some archaeologists suggest that the stones themselves might be phallic symbols
used in fertility rituals (but the resemblance is generic to most stones - in contrast to
stones shaped somewhat like, say, the right knee or the left foot).

Bronze Age Britain

There is no clear division between the Stone and the Bronze Age in Britain. Around 2500 BC the Beaker
people (originally from Spain) began to immigrate to Britain and brought metal-working skills with them. They
made gold, copper and bronze implements and ornaments.
It was during the Bronze age (after 2500 BC) that circles of standing stones began to be erected in Britain. By far
the most famous is Stonehenge, but at least 900 stone circles survived long enough to be recorded. Many stone
circles were erected within existing "henges" - (i.e. circular earthworks consisting of a ditch and bank surrounding
a central table).

THE WHITE HORSE AT UFFINGTON

THIS IMAGE WAS FORMED BY CARVING
THROUGH THE TURF AND EXPOSING THE
CHALK BENEATH. IT PROBABLY DATES TO
ABOUT 1,000 BC, AND IS ABOUT 375 FEET
LONG AND 110 FEET HIGH.
AROUND 1400 BC, THE CLIMATE OF BRITAIN
STARTED BECOMING GRADUALLY COOLER
AND WETTER, AND BRITAIN'S POPULATION
DECLINED. MUCH OF THE POPULATION
LIVED IN HILL FORTS.

Late Neolithic inhabitants (c. 3000-2000

BC) of Norfolk dug mines up to 35 feet
deep to reach seams of flint - the basic
constituent of their edged weapons and
tools.

ERMIRA:ROMAN PERIOD

The Romans came to Britain nearly 2000 years ago and changed it. Even
today, evidence of the Romans once being there, can be seen in the ruins of
Roman buildings, forts, roads and culture that can be found all over
Britain.The Romans conquered most of the island and this became the
Ancient Roman province of Britannia. England in the Middle Ages concerns
the history of England during the medieval period, from the end of the 5th
century through to the start of the Early Modern period in 1485. When
England emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire, the economy was
in tatters and many of the towns abandoned. After several centuries of
Germanic immigration, new identities and cultures began to emerge,
developing into predatory kingdoms that competed for power. When some
Gauls fled to Britain from Rome's armies, Caesar feared that they might
use it as a base for a counterattack. He mounted two brief expeditions to
Britain - in August 55BC and May 54BC. He defeated a small British army,
and returned to Gaul.Britain remained a possible target for conquest
because of its wealth. Claudius placed AulusPlautius and Vespasian in
charge of an army of c. 40,000 men. Claudius paid a brief visit to Britain (16
days), and - taking all the credit for the conquest - minted coins celebrating
his victory, and named his son Britannicus.

Military commanders and provincial

governors amassed fortunes from the
conquered peoples and then used their
wealth and power to influence the
political process back at Rome.

Julius Caesar acquired extraordinary resources by his

conquest of Gaul; with these, he guaranteed the
loyalty of his troops and bribed important Romans.
His actions were key to transforming the
Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.

Britain under Rome

Initially, Rome occupied only the South-East, but soon expanded North and West.
Caratacus organized resistance in Wales, but this was suppressed by 60 AD.

The substantial investment in garrisons and infrastructure was

worthwhile because of Britain's agricultural and mineral wealth.
Britain's part-time warriors were no match for the better trained and
equipped Roman soldiers. British soldiers possessed no armor that was
proof against the Roman pilum or javelin, nor had they an appropriate
tactical response to the Roman legionaries' disciplined, close-order use
of the short thrusting sword (gladius).
Claudius placed AulusPlautius and Vespasian in charge of an army of
c. 40,000 men. Claudius paid a brief visit to Britain (16 days), and taking all the credit for the conquest - minted coins celebrating his
victory, and named his son Britannicus.

During the last quarter of the first century AD (75-100), cities expanded considerably theatres, amphitheatres, public monuments, baths & market places were constructed.
The Romans were efficient engineers who provided cities with good water supplies.
Urbanization went alongside Romanization. Public policy consciously aimed at
persuading Britons to adopt the customs, dress and habits of Romans.
Another sign of wealth and Romanization was the construction of county villas. These
comfortable, heated houses were usually within ten miles of a town.

In the late 50s the Romans

established another base at
"Lindon," which they pronounced
"Lindum." When a colony of
veterans was established here, it
became known as "Lindum
Colonia," and eventually as
Lincoln.

Eburacum (or Eboracum) was a fortress of the Ninth Legion; it was

established about 78 AD. It later became the home of the Sixth
Legion.
The Saxons corrupted the name to "Eoforwic", and the Vikings turned
this into "Jorvik" which eventually became "York".

Four centuries of occupation left their mark on the British landscape. The network of roads running arrow-straight
through the British countryside marked routes that survive to this day.
Although Roman cities were decayed, many expanded again later, and some may have been continuously
occupied, though not as real urban centers.
Final collapse

PubliusHelviusPertinax (126193)
On the death in 395 of the Emperor Theodosius, the Empire was divided between his two
sons - Arcadius receiving the West and Honorius the East. The Eastern part of the Empire had Governor of Britain,185-187,
and Roman Emperor, 192-193.
long been growing relatively more powerful and prosperous. In the West, imperial power fell
increasingly into the hands of military commanders, often of barbarian descent.
Britain's coasts were under attack by Germanic raiders all along the "Saxon Coast" of South
and East England. But by 401 the Roman homelands themselves were under attack, and
Flavius Stilicho, the effective ruler of the Empire, withdrew most of the legions garrisoned in
Britain.

The Roman legacy to Britain

Four centuries of occupation left their mark on the British landscape. The network of
roads running arrow-straight through the British countryside marked routes that
survive to this day.
Although Roman cities were decayed, many expanded again later, and some may
have been continuously occupied, though not as real urban centers.

Edit:Tudor England
The Tudor period was one the most exciting in British history. The Tudors were a Welsh-English family that ruled England
and Wales from 1485 to 1603, starting with the first monarch King Henry VII (14571509). The Tudors ruled for 118 years
and Tudor England saw two of the strongest monarchs ever to sit on the English throne: King Henry VIII and his daughter
Queen Elizabeth .

Henry VII

Henry VIII

Edward VI

Henry VIII, began his reign in 1509. Henry married his brother's
widow, Catherine of Aragon, who gave birth to his first child Mary but
failed to provide the new king with a male heir. Falling out of favor with
Henry, Catherine was replaced by the king's mistress,Anne Boleyn.
When Henry found himself unable to convince the pope to sanction
his divorce from Catherine, he declared papal authority ended in his
realm and founded the Church of England.
He then married Anne Boleyn, who gave birth to a single daughter,
Elizabeth. Anne ran afoul of powerful nobles allied with the king and
was accused of treason and incest, which brought about her arrest
and execution. Henry's third wife, Jane Seymour, died giving birth to
the king's sole male offspring, Edward.

Mary I

Elizabeth I

At the age of nine, Edward VI succeeded his father in 1547. This young and sickly
king died in 1553, leaving the throne to his half sister Mary, daughter of Catherine of
Aragon. A loyal Catholic,Bloody Marymade futile attempts to return England to the
Catholic Church, ordering the seizure and execution of several Protestant nobles and
clergymen. Mary died in 1558 without an heir, which brought the accession of her half
sister Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn. Devoted to the memory of her mother,
Elizabeth felt determined to reign in the religious conflict and political intrigue that plagued
the Tudor court since the time of Henry VII.

In the next year, an immense armada of Spanish warships was sent by the king of
Spain, scattered by storms in theEnglish Channel, marking the rise of English
power on the continent and the beginning of a steady decline in the power of
Spain.
With Elizabeth remaining unmarried and childless, the Tudor dynasty came to an
end with her death in 1603.
What did the Tudors do for Britain?
During 118 years of Tudor rule, England became richer than ever before. As the
country became wealthier,townsgrew, beautifulhouseswere built andschools
and colleges were set up. Arts and crafts flourished too. England was home to
great painters, writers and musicians.
Elizabeth restored the Church of England and encouraged playwrights, musicians,
and poets at her court. Talented men such asWilliam Shakespeare, Christopher
Marlowe, and Ben Jonson flourished during the Elizabethan Age, when England
was also home to a leading scientific philosopher, Sir Francis Bacon. During her
reign England began to colonizeNorth America, and the English captain Sir France
Drake led the first voyage of English ships around the world. She also defeated the
attempt by her cousin, the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, to overthrow her, and
regretfully ordered Mary's execution in 1587

Tudor houses are very distinctive and many can still be seen today.The
houses had a wooden frame with walls made from 'wattle and daub' - a
building material consisting of wooden strips covered with mud, clay and wet
soil. The walls were then painted white giving what is known as 'the black and
white effect'

England is the paradise of women, the

purgatory of men, and the hell of
horses."
John Florio (1553-1625)
Foreign travelers in England commented on the surprising degree of freedom and independence enjoyed by
English women - but their standards differed from today's. Certainly, English women were not confined to
the home in anything like the way common in the Mediterranean region.
Although it was assumed that women would be supported by their husbands or fathers, and although
women were excluded from the educated professions and public office, women moved freely outside the
home and many were engaged in economic activities designed to supplement the family budget.
In France, Salic Law excluded women from succession to the throne; but the English crown could descend
to a woman if there were no male heirs.
This had happened in 1135, when King Henry I had died leaving no sons - only his daughter Matilda (or
Maud). The barons had sworn to accept Matilda's succession but many supported Henry I's nephew,
Stephen, instead. The result was civil war. (Eventually, Matilda's son, Henry II, succeeded).
William Shakespeare was born in 1564. He grew up in Tudor England in the time of Queen Elizabeth I
.

Anisa:Victorian Britain - 1837 to 1901.

WhenQueen Victoriaascended the British throne in 1837, it marked the beginning of a
promising new age - the Victorian era.
The preceding Georgian era had lasted from 1714 to 1830, from the reign of George I through
George IV.
Era of Peace and Prosperity
Those who could see into the future would have been excited to see the dawn of a long period of peace and prosperity
in England under Queen Victoria
.

Middle class England grew rapidly and the upper class, which was formerly purely hereditary, came to include the nouveau
riche, who made fortunes from successful commercial enterprises.
However, a large proportion of Victorian society was still working class, and they remained disgruntled at the social inequality
and eventually sought reform.
Transport Evolution
Railways continued to develop, offering mass transit for city dwellers who were able to spend time off visiting the seaside and
participating in the new pastime of sea bathing.
From Brighton to Bridlington fashionable seaside resorts sprang up. Boarding houses were built along the seafronts of towns
near to industrialized areas such as London, Manchester, Leeds and the northwest of England.
In London, the worlds first underground railway, nicknamed the Tube, opened in 1862.
Politics, The Arts and Science
Politically, during the Victoria era, the House of Commons had two main political parties: the Tories and the Whigs.
By the mid 19th century the Whigs were known as the Liberal party and the Tories were the Conservative party. The Labour
party only came into being in 1900.
Prince Albert was a keen supporter of the Arts and London blossomed under his patronage with the building of the Royal
Albert Hall, the Royal Opera House, the Science Museum, the Natural History Museum and The Victoria and Albert Museum.
Poetry, literature and art flourished with the Bronte sisters, George Eliot, Oscar Wilde, Rudyard Kipling and Charles Dickens
publishing popular works.
Scientifically, the Victorian era also saw huge success. Darwin published his Theory of Evolution and the Great Exhibition of
1851 showcased many industrial and technological advances in the specially built Crystal Palace.
Sigmund Freud developed modern psychiatry and Karl Marx developed his new economic theory.
The Victorian era in Great Britain was a time of great change and progress and is still considered the Birth of Modern Times.
Progress
Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was generally characterised mostly by peace and
prosperity. There were no great wars. Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The
era saw the expansion of the second British Empire.
Historians have characterized the mid-Victorian era, (18501870) as Britain's 'Golden Years.'.[6] There was prosperity, as the
national income per person grew by half. Much of the prosperity was due to the increasing industrialization, especially in
textiles and machinery, as well as to the worldwide network of trade and engineering that produced profits for British
merchants, and exports from across the globe. There was peace abroad (apart from the short Crimean war, 185456), and
social peace at home. Opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement, peaked as a democratic
movement among the working class in 1848; its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions and cooperative
societies. The working class ignored foreign agitators like Karl Marx in their midst, and joined in celebrating the new
prosperity. Employers typically were paternalistic, and generally recognized the trade unions.[7] Companies provided their
employees with welfare services ranging from housing, schools and churches, to libraries, baths, and gymnasia. Middle-class
reformers did their best to assist the working classes aspire to middle-class norms of 'respectability.'

Elio: World War One

WWI saw pioneering advances in modern medicine

Inspired by the sight of soldiers faces ravaged by shrapnel, many of which
remained covered by masks, Harold Gillies established the field of plastic
surgery, pioneering the first attempts of facial reconstruction. As well as
this, blood transfusions became routine to save soldiers, with the first blood
bank established on the front line in 1917.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandthen consisting of England, Scotland, Wales, and the whole of Irelandwas one of
the Allied Powers during the First World War of 19141918, fighting against the Central Powers (the German Empire, the AustroHungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Bulgaria).
The state's armed forces were reorganisedthe war marked the creation of the Royal Air Force, for exampleand increased in size
because of the introduction, in January 1916, of forced conscription for the first time in the kingdom's history as well as the raising of the
largest all-volunteer army in history, known as Kitchener's Army, of more than two million men.
The outbreak of war has generally been regarded as a socially unifying event,although this view has been challenged by more recent
scholarship. In any case, responses in the United Kingdom in 1914 were similar to those amongst populations across Europe
WW1 nearly caused a financial meltdown in Britain
At the turn of the 20th century, Britain was an economic superpower, but the world's first global war would cost more than any that had
gone before. For example, the cost of bullets fired in one 24 hour period in September 1918 was nearly four million pounds.

Reform and crisis

A protest march by women suffragettes in London, 1913
This did not mean that the Liberal government did not tackle political reform before 1914. The House of Lords had not really been
touched by the reform acts of the 19th century and increasingly behaved as a Conservative opposition when the Liberals were in
power.
In 1909, the Lords vetoed the budget, a package of tax proposals which Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George had
adroitly presented as designed to finance welfare reforms, when in reality they were driven as much by the requirements of defence.
The ensuing crisis, which spanned two general elections, culminated with the Lords losing their power of veto and becoming a
revising chamber only.
Incipient domestic breakdown was usurped by international crisis.
The other great constitutional issue remained unionism. By 1912 - 1913 Ireland was threatening to break the Liberal party once
again. The 1910 elections left the Liberals without an overall majority and dependent on the Irish nationalists, the price of whose
support was Irish 'home rule'.
In Ireland itself, the Ulster Protestants refused to be separated from Britain and in March 1914 elements of the army made clear that
they would not force them, even if ordered to do so by the elected government of the day.
Thus the political ramifications extended beyond debates within Westminster to include the power of extra-parliamentary actors, and
even the danger of civil war in Ireland.
For those anxious to generate a sense of crisis there were other straws blowing in the same wind. Strikes by the major trade unions
between 1912 and 1914 and the militancy of the women's suffrage movement suggested that defining government in terms solely of
parliamentary sovereignty could be self-defeating.
In the event, the sense of incipient domestic breakdown, as intense in July 1914 as in any of the immediately preceding summers,
was usurped by international crisis. War and democracy
In 1901 Britain had a constitutional government, but it was not a fully-fledged democracy. In 1918 it became a
democracy, with the introduction of universal adult male suffrage and votes for women aged over 30.
What mattered more by then was the fact that the country was engaged in the greatest war of modern times, one in
which Britain's military deaths were more than twice those it would suffer in World War Two.
World War One may not have initiated democratic change, but it determined its timing. Ironically, the war's demands
also weakened the exercise of constitutional government, albeit temporarily.
Freedom of speech was curtailed by the Defence of the Realm Act in 1914. Elections, due in 1915, were deferred until
the war was concluded. And the formation of a coalition government in the same year all but silenced parliamentary
opposition.
When Britain entered World War One, it did so in the name of 19th century liberal values - the rights of small nations
and the rule of law.
What justified these claims, which became the touchstone of British propaganda, was Germany's invasion of Belgium,
as its army bypassed France's eastern defences by swinging round them to the north.

Florenc : World War Two

When the United Kingdom (UK) declared war on Nazi Germany at the outset of World War II, it controlled, to varying
degrees, many crown colonies, protectorates across the world and the Indian Empire.
It also maintained unique political ties to five independent dominions as part of the British Commonwealth (a name
popularised during World War I, which became official after the Balfour Declaration of 1926),:[1] Australia, Canada, South
Africa, New Zealand, and Ireland.
Although the British Empire and the Commonwealth countries all emerged from the war as victors, and the conquered
territories were returned to British rule, the costs of the war and the nationalist fervour that it had stoked became a
catalyst for the decolonisation which took place in the following decades as the formation of the Commonwealth realm

Victory
The front page ofThe Montreal Daily Starannouncing the German surrender. May 7, 1945
On 8 May 1945, theWorld War IIAlliesformally accepted theunconditional surrenderof the armed forces
ofNazi Germanyand the end ofAdolf Hitler'sThird Reich. The formal surrender of the occupying German
forces in theChannel Islandswas not until 9 May 1945. On 30 AprilHitler committed suicideduring the
Battle of Berlin, and so the surrender of Germany was authorized by his replacement, President of Germany
Karl Dnitz. Theact of military surrenderwas signed on 7 May inReims, France, and ratified on 8 May in
Berlin, Germany.
In the afternoon of 15 August 1945, theSurrender of Japanoccurred, effectively endingWorld War II..
Aftermath
World War II confirmed that Britain was no longer the great power it had once been, and that it had been
surpassed by the United States on the world stage. Canada, Australia and New Zealand moved within the
orbit of the United States. The image of imperial strength in Asia had been shattered by the Japanese
attacks, and British prestige there was irreversibly damaged. [13]The price for India's entry to the war had
been effectively a guarantee for independence, which came within two years of the end of the war, relieving
Britain of its most populous and valuable colony. The deployment of 150,000 Africans overseas from British
colonies, and the stationing of white troops in Africa itself led to revised perceptions of the Empire in Africa.
In the summer and fall of 1940, German and British air forces clashed in the skies over the United
Kingdom, locked in the largest sustained bombing campaign to that date. A significant turning point of
World War II, the Battle of Britain ended when Germanys Luftwaffe failed to gain air superiority over
the Royal Air Force despite months of targeting Britains air bases, military posts and, ultimately, its
civilian population. Britains decisive victory saved the country from a ground invasion and possible
occupation by German forces while proving that air power alone could be used to win a major battle.
On June 17, 1940, the defeated French signed an armistice and quitWorld War II. Britain now stood
alone against the power of Germanys military forces, which had conquered most of Western Europe in
less than two months. But Prime Minister Winston Churchill rallied his stubborn people and
outmaneuvered those politicians who wanted to negotiate withAdolf Hitler. But Britains success in
continuing the war would very much depend on the RAF Fighter Commands ability to thwart the
Luftwaffes efforts to gain air superiority. This then would be the first all-air battle in history.

Did You Know?

The battle received its name from a speech Winston Churchill
delivered to the British House of Commons on June 18, 1940, in
which he stated "The Battle of France is over. I expect the Battle of
Britain is about to begin."
In fact, Britains situation was more favorable than most of the world
recognized at the time. Britain possessed an effective air defense
system, first-rate fighter pilots, and a great military leader in Air
Marshal Hugh Dowding. On the other hand, the Germans had major
problems: they had no navy left after the costly conquest of Norway,
their army was unprepared for any form of amphibious operations,
and the Luftwaffe had suffered heavy losses in the west (the first two
factors made a seaborne attack on the British Isles impossible from
the first).
Even more serious, the Germans had poor intelligence and little idea
of British vulnerabilities. They wasted most of July in waiting for a
British surrender and attacked only in August. Although air strikes
did substantial damage to radar sites, on August 1315 the
Luftwaffe soon abandoned that avenue and turned to attacks on
RAF air bases. A battle of attrition ensued in which both sides
suffered heavy losses (an average loss of 21 percent of the RAFs
fighter pilots and 16 percent of the Luftwaffes fighter pilots each
month during July, August, and September).
For a time the advantage seemed to swing slightly in favor of the
Germans, but a combination of bad intelligence and British attacks
on Berlin led the Luftwaffe to change its operational approach to
massive attacks on London. The first attack on London on
September 7 was quite successful; the second, on September 15,
failed not only with heavy losses, but also with a collapse of morale
among German bomber crews when British fighters appeared in
large numbers and shot down many of the Germans. As a result,
Hitler permanently postponed a landing on the British Isles and
suspended the Battle of Britain.

Sabina:The Thatcher Era to the Present

In May, 1979, the Conservatives returned to power under the leadership of MargaretThatcher, Britains first female prime
minister, who used her cast iron will to help change the face of Britain. She epitomised a particular school of right-wing
politics: Thatcherism laissez-faire economics and individual self-determination.Even after her death, she remains a
controversial figure. Some see her as having saved Britain from economic decline, others believe she destroyed the
livelihoods of millions of workers.
What is Thatcherism?
Margaret Thatcher's policies as prime minister changed many aspects of British life, and were collectively
called Thatcherism. But what does the term mean?
A handful of political leaders are influential enough to have an ism after their name. But no political philosophy has
shaped a nation in quite the same way as Thatcherism.
At its most crude, Thatcherism represents a belief in free markets and a small state. Rather than planning and
regulating business and people's lives, government's job is to get out of the way.
It should be restricted to the bare essentials: defence of the realm and the currency. Everything else should be left to
individuals, to exercise their own choices and take responsibility for their own lives.
This was a revolutionary, even dangerous, notion to most postwar politicians.
Central planning of industry and society had helped win the war. The only way to "win the peace", it was believed by
the leaders of both the Labour and Conservative parties, was to plan and control industry, vast swathes of which were
owned by the state.
Margaret Thatcher was not alone in rejecting state ownership of businesses and socialist central planning.

Thatcher gradually moved supporters of her predecessor Ted

Heath, whom she labelled "wets", from her cabinet
Thatcher belonged to a Conservative Party faction, headed by
Keith Joseph, who were followers of Hayek's Austrian school of
economics and were also heavily influenced by the theories of
American economist Milton Friedman.
Had Joseph become Conservative leader instead of
Thatcher.which seemed the more likely outcome at the time,
then something resembling Thatcherism might have emerged as
the prevailing economic philosophy of the age.
But it would not have been the same.
It took Thatcher's own background and personality, her belief in
traditional family values and strong defence, her suspicion of an
overmighty Europe and instinctive affinity with the US, to give
shape and meaning to what we now know as Thatcherism.
Taking her cue from Friedman, she advocatedmonetarism,
controlling the money supply with high interest rates, to tame
inflation without resorting to union-negotiated pay policies.
Her battle against inflation led to mass unemployment, but
despite that she managed to win a second general election.
Low taxationwas a key area where Thatcherism was applied.
Under the previous Labour government, there had been high
levels of income tax for high-earners, but Thatcher progressively
cut income tax - the basic rate of tax fell to 25%, while the higher
rate was slashed from 83% to 40%.
There was a shift away from direct taxation to indirect, for
example by increasing VAT from 8% to
There was also a hugesale to tenants of council housing.
The government also abandoned its commitment to full
employment, stating this was the responsibility of employers and
employees.
Thatcherism is also associated with the Iron Lady'sown
personal style, says Prof Toye.

Thatcher made much of her background as a grocer's daughter

"She saw herself as a conviction politician. She prided herself on her - what she would call - steadfastness, and what others
would call her inflexibility."
She inherited a party that contained supporters of her predecessor Ted Heath, labelled by her as "wets", who opposed her
monetarist policies and cuts to public spending.
In the early stages she had to continue to include them in the cabinet, says Prof Toye, but then gradually she rid herself of them.
"It was not clear in 1975 what a Thatcher government would mean for Britain. And it was clear when she came to power that she
couldn't move too far too fast. That was reflected by her moving with caution and carefully at first in her first term."
Although Thatcherism was based on the austere-sounding philosophy of monetarism, Thatcher wanted to put a human face on
it, so she talked about running the country's finances like a thrifty housewife.
She also made much of herpersonal story. "It was a fundamental part of her image - emphasising the value of hard work, her
background as a grocer's daughter," says Prof Toye.
She contrasted that with the union leaders who she believed were trying to block economic progress.
She believed thatVictorian family valueswere the way to improve society, through people bettering themselves. This was not
just through economic means, "but there was an element of it being linked to respectability and societal values", Prof Toye says.
Conventional marriage and a nuclear family were the building blocks, he says.
One example of her impact on society was the inclusion of Section 28 of the Local Government Act 1988. The controversial
clause stated that a local authority shall not "promote the teaching in any maintained school of the acceptability of homosexuality
as a pretended family relationship".
Because it did not create a criminal offence, no prosecution was ever brought under this provision. While the legacy of many
Thatcher policies remain to this day, Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron wants to legalise gay marriage - a stance
inconceivable to Baroness Thatcher, and a "huge change", says Prof Toye.

Enkel Carciu: THE IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON UK POPULATION

GROWTH
Understanding the evidence
Key concepts
In the UK statistical system long-term international migrants are defined as people who move into and
out of the country for at least 12 months. Net migration is the balance between immigration and
emigration over a given time period. In demographic terms, natural change i.e. the difference between
the number of births and deaths measures the contribution of vital events to the dynamics of the
population. Immigration and emigration contribute to population change not only by altering the number
of individuals in the country at a given time (direct contribution) but also by affecting natural change
(indirect contribution).
Population estimates
TheOffice for National Statistics(ONS) produces annual estimates of the resident population of
England and Wales and estimates for the UK as a whole by collating data provided by the
Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency(NISRA) and by the National Records for Scotland
(NRS) (ONS 2015a). The population at 30 June of a given year (stock) is obtained by annually
updating the most recent census population count with data on demographic events contributing to
population change between these two dates (births, deaths and migration flows). Population estimates
made between census years are revised retrospectively so as to provide a consistent series of
population estimates over time. The revised estimates for the intercensal period 2001 to 2011 resulted
in an adjustment of 497,500 (0.8%) largely due to the underestimation of net migration in the previous
series (ONS 2013). Mid-year population estimates are also used as the base-year population of
demographic projections.

Population projections
Population projections are calculations showing the future development of a population based on a set of assumptions
about fertility, mortality and net migration. Official UK projections are revised every two years by updating base-year
population estimates and assumptions underlying future demographic dynamics so as to reflect the latest available
information. Current projections take mid-2014 as the beginning of the projection period. The projection outputs consist
of one principal projection reflecting the most likely population developments on the basis of recently observed trends,
and 16 variant projections, intended to capture the uncertainty of the assumptions by showing the impact on population
dynamics if one or more components of demographic change differ from the principal projection (ONS 2015b). In the
principal projection, net migration is assumed to level off at +185,000 per year from 2020-21 onward. For comparative
purposes, an important variant projection is the zero net migration (aka natural change only), which assumes
migration inflows and outflows exactly equal at all ages throughout the projection period (with same fertility and life
expectancy as the principal projection). In this scenario future population change is driven only by natural change. The
comparison between the principal projection and the zero net migration variant projection allows one to assess the
overall impact of net migration on population trends i.e. including both the direct contribution and its impact on natural
change. Two other variant projections illustrating the demographic impact of higher or lower net immigration (also
assuming the same fertility and life expectancy as the principal projection) are also available: a high migration variant
(long-term annual net migration at +265,000) and a low migration variant (+105,000 per annum). Finally, the long-term
balanced net migration variant projection assumes that net migration will converge to zero in the long-term, with total (but
not age- and sex-specific) in-migration and out-migration flows being equal from the year ending mid-2036 onwards.

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