Open Sound Control: an enabling technology

for musical networking

MATTHEW WRIGHT
Center for New Music and Audio Technology (CNMAT), University of California at Berkeley, 1750 Arch St., Berkeley, CA 94709, USA
Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA), Dept of Music, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-8180, USA
E-mail: matt@{cnmat.Berkeley, ccrma.Stanford}.edu

Since telecommunication can never equal the richness of

face-to-face interaction on its own terms, the most interesting
examples of networked music go beyond the paradigm of
musicians playing together in a virtual room. The Open
Sound Control protocol has facilitated dozens of such
innovative networked music projects. First the protocol itself
is described, followed by some theoretical limits on
communication latency and what they mean for music
making. Then a representative list of some of the projects
that take advantage of the protocol is presented, describing
each project in terms of the paradigm of musical interaction
that it provides.

1. INTRODUCTION
There is no doubt that computer networking has profoundly changed the industrialised world. The story
of the exponential growth of the Internet has become
a clich on a par with comparisons of ever-improving
computer processing power, storage capacity, and
miniaturisation. More profoundly, perhaps, the
Internet has become a dominant cultural factor: we
are in the Information Age and millions of people,
on every continent, use e-mail, the Web, instant
messaging, file sharing, etc., in their everyday lives.
The paper Beyond being there (Hollan and
Stornetta 1992) argues that the attempt to make
electronic communication imitate face-to-face communication is ultimately wrong-headed and doomed
to failure. Network delays, limited bandwidth, mediation by loudspeakers and video screens, and related
factors guarantee that telecommunication will never
be as good as face-to-face communication on its own
terms.1 They reference studies showing that people
tend choose face-to-face communication when available, that groups of people working in the same place
tend to have more spontaneous interactions, etc.
Therefore, they argue, the design goals should be to
leverage the specific advantages of alternate forms of
communication, with examples such as asynchrony,
the potential for anonymity, and mechanisms to
keep individuals from dominating a group discussion.
Applying these insights to the music domain, I believe
1

Even with best-case, high-bandwidth, audiovisual teleconferencing,

there remain fundamental issues such as not being able to see what
is the object of the other persons gaze.

that networks are strictly a disadvantage when used

simply as a transmission medium: they enable a
hobbled form of musical contact over a distance, but
can never be as good as face-to-face music making on
its own terms. The point isnt that physical proximity
is inherently superior to technologically mediated
communication, but that we should use computer networking to provide new and unique forms of musical
communication and collaboration. As Hollan and
Stornetta say, we must develop tools that people
prefer to use even when they have the option of interacting as they have heretofore in physical proximity.
What, then, are the potential advantages of computer networking for music? Certainly the most common use today is to distribute music via downloads
and streaming. Although we always want minimal
latency between selecting music and being able to
hear it, we could view the (arbitrary amount of) time
between when music is made available and when it
is selected for download, i.e. the asynchrony, as a
beneficial form of latency, one of the enormous benefits of network distribution. Other benefits include
not worrying about physical distance, access to large
collections, the ability to search, etc.
Music creation is a richer and more technically challenging domain than transfer of pre-recorded music.
Many projects have explored the simple transmission
of near-real-time musical data via networks (e.g.
Young and Fujinaga 1999; Chafe, Wilson, Leistikow,
Chisholm and Scavone 2000; Lazzaro and
Wawrzynek 2001) Over long distances (e.g. intercontinental) these mechanisms enable musical collaboration that would otherwise be impossible, but with
unavoidably long latencies (discussed below). Over
medium distances (e.g. within a city) these mechanisms could provide for greater convenience, for
example, taking a music lesson without having to
get to the teachers studio. I agree with Hollan and
Stornetta that all such attempts to emulate being
there over a distance will provide less richness than
face-to-face interaction. In some situations, of course,
the less rich interaction will actually be an advantage,
for example, being able to give a piano lesson in
ones bathrobe, or to give simultaneous piano lessons
to multiple students at the same time. And in many

Organised Sound 10(3): 193200 2005 Cambridge University Press. Printed in the United Kingdom.

doi:10.1017/S1355771805000932

194

Matthew Wright

situations the less rich interaction is a small price to

pay for the networks advantages with respect to time
management, travel expense, availability, etc. But for
the most part, I believe that this kind of networked
music will always be an inferior substitute to music
making in person.
How, then, can networked music get beyond being
there? I believe that the key is to take advantage of
computation in each of the networked machines. Only
when each computer is doing something interesting
does a network of computers behave like a network of
computers instead of unreliable microphone cables
with built-in delay lines.
Given a system composed of networked computers,
the architectural questions are what each computers
role will be and how they will communicate. The communication is the key element; it should be reliable,
accurately timed, sufficiently general in data content
and semantics, as simple as possible (but no simpler, as
Albert Einstein famously said), as fast as possible,
and, ideally, an accepted standard for ease of interoperability. The Open Sound Control (OSC) protocol
was designed to meet these goals.
2. OPEN SOUND CONTROL
Adrian Freed and I developed Open Sound Control,
a protocol for communication among computers,
sound synthesizers, and other multimedia devices that
is optimised for modern networking technology, at
CNMAT in 1997 (Wright and Freed 1997). We leveraged previous work at CNMAT by Michael Lee and
Guy Garnett in experiments with early Internet wide
area links: frame relay and ISDN. Roberto Morales
used a predecessor to OSC to communicate between a
Macintosh running Max and a Sun computer running
Prolog in an interactive performance. OSCs design
was also informed by CNMATs work on the ZIPI
protocol, especially the Music Parameter Description
Language (McMillen, Wessel and Wright 1994).
OSC addressed our need for a network protocol
usable for interactive computer music that could run
over existing high-speed network technologies such as
Ethernet; it was obvious that attempting to develop
computer networking technologies within the music
community (McMillen, Simon and Wright 1994)
could never compete with the computer industry as a
whole. Therefore OSC is a transport-independent
network protocol, meaning that OSC is only a binary
message format, and that data in the OSC format can
be carried by any general-purpose network technology. Today most OSC implementations use the main
Internet protocols (UDP and TCP/IP) via Ethernet or
wireless network connections, but there is also a serial
port implementation (Wilson, Gurevich, Verplank
and Stang 2003) for microcontrollers. There are also
benefits to using OSC even within a single application
(Wright, Freed, Lee, Madden and Momeni 2001).

The other motivation in our design of OSC was a

desire for generality in the meaning of the messages.
MIDIs model of notes, channels, and continuous
controllers (Moore 1988) was not adequate to represent, organise or name the parameters of our additive
synthesizer (Freed 1995). We therefore chose to use
symbolic parameter names rather than parameter
numbers, accepting slightly larger message sizes in
exchange for expressive, potentially self-documenting
names. Likewise, we chose to allow arbitrary organisation of parameters and messages into hierarchical
address spaces, so that, for example, a message to set
the frequency of the fourteenth oscillator in the third
additive synthesis voice might be named /voices/3/osc/
14/freq. The arguments to OSC messages can be
strings, 32-bit floating point or integer numbers, arbitrary blobs of binary data, or any of a dozen optional
data types.
Part of what makes OSC open is that it comes with
no standard set of messages every synthesizer must
implement, no preconceptions of what parameters
should be available or how they should be organised.
Each implementer of OSC can and must decide which
parameters to make accessible, what to name them,
and how to organise them in a tree structure. This
form of openness has led to great creativity among
OSC implementations, supporting idiosyncratic, creative software and hardware. This is both a blessing
and a curse, because OSCs openness means that it
also supports superficial uses of OSC, confusing
names, etc. OSC is not the kind of tool that attempts to
enforce correct usage.
An important next step for OSC will be an ongoing
mechanism to standardise schemas, which are OSC
address spaces with a formal description of the semantics of each message. This will allow, for example, a
standard set of message names, units, etc., for certain
kinds of applications, so that multiple OSC implementations with the same function will be controllable the
same way. Until this happens, the main users of OSC
will continue to be relatively technically proficient
programmers with the ability and desire to implement
their own parameter mappings.
OSC is open in many other ways. The protocol
itself is open, not a secret proprietary format; the specification is available online (Wright 2002). CNMATs
software implementations of OSC are also open in the
sense that the source code is available online without
charge; we released our first collection of OSC software tools, the OSC Kit, in 1998 (Wright 1998) and
continue to make our OSC software available from the
OSC Web page.
There are now about forty implementations of OSC,
including the following:

Computer programming languages: C, Java,

Javascript, Objective C, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby
(Scheme (Lisp)), Smalltalk

Open Sound Control

195

Table. Latency limits (in milliseconds) for various musical tasks, and the corresponding distances travelled by sound and light
in that amount of time.
Task

Acceptable latency (ms)

Traditional real-time latency limit

for real-time interactive music
Maintaining tempo in ensemble
playing
Playing together for chamber music

10

3.43

2,998

20

6.86

5,996

50

17.15

14,990

Web graphics/animation systems: Director, Flash

Interactive sound synthesis and processing lan-

guages: Bidule, Chuck, Common Music CPS,

Intakt, Max/MSP, Open Sound World, Pd,
SuperCollider, Reaktor, Traktor
Sensor/gesture capture hardware: EtherSense,
Gluion, IpSonLab Kroonde, Lemur, Smart
Controller, Teabox, Toaster
Idiosyncratic control-message-generating software: EyesWeb, Picker, SonART, SpinOSC

Some of these implementations will be described

below. The OSC home page (http://cnmat.berkeley.
edu/OSC) contains links to all of these implementations, the specification, software downloads, publications, and a list of OSCs application areas.
3. PHYSICAL DISTANCE AND NETWORK
LATENCY
Latency, defined as time delay between the sending
and receiving of a message, is unavoidable. Even with
perfect networking, e.g., a dedicated direct electrical
connection between two points, the theoretical maximum message speed is the speed of light, approximately 300 kilometres per millisecond. In practice,
computer networking is slower than this, both because
of additional network delays from routers, hubs, etc.,
and because the computers themselves may have substantial delays to receive and process messages, buffer
digital audio, etc.
The physics of relativity tells us that simultaneity is
relative. Events that seem to occur at the same time
in one location may in fact occur at different times
to other observers; the light cones of EinsteinMinkowski space-time (Feynman 1970; Pickover
1999) are a beautiful way to visualise this phenomenon, which holds for networked music just as for
relativistic physics.2
A perennial question is how much latency is acceptable for music. The answer depends on the specific
musical task in question. For two people trying to clap
2

See,
for
example,
http://physics.syr.edu/courses/modules/
LIGHTCONE/minkowski.html or http://www.davidbodanis.
com/books/emc2/notes/relativity/lightcones/main.html for visual
explanations of the light cone model.

Distance sound travels (m)

Distance light travels (km)

a simple interlocking pattern together, round-trip

delays greater than 20 ms produce significant deceleration (Chafe, Gurevich, Leslie and Tyan 2004). A
recent review(Lago and Kon 2004) reports that human
variation when attempting to tap a steady beat is only
around 4ms, but that asynchronies of up to 50 ms
between supposedly simultaneous notes are common
in chamber music. Table 1 summarises these results
and indicates the maximum allowable distance for
acoustic and (perfect) electronic transmission.
Jitter is defined as the variation of latency; it is musically much more harmful than a fixed delay because
it removes fine temporal detail from a performance.
Musicians can learn to adapt to a fixed latency (the
classic example being pipe organists), but it is
impossible to adapt to a randomly varying latency.
Psychoacoustic experiments on temporal auditory
acuity indicate that we can perceive a timbral change
when the relative onset times of pairs of notes differ by
as little as 1 ms (Ronken 1970; Henning and Gaskell
1981). This means that a jitter of 1 ms is enough to
cause random changes of timbre in some situations.
OSC addresses the problem of jitter by providing timetags indicating when messages are to take effect; this
allows the receiver to eliminate jitter by delaying the
messages that happen to arrive early, at the expense of
increasing the average latency.
Given that the potential forms of musical interaction depend on latency and therefore on physical
distance (as shown in table 1), the following examples
of OSCs use will be organised into three categories:

Wide-area networks
Local networks
Networks of software running in a single
computer
These are not arbitrary classifications, but reflect the
realities of the latencies inherent in various physical
distances.
4. OSC APPLICATIONS IN WIDE-AREA
NETWORKS
To the best of my knowledge, the first OSC-based
wide-area network project was the 1997 piece Points of
Presence by the seminal computer networking band

196

Matthew Wright

The Hub. This project was technically and artistically

a failure (through no fault of OSC) according to composer/technologist Chris Brown, but Brown continued
this work and was successful the following year with
Invention #5 (Brown and Bischoff 2004; Brown and
Bischoff 2005). These projects used OSC simply as a
mechanism for packaging MIDI messages across the
Internet, which was certainly not what we had in mind
when we invented the protocol. However, this showed
us that the protocol and its implementations were
sufficiently general and useful that people outside
CNMAT could adopt it starting with simple uses.
Georg Hajdus Quintet.net (Hajdu 2005) uses OSC
to provide a virtual environment in which five performers (or groups of performers) play together under
the control of a conductor. Sound sources include
triggering of banks of samples; each players notes
sound at each site. There is a mechanism for real-time
music notation, both so that players can see what
other players play and so that the conductor can send
pre-composed notation to the performers. Quintet.net
premiered in 2000 and has since been used for several
large projects connecting players in Europe and the
USA, including a Munich biennale opera in which this
author performed. One aspect of Quintet.net that goes
beyond being there is that the musical information
exchanged between players is strictly notation and
synthesised sound, not acoustic sound. So although
some performers played MIDI guitars and keyboards
while others played flutes and violins through pitchtrackers, all of the sound heard across the network
came from the sound world of the samples selected for
the piece.
In Randall Packers, Steve Bradleys and John
Youngs collaborative intermedia work Telemusic #1
(Young 2001), visitors to a website interact with Flash
controls that affect sound synthesis in a single physical
location. The resulting sound is streamed back to the
Web users via RealAudio. There is a clear distinction
between the event that happens in physical space and
the remote, possibly very casual contributions of the
Web participants, which would be hard to achieve in
person. In addition to being far away, the Web participants as a whole have less commitment to the event;
in fact, some of the remote participation came from
the Web link usage of people who did not even know
they were affecting the music. This certainly is a form
of musical collaboration that could not take place in
person.
Computer networking is now commonly used to
create ephemeral online communities; for example, it
is possible to play online chess against a human opponent at any time. I am not aware of any such project
based on OSC, but other musical examples include
Auracle (Freeman, Ramakrishnan, Varnik, Nehaus,
Burk and Birchfield 2004) and FMOL (Jorda 2002).

5. OSC APPLICATIONS IN LOCAL-AREA

NETWORKS
In some local-area network applications of OSC, users
interact explicitly with the networked computers. In
each of these cases, all of the participants are actually
physically present in the same room, and the network
is used to create rich interaction in the space rather
than to attempt to bring people together across space.
At ICMC 2000 in Berlin, a network of about twelve
Macintoshes running SuperCollider synthesised sound
and changed each others parameters via OSC,
inspired by David Tudors composition Rainforest.
The Meta-Orchestra project (Impett and Bongers
2001) is a large local-area network that uses OSC.
Simulus (http://listen.to/simulus) is a Melbournebased improvising electroacoustic ensemble that uses
OSC over WiFi to synchronise clock and tempo information between SuperCollider and AudioMulch in
their live performances (Bencina 2003). PhopCrop
(http://www.xdv.org/cgi-bin/twiki/view/Xdv/Phop
Crop) is a prototype system in which multiple users
create and manipulate objects in a shared virtual space
governed by laws of pseudophysics; each object
has both a graphical and sonic representation. Grenzenlose Freiheit (http://www.grenzenlosefreiheit.de) is
an interactive sound installation using OSC with wirelessly networked PDAs as a sound control interface
for the audience.
In the remaining local-area applications in this
section, OSC-networked computers handle subtasks
of a larger system, even if the network per se is not
apparent in the final product. Not only does the combination of computers provide more processing
power, but it allows for heterogeneous systems containing different types of computers, for example, a
Macintosh for sound synthesis and a Linux PC to
interface with sensors. (In fact, the original need that
OSC met at CNMAT was to control our additive synthesizer, running on a Silicon Graphics (SGI) workstation, from a Macintosh running Max.) Although this
may seem a mere implementation detail and aesthetically irrelevant, it is important because this kind of
local networking allows for more complex systems to
be built faster and with less effort, thereby encouraging increased technical and artistic experimentation.
In the Tgarden project (Ryan and Salter 2003; Wei,
Visell and MacIntyre 2003), visitors in a space collectively affect the synthesised sound indirectly through
physical interaction with sensor-equipped objects such
as special clothing and large balls. Three different
projects at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign (Garnett, Jonnalagadda, Elezovic,
Johnson and Small 2001; Goudeseune, Garnett and
Johnson 2001; Garnett, Choi, Johnson and
Subramanian 2002) are based on systems consisting
of real-time 3D spatial tracking of a physical object,
processed by one processor that sends OSC to a

Open Sound Control

Macintosh running Max/MSP for sound synthesis and

processing. Listening Post (Hansen and Rubin 2002)
is a networked multimedia art installation based on
representing conversations in Internet chat rooms on
a large number of video monitors and also with sonification via a ten-channel speaker system; it was
displayed at the Whitney museum of American Art. A
local network of four computers handles text display,
text-to-speech, sound synthesis, and coordination of
all these elements; all of the components of the system
communicate with OSC.
6. SECOND-GENERATION OSC
IMPLEMENTATIONS
OSC has now reached critical mass; it is easy enough
to implement and there are enough implementations
with enough functionality that it is now often easier to
add OSC to a system to take advantage of existing
OSC-based tools than to re-implement the functionality of those tools. This has created a sort of ecology of
OSC-based software and hardware, because people
know they can make something that solves a small
problem, and people will use OSC to connect it to, e.g.,
their favourite interactive sound synthesis environment. Here the form of the computer networking is not
so important as the social network of OSC developers
who support each other to implement these tools.
OSC is now the protocol of choice for generalpurpose hardware sensor interface boxes for music,
because the protocol is established and easy to use,
and the bandwidth and latency of the networks that
can carry OSC are much better than the MIDI
alternative. Examples include IRCAMs EtherSense
(Flty, Leroy, Ravarini and Bevilacqua 2004),
Sukandar Kartadinatas Gluion (http://www.glui.de/
prod/gluion.html), La Kitchens Kroonde and Toaster
(http://www.la-kitchen.fr/kitchenlab/kitchenlab.
html), Angelo Fraiettas Smart Controller (Fraietta
2005), and the Teabox (Allison and Place 2004). In
all of these cases, the developers worked only on the
problem of gestural input, trusting that by producing
OSC messages, their products would be usable for a
variety of applications.
Developers of alternate musical controllers often
implement OSC for similar reasons, so that once they
have solved the mechanical and electrical problems
of building a device, they can just output OSC and
do (or leave their users to do) the remaining work
of mapping and sound generation in a generalpurpose music programming/synthesis environment.
The Lemur (http://www.jazzmutant.com) is a commercially available LCD screen touch-panel capable
of sensing multiple fingers at once. The MATRIX
(Multipurpose Array of Tactile Rods for Interactive
expression) (Overholt 2001; Overholt 2002) is a
12x12 array of spring-loaded rods with continuous
displacement sensing, designed to be performed with

197

the hands. The Graphonic (Overholt 2004) consists of

a large writing surface (currently a plate of plexiglass)
which both takes input from real-time pen movement
and outputs sound by being vibrated by a tactile sound
transducer. The Gyrotyre (Sinyor and Wanderley
2005) is a hand-held spinning wheel equipped with
numerous sensors to detect rate of spinning, orientation, wobbling, etc. Both the SoniMime (Fox and
Carlile 2005) and the Beat Boxing gloves (Lugo and
Jack 2005) consist of accelerometers mounted on
the hands, but with differing metaphors and sound
mappings. OROBORO (Carlile and Hartmann 2005)
is a two-person controller implementing a haptic
mirror in which each performers actuated hand
receives force feedback from the other performers
sensed hand.
The addition of sensors to acoustic musical instruments is yet another domain in which OSC eases
project development and opens up many options for
gesture mapping and sound processing. Examples
include detecting fret position and pluck direction on a
sitar (Kapur, Davidson, Cook, Driessen and Schloss
2004), and the addition of buttons, force-sensitive
resistors, and loudspeakers to a tuba (Cceres, Mysore
and Trevio 2005).
In the same spirit, OSC has also enabled people to
write idiosyncratic software that has obvious musical
potential but does not contain any built-in mapping
to sound. Not only does this allow programmers to
implement their novel ideas without writing sound
synthesis code, it also encourages users to develop
their own ways of mapping the data to sound.
EyesWeb (Camurri, Hashimoto, Ricchetti, Ricci,
Suzuki, Trocca and Volpe 2000; Camurri, Mazzarino
and Volpe 2003) is a camera-based motion detection
system including a software library for recognising
expressive gestures; it has been used with OSC for
video analysis projects including conducting
(Kolesnik and Wanderley 2004) and a therapeutic
immersive environment for autistic children
(Timmermans, Wolferen, Newland and Kunath 2004).
Woon Yeos SonART (Yeo, Berger and Lee 2004) is
an OSC-enabled image layering program similar to
PhotoShop; users can send OSC messages to SonART
to control placement of images, transparency, etc.,
and also SonART sends OSC messages containing
information such as the colour values of the pixel
currently under the pointer. IXI Softwares Picker is
similar, generating OSC messages based on the colour
values of four positions on the screen as recorded and
streaming video are blended and mixed with still
images. IXI softwares SpinOSC (Magnusson 2005)
implements a virtual world of rotating objects with
controllable location, size, rotation speed, etc., that
generates OSC messages based on the states of the
objects. PTL (Henry 2004) is a sequencer for graphical
scores; the user draws curves and other shapes on a

198

Matthew Wright

time axis and also specifies the mapping from these to

OSC messages.
Version 3 of the SuperCollider real-time audio
synthesis programming language (McCartney 2002)
has a client/server architecture, in which the highlevel interpreted programming language communicates to a separate low-level DSP program with OSC.
This has allowed the creation of alternate interfaces to
the sound synthesis server, such as the graphical,
Java-based SCREAM (Leahy 2004).
7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
OSC is clearly useful for a wide variety of networking
applications. Because OSC allows each implementer
to design an address space instead of coming with an
a priori set of parameter names, it is easily adaptable
to situations never envisioned by the designers. Use
of OSC over wide-area networks ranges from simple
transmission of performance information to allow
people to play together at a distance, to more sophisticated and/or innovative forms of long-distance interaction. In local-area networks, some uses of OSC
involve explicit interaction with multiple networked
computers, while other uses result in a single system
whose components (be they individual computers,
programs, or even software modules) use OSC for ease
of interconnectivity. We can expect to see more
projects using OSC, more implementations, and more
completeness in existing implementations.
By the time this article is published, CNMAT will
have unveiled a new OSC website that can be maintained collaboratively by the entire OSC community.
This should encourage the creation of improved documentation and the consolidation of OSC code and
other developer resources, as well as provide a forum
in which it is easy to announce and document projects,
software, hardware, publications and performances
related to OSC.
The future of the OSC protocol itself will be determined by a collection of working groups drawn
from the OSC developers community. Topics to be
addressed include the following:

Recommended practices for clock synchronisa

tion and/or network jitter attenuation without

clock synchronisation
A standardised query system
Tunnelling of OSC within XML, MIDI, 8-bit
serial, etc.
Defined identifications for OSC, such as official
IANA port numbers and ZeroConf protocol
names
Persistent storage of OSC data
Development of a formal specification for OSC
schemas (address spaces with their semantics)
and the establishment of a collection of generally
useful schemas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks go to Chris Chafe, Adrian Freed, Margaret
Schedel, David Wessel and Michael Zbyszynski for
their help and support, and to my anonymous
reviewers for their insightful critical feedback.
REFERENCES
Allison, J., and Place, T. 2004. Teabox: a sensor data
interface system. Proc. of the 2004 Int. Computer Music
Conf., pp. 699701. Miami, FL: ICMA.
Bencina, R. 2003. PortAudio and media synchronisation.
Proc. of the 2003 Australasian Computer Music Conf.,
pp. 1320. Perth, Australia.
Brown, C., and Bischoff, J. 2004. Indigenous to the Net:
early network music bands in the San Francisco Bay
area. http://crossfade.walkerart.org/brownbischoff
Brown, C., and Bischoff, J. 2005. Computer Network Music
Bands: a history of the League of Automatic Music Composers and The Hub. In A. Chandler and N. Neumark
(eds.) At a Distance: Precursors to Art and Activism on the
Internet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Cceres, J. P., Mysore, G. J., and Trevio, J. 2005. SCUBA:
The Self-Contained Unified Bass Augmenter. Proc. of the
2005 Int. Conf. on New Interfaces for Musical Expression,
pp. 3841. Vancouver, Canada.
Camurri, A., Hashimoto, S., Ricchetti, M., Ricci, A.,
Suzuki, K., Trocca, R., and Volpe, G. 2000. EyesWeb:
toward gesture and affect recognition in interactive
dance and music systems. Computer Music Journal 24(1):
5769.
Camurri, A., Mazzarino, B., and Volpe, G. 2003. Analysis of
expressive gestures in human movement: the EyesWeb
expressive gesture processing library. Proc. of the 2003
XIV Colloquium on Musical Informatics. Firenze, Italy.
Carlile, J., and Hartmann, B. 2005. OROBORO: a collaborative controller with interpersonal haptic feedback.
Proc. of the 2005 Int. Conf. on New Interfaces for Musical
Expression, pp. 2501.Vancouver, Canada.
Chafe, C., Gurevich, M., Leslie, G., and Tyan, S. 2004.
Effect of time delay on ensemble accuracy. Proc. of the
2004 Int. Symp. on Musical Acoustics. Nara, Japan.
Chafe, C., Wilson, S., Leistikow, R., Chisholm, D., and
Scavone, G. 2000. A simplified approach to high quality
music and sound over IP. Proc. of the 2000 COST G-6
Conf. on Digital Audio Effects (DAFX-00). Verona,
Italy.
Feynman, R. P. 1970. Feynman Lectures On Physics.
Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Longman.
Flty, E., Leroy, N., Ravarini, J.-C., and Bevilacqua, F.
2004. Versatile sensor acquisition system utilizing
Network Technology. Proc. of the 2004 Int. Conf. on
New Interfaces for Musical Expression, pp. 15760.
Hamamatsu, Japan.
Fox, J., and Carlile, J. 2005. SoniMime: movement
sonification for real-time timbre shaping. Proc. of the
2005 Int. Conf. on New Interfaces for Musical Expression,
pp. 2423. Vancouver, Canada.
Fraietta, A. 2005. The Smart Controller Workbench. Proc.
of the 2005 Int. Conf. on New Interfaces for Musical
Expression, pp. 469. Vancouver, Canada.

Open Sound Control

Freed, A. 1995. Bring your own control additive synthesis.

Proc. of the 1995 Int. Computer Music Conf., pp. 3036.
Banff, Canada: ICMA.
Freeman, J., Ramakrishnan, C., Varnik, K., Nehaus, M.,
Burk, P., and Birchfield, D. 2004. Adaptive high-level
classification of vocal gestures within a networked sound
instrument. Proc. of the 2004 Int. Computer Music Conf.,
pp. 66871. Miami, FL: ICMA.
Garnett, G. E., Choi, K., Johnson, T., and Subramanian, V.
2002. VirtualScore: exploring music in an immersive
virtual environment. Proc. of the 2002 Symp. on Sensing
and Input for Media-Centric Systems (SIMS), pp. 1923.
Santa Barbara, CA.
Garnett, G. E., Jonnalagadda, M., Elezovic, I., Johnson, T.,
and Small, K. 2001. Technological advances for conducting a virtual ensemble. Proc. of the 2001 Int. Computer
Music Conf., pp. 1679. Habana, Cuba.
Goudeseune, C., Garnett, G., and Johnson, T. 2001. Resonant processing of instrumental sound controlled by
spatial position. In Proc. of the 2001 CHI 01 Workshop
on New Interfaces for Musical Expression (NIME01).
Seattle, WA: ACM SIGCHI.
Hajdu, G. 2005. Quintet.net: an environment for composing
and performing music on the Internet. Leonardo 38(1):
2330.
Hansen, M., and Rubin, B. 2002. Listening Post: giving
voice to online communication. In Proc. of the 2002 Int.
Conf. on Auditory Display. Kyoto, Japan.
Henning, G. B., and Gaskell, H. 1981. Monaural phase
sensitivity measured with Ronkens paradigm. Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America 70: 1,66973.
Henry, D. 2004. PTL, a new sequencer dedicated to
graphical scores. Proc. of the 2004 Int. Computer Music
Conf., pp. 73841. Miami, FL: ICMA.
Hollan, J., and Stornetta, S. 1992. Beyond being there. Proc.
of the 1992 ACM Conf. on Human Factors in Computing
Systems, pp. 11925.
Impett, J., and Bongers, B. 2001. Hypermusic and the Sighting of Sound a Nomadic Studio Report. Proc. of the
2001 Int. Computer Music Conf., pp. 45962. Habana,
Cuba: ICMA.
Jorda, S. 2002. FMOL: toward user-friendly, sophisticated
new musical instruments. Computer Music Journal 26(3):
2339.
Kapur, A., Davidson, P., Cook, P., Driessen, P., and
Schloss, W. A. 2004. Digitizing North Indian performance. Proc. of the 2004 Int. Computer Music Conf.,
pp. 55663. Miami, FL: ICMA.
Kolesnik, P., and Wanderley, M. 2004. Recognition, analysis and performance with expressive conducting gestures.
Proc. of the 2004 Int. Computer Music Conf., pp. 5725.
Miami, FL: ICMA.
Lago, N. P., and Kon, F. 2004. The quest for low latency.
Proc. of the 2004 Int. Computer Music Conf., pp. 336.
Miami, FL: ICMA.
Lazzaro, J., and Wawrzynek, J. 2001. A case for network
musical performance. Proc. of the 2001 Int. Workshop on
Network and Operating Systems Support for Digital Audio
and Video (NOSSDAV), pp. 15766. Port Jefferson, NY.
Leahy, M. 2004. SCREAM SuperCollider Resource for
Electro-Acoustic Music. Proc. of the 2004 Int. Computer
Music Conf., pp. 7981. Miami, FL: ICMA.

199

Lugo, R., and Jack, D. 2005. Beat Boxing: expressive

control for electronic music performance and musical
applications. Proc. of the 2005 Int. Conf. on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, pp. 2467. Vancouver,
Canada.
Magnusson, T. 2005. ixi Software: the interface as instrument. Proc. of the 2005 Int. Conf. on New Interfaces for
Musical Expression, pp. 21215. Vancouver, Canada.
McCartney, J. 2002. Rethinking the Computer Music
Language: SuperCollider. Computer Music Journal 26(4):
618.
McMillen, K., Simon, D., and Wright, M. 1994. A summary
of the ZIPI network. Computer Music Journal 18(4):
7480.
McMillen, K., Wessel, D., and Wright, M. 1994. The ZIPI
music parameter description language. Computer Music
Journal 18(4): 5273.
Moore, F. R. 1988. The dysfunctions of MIDI. Computer
Music Journal 12(1): 1928.
Overholt, D. 2001. The MATRIX: a novel controller for
musical expression. In Proc. of the 2001 CHI 01 Workshop on New Interfaces for Musical Expression
(NIME01). Seattle, WA: ACM SIGCHI.
Overholt, D. 2002. Musical mapping and synthesis for the
MATRIX interface. Proc. of the 2002 Symp. on Sensing
and Input for Media-Centric Systems (SIMS), pp. 710.
Santa Barbara, CA.
Overholt, D. 2004. The Sonic Scanner and the Graphonic
Interface. Proc. of the 2004 Int. Computer Music Conf.,
pp. 18992. Miami, FL: ICMA.
Pickover, C. A. 1999. Time: A Travelers Guide. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Ronken, D. 1970. Monaural detection of a phase difference
between clicks. Journal of the Acoustical Society of
America 47: 1,0919.
Ryan, J., and Salter, C. 2003. TGarden: wearable instruments and augmented physicality. Proc. of the 2003
Int. Conf. on New Interfaces for Musical Expression,
pp. 8790. Montreal.
Sinyor, E., and Wanderley, M. M. 2005. Gyrotyre: A
dynamic hand-held computer-music controller based on
a spinning wheel. Proc. of the 2005 Int. Conf. on New
Interfaces for Musical Expression, pp. 425. Vancouver,
Canada.
Timmermans, H., Wolferen, G. V., Newland, P., and
Kunath, S. 2004. MEDIATE: key sonic developments in
an interactive installation for children with autism. Proc.
of the 2004 Int. Computer Music Conf., pp. 2014. Miami,
FL: ICMA.
Wei, S. X., Visell, Y., and MacIntyre, B. 2003. TGarden
Media Choreography System. Atlanta, GA, Graphics,
Visualization and Usability Center, Georgia Institute
of Technology. http://www.gvu.gatech.edu/people/sha.
xinwei/topologicalmedia/papers/Sha-MacIntyre02.pdf
Wilson, S., Gurevich, M., Verplank, B., and Stang, P. 2003.
Microcontrollers in Music HCI Instruction: reflections
on our switch to the Atmel AVR Platform. Proc. of the
2003 Int. Conf. on New Interfaces for Musical Expression,
pp. 249. Montreal.
Wright, M. 1998. Implementation and performance issues
with OpenSound Control. Proc. of the 1998 Int. Computer Music Conf., pp. 2247. Ann Arbor, Michigan:
ICMA.

200

Matthew Wright

Wright, M. 2002. OpenSound Control Specification. http://

www.cnmat.berkeley.edu/OSC/OSC-spec.html
Wright, M., and Freed, A. 1997. Open Sound Control: a new
protocol for communicating with sound synthesizers.
Proc. of the 1997 Int. Computer Music Conf., pp. 1014.
Thessaloniki, Hellas: ICMA.
Wright, M., Freed, A., Lee, A., Madden, T., and Momeni,
A. 2001. Managing complexity with explicit mapping of
gestures to sound control with OSC. Proc. of the 2001 Int.
Computer Music Conf., pp. 31417. Habana, Cuba.

Yeo, W. S., Berger, J., and Lee, Z. 2004. SonART: A framework for data sonification, visualization and networked
multimedia applications. Proc. of the 2004 Int. Computer
Music Conf., pp. 1804. Miami, FL: ICMA.
Young, J. P. 2001. Using the Web for live interactive music.
Proc. of the 2001 Int. Computer Music Conf., pp. 3025.
Habana, Cuba.
Young, J. P., and Fujinaga, I. 1999. Piano master classes via
the Internet. Proc. of the 1999 Int. Computer Music Conf.,
pp. 1357. Beijing, China: ICMA.