Report

The sanitation problem:

What can and should the health sector do?

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Summary
Summary recommendations:
1. Global health institutions should acknowledge and address the impact
of sanitation on the global disease burden, the contribution of improved
sanitation to reducing that disease burden and the potential benefits for
public health outcomes.
2. International donors should prioritise support for programmes in countries
with low sanitation coverage and high burden of sanitation-related disease
and invest in research and evaluation to understand the relative health
impacts and additive effects of different types of sanitation intervention.
3. Developing country governments should ensure that sanitation is
addressed within all relevant health policies, regulations, guidelines
and procedures and establish targets and indicators for monitoring
improvements in sanitation related diseases.
4. Developing country governments should strengthen public health legal
and regulatory frameworks to improve inter-sectoral coordination between
ministries and agencies responsible for sanitation at different levels and
enhance accountability for results.
5. National and sub-national health programme priorities should take
account of sanitation-related disease burden and ensure that sanitation
and hygiene are fully integrated within disease specific and national
healthprogrammes.
Half of the people living in developing
countries do not have access to even a
basic toilet.1 This presents a major risk
to public health. Diseases attributable
to poor sanitation currently kill more
children globally than AIDS, malaria and
measles put together, and diarrhoea
is the single biggest killer of children
in Africa.2 Safe sanitation is widely
acknowledged to be an essential
foundation for better health, welfare
and economic productivity, but progress

in reducing the burden of sanitationrelated diseases borne by poor people

in developing countries remains slow
and is holding back progress on all
other development outcomes.
The wider problem of political and
financial neglect of sanitation issues
has already been well documented3
and the 2008 International Year of
Sanitation signalled a concerted
effort to try and address the sanitation

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problem. But WaterAids experience
on the ground in Africa and Asia has
shown that the enduring challenge is
not just how to provide infrastructure,
but also how to promote uptake
and use of facilities. Infrastructure
is necessary but not sufficient for
better health. There is a critical need to
develop better integrated approaches
in order to maximise the health gains
associated with sanitation interventions
in support of the ongoing drive to
acheive Sanitation and Water for All.4
The health sector has an important
role to play in promoting sanitation.
Creating demand and changing
behaviours are both areas where
the health sector has a strong track
record and recognised comparative
advantage. However, there is a lack of
consensus regarding institutional roles
and responsibilities for sanitation in
developing countries, and the degree of
health sector involvement in promoting
safe sanitation varies significantly. This
report draws upon recent WaterAidfunded research into the different
roles played by the health sector
in developing countries and makes
recommendations for accelerating
progress on sanitation and securing
related health outcomes.
The report reviews recent trends in
health sector policy and programmes
in developing countries, confirms the
inadequate nature of existing institutional
responses to the sanitation problem
in these countries, and highlights the
absence of strong political leadership
and lack of clearly-defined institutional
roles and responsibilities. It further
notes that health sector planning and
funding allocations frequently do not
reflect the burden of disease attributable
to sanitation in developing countries
and that contemporary health systems

are primarily focused on treatment

and patient-based interventions while
preventive and public health aspects tend
to receive less attention.5 In developing
countries the majority of investment in
sanitation is currently channelled through
infrastructure ministries where it is mainly
focused on providing new facilities.
Meanwhile, budget allocations to
health ministries for sanitation tend to
be less clearly defined and allocation
of health system resources for related
activities is often diffuse, making it
difficult to monitor results.
There is relatively little research on
appropriate health sector roles and
responsibilities in promoting sanitation
but after reviewing existing theory and
practice the study focuses on four key
functional deficits that characterise
existing institutional responses to
sanitation and health:
1. norms and regulations
2. inter-sectoral policy and coordination
3. delivery of scaleable
sanitationprogrammes
4. collection and use of data
This report explores the role of the
health sector in addressing each of the
functional deficits identified, drawing
on examples from the four country
casestudies.
The study concludes that improved
collaboration between WASH and health
sectors is key to improving sanitationrelated health outcomes. It shows that
health systems have a critical role to
play in promoting sanitation but that
existing health sector involvement is
frequently sub-optimal. It makes a series
of recommendations for health sector
stakeholders interested in accelerating
progress on sanitation and securing related
health gains in developing countries.

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A WaterAid report, May 2011. Written by Yael Velleman and Tom Slaymaker.
Acknowledgements: This policy report draws upon the findings of
WaterAid-funded research conducted in collaboration with the Water Institute
(WI) at the Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina,
during 2010. The views expressed here are those of WaterAid and do not
necessarily reflect those of the WaterInstitute.
With particular thanks to WaterAid country programme staff in Malawi,
Nepal and Uganda for their support and contributions to this report.
This paper should be cited as WaterAid (2011) The sanitation problem:
What can and should the health sector do?
A soft copy of this and all other WaterAid papers can be found at
www.wateraid.org/publications.
Front cover image of children in Malawi: WaterAid/Layton Thompson

Report

Table of contents
1. Introduction

2. The critical role of sanitation in health

3. The inadequacy of existing institutional responses

4. The role of the health sector in addressing existing deficits

4.1. Core functional deficits in securing progress on sanitation
and related health gains
4.1.a Functional deficit 1: Norms and regulations
4.1.b Functional deficit 2: Inter-sectoral policy and coordination
4.1.c Functional deficit 3: Delivery of scalable sanitation programmes
4.1.d Functional deficit 4: Collection and use of data

12
12
13
15
20
26

5. F acilitators and barriers for implementation of health sector functions

5.1.a Leadership
5.1.b Community participation
5.1.c Human resources
5.1.d Financing

28
28
29
29
30

6. R
 ecommendations for health sector stakeholders
6.1. International health policy and donor policy
6.2. National development policy and resource allocation
6.3. National health policy and sanitation programme design
6.4. Other stakeholders

31
31
32
32
34

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1. Introduction
WaterAids vision is of a world where everyone has access to safe water
and sanitation. This vision can only be achieved by working in collaboration
with others. This report is part of an ongoing programme of work which
seeks to reach out beyond the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)
sector to engage with actors and agencies from other sectors, particularly
health and education, as part of a concerted joint effort to address the lack
of access to WASH and the profound impact it has on health, welfare and
economic growth in the worlds poorest countries andcommunities.
Box 1: Health sector or health system?
The terms health sector and health system are often used interchangeably
and are rarely defined. For the purposes of this paper the term health sector
is used to refer to the various different actors and agencies that play a role
in improving health (whether political, financial, technical or administrative),
whereas the term health system is used to refer to the system for delivery of
healthcare services (mostly understood as curative or palliativeservices).
According to the World Health Organization (WHO):
A well functioning health system responds in a balanced way to a
populations needs and expectations by:
Improving the health status of individuals, families and communities.
Defending the population against what threatens its health.
Protecting people against the financial consequences of ill-health.
Providing equitable access to people-centred care.
Making it possible for people to participate in decisions affecting their
health and health system.6

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The report argues that the scale of
the financial and human costs of the
neglect of sanitation cannot be ignored;
and that joint, cross-sector efforts that
make better use of existing resources
are critical to building on the gains
achieved so far in improving global
health. Progress on global health, in
particular on child health, will require
health and sanitation professionals to
work together to tackle poor sanitation.
This report attempts to provide some
practical recommendations on how to
facilitate this joint effort.
The report draws on research conducted
during 2010 in collaboration with the
Water Institute at the Gillings School
of Global Public Health, University
of North Carolina, USA. The research
team investigated the characteristics of
health sector involvement in sanitation
in developing countries, including
governance structures, health sector
roles and responsibilities, and current
initiatives to link sanitation and health.
Four developing countries with differing
institutional arrangements for sanitation
and varying degrees of sanitation

coverage provided the context for more

detailed case studies: Malawi, Nepal,
Sri Lanka and Uganda.7 Extensive incountry support was provided by local
WaterAid staff andpartners.
A triangulation approach was
used to gain a fuller picture of the
interaction of the health sector with
sanitation policies, programmes, and
implementation. Data were collected
using a range of methods including:
a review of academic literature and
country policies and programmes;
expert consultation via in-person field
interviews with representatives from
the health and WASH sectors (including
staff from national government
agencies, non-governmental
organisations and external support
agencies); and development of an
interactive online survey using a wiki
approach8 to elicit responses from
stakeholders in a larger number of
countries. The full report prepared by
the Water Institute, on which this
report draws, is available separately
as a background paper.

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2. The critical role of sanitation in health

More than one third of the worlds population does not have access
to improved9 sanitation a sanitation facility that ensures hygienic
separation of human excreta from immediate human contact,10 thereby
preventing infection caused by the ingestion or contact with human
faeces (the faecal-oral route of transmission). At current rates,
the sanitation MDG target will not be met globally until 2049; in
sub-Saharan Africa, it will not be met until the 23rd century.11
What is sanitation?
Sanitation is the collection, transport, treatment and disposal or reuse
of human excreta, domestic wastewater and solid waste, and associated
hygienepromotion.12
The F-diagram (figure 1) summarises the
established means by which sanitation
and associated hygiene practices
prevent infection.
Figure 1: The F-diagram sanitation as a primary
barrier between excreta and human contact13
The effective separation of faeces from human
contact through improved disposal of excreta
Fluids

Fields
Human
Faeces

Foods

New
Human Host

Flies

Fingers

Good hygienic practices such as hand-washing

with soap after going to the toilet

1.1 billion people practise indiscriminate

or open defecation.14 This situation
represents a significant and constant
barrier to human and economic
development, through direct impact on
health, as well as broader impacts on
wellbeing and poverty. Although more
than 800 million people globally lack
access to safe drinking water, this paper
will focus specifically on sanitation;
this focus is driven by the neglect of
the sanitation issue, as well as the
particular role of the health sector in
sanitationpromotion.
The impact of inadequate global
sanitation coverage on health is
particularly significant: the World
Health Organization (WHO) estimates
that 7% of the worlds deaths and

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the report was released in 2008,
Ustin and colleagues showed that
28% of child deaths were due to
unsafe WASH. Further, an estimated
50% of childhood malnutrition was
associated with repeated diarrhoea
or intestinal nematode-related
diseases. Children in developing
countries suffer disproportionately,
with models indicating that over 20%
of global mortality and disease burden
of children 0-14 years old are due to
unsafe WASH.23

8% of the global disease burden

are caused by diseases related to
unsafe sanitation.15 Unsafe sanitation
is a major risk factor for diarrhoeal
disease,16 the biggest cause of death
in children under the age of five in
sub-Saharan Africa17 and the second
leading contributor to the global
disease burden (see figure 2). Further,
poor hygiene practices are a major risk
factor for respiratory infections, the
leading contributor to the global burden
of disease.18 Lack of access to WASH
is strongly associated with further
diseases and infections, including
intestinal nematode infections,
lymphatic filariasis, trachoma and
schistosomiasis, among others.19 As
shown in figure 2, diarrhoea causes
more deaths in children under five
years old than HIV/AIDS, malaria,
and measles combined.20

In a recent review of survey data

from 172 countries, results showed
a robust association between access
to sanitation technologies and
reduced child mortality and morbidity.
Sanitation access lowered the odds
of children suffering from diarrhoea
by 7-17%, and reduced mortality
for children under five by 5-20%.
Figure 3 shows cross-tabulation of
diarrhoea and child mortality rates
with sanitation technology level. It
demonstrates that child morbidity
and mortality are substantially lower
for children with access to advanced
sanitationtechnologies.24

The impacts of WASH on the worlds

disease burden were critically reviewed
by Ustin et al in 2008.22 The review
noted that poor WASH causes an
estimated 88% of cases of diarrhoea
worldwide, and although annual
child mortality has decreased since
Figure 2: Global causes of child deaths21
Pneumonia
Other Non-Communicable Diseases, 4%*

14%

4%

Other, 5%

Other Infections, 9%

Sepsis, 6%

Meningitis, 2%
AIDS, 2%
Pertussis, 2%

Neonatal
deaths, 41%
Birth Asphyxia, 9%

Malaria, 8%
Injury, 3%
Measles, 1%

Tetanus, 1%
Congenital Abnormalities, 3%

14% 1%

Preterm Birth
Complications, 12%

Diarrhoea

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Figure 3: C
 orrelation of sanitation access with diarrhoea and child mortality25
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
Flush

Latrine

Open

Flush

Latrine

Open

0.00

child mortality

diarrhOea

This situation is reflected in the burden

of disease in the case study countries:
table 1 provides an overview of the
estimated prevalence of sanitationrelated infections in the case study
countries. In 2004 (the latest year for
which comparative data are available),
diarrhoeal disease caused an estimated
69% of the deaths and 68% of the
disease burden in three of the four
countries studied: Malawi, Nepal and

Uganda. In contrast, diarrhoea caused

less than 1% of the deaths and disease
burden in Sri Lanka. Other diseases
related to unsafe sanitation such
as intestinal nematode infections,
malnutrition, trachoma, schistosomiasis
and lymphatic filariasis, were estimated
to have caused several thousand
deaths and significant disease burden
each year in the case study countries.
Malnutrition was estimated to have

Table 1: Summary statistics on deaths and disability from WASH-related diseases in 200426
Population

Malawi

Nepal

Sri Lanka

Uganda

World

12,895,000

26,554,000

19,040,000

28,028,000

6,436,826,000

Deaths

DALYsa

Deaths

DALYsb

Deaths

DALYsb

Deaths

DALYs

Deaths

DALYsb

Diarrhoeal diseases (% of
total deaths or DALYs)

20,700
(9%)

674,000
(8%)

15,800
(6%)

523,000
(6%)

900
(<1%)

41,000
(<1%)

30,600
(7%)

1,035,000
(7%)

2,163,283
(4%)

72,776,516
(5%)

Intestinal
nematodeinfections

1,700

100

16,000

16,000

39,000

6,481

4,012,666

Malnutritionb

3,700

211,000

2,000

157,000

100

15,000

2,500

246,000

250,562

17,461,607

Trachoma

5,000

20,000

87,000

108

1,334,414

Schistosomiasis

1,300

5,900

1,700

63,000

41,087

1,707,144

Lymphatic filariasis

5,400

119,000

26,000

68,000

290

5,940,641

Total country deaths/DALYs

for WaSH-related diseases
(% of total deaths/DALYs)

25,700
(11%)

903,000
(12%)

17,900
(7%)

835,000
(11%)

1,000
(<1%)

98,000
(2%)

34,800
(8%)

1,538,000
(11%)

2,461,811
(4%)

103,232,988
(7%)

Total country deaths/DALYs

due to all diseases for 2004

227,100 7,575,000 238,900 7,837,000 213,400 4,469,000 405,800 14,145,000 58,771,791 1,523,258,879

a
b

Disability-adjusted life-year
Protein-energy malnutrition only

Report
caused up to 23% (Malawi) of the
WASH-related disease burden. The
total estimated WASH-related disease
burden differs significantly between
Malawi (12%), Nepal (11%) and Uganda
(11%) on the one hand, and Sri Lanka
(2%) on the other. Further, the total
death rate from WASH-related diseases
also differs significantly between
Malawi (11%), Nepal (7%), Uganda
(8%), and Sri Lanka (<1%).

Box 2: D
 isability-Adjusted Life
Years (DALYs)
According to WHO, One DALY
can be thought of as one lost year
of healthy life. The sum of these
DALYs across the population, or
the burden of disease, can be
thought of as a measurement
of the gap between current
health status and an ideal
health situation where the entire
population lives to an advanced
age, free of disease and disability.
DALYs for a disease or health
condition are calculated as the
sum of the Years of Life Lost (YLL)
due to premature mortality in the
population and the Years Lost due
to Disability (YLD) for incident
cases of the health condition.29

The impact of WASH on health in the case

study countries is more apparent when
examining data on child mortality:27 in
Malawi, diarrhoea alone is responsible for
11% of child deaths; in Nepal, it causes
14% of child deaths and in Uganda 16%,
compared with 3% in Sri Lanka.28
Figure 4 compares changes in sanitation
coverage from 1990 to 2008 for the case
study countries as well as globally. The
sanitation ladder format used shows
the rate of use for each sanitation type:
open defecation (no use of sanitation
facilities); unimproved sanitation
(does not ensure hygienic separation of
human excreta from human contact30);
shared (improved facility that is shared
among two or more households31); and
improved sanitation (ensures hygienic

separation of human excreta from

immediate human contact). The highest
open defecation rate is in Nepal; in
contrast, less than 1% of Sri-Lankas
population practices open defecation.
The rate for improved sanitation
coverage varies widely: 30% in Nepal,
48% in Uganda and 56% in Malawi,
compared to 91% in Sri Lanka.32

Figure 4: 2010 Sanitation coverage in the case study countries and globally33
100%
80%
60%

31
7

9
8

14
52

27

6
11

40%

0%

42

13
3

10
25
14

80

20

20%

1
4
4

56
5
4
11

1990
2008
Malawi

16
26

Unimproved

11

100%
80%
60%

22
40%
39

1990
2008
Sri Lanka

17
11

14

70

31

1990
2008
Nepal

Open Defecation

91

25

48

1990
2008
Uganda
Shared

54

61
20%

1990
2008
World

0%

Improved

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The tremendous impact of sanitation
on health results in significant
economic returns on investment in
sanitation, for individuals as well as
national economies. Evans et al34
determine that such returns include
direct healthcare savings by both health
agencies and individuals, as
well as indirect benefits such as
productive days gained per year (for
persons 15-59 years of age); increased
school attendance for children; time
savings (working days gained) resulting
from more convenient access to
services; and a high value of deaths
averted (based on future earnings). The
study further showed that achieving
the water and sanitation Millennium
Development Goal (MDG)35 could yield
substantial economic benefits, ranging
from US$3-34 per US$1 invested,
depending on theregion.
There are also significant benefits
for health systems and budgetary
resources; according to UNDP, at any
given time half of the hospital beds in
developing countries are occupied by
patients suffering from sanitation- and
water-related diseases,36 representing
a tremendous burden for already
overstretched health systems. It also
estimates that universal access
to even the most basic water and
sanitation facilities would reduce the
financial burden on health systems in
developing countries by about US$1.6
billion annuallyand US$610million
in Sub-Saharan Africa, which
represents about 7% of the regions
healthbudget.37

In 2008, the World Banks Water and

Sanitation Program (WSP) conducted
an economic impact analysis of
sanitation in five south-east Asian
countries: Cambodia, Indonesia, the
Lao Peoples Democratic Republic,
Vietnam, and the Philippines. The
research estimated that these countries
lose an estimated US$9billion (2005
dollars) a year 2% of their combined
GDP because of poor sanitation.38
A similar study in India showed
that inadequate sanitation cost the
economy US$53.8billion annually in
lost productivity, healthcare provision
and other losses - equivalent to 6.4%
ofGDP in 2006.39
The data above provides compelling
evidence on the benefits of sanitation
investment and the scale of the
financial and above all human costs
of not investing cannot be ignored
by any sector. In a time of financial
crises and shrinking domestic and
aid financial flows, joint efforts that
make better use of existing resources
are not only sensible but critical to
building on the gains achieved so far
in improving global health. Clearly,
if real improvement is to be made
in population health in developing
countries, especially on child mortality
where performance has been
particularly poor, then health and
sanitation professionals need to work
in concert to tackle poor sanitation as
a major cause of ill health.

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3. The inadequacy of existing

institutional responses
The need for joining health and engineering expertise is self-evident,
and has led to the introduction of public health acts and urban
sewerage systems in rich countries. This potential remains largely
unrealised in developing countries.
While health professionals frequently
acknowledge sanitation as a vital
precondition for acceptable standards
of public health,40 interviews conducted
with senior health professionals for
this and other studies41 show that they
rarely consider sanitation to be within
their own scope of responsibility;
rather, it is someone elses business.42
This is reinforced by the fact that
sanitation is generally weakly
integrated within increasingly curative
and palliative health systems, at the
expense of preventive approaches;
in some cases, sanitation is not even
considered to be part of the health
sectors policy mandate. On the other
hand, interviews with frontline health
professionals show that although
promoting safe sanitation is rarely a
core component of health programmes
by design, the scale and severity of the
sanitation problem on the ground is
such that they are often compelled to
intervene in an ad hoc manner using
available and limitedresources.
Despite the fundamental importance
of sanitation to human health and other
development outcomes, sanitation
is often a low priority in national
development agendas, obscured by
the more politically attractive focus

on safe drinking water. For example,

sanitation was initially omitted from the
initial list of MDG Targets, only added
in 2002. Recently, the 63rd World Health
Assemblys report on the monitoring of
the MDGs, and the resulting resolution,
failed to acknowledge that the sanitation
aspect of MDG Target 7c will not be
met thereby failing to acknowledge
its importance for the achievement of
the health MDGs.43 This lack of global
prioritisation is mirrored in national
policies and priorities, with the bulk
of WASH financing allocated to water
infrastructure, and environmental health
programmes suffering from lack of
funding and prioritisation the 2009
World Bank Africa Infrastructure Country
Diagnostic Report found average annual
public spending on sanitation to be no
more than 0.22% of GDP, of which 0.2%
was recurrent expenditure and only
0.02% represented new investment.
As noted earlier, progress on access to
sanitation remains painfully slow. Given
the compelling evidence provided above
on the links between sanitation and
health, it is unsurprising that progress
on critical health aspects, in particular
child health, has been equally slow.44
The effect of slow progress on
infrastructure coverage is exacerbated
by the design and delivery of sanitation
9

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programmes; in addition to low levels
of funding, sanitation programmes
are also characterised by short-term
project cycles that lead to a focus on
construction of new infrastructure
without due consideration of
infrastructure sustainability and use.45
Inadequate attention to creating
demand for sanitation and changing
behaviour means that potential
health gains are not realised. Decision
making on sanitation policy tends to
be conducted at a central government
level, while WASH departments
at lower levels of government are
frequently understaffed and underresourced without the necessary
community-level reach on a regular and
consistent basis outside the project
cycle. Such community-level reach
is essential for enabling demand for
sanitation, adoption of sound hygiene
practices, and generating capacities for
constructing and maintaining sanitation
facilities. This community-level reach
and ability to drive up demand for
services and related behaviour change
is one crucial area where the health
sector can help deliver progress on
sanitation and associated health
benefits. This difference in reach
between the health and WASH sectors
is depicted infigure5.
Curative patient treatment is just one
aspect of health systems, although it
is the most publicly visible one, and
is therefore prioritised both politically
and financially. But another key role is
the promotion of changes in behaviour
and lifestyle to improve health and
prevent disease. Such behaviour
change can include the generation of
demand or take-up for specific services
(eg.vaccination) and products (eg. bed
nets). The fact that the health sector
has engaged in such activities for
centuries, and has developed tried and
10

Figure 5: C
 omparative reach of health
and WASH sectors
Central Government
Health

WASH

Local Government

District Authorities
Health Surveillance
Assistants/
Health Promoters

Project
Cycle

Community
Community
Health Workers
Household

tested approaches for doing so, places

it in a unique position of expertise.
With health professionals (doctors,
nurses, health promoters) located even
at remote rural locations, the sector
also has incomparable reach into
and influence over the population it
serves. Health professionals, especially
doctors, wield considerable authority,
and command respect in many societies
worldwide. As one interviewee in
Nepal put it, people listen to doctors
more than they listen to engineers.
The leadership of health professionals
has been demonstrated globally in
large-scale efforts and programmes
for prevention and control of HIV/AIDS
and non-communicable diseases, both
associated with lifestyle choices and
requiring strategies that emphasise
behaviour change. The expertise for
changing behaviour and promoting
uptake of services and products, as
well as service scope and reach are
lacking in the institutional structure
of the WASH sector, which remains
project-driven and heavily focused

Report
on engineering and infrastructure
aspects46. The behavioural (software)
aspects of sanitation must be
addressed systematically if increases
in sanitation coverage are to take place
and result in better health outcomes.
Box 3 provides a discussion on
sanitation and hygiene promotion.

All health sector stakeholders

interviewed agreed that the existing
institutional responses to sanitation
are inadequate given the burden of
disease attributable to poor sanitation
experienced in developing countries.
But what precisely can and should
the health sector do about the
sanitationproblem?

Box 3: Sanitation and hygiene education or promotion?

The terms education and promotion are often used interchangeably, but
are in fact two very different approaches. According to Curtis,47 the need for
a promotion approach is rooted in the fact that getting people to change
the habits of a lifetime is difficult, takes time and requires resources and
skill. With regards the promotion of hand-washing with soap, while past
approaches utilised hygiene education (teaching why hygiene practices such
as hand-washing are necessary, and how to practice them) to affect behaviour
change, it is now understood that knowledge about germs is insufficient to
change behaviour, due to time or financial costs as well as social attitudes to
hand-washing. Unlike hygiene education, hygiene promotion builds on the
understanding of community attitudes, knowledge, practices and desires.
Its reliance on participation and appropriateness provides better chances
for sustained behaviour change, as well as reduced reliance on large-scale
education campaigns. Similar lessons have been learnt regarding sanitation
promotion; Jenkins and Caircross have documented the reasons leading to
construction and use of latrines at the household level, noting that household
adoption of sanitation practices is often associated with comfort, prestige
and safety as much as with health considerations.48 Successful sanitation
promotion approaches must consider these motivations in order to ensure
sustainable impact.

11

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4. Functional deficits and the role of

the health sector in addressing them
4.1 Core functional deficits in
securing progress on sanitation
and related health gains
Little research has been undertaken on
the involvement of the health sector
in decreasing the disease burden
caused by poor sanitation.49 Rehfuess,
Bruce, and Bartram50 assert six specific
health sector functions in relation to
environmental health issues such as
poor sanitation.
Drawing on this and other literature,
the WaterAid research presented in this
paper focused on four broad functional
deficits which typically constrain efforts

to accelerate progress on sanitation

and secure related health gains:
1. Norms and regulations.
2. Inter-sectoral policy
andcoordination.
3. Delivery of scaleable sanitation
programmes.
4. Collection and use of data.
These four functional deficits are used
here as a framework for examining
existing institutional arrangements for
sanitation in developing countries and
identifying potential roles for the health
sector, both within its own purview and
in partnership with other sectors,52 in
tackling these deficits.

Table 2: Health sector functions and roles51

Health sector roles

12

Function 1.
Norms and regulations

Develop health-protecting standards and regulations appropriate to the countrys

social, economic and environmental circumstances.
Monitor implementation and contribution to population health.

Function 2:
Inter-sectoral policy
and coordination

Build and maintain expertise to track and influence major policies that impact health.
Employ formal mechanisms for health impact assessments.
Establish effective multi-disciplinary collaboration.

Function 3:
Health facilities

Set standards for healthcarefacilities.

Budget for structural improvements and capacity-building to encourage staff
behavioural changes.
Enforce compliance through an independent oversight function.

Function 4:
Disease-specific and
integrated programmes

Integrate environmental determinants (eg. safe sanitation) into health professional

training curricula.
Incorporate environmental health actions into health programmes.
Work with partners to raiseawareness.

Function 5:
Outbreaks

Maintain expertise to advise on and conduct outbreakinvestigations.

Test, implement and revise procedures in cooperation with other actors.
Update regulations and policiesaccordingly.

Function 6:
Impacts, threats,
and opportunities

Seek evidence for causal associations between environmental factors

(eg. absence of sanitation) and health.
Assess potential values and harms of technology innovation and policy development.

Report
4.1.a Functional deficit 1:
Norms andregulations
Policy and supporting legislation is
essential to provide a clear vision
and to establish basic principles
and objectives to guide sanitary
improvements. In several of the
countries reviewed there exists some
sort of historic public health legislation
that considers health risks associated
with poor sanitation. For example,
Sri Lanka developed the first public
health-orientated legislation in the
19thcentury when the Public Health
and Ordinance and Small Towns
Sanitary Ordinance of 1892 provided
a legal basis to enact local sanitation
requirements. Uganda and Malawi
created public health legislation around
the time they gained independence
from Britain. Ugandas Public Health act,
enacted in 1964 and updated in 2002,
requires sanitation in all households.
Malawi enacted a Public Health Act in
1948 which regulates sewerage and
infectious disease prevention but its
updated National Health Act and Policy
2010 awaits approval. Nepal is the only
country of the four case studies that
does not have a public health act. Very
few countries have an explicit national
sanitation policy, although some have
drafted policies which have not been
officially agreed and launched, and
are therefore yet to be translated into
action. However where such policies
do exist, they often lack traction at
programme level, and do not use
health outcomes as success indicators.
Health policies on the other hand tend
to focus on service delivery aspects,
with less emphasis, and consequently
less human and financial resources
dedicated to preventive measures,
including sanitation.

Health sector roles in promoting

sanitation include supporting the
development of norms and regulations
that will improve health and encourage
the definition and adoption of safe
sanitation practices, and establishing
mechanisms to enable periodic
review and updating in response to
emerging challenges. While sanitation
technology is still being developed,
the input of the health sector is crucial
to ensure that adopted technology
meets the required health standards.
In Sri Lanka, for example, the health
sector was actively involved in the
development of guidelines for latrine
construction and safe disposal of
excreta, which has contributed to
significant improvements in the general
standard of sanitation facilities in
recent years. Development of norms
and regulations is also closely linked
to education and awareness-raising,
which are critical factors in promoting
behaviour change and in generating
demand for sanitation services and
infrastructure. Public information
campaigns run by the health ministry
in Sri Lanka are considered to have
played a key role in stimulating demand
among communities for improved
sanitationfacilities.
An obvious opportunity for the
health sector to promote behaviour
change (and ultimately better policy
and programming) starts with safe
sanitation within healthcare facilities.
Clean and well-maintained facilities
provide a model to users of healthy
practices that can be implemented in
homes, schools, and other settings as
well as reducing the risk of infection
within healthcare facilities. However

13

Report
facilities observed in the case study
countries suffer from extremely
poor maintenance and, too often,
a complete absence of sanitation
facilities. The availability of functioning
sanitation in Nepals health facilities is
severely inadequate. Hospital waste
management and general attention to
the physical functioning of government
hospitals and clinics is slowly improving
as part of the attention given to these
aspects in the health sector-wide
approach (SWAp) and the technical
assistance provided by WHO (with the
assistance of the Global Alliance for
Vaccines and Immunisations (GAVI)).
In Uganda, information obtained from
studies, interviews and visits to health
facilities indicates poor sanitation
conditions in many healthcare facilities.
In Sri Lanka, the government has not
issued specific guidelines for hospital
planning, including sewage system
design, and there are concerns that
established government and Ministry
of Health (MoH) guidelines have not
been closely followed by contractors
involved in recently-constructed new
hospital buildings.
With appropriate regulations officially
in place, health decision makers
can ensure that health facilities are
adequately equipped with functioning
sanitation facilities. They can also
require safe sanitation practices by staff
and ensure compliance through regular
instruction and monitoring. Health

14

sector professionals are well-placed to

lead by example and to demonstrate
appropriate practices for the thousands
of patients they treat annually, as well
as opportunistic promotion of hygiene
messages through posters, talks
with patients in waiting rooms, and
individual conversations with patients
(either during routine visits such as for
child vaccination or for acute visits due
to WASH-related infections).
Monitoring and enforcement remains a
key challenge in the countries studied.
Sri Lanka has been more successful
than most in managing to retain
an active network of public health
inspectors that traditionally combined
promotion and inspection activities
to generate better sanitation-related
behaviour in the population. There are
examples, such as in Uganda, of the
enforcement of sanitation practices
through other means, including the
penalisation for non-compliance
with sanitation standards through
fines or prison sentences, but there
are concerns that such approaches
may be less effective in generating
behaviour change that translates
into health gains. While regulations
are crucial for resolving conflicts, for
example between tenants and their
non-complying landlords, the actual
hygienic and effective use of sanitation
facilities is better addressed through
community-level outreach a speciality
of the healthsector.

Report

Findings:
Clear policy, legislation and minimum standards are an important
foundation for securing potential health gains from WASH. Some countries
have public health legislation in place but very few have explicit policies
and strategies for addressing sanitation.
Ministries of Health and health authorities often play a minimal role in
sanitation policy setting and programming, whether led by or included
within the Ministry of Healths environmental health division.
Where sanitation policies exist they are generally approached from an
engineering (supply-side) perspective, which does not recognise the
public health implications of sanitation (and consequently, does not use
behaviour change or health outcomes as indicators of a well-functioning
sanitation infrastructure).
Many developing countries lack commonly agreed minimum standards
for sanitation (eg. in schools and clinics). Concepts and definitions of
what constitutes safe or improved sanitation are still evolving (eg. the
sanitation ladder), and require significant inputs from public health
professionals (beyond technology).
When sanitation enforcement mechanisms are in place, such as housing
regulations and bylaws, they are often constrained due to minimal funding
and inadequate human resources. Formal sanctions alone are unlikely
to result in health gains unless coupled with efforts to promote safe
sanitation and improved hygienepractices.
No examples were found for the purpose of this study of regulations or
guidelines for patient safety and infection control measures, which relate
to safe sanitation.
4.1.b Functional deficit 2: Inter-sectoral
policy and coordination
Securing progress on sanitation and
associated health gains requires
concerted action across a diverse range
of actors. A number of sectors, including
health, education, environment,
industry, transport and infrastructure,
address or impact on various aspects
of sanitation on a regular basis. Crosssectoral action provides a financially
prudent and more sustainable means
to improve population health and
increase investment by other sectors.
This requires leadership, including
commitment from top officials and
engagement at all levels. Such

leadership relies on health ministries

moving beyond the mere management
of health systems to assuming a
stewardship role for promoting and
safeguarding acceptable standards
of public health, and asserting the
authority associated with this role
overthe activities of other sectors.
One way of breaking down the
institutional silos that hamper
inter-sectoral cooperation is the
establishment of joint financing
arrangements. In the past few years,
there has been a shift in the way
in which external donor support is
delivered. While SWAps have, over

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the years, been accompanied by
financing arrangements such as
basket funds (jointly managed by
SWAp partner institutions), there has
been a recent growth in earmarking
funds through budget support. Such
financing arrangements can improve
harmonisation between actors and
alignment with government financial
management systems, as well as
encourage adoption of commonly
agreed sector performance indicators.
However, they can also reinforce sector
silos by increasing the competition
for resources (for example, health
ministries may be reluctant to share
budget resources with institutions
outside the sector, or to spend on
interventions deemed to be outside
thesectors remit).
Certain efforts have been made in the
case study countries to break down
silos, such as involvement of water and
sanitation officials in health planning
and budgeting processes in Nepal,
and similar efforts in Malawi but
these remain largely ad hoc and have
not been effectively institutionalised.
In Uganda, a separate sanitation
budget line has been established in
order to address the financial neglect
of sanitation as well as to enable
monitoring of sanitation spending;
however, at the time of writing of this
report, the budget line has not yet
been furnished with funds, nor has
there been an agreement between the
three responsible ministries (Ministry
of Water and Environment Environment
(MoWE), Ministry of Health (MoH)
and Ministry of Education and Sports
(MoES)) on how these funds will be
managed. While there has been an
increase in the number of programmes

16

requiring inputs across a number of

different sectors (eg. nutrition, child
and maternal health), no examples were
found of joint reporting by water and
health ministries on sanitation-related
health outcomes.
Examples of mechanisms for intersectoral policy and coordination on
sanitation were identified in all the
countries studied at both national
and district levels. These can take
the shape of a SWAp led by the water
or health ministry, as well as that of
working groups set up to address
specific issues such as sanitation.
However, with the exception of Malawi,
health sector participation in intersectoral mechanisms led by the water
and sanitation infrastructure sector
tends to be sporadic or crisis-driven
(for example, following a disease
outbreak). In addition, participation is
usually undertaken at the junior staff
level and does not match the level
of seniority of water and sanitation
institution attendees. At a district level,
coordination structures may suffer
from lack of financing, under-staffing
and low capacity, lack of decisionmaking autonomy and poor links with
national level institutions and intersectoralmechanisms.
In Uganda, at the national level,
the National Sanitation Working
Group (NSWG) has the mandate
of operationalising the sanitation
Memorandum of Understanding
signed by the MoH, MoWE and MoES,
integrating sanitation and hygiene
promotion in sector operations, and
improving cross-sectoral coordination.
The NWSG is chaired by the World Bank
WSP, and comprises of government

Report
ministries (MoWE Directorate for Water
Development, MoH Environmental
Health Division, MoES), development
partners (UNICEF, GIZ (Gesellschaft
fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit))
and NGOs (WaterAid in Uganda, Plan
International, UWASNET, AMREF,
Netwas and Water for People). At
the district level, coordination is
undertaken through the District
Water and Sanitation Coordination
Committees (DWSCCs), who bring
together administrative and political
leaders, technical officers, and NGO
and community-based organisaiton
representatives to oversee the
implementation of water supply and
sanitation programmes and strengthen
collaboration and coordination with
other sectors and actors at the district
level. The DWSCCs have real potential
for local-level collaboration but their
effectiveness may be hampered by the
substantial increase in the number
of districts in the country, which is
yet to be matched by adequate local
government capacity. The Improved
Sanitation and Hygiene (ISH)
promotion 10-year financing strategy
for Uganda, which defines the pillars
for improved sanitation and hygiene
(generate demand, supply sanitation,
and develop an enabling framework
to support and facilitate accelerated
scaling up), has yet to receive official
governmental support and funding
remains fragmented, resulting in smallscale, uncoordinated implementation.
Within the health sector, the Division of
Health Promotion and Education (HPE)
at the MoH leads the implementation of
HPE programmes and works with other
agencies to review relevant standards
and regulations. At the district level, the

District Director of Household Services

coordinates planning, managing, and
monitoring of information, education
and communication activities and
works with all agencies including the
district information office. At health
centres, HPE activities are carried
out by available health professionals
and village health teams, based
on need and prevalent health
problems. However, coordination and
collaboration between HPE and the
DWSCCs and NWSG in responding to
sanitation-related health problems
currently remains limited.
Nepal does not have a Public Health Act
to allocate sanitation and environmental
health tasks to specific actors. This is
considered an important obstacle to
engaging the district-based health staff
in integrating their activities with other
stakeholders in environmental health,
exacerbated by lack of clarity regarding
the responsibilities of the District
Public Health Officers and the Public
Health Officer. Health and sanitation
stakeholders interviewed indicated
lack of interaction across sectors and
programmes, and a narrow sectoral
approach applied by professionals in
both sectors, and within sectors, with
vertical approaches (see box 4 overleaf )
leaving little scope for interaction
between subprograms, let alone
with other sectors. One professional
interviewed noted that without official
guidance to ensure collaboration, it
tends to be an exception rather than
the rule. The recent Nepal Health Sector
Support Programme (NHSSP-II) may
present an opportunity to develop
a public health act and/or a WASH
strategy with firm and formalised links
with healthinstitutions.

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Report

Box 4: Water, sanitation and hygiene within the second

Nepal Health Sector Support Programme (NHSSP II)
Efforts are ongoing to ensure that WASH issues are firmly embedded within
the NHSSP II:
The Ministry of Health and Population (MoHP) has assigned a focal point
to coordinate with the WASH sector
In 2010, Global Handwashing Day was celebrated nationally, bringing
together the MoHP and the Ministries of Physical Planning and Works,
of Education, of Local Development, WaterAid and UNICEF.
MoHP has formed a Water Quality Surveillance Thematic Group to work
on capacity assessment and developing a Water Quality Surveillance
Guideline to Nepal.
An Environmental Health and Hygiene technical committee has been
formed under MHP/ National Health Education, Information and
Communication Center to work on WASH-related health issues and provide
technical inputs on broader environmental health issues including WASH.
The Primary Health Care Revitalization Division (a newly developed division
at MoHP/Department of Health Services) has one environmental health
section which is also responsible for WASH issues in urban areas.
WASH has been discussed at the Health Joint Sector Review in February
2011. The subsequent aide memoire also included WASH aspects.
In Malawi, as a result of the development
of the National Sanitation Policy (NSP)
in 2008, the Ministry of Irrigation
and Water Development (MoIWD)
established a Sanitation and Hygiene
Department in 2009 to lead the national
sanitation initiatives. At the local level,
the District Assemblies are responsible
for ensuring that the policy is reflected
in strategies for implementation
through the Development Strategy
and Improvement Programmes (DSIP).
It is most likely that, while the Water
Department will take the lead in
water and possibly some subsidised
implementation of sanitation activities,
sanitation promotion and monitoring
will be led by the Health Department.
Although the NSP was adopted by the
government in 2008, its official launch
has been delayed several times and is

18

not expected until 2011. The NSP will

be supported by development partners
under a SWAp for sanitation, bringing
together government institutions and
other relevant stakeholders. The SWAp
is anticipated to improve coordination
and participation in the formulation
and implementation of sector policies,
planning, and investment. Oversight will
be provided by the National Sanitation
and Hygiene Coordination Unit (NSHCU),
chaired by the director of Preventive
Health Services (PHS) of the MoH and
with the director of MoIWD acting as the
executive secretary.
Successive governments in Sri Lanka
have prioritised investment in health
and education which has led, inter
alia, to significant improvements
in public health. Sanitation has

Report
been incorporated into central
government health policies since
the 19thcentury, and institutional
roles and responsibilities have been
clearly articulated historically through
legislation as far back as 1865.
An integrated health system that
incorporates curative and preventive
functions has been in place since 1925,
including a Health Unit system with
responsibilities including: general
health surveys; collection and study
of vital statistics; health education;
investigation and control of infectious
diseases; maternal and child health;
school health work; rural and urban
sanitation. Sri Lanka s current Health
Master Plan 2007-201553 places a strong

emphasis on inter-sectoral action,

noting that it is a major process in
developing healthcare programmes
and that the contributions made by
other sectors such as related other [sic]
government ministries, private sector,
Non Governmental Organizations,
international and UN agencies and
Community Based Organizations cannot
be under-estimated. As shown in table3,
the plan also lists relevant agencies
for each programme that addresses
sanitation targets. The plan also notes
that the MoH is working to develop formal
inter-sectoral coordination mechanisms,
with the objective of bringing together
actors across different levels in a joint
effort to improve health.

Table 3: Inter-sectoral policy and coordination

National-level sanitation
coordination body

National sanitation
policy/plan

Stakeholders

Other notes

National Hygiene and

Sanitation Master Plan
draft 2010 (awaiting
final approval)

Ministry of Physical Planning and Works

Health representation
usually does not include
ministerial leadership,
except during crises

National Sanitation
Policy (NSP) 2008
(has not been
formally launched
bygovernment)

NSP states that, with the Director

of Ministry of Irrigation and Water
Development (MoIWD) acting as the
executive secretary.

National Sanitation
Policy 2006
National Sanitation
Action Plan 2008

Government, donor agencies, and

international and local NGOs.

No official sanitation
policy exists; ISH
strategy exists
but has not been
operationalised

Government (MoWE, MoH, MoES,

Ministry of Finance, Planning and
Economic Development, Ministry of Local
Government, Ministry of Gender, Labour
and Social Development), donor agencies,
National Water and Sewerage Corporation
(NWSC), and international and local NGOs.

Nepal
Steering Committee
for National
SanitationAction

MoPPW, DWSS, MoHP, MoES, MoLD,

donors and NGOs (40 members).

Malawi
National Sanitation and
Hygiene Coordination
Unit (NSHCU)

Director of Public Health

Services of the Ministry
of Health will chair the
NSHCU MoIWD added a
Sanitation and Hygiene
Department in 2009

Sri Lanka
National Sanitation
TaskForce

Uganda
National Sanitation
Working Group

Government
participation in the
group is technical
levelonly

19

Report

Findings:
Lack of effective inter-sectoral collaboration is a major factor causing slow
progress on sanitation.
Ministries of Health and health authorities often play a minimal role in
sanitation policy setting and programming, whether led by or included
within the Ministry of Healths environmental health division.
Improving access and changing behaviours requires coordination between
multiple agencies. Most countries have a coordinating body of some sort
with a mandate on sanitation but responsibilities, accountabilities and
financing arrangements tend to be poorly defined.
SWAps have the potential to improve coordination of financing for
sanitation but can also reinforce silos and present obstacles to
inter-sectoral collaboration
District level coordination is crucial for effective programme implementation,
but district structures often lack the autonomy needed to respond flexibly to
sanitation-related health problems and tend to suffer from under-resourcing
in human and financial terms
4.1.c Functional deficit 3: Delivery of
scalable sanitation programmes
The strong track record of the health
sector in creating demand for service
use and in generating behaviour change
has been described above; this expertise
gives health professionals a pivotal role
in ensuring that safe sanitation practices
are included within the menu of
desired health behaviours. Several key
areas of opportunity include diseasespecific and integrated programmes,
community health clubs, and school
sanitationinitiatives.
Disease-specific programmes in Nepal
are reported to be strongly influenced
by donor priorities without necessarily
considering national health priorities,
leading to, among other things, an
unhealthy competition between the
various programmes, fragmentation and
poor coordination and resource sharing
(thus neglecting to maximise efficiency
as well as exacerbating barriers to intersectoral collaboration), and an increased
burden on health professionals and
20

administrators. Several respondents

in the field interviews suggested that
programme priorities should be driven
by existing disease burden (and consider
children as a separate category) rather
than by donor-led priorities. This,
along with the absence of clear lines
of responsibility for sanitation within
the Ministry of Health and Population,
has implications for the ability to
effectively incorporate sanitation into
health programming. Malawi has several
disease-specific programmes that could
potentially be linked with sanitation, but
currently there exists little horizontal
interaction between these programmes.
Health professionals in all programmes
play an important role in educating
patients and encouraging behaviour
change. Integration of sanitation
concepts and practices, such as the
importance of proper toilet installation
and maintenance, into existing diseasespecific and primary healthcare
programmes, would significantly increase
current outreach. Health promotion and

Report

Box 5: Disease-specific and integrated programmes.

Much debate has taken place in the past few years on the advantages and
disadvantages of vertical versus integrated health programmes. Vertical
approaches target a particular disease or issue and are considered by some
as more viable due to their perceived immediate and quantifiable results.
Horizontal approaches place greater emphasis on long-term sustainability
through a broader view of health.54 In the late 1980s and early 1990s many
countries applied primary healthcare or integrated approaches (such as
the Integrated Management of Childhood Diseases approach, which used a
package of key child health interventions). However, due to lack of quantifiable
successes, among other things, leading international organisations and
agencies began focusing on disease-specific initiatives, crowding out
integrated childhood management programmes (eg. in Nepal). To date, billions
of dollars have been spent on these global health initiatives, which are
often backed by strong political support and disease-specific international
campaigns. As initiatives develop and lessons learnt are fed back into the
design of global health approaches, the picture has become more complex. A
recent literature review55 states that there arefew instances where there is
full integration of a health intervention or where an intervention is completely
non-integrated. Instead, there exists a highly heterogeneous picture both
for the nature and also for the extent of integration. Health systems combine
both non-integrated and integrated interventions, but the balance of these
interventions varies considerably.

communication must underlie all public

health programmes, and provides a key
opportunity for outreach and scalable
programmes. Safe sanitation can be
incorporated into programme delivery
as a fundamental practice in most, if not
all, programmeswhether vertical or
horizontal. For example, sanitation and
hygiene promotion can be integrated
into HIV/AIDS programmes in order to
reduce the risk of infection in patients
with compromised immune systems
and reduce the possible adverse impact
of strategies for prevention of motherto-child transmission.56
Examples of integration in
disease-specific programmes:
While few instances of incorporating
safe sanitation recommendations
within disease-specific programmes

were identified during interviews,

some very successful examples were
obtained from the literature reviewed.
For example, research in Uganda shows
that providing latrines to people living
with HIV/AIDS decreased the risk of
diarrhoea by 31%.57 Sri Lanka provides
one of the few examples where
reduction in diseases related to unsafe
sanitation is included as a measurable
health programme outcome. Its Health
Master Plan, as shown in table 4
overleaf, provides a model example
by including sanitation targets within
several disease-specific programmes
such as HIV/AIDS, hepatitis, diarrhoea,
and water-borne disease control. In
addition, the plans targets include
measurable outcomes such as disease
reduction as measured by hospital
records and mortality reduction.
21

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Table 4: Sanitation-related programmes within the Sri Lanka Health Master Plan 2007-2016
Health services delivery programme title

Focal points

Relevant agencies

Simple interventions like improving the

household level hygiene and sanitation as well
as creating awareness of these issues - of what
they are and how they work, and access to
information on water, hygiene and sanitation
issues can bring down the burden of disease and
misery especially among the underserved and
the poor.

Ministry of Health,
Provincial Health
Authorities, National
Water Supply and
Drainage Board, Local
Authorities, Ministry
of Plantation and
Infrastructure.

1.5.7 Health of People in Urban Slums

Health status of a population is dependent

on the living condition and water supply
andsanitation.
We have to have a multi-sectoral approach in
health prevention and promotion strategies and
it should be through appropriate technology in
delivering the services. Most of the activities
we have to work with the water board, and the
Municipal council or urban councils. Also we
have to use the existing systems and mechanism
to implement the programmes.

Ministry of Health,
Provincial Health
Authorities, National
Water Supply and
Drainage Board, Local
Authorities, Ministry
of Plantation and
Infrastructure.

1.5.8 School Health

Conduct a School Sanitation Survey annually

Ministry of Education
and data provided to the Ministry of Education
Provincial Education
and other relevant Ministries and Departments.
Authorities.
Availability of sanitation and water supply.
Percentage of Officers of Health providing data
to the Medical Officer/Maternal and Child Health.

1.4 Disease control programme

1.4.2.b C
 ommunicable Diseases Control:
STD/AIDS Control
1.4.2.d . 4 Communicable Diseases Control:
Immunisable Diseases Control: Viral
Hepatitis Prevention and Control
1.4.2.f C
 ommunicable Disease Control:
Food and Water-Borne Diseases:
Control/Prevention and Control of
DiarrhoealDiseases
1.4.2.g C
 ommunicable Diseases Control:
Water-Borne Diseases Control - 2
1.5 Programme for vulnerable populations

Box 6: Lessons from Ethiopia

In Northern Ethiopia, the Amhara Regional Health Bureau and the Carter
Center work in tandem to deliver health education to nearly 3,500
communities. As part of the trachoma prevention programme, materials
that include a focus on improving sanitation by promoting household latrine
construction and use were developed, and model latrines were constructed
in public gathering places, using local materials. Since 2002, more than
one million household latrines have been constructed using only minimal
resources to train local leaders and health extension workers. By fostering
political support, government policy, and community education, access to
latrines rose from 6% to just over 50% of households in just one year. Followup research indicates that participation in health education activities was a
significant predictor of latrine ownership. In addition, political commitment
of the local government and intensive community mobilisation were two
fundamental reasons for the substantial increase in latrine coverage.58
By making latrine ownership a local government objective, leaders were
empowered to penalize households refusing to install latrines if necessary.
Although no known use of sanctions occurred, the mere possibility of penalty
added an element of urgency and legality to the programme. Follow-up
research shows that high prevalence of latrines and latrine use still existed
more than three years later, demonstrating the positive impact of integrating
sanitation into a disease-specific programme by definition.59
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Report
In Uganda, the MoWE developed a
strategy to provide guidelines on how
to mainstream approaches to include
persons living with HIV/AIDS in water
and sanitation service provision. The
strategy does not propose stand-alone
activities but instead builds on and
incorporates HIV/AIDS-related activities
into existing sector workplans over the
medium and long term.
Integrated programmes
Each of the case study countries
examined employs volunteers or paid
staff to deliver health and sanitation
promotion at the household level;
however, with the possible exception
of Malawis and Sri Lankas health
workers, safe sanitation is not included
within primary healthcare approaches,
which tend to be limited to curative
interventions. In addition, countries
allocate minimal resources for field
visits, as shown in Uganda and Sri
Lanka. Rather than conducting visits
to villages and households, health
workers mostly operate out of clinics
and community health facilities.
Currently, disease-specific programmes
focus primarily on curative measures,

whereas factors that exacerbate

disease, such as poor sanitation,
often are not addressed. For example,
most of Nepals and Ugandas health
programmes do not include safe
sanitation. The proposed Nepal
Health Sector Support Programme
II (NHSSP-II) 2010-2015, however,
includes both sanitation and water
quality surveillance aspects. Actions
under NHSSP-II include: a) promoting
hygiene and sanitation through the
existing institutional infrastructure;
b) promoting hygiene and sanitation
in conjunction with other essential
healthcare services to mainstream
hygiene and sanitation promotion;
and c) in partnership with related
agencies, establishing a water quality
surveillance system and promoting use
of safe water. Under the programme,
the Ministry of Health has added several
services to the existing Essential Health
Care Services (EHCS) package, including
hygiene and sanitation promotion in
partnership with other agencies.
In Malawi, Health Surveillance
Assistants, who work directly with
communities and interface with village

Box 7: Lessons from Pakistan

Pakistans Lady Health Workers (LHWs) programme, established in the early
1990s, provides an example of integrated programming identified in the
literature. Today, over 100,000 LHWs provide the backbone of the countrys
primary healthcare approach. In at least two follow-up evaluations of the
programme, diarrhoea incidence was reduced compared with populations
not receiving LHW visits.60 The LHW programme has been able to buck the
international trend by providing a service with tangible health impacts,
through reduction in childhood diarrhoea. However, a review of Pakistans
sanitation coverage shows that only 45% of the population currently has
improved sanitation coverage,61 highlighting the complexity of the link
between increased sanitation coverage and reduction in diarrhoea (ie. the
existence of a latrine does not mean that it is being used or hygienically
maintained in a way that ensures separation between humans and faeces).
23

Report
health committees, address sanitation
within the EHCS package, but staffing
shortages present a major constraint. In
contrast to the other three countries, Sri
Lanka promotes sanitation throughout
disease-specific and primary health
agendas, as well as the Health Ministryled public information campaigns
mentioned above. Another example
of integration is provided by Uganda,
where the MoWE has developed a
strategy to provide guidelines on

mainstreaming HIV/AIDS issues into

water and sanitation provision. The
strategy does not propose stand-alone
activities but instead builds on and
incorporates HIV/AIDS-related activities
into existing sector work plans in the
medium and long term.
Community Health Clubs
The community development approach
emphasises bottom-up capacity
building to address the determinants

Box 8: Community-based approaches to

health promotion examples from Africa:
The benefits of community-based approaches have been investigated in
several African countries. Using information gathered over 15 years
of creation and tracking of pilot projects in several African countries,
Juliet Waterkeyn63 has shown that the community health club (CHC) approach
is a cost-effective model that creates a strong demand for sanitation and
a culture of healthy behaviour. Waterkeyn and her colleagues used hygiene
promotion (in coordination with health agencies) to raise demand for
sanitation. Data from Zimbabwe, Uganda, and South Africa showed high
levels of community response through CHCs. Health workers provided six
months of weekly low-cost hygiene promotion sessions resulting in latrine
coverage rising to 43%, contrasted with 2% in the control area. Faced with
scarcity of latrine hardware options and financial constraints to hardware
purchase, the remaining 57% adopted faecal burial, a method previously
unknown to community members which, although not ideal, signifies
an understanding of the need to remove excreta from the immediate
environment. In rural areas, the concept of zero open defecation has
been enthusiastically endorsed by CHCs.
Despite the success of the CHCs, Waterkeyn notes that the health sectors
involvement in Ugandas CHCs from 2003 to 2005 was minimal due to the lack
of staffing availability and transportation. At the district level, health workers
attended workshops and then withdrew from their commitment to conduct
community training if per diems were not provided. However, at the national
level the Environmental Health Department recently initiated efforts to
address unsafe sanitation by developing a standard toolkit for participatory
hygiene and sanitation transformation (PHAST) training with a team that
is conducting training sessions in one district. Although the integration of
health and sanitation promotion through CHCs in Uganda was less successful,
results elsewhere merit further exploration.

24

Report
of health, such as safe sanitation. In
Uganda, village health teams (VHTs),
comprised of volunteer community
members, have been used since 2003
to improve the health status of village
members through facilitating processes
of community mobilisation and
participation in delivering, managing,
and improving health practices at the
household level. Within the minimum
healthcare package, VHTs provide
services within a range of primary
healthcare aspects, including diarrhoea
control and home-based management
practices for safe sanitation. VHTs
are not formally remunerated, but
local leaders and NGOs support
them through training opportunities
and provision of bicycles and some
compensation. While VHTs have not
been introduced everywhere (they have
been established in approximately
77.5%62 of districts but interviewees
reported that only about one third
of the districts have trained VHTs in
all villages), experience shows that
where they are active, improvement in
sanitation practices is noted.
In Malawi, sanitation and hygiene
promoters are employed to provide
information, education, and
communication using methods such as
drama and music. The promoters report
to Health Surveillance Assistants (HSA),
and could potentially be incorporated
into the HSA cadre. Promoters hold
regular progress meetings and promote
WASH practices, including the proper
installation and maintenance of
latrines. Since 1997, Malawi has had a
programme for early child development,
later developed into an Integrated
Management of Childhood

Illnesses (ICMI) programme covering

11 of Malawis poorest districts. In
this process, community groups came
together to analyse health, nutrition,
and development problems and decide
on actions to address them. The
groups tackled hygiene, sanitation,
breastfeeding, and complementary
feeding and established communitybased childcare centres run by
trained community volunteers. By
2000, the programme reached 1,179
villages in the 11 districts. In 2004, an
assessment found significant changes
in breastfeeding practices, age at
introduction of complementary feeding,
disposal of faeces, and use of iodised
salt. Conversely, no differences were
found in handwashing practices or the
use of antenatal care services.
In Nepal, approximately 47,000
Female Community Health Volunteers
deployed by the health sector are
becoming increasingly pivotal for
health improvements. This approach
can be used at a local level to provide
capacity building support for sanitation
promotion, as volunteers are already
engaged in managing diarrhoeal
cases under the IMCI programme.
Cross-sectoral coordination and
understanding between the health
and WASH sectors is crucial for the
success of this approach. There is also
significant potential for synergies with
NGO projects that use communityled total sanitation (CLTS) techniques
to try and raise awareness among
communities about the dangers of
open defecation and to encourage
behaviour change and create demand
for improved sanitation.

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Report

Findings:
Promoting uptake and use of sanitation is an enduring challenge and its
absence is a barrier to progress in sanitation coverage, but it is rarely an
explicit component in health programme design.
District and local health worker practices and programmes are typically
disease-focused and rarely consider or integrate sanitation as a strategy
to reduce the disease burden (diarrhoeal and others).
Sanitation is rarely included in primary healthcare programmes and
services or meaningfully integrated into disease-specific (eg. HIV/AIDS) or
integrated programmes (eg. IMCI), but there are examples where this has
been successfully done (eg. the Sri Lanka Health Master Plan).
Local implementation of sanitation policies and programmes provides
good synchronicity with public health objectives as well as potential
for improved health outcomes. There is evidence to suggest a positive
relationship between health promotion at community and household
level and latrine ownership and use.
4.1.d Functional deficit 4:
Collection and use of data
Collection of data is critically important
for health workers, planners and
policymakers for tracking trends and
monitoring the effectiveness of health
programmes. The quality of reporting
depends on the quality of national
health-information systems, which
tend to be weak in many developing
countries.64 For example, diarrhoeal
mortality rates may be under-reported
when it is the underlying rather than
the immediate cause of death (ie.the
immediate cause of death may be
AIDS or malaria).65 Further, not all
diarrhoea cases are treated in health
facilities, meaning that not all diarrhoeal
deaths occur in these facilities another
potential reason for under-reporting of
both diarrhoeal mortality and morbidity.
The role of the health sector in this regard
includes participating in data collection
and information-sharing mechanisms to
shift health programming from a reactive
to preventive orientation.
The degree to which this occurs in the
study countries varies significantly.
Nepal has a robust Health Management
26

Information System (HMIS) that produces

a range of detailed information for
service-delivery, supplemented by regular
household and facility surveys that yield
data harder to collect through routine
reporting. The surveys also shed light
on inequalities in health service use and
collect opinions on the quality of services
provided. Household and service delivery
data are used to validate HMIS data.
In Uganda, the Health Sector Strategic
Plan (HSSP II) indicates the need for
improving the usage of the HMIS, in
order to facilitate the collection of
accurate and reliable data in a timely
manner. It is hoped that such data
will improve planning processes at
all levels. Improving the systems
sensitivity to gender- and diseasespecific information will allow a better
understanding of health inequalities and
the necessary changes in management
and planning of health facilities and
services. A multi-sectoral epidemic
preparedness and response committee
has been formed in all districts, and has
proved useful in managing epidemics.
Certain challenges remain, such as the
shortage of staff with the requisite skills

Report
to manage epidemics effectively, lack of
resources, and lack of prioritisation of
such activities at the district level.
Malawi has a HMIS, managed by the
Planning Department of the MoH, which
acts as the primary source of data for the
health sectors monitoring and evaluation
system. An equivalent system is used by
the education sector (EMIS). The National
Statistics Office (NSO) also provides data
for many key indicators through reports
compiling the results of national surveys,
such as the Demographic and Health
Survey and the Multiple Indicator Cluster
Survey. The water supply and sanitation
SWAp calls for a Water and Sanitation
Management Information System
(WSMIS) to provide effective analysis
and planning through access to valid
and timely information, and specifies
the need for coordinating multiple data
sets and systems already in place; but
in practice there has been only limited
linkage between ongoing development
of the HMIS, EMIS and WSMIS systems.
Health workers in Nepal, Uganda and
Malawi rarely utilise their HMISs to
monitor sanitation-related diseases

trends and to target sanitation

interventions accordingly. Rather,
HMISs are mostly used in times of
crisis. Examples of events that could
have been mitigated through more
effective surveillance include cholera
outbreaks in Nepals Jajarkot region
and along the shores of Lake Malawi,
and a hepatitis E outbreak in northern
Uganda. While data are often reported
on a regular basis, they are not
routinely analysed, resulting in lost
opportunities to reduce the frequency
and/or severity of disease outbreaks.
In comparison, Sri Lanka undertakes
ongoing data collection and monitoring
by employing regional epidemiologists
to track disease patterns, including
WASH-related diseases. Because one of
their primary responsibilities is district
monitoring, these epidemiologists
have the authority and resources
to follow up when needed. Their
responsibilities are also directly linked
with monitoring for reductions in WASHrelated diseases. This is a rare example
of a health programme that includes
specific outcome targets on reduction in
diseases related to unsafe sanitation.

Findings:
Data and analyses are not routinely shared between sectors, especially at
district levels, resulting in lost opportunities to identify and target vulnerable
populations (eg. low income areas, unplanned urban settlements, or areas
prone to disease outbreaks).
Significant weaknesses exist within respective sector information
management systems (including a lack of sanitation-related information in
HMIS, as well as a lack of health information in WASH MIS).
With the exception of Sri Lanka, existing data on sanitation-related infections
and diseases is often weakly integrated within the design, implementation
and monitoring of sanitation programmes.
Critical information for tracking national, district, and local budget allocations
and expenditure for sanitation is often lacking. Furthermore information on
impact/cost-effectiveness of sanitation interventions is often inadequate for
effective results-based programme management and resource allocation.

27

Report

5. Facilitators and barriers to health

sector addressing functional deficits
Several common facilitators and barriers that contribute to or hinder
implementation of the health sector functions described above
have been identified over the course of this research. These include
aspects relating to leadership, financing, human resources, and
community participation.
5.1.a Leadership
The support of health sector leadership
is crucial for long-term sustainable
implementation of policy and
programme changes. Leaders within
the health sector must first determine
that sanitation is relevant to the
achievement of the sectors goals and
improved health outcomes, as well as
representing a potential saving on the
sectors resources.
In the countries studied, few solid
examples have been identified of
health sector leadership that actively
supports and facilitates safe sanitation.
Sri Lankas President has expressed
his personal interest in ensuring that
sanitation coverage continues to
increase, using all possible government
and other resources. In contrast,
the current state of political affairs
in Nepal has stalled progress on
sanitation policy and programming.
Health leaders in Malawi and Uganda
are overwhelmed with institutional
constraints and the challenges of
implementing numerous global health
initiatives, and while in Uganda a
Memorandum of Understanding
has been signed between the three
28

ministries responsible for sanitation,

progress is constrained by lack of clear
policy, financial resources and districtlevel capacity.
A positive example of leadership-driven
sanitation progress is provided by
Kenyas Ministry of Public Health and
Sanitation, which is driving the push to
reduce health disparities in her country
caused by a myriad of issues that include
unsafe sanitation.66 In March2010, the
Minister released the Policy guidelines
on control and management of
diarrhoeal diseases in children under
five years, which include sanitation
provision as a cost-effective preventive
intervention to be incorporated into
diarrhoea-control activities.67
Nepals participation in the biennial
South Asian Conference on Sanitation
(SACOSAN) is a prime impetus for
meeting Nepals national goal of
achieving universal sanitation coverage
by 2017. Nepals delegation to past
SACOSAN conferences included upper
management from the Ministry of
Health. Nepal will host SACOSAN V,
currently scheduled for 2012.

Report
5.1.b Community participation
Community participation and
mobilisation is critical for long term
programme sustainability. When
programmes are designed with local
input, they are more likely to achieve
lasting results. Sri Lanka has long
embraced community participation in
local water and sanitation projects;68
a recent example is the post-tsunami
recovery project in the district of Galle.
Villagers are learning about safe WASH
practices from local health workers
while also monitoring construction of
sanitation infrastructure and facilities.
The latrine promotion programme in
Ethiopias Amhara region mentioned
earlier is another relevant example.
5.1.c Human resources
A well-organised, trained, supported
and supervised workforce is needed
to maximise sustainable health
outcomes.69 The issue of incentives
is also crucial, not only for general
workforce motivation but also crucially

for improved health programme

integration, as discussed in box 9
overleaf. Developing countries are
particularly susceptible to health
worker shortages, as many workers
leave to obtain higher paying jobs in
richer countries, and well-trained and
experienced staff, if they remain in their
own country, tend to be concentrated
in urban centres or affluent areas,
creating inequality between regions
and exacerbating the challenges of
decentralisation. Human resources
issues were identified in each of
the countries studied. Uganda and
Malawi have extremely high healthcare
worker shortages up to 50% in some
districts. In addition to these shortages,
training and education is also lacking.
A recent review of the information
needs of healthcare workers in
developing countries identifies the
issue of information poverty, which
leaves workers without access to the
information they need to perform their
jobs well.70

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Report

Box 9: The role of incentives

Health professionals can influence the use of safe sanitation practices via
their daily responsibilities. Policymakers at the ministerial and other executive
levels can legislate or mandate that sanitation be included as a priority in
the work programmes of health services. Healthcare workers and health
promoters can guide patients and the public on safe sanitation practices
and their benefits. Information specialists can work to track health trends
influenced by sanitation so that policymakers and educators can respond
accordingly. But such action requires the right incentives. The performance
of health professional such as doctors, nurses and administrators is rarely
assessed against delivery of health promotion activities. Even when such
activities are included in performance assessment, the focus is on tangible
outputs rather than outcomes such as reduction in sanitation-related
infections. If busy and understaffed healthcare facilities are expected to
deliver such action, this expectation must be accompanied by sufficient
human, technical and financial resources, and factored into performance
assessments. Concurrently, environmental health aspects such as sanitation
and hygiene must be included in medical and nursing training curricula if they
are to be prioritised by healthcare professionals, rather than perceived as
the responsibility of volunteers or promoters. Such an approach takes into
consideration the strong influence that healthcare professionals, particularly
doctors, have over public perceptions of what constitutes healthy behaviour.
5.1.d Financing
The size, predictability and timing of
financial resources is a critical element
for effective and well-functioning health
and sanitation programmes. Whereas
competition for limited financial
resources can inhibit cooperation while
each institution jealously guards its own
limited budget, if approached correctly
it can encourage health professionals
to seek creative solutions for more
effective use of resources. Inter-sectoral
partnerships can achieve multiple goals
with limited funds. Conducting outreach
without exploring potential financing
partnerships can result in missed
opportunities to reach additional
audiences with the same funds.

30

In addition to the health data

challenges described, collection of
financial data to include sanitation
budget allocations and spending
is needed. Within the case study
countries, coordinated mechanisms to
track national, district and local budget
allocations and expenses do not exist.
Further, obtaining total in-country
expenditures related to sanitation is
nearly impossible due to the myriad
different government and nongovernment funding sources.

Report

6. R
 ecommendations for
health sector stakeholders
Sanitation infrastructure is necessary but not sufficient for better
health. The failure of health sector stakeholders to work jointly
with WASH sector counterparts to address key functional deficits
is constraining progress on sanitation and related health outcomes.
Various actions can be taken by international, national and local health
sector actors that could help accelerate progress on sanitation and
leverage gains in health, most notably by reducing the impact of the
main causes of child mortality such as diarrhoea and under-nutrition.
This will require that sanitation is
recognised as part and parcel of
a well-functioning health system,
defined as consisting of all the
organizations, institutions, resources
and people whose primary purpose
is to improve health (see box X). We
recommend that health actors aspire
to deliver the following actions at three
levels international, national, and
programmedelivery.
6.1. I nternational health policy
and donor policy
At the international level, funding and
programme priorities do not mirror
greatest disease burden or lowest
sanitation coverage. Global health
institutions, donors and academics can
encourage health systems to target
the greatest causes of ill-health. When
those causes, such as sanitation, lie
outside the health sectors traditional
domain, development partners can help
facilitate inter-sectoral collaboration.
Further, development partners should

coordinated amongst themselves to

maximise efficient use of resources and
increase results.
Recommendations for global health
institutions, donors, academics, and
other external support agencies:
Global health institutions to
champion the recent shift away from
disease-specific curative approaches
to integrated approaches to health
promotion and disease prevention,
geared towards and assessed against
the achievement of healthoutcomes.
Global health policy initiatives to
acknowledge and give a higher
profile to the impact of sanitation
on the global burden of disease, the
potential contribution of sanitation
to reducing that burden of disease,
and the potential benefits for public
health outcomes.
Development partners to prioritise
programme interventions and
impact evaluations in countries with
low sanitation coverage and high
sanitation-related disease burden.
31

Report

Development partners to encourage

health agencies and professionals to
integrate sanitation within existing
and future health sector policies.
Development partners to promote
and support the development of
national health plans and strategies
to target sanitation-related disease
burden, at a level proportionate
toimpact.
Development partners to encourage
health agencies and professionals to
integrate use of safe sanitation within
existing and future disease-specific
and integrated health programmes.
Development partners to support
inter-sectoral financing for health and
sanitation, recognising that budget
cycles may not match the (often)
greater time needed to achieve
cross-sectoral program results.
International health research
programmes to invest in better
impact evidence on the effectiveness
of sanitation on health and on its
additive effect on existing health
programmes (eg. economies of scale
achieved by incorporating within
existing vs. new programmes).

6.2. National development policy and

resource allocation
At the national level, many actors have
an influence in short-term and longterm sanitation outcomes. Resource
allocations can support immediate,
and often short-term gains. However,
most health sector actions to leverage
sanitation will require long-term
involvement from other sectors,
Long-term results require sustained
commitment from all stakeholders.
Inter-sectoral coordination requires
leadership support, clear definition of
roles, and agreed accountability for

32

outcomes. Strong policy frameworks

provide context for lasting support
of sanitation.
Recommendations for heads of state
and national planning institutions:
Develop and strengthen the
public health legal and regulatory
framework to clearly establish lines
of accountability on sanitation
results and outcomes and formalise
roles for inter-sectoral collaboration,
to include all ministries/institutions
responsible for sanitation.
Structure planning processes to
develop programme priorities based
on disease burden, effectiveness
and cost-benefits, readiness for
implementation, and resource
availability. Ensure sanitation-related
disease burden is targeted according
to degree of relative impact.
Ensure and support mutual
participation between ministries
and sectoral planning processes
(eg. WASH sector attending health
SWAps and vice versa). Establish and
formalize national and district-level
communication lines between health
and sanitation personnel (eg. include
health personnel in district WASH
committees and vice versa). Ensure
attendance by senior leadership.
6.3. National health policy and
sanitation programme design
Recommendations for Ministers
of Health:
Develop a clear strategy to ensure
that sanitation is effectively
addressed within all relevant health
policies, regulations, guidelines and
procedures and ensure that existing
health programmes at national and
sub-national level include clear

Report

indicators and targets for monitoring

improvements in sanitationrelated diseases.
Leverage relationships across
ministries (eg. Infrastructure, WASH,
Education, Environment, Local
Government) to support increased
prioritisation of sanitation through
high level national campaigns.
Elevate environmental health
departments to higher levels of
health sector decision making by
including environmental health
directors in upper management.
Include sanitation-related diseases
in health surveillance systems;
use data to inform planning and to
support needs assessments; use
evidence on cost-effectiveness to
guide resource (human and
financial) allocations.
Promote integration of sanitation
and hygiene within disease specific
programmes (eg. HIV/AIDS and
trachoma), and national programmes
(eg. child health, reproductive and
maternal health, nutrition).
Normalise sanitation promotion
within health professionals practice
by evaluating disincentives and
providing incentives for sanitation
promotion in
trainings for medical,
nursing, and community-level
healthprofessionals.

messages shared during patient

consultations and in patient
education materials.
patient safety and infection
control measures.
Enact, implement, monitor, and
enforce minimum standards for
sanitation and hygiene within
healthcare services.
Include sanitation coverage
(including service quality) and handwashing with soap as a performance
indicator in health management
information systems.
Use epidemiological data on
sanitation-related diseases to target
vulnerable areas and populations
and to establish needs for further
evidence and research.
Further strengthen existing
community health promotion
programmes, including sanitation
and hygiene promotion, and link with
service delivery programmes, in both
rural and urban settings.
Promote transparency and improve
financial accounting systems to track
budget allocations and expenditures
for sanitation programming at
different levels.
Work with Ministry of Education to
ensure installation and maintenance
of inclusive hygiene and sanitation
facilities in all schools.

33

Report
Recommendations for Ministers of
Water/Sanitation/Environment/
Infrastructure:
Promote and support comprehensive
high level national sanitation and
hygiene campaigns in all ministerial
and sector domains.
Include disease outcome indicators
in sanitation programme monitoring
and evaluation systems.
Engage with health colleagues on
a regular basis to establish and
reinforce relationships and participate
in coordination of activities, including
engagement with official cross-sector
coordination bodies and joint sector
review processes.
Work with the health sector to
set up an outbreak early warning
system based on sanitation risks
and ongoing data collection on
relateddiseases.
Work with the education sector to
develop sanitation and hygiene
education curricula.

34

Recommendations for Ministers of

Local Government:
Strengthen and enforce building
codes that require proper existence,
operation and maintenance of
sanitation facilities in all buildings.
Ensure decentralised health and
education programmes promote
and support safe sanitation.
Ensure sanitation access is included
in local development plans.
6.4 Other stakeholders
Recommendations for
Civil Society Organisations:
Focus advocacy on sanitation as a
health issue, calling on governments,
donors and other relevant parties to
take action.
Educate policy-makers and media
about unaddressed disease burden
from poor sanitation and missed
opportunities to improve health and
economic development.
Model appropriate use of sanitation
and hygiene to provide good
example in daily interactions.
Advocate for existence and
maintenance of sanitation facilities
in all healthcare facilities and other
institutional settings such as schools.

Report

Endnotes
 WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring
Programme (JMP) (2010) Progress
on sanitation and drinking water.

 Black R et al (2010), Global,

regional, and national causes
of child mortality in 2008: a
systematic analysis, Lancet 2010;
375: 196987.

 WaterAid (2009), Fatal neglect:

How health systems are failing
to comprehensively address
child mortality.

 Improved sanitation facilities

are those that ensure hygienic
separation of human excreta from
human contact. According to the
WHO/UNICEF JMP, these include
flush toilets and pour-flush toilets/
latrines (to a sewer system, septic
tank, or pit latrine), ventilated
improved pit latrines, pit latrines
with slab, and composting toilets.

 WHO/UNICEF JMP (2010) Progress

on sanitation and drinking water.

10

 WHO/UNICEF JMP (2010) Progress

on sanitation and drinking water.

11

 www.sanitationandwaterforall.org.

 Bartram J, Cairncross S (2010)

Hygiene, Sanitation and Water:
Forgotten Foundations of Health.
PloS Med e367: doi:10.1371/
journal.pmed.1000367.

 WHO www.who.int

 Malawi, Nepal and Uganda are

classified by the World Bank as
developing countries, while
Sri Lanka is classified as a lowermiddle-income country. Sri Lanka
has been included as an example
of a country which has made
progress on sanitation and health
in spite of financial constraints

 A wiki is a collaborative website,

the purpose of which is to collect
and provide knowledge. The
information on a wiki can be
entered, altered, or commented
on by any of its users. For further
reading, see Bartram. J., & Platt, J.
(2010). How health professionals
could lever health gains from
improved water, sanitation and
hygiene practices. Perspectives in
Public Health, 130(5), 215-221.

 Definition developed for the

International Year of Sanitation
2008 by the Water Supply and
Sanitation Collaborative Council
and approved by the UN-Water
Task Force on Sanitation.

12

 WaterAid (2008), Tackling the

silent killer: The case
for sanitation.

13

 Defecation in fields, forests,

bushes, bodies of water or other
open spaces, or disposal of
human faeces.

 A systematic review of studies

estimated that hand-washing
with soap reduced the incidence
of respiratory infections by a
mean of 23 % (Rabie and
Curtis (2006), Handwashing
and risk of respiratory infections:
a quantitative systematic
review, Tropical Medicine and
International Health, 11(3), 258267). Of these studies, however,
the only one conducted in a
developing country found that
hand -washing with soap brought
about a 50% reduction (Luby et al
(2005), Effect of hand-washing
on child health: a randomised
controlled trial, The Lancet,
366, 255-233).

18

 WHO (2008c), Safer water, better

health: Costs, benets and
sustainability of interventions to
protect and promote health.

19

 Black R et al (2010), Global,

regional, and national causes
of child mortality in 2008: a
systematic analysis, Lancet 2010;
375: 196987.

20

14

 WHO (2008), The global burden of

disease: 2004 update.

15

 Diarrhoea is caused mainly by the

ingestion of pathogens, especially
from unsafe drinking water,
contaminated food, or unclean
hands each of which is adversely
affected by unsafe sanitation.

16

 Black R et al (2010), Global,

regional, and national causes
of child mortality in 2008: a
systematic analysis, Lancet 2010;
375: 196987.

17

 Black R et al (2010), Global,

regional, and national causes
of child mortality in 2008: a
systematic analysis, Lancet 2010;
375: 196987.

21

 WHO (2008c), Safer water, better

health: Costs, benets and
sustainability of interventions to
protect and promote health.

22

 WHO (2008c), Safer water, better

health: Costs, benets and
sustainability of interventions to
protect and promote health.

23

35

Report
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health: Evidence from 172 DHS
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5275. Washington, DC: World
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files.wordpress.com/2010/05/
worldbank-dhs2010.pdf

24

 Gunther I and Fink G (2010),

Water, sanitation, and childrens
health: Evidence from 172 DHS
surveys, World Bank olicy
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5275. Washington, DC: World
Bank: http://sanitationupdates.
files.wordpress.com/2010/05/
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25

 Prss-stn, A., Bos, R., Gore,

F., & Bartram, J. (2008). Safer
water, better health. Geneva:
World Health Organization.

26

 Countdown 2015 country profiles,

based on WHO/Child Health
Epidemiology Reference Group
(CHERG) data, 2010. www.
countdown2015mnch.org/reportspublications/2010-countryprofiles.

27

 Sri Lanka figure calculated from

Black R et al (2010), Global,
regional, and national causes
of child mortality in 2008: a
systematic analysis, Lancet 2010;
375: 196987.

28

 WHO Metrics: Disability-Adjusted

Life Year. http://www.who.
int/healthinfo/global_burden_
disease/metrics_daly/en/

29

Unimproved facilities include

pit latrines without a slab or
platform, hanging latrines, and
bucket latrines.

30

Shared sanitation facilities are

those of an otherwise acceptable
type shared between two or
more households. They include
public toilets.

31

36

Data provided under the JMP is

derived from household survey
and census data, rather from
administrative data produced by
water and sanitation infrastructure
ministries and agencies. The
data may thus be contested by
water and sanitation ministries
in the case study countries.
Nevertheless, the application
of identical criteria globally by
the JMP provides the possibility
for cross-comparison across the
different countries, and is the main
reason for the use of JMP data in
this report.

32

WHO /UNICEF (2010) JMP for Water

Supply and Sanitation, 2010.

33

Evans B Hutton G and Haller L

(2004), Evaluation of the costs and
benefits of water and sanitation
improvements at a global level,
Geneva: WHO.

34

To halve, by 2015, the proportion

of people without sustainable
access to safe drinking water
and basic sanitation (
UN Millennium Project).

35

UNDP (2006). Human

Development Report 2006,
Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty
and the global water crisis.

36

UNDP (2006). Human

Development Report 2006,
Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty
and the global water crisis (p.43).

37

World Bank Water and Sanitation

Program. (2008), Economic
impacts of sanitation in
Southeast Asia: A four-country
study conducted in Cambodia,
Indonesia, the Philippines and
Vietnam under the Economics of
Sanitation Initiative (ESI).

38

World Bank Water and Sanitation

Program (2010), The Economic
impacts of inadequate sanitation
in India, World Bank.

39

In 2007 the British Medical

Association identified the sanitary
revolution as the most important
medical advance since 1840.

40

Newborne, P (2010) Making the

case for sanitation and hygiene:
opening doors in health. ODI
Background Note, June 2010.
Tearfund, Water Supply and
Sanitation Collaborative Council
and Overseas Development
Institute.

41

Heller L (2009), Interfaces and

Inter-Sector Approaches: Water,
Sanitation and Public Health,
Water and Sanitation Services:
Public Policy and Management,
Heller L and Castro JE Editors,
London, Sterling, VA.

42

WHO (2010), Monitoring of the

achievement of the health-related
Millennium Development Goals,
report by the Secretariat. 63rd
World Health Assembly A63/7.

43

Countdown 2015 (2010): Decade

report Taking stock of Maternal
Newborn and Child Survival.
http://www.countdown2015mnch.
org/documents/2010report/
CountdownReportAndProfiles.pdf.

44

For further detail on this subject,

see: WaterAid/IRC/WSSCC (2008),
Beyond Construction: Use by All.
Available at www.wateraid.org/
publications.

45

See for example: SIWI (2005),

Securing Sanitation: the
compelling case to address the
crisis. Stockholm International
Water Institute

46

Curtis V (2005), Hygiene

Promotion WELL Fact Sheet
www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/
fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/
hp.htm.

47

Report
Jenkins MW and Cairncross S,
Modelling latrine diffusion in
Benin: towards a community
typology of demand for improved
sanitation in developing
countries, J Water Health, 2010;
8(1):166-83.

48

Lule J R, Mermin J, Ekwaru J P,

Malamba S, Downing R, Ransom
R, Quick R (2005), Effect of
home-based water chlorination
and safe storage on diarrhoea
among persons with human
immunodeficiency virus in
Uganda, American Journal of
Tropical Medicine and Hygiene,
73, 926-33.

57

Bartram J (2008), Flowing away:

Water and health opportunities,
Bulletin of WHO 86(1): 1-80.

49

Ngondi J, Teferi T, Gebre T,

Estifanos B, Shargie MZ,
Ayele B, Emerson P M (2010),
Effect of a community
intervention with pit latrines
in five districts of Amhara,
Ethiopia, Tropical Medicine
and International Health,
15(5), 592-599. doi:10.1111
/j.1365-3156.2010.02500

58

Rehfuess E, Bruce N & Bartram J

(2009), More health for your buck:
Health sector functions to secure
environmental health, Bulletin of
WHO, 82, 880-882.

50

Source: Rehfuess et al 2009

51

Bartram J and Platt J (In-press).

How health professionals could
lever health gains from improved
water, sanitation and hygiene
practices, Perspectives in Public
Health, September 2010.

52

Emerson P (2005), Pit latrines for

all households: The experience
of Hulet Eju Enessie Woreda,
Amhara, National Regional State,
Northwest Ethiopia, Atlanta,
USA: The Carter Center; and
Golovaty I, Jones L, Gelaye B,
Tilahun M, Belete H, Kumie A,
Williams MA (2009), Access to
water source, latrine facilities
and other risk factors of
active trachoma in Ankober,
Ethiopia, PLoS One 4(8), e6702.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006702

59

Sri Lanka Ministry of Healthcare

and Nutrition (2007), Health
Master Plan 2007-2016.

53

Cairncross AM, Peries H et

al (1997), Vertical health
programmes, The Lancet 349
(SUPPL III): 20-22.

54

Atun R, de Jongh T, Secci F,

Ohiri K, and Adeyi O (2010), A
systematic review of the evidence
on integration of targeted health
interventions into health systems,
Health Policy and Planning 25, 1-14.

55

Breastfeeding is discouraged
in HIV-positive mothers who
then rely on formula or solids
leaving children exposed to risk
of infection from dirty water and
un-hygienically-prepared food
(WaterAid (2010), Ignored: biggest
child killer).

Barzgar MA, Sheikh MR, and

Bile MK (1997), Female health
workers boost primary care,
World Health Forum, 18(2),
202-210. PubMed PMID: 9393010.

60

56

WHO/UNICEF JMP (2010), Progress

on sanitation and drinking water.

61

Source: Uganda MoH data, 2009

(through email communication).
Note that since then the number of
districts in Uganda has grown, but
new segregated data was not yet
available at the time of writing
this report.

62

Waterkeyn J (2010), Hygiene

behaviour change through the
community health club approach:
A cost-effective strategy to achieve
the Millennium Development Goals
for improved sanitation in Africa,
Lambert Academic Publishing.

63

WHO (2010), Monitoring of the

achievement of the health-related
Millennium Development Goals,
Report by the Secretariat. 63rd
World Health Assembly A63/7.

64

Parashar U, Bresee J, and Glass

R (2003), The global burden of
diarrhoeal disease in children,
Bulletin of WHO, 81(4), 236.

65

Mugo BW (2009), Social

determinants of health A country
perspective: I issues, priorities
and actions, IUHPE. Global Health
Promotion; Supp 1.

66

Kenya Ministry of Public Health

and Sanitation (2010), Policy
guidelines on control and
management of diarrhoeal
diseases in children under five
years. Division of Child and
Adolescent Health.

67

Bradley RM, and Karunadasa H I

(1989), Community participation
in the water supply sector in
Sri Lanka, Journal of the Royal
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PubMed PMID: 2511312.

68

Saunders DM, Todd C, and

Chopra M (2005), Confronting
Africas health crisis: More of the
same will not be enough, BMJ
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755-758.

69

Pakenham-Walsh N, and Bukachi

F (2009), Information needs of
healthcare workers in developing
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70

37

Notes

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