Jazz

For other uses, see Jazz (disambiguation).

play. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such

as Latin and Afro-Cuban jazz.

Jazz is a music genre that originated from African American communities of New Orleans in the United States
during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It emerged
in the form of independent traditional and popular musical styles, all linked by the common bonds of African
American and European American musical parentage
with a performance orientation.[1] Jazz spans a period of
over a hundred years, encompassing a very wide range
of music, making it dicult to dene. Jazz makes heavy
use of improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation and the
swing note,[2] as well as aspects of European harmony,
American popular music,[3] the brass band tradition, and
African musical elements such as blue notes and AfricanAmerican styles such as ragtime.[1] Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the black experience
of the United States, dierent cultures have contributed
their own experience and styles to the art form as well.
Intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as one of
Americas original art forms.[4]

1 Etymology and denition

As jazz spread around the world, it drew on dierent national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave
rise to many distinctive styles. New Orleans jazz began
in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches,
French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily
arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City
jazz, a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style and
Gypsy jazz (a style that emphasized musette waltzes)
were the prominent styles. Bebop emerged in the 1940s,
shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a
more challenging musicians music which was played at
faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation.
Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing
calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines.

Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition pour Jazz, from the Solomon

R. Guggenheim Museum, New York

The question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted

in considerable research, and its history is well documented. The word began [under various spellings] as
West Coast slang around 1912, the meaning of which
varied but did not refer to music. The use of the word
in a musical context was documented as early as 1915
in the Chicago Daily Tribune.[5] Its rst documented use
in a musical context in New Orleans was in a Novem[6]
The 1950s saw the emergence of free jazz, which ex- ber 14, 1916 Times-Picayune article about jas bands.
plored playing without regular meter, beat and formal The American Dialect Society named it the Word of the
structures, and in the mid-1950s, hard bop emerged, Twentieth Century.
which introduced inuences from rhythm and blues, Jazz has proved to be very dicult to dene, since it engospel, and blues, especially in the saxophone and pi- compasses such a wide range of music spanning a period
ano playing. Modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, of over 100 years, from ragtime to the 2010-era rockusing the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of mu- infused fusion. Attempts have been made to dene jazz
sical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion ap- from the perspective of other musical traditions, such
peared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz as European music history or African music. But critic
improvisation with rock music's rhythms, electric instru- Joachim-Ernst Berendt argues that its terms of reference
ments and the highly amplied stage sound. In the early and its denition should be broader,[7] dening jazz as a
1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called smooth form of art music which originated in the United States
jazz became successful, garnering signicant radio air- through the confrontation of the Negro with European
1

2 ELEMENTS AND ISSUES

music[8] and arguing that it diers from European music in that jazz has a special relationship to time dened
as 'swing'", involves a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role and
contains a sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician.[7]
In the opinion of Robert Christgau, most of us would say
that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence
and promise of jazz.[9]
A broader denition that encompasses all of the radically dierent eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis
Jackson: it is music that includes qualities such as
swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an
'individual voice', and being open to dierent musical
possibilities.[10] Krin Gibbard has provided an overview
of the discussion on denitions, arguing that jazz is a
construct that, while articial, still is useful to designate
a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition.[11] In contrast
to the eorts of commentators and enthusiasts of certain
types of jazz, who have argued for narrower denitions
that exclude other types, the musicians themselves are
often reluctant to dene the music they play. As Duke
Ellington, one of jazzs most famous gures, said: Its
all music.[12]

he says. It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S.'

That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't
say it in front of ladies.[13]
Although jazz is considered highly dicult to dene, at
least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres, improvisation is consistently regarded as being one
of its key elements. The centrality of improvisation in
jazz is attributed to inuential earlier forms of music: the
early blues, a form of folk music which arose in part
from the work songs and eld hollers of the AfricanAmerican slaves on plantations. These were commonly
structured around a repetitive call-and-response pattern,
but early blues was also highly improvisational. European
classical music performance is evaluated by its delity to
the musical score, with much less discretion over interpretation, ornamentation and accompaniment: the classical performers primary goal is to play a composition as it
was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized as the
product of group creativity, interaction, and collaboration, which places varying degrees of value on the contributions of composer (if there is one) and performers.[14]
In jazz, the skilled performer will interpret a tune in very
individual ways, never playing the same composition the
same way twice; depending on the performers mood and
personal experience, interactions with other musicians, or
even members of the audience, a jazz musician may alter
melodies, harmonies or time signature at will.[15]

Elements and issues

The approach to improvisation has developed enormously

over the history of the music. In early New Orleans and
Dixieland jazz, performers took turns playing the melody,
2.1 Improvisation
while others improvised countermelodies. By the swing
era, big bands were coming to rely more on arranged music: arrangements were either written or learned by ear
and memorized, while individual soloists would improvise within these arrangements. Later, in bebop the focus shifted back toward small groups and minimal arrangements; the melody would be stated briey at the
start and end of a piece, but the core of the performance
would be the series of improvisations. Later styles such
as modal jazz abandoned the strict notion of a chord progression, allowing the individual musicians to improvise
even more freely within the context of a given scale or
mode. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is often supported
by a rhythm section consisting of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar, etc.), double bass playing the
Double bassist Reggie Workman, saxophone player Pharoah basslines and drum kit. These performers provide accompaniment by playing chords and rhythms that outSanders, and drummer Idris Muhammad performing in 1978
line the song structure and complement the soloist.[16]
Main article: Jazz improvisation
In avant-garde and free jazz idioms, the separation of
soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even
In 1979, I visited the then 92-year-old Blake at his home a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales and
in the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood of Brooklyn. He rhythmic meters.
said that when this music made its way to the New York
stage, it was a given a racier name one that Blake says
2.2 Tradition and race
was derogatory. He wouldn't even say the word, only spell
it.
Since at least the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that
When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z,'" are commercially oriented or inuenced by popular music

2.3

Role of women

have been criticized by purists. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a tension between jazz as a
commercial music and an art form.[10] Traditional jazz
enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, the 1970s
jazz fusion era and much else as periods of debasement
of the music and betrayals of the tradition. An alternative viewpoint is that jazz is able to absorb and transform
inuences from diverse musical styles,[17] and that, by
avoiding the creation of 'norms, other newer, avant-garde
forms of jazz will be free to emerge.[10]
To some African Americans, jazz has highlighted their
contribution to American society and helped bring attention to black history and culture, but for others, the music
and term jazz are reminders of an oppressive and racist
society and restrictions on their artistic visions.[18] Amiri
Baraka argues that there is a distinct white jazz music
genre expressive of whiteness.[19] White jazz musicians
appeared in the early 1920s in the Midwestern United
States, as well as other areas. Bix Beiderbecke was one
of the most prominent white jazz musicians.[20] An inu- Ethel Waters sang Stormy Weather at the Cotton Club
ential style referred to as the Chicago School (or Chicago
Style) was developed by white musicians including Bud
Freeman, Jimmy McPartland. Frank Teschemacher,
Dave Tough, and Eddie Condon. Others from Chicago
such as Benny Goodman and Gene Krupa became leading members of big-band swing during the 1930s.[21]

2.3

Role of women

Betty Carter was known for her improvisational style and scatting.

ters, Betty Carter, Adelaide Hall, Abbey Lincoln, and

Anita O'Day are famous for their jazz singing, women
have achieved much less recognition for their contributions as composers, bandleaders, and instrumental performers. Other notable jazz women include piano player
Lil Hardin Armstrong and jazz songwriters Irene Higginbotham (1918-1988) and Dorothy Fields (1905-1974).
Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early
1920s, with the piano being one of the earliest instruments used which allowed female artists a degree of social acceptance.[23] Some well known artists of the time
include Sweet Emma Barrett, Mary Lou Williams, Billie
Pierce, Jeanette Kimball and Lovie Austin.
When the men were drafted for WWII, many all-women
big band jazz bands took over.[23] The International
Sweethearts of Rhythm (founded 1937) was a wellknown jazz group of this era, becoming the rst allWomen jazz performers and composers have contributed women integrated band in the U.S., touring Europe in
throughout jazz history. While women such as Billie 1945 and becoming the rst black women to travel with
Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald, Dinah Washington, Ethel Wa- the USO. The dress codes of the era required women to
Lovie Austin was a prominent Chicago-based jazz musician of
the 1920s classic blues era.[22]

HISTORY

River basin, and brought strong musical traditions with

them.[28] The African traditions primarily make use of
a single-line melody and call-and-response pattern, and
the rhythms have a counter-metric structure and reect
African speech patterns.

Dance in Congo Square in the late 1700s, artists conception by

E. W. Kemble from a century later.

Adelaide Hall made the Guinness Book of World Records in 2003

as the worlds most enduring recording artist, having released
material over eight consecutive decades.

wear strapless dresses and high heeled shoes, which was

somewhat of a hindrance to the integration of women into In the late 18th-century painting The Old Plantation, Africanthe big bands of suit-wearing men. Nevertheless, women Americans dance to banjo and percussion.
were hired into many of the big-league big bands such as
Woody Herman and Gerald Wilson.
Lavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drums
were organized on Sundays at Place Congo, or Congo
Square, in New Orleans until 1843.[29] There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings else3 History
where in the southern United States. Robert Palmer said
of percussive slave music:
Jazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as
interpretations of American and European classical muUsually such music was associated with ansic entwined with African and slave folk songs and the
[24]
nual
festivals, when the years crop was harIts composition
inuences of West African culture.
vested
and several days were set aside for celand style have changed many times throughout the years
ebration.
As late as 1861, a traveler in North
with each performers personal interpretation and improCarolina
saw
dancers dressed in costumes that
visation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the
[25]
included
horned
headdresses and cow tails and
genre.
heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered
gumbo box, apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary
3.1 Origins
percussion. There are quite a few [accounts]
from the southeastern states and Louisiana dat3.1.1 Blended African and European music sensiing from the period 18201850. Some of the
bilities
earliest [Mississippi] Delta settlers came from
By 1866, the Atlantic slave trade had brought nearly
the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming
400,000 Africans to North America.[26][27] The slaves
was never actively discouraged for very long
came largely from West Africa and the greater Congo
and homemade drums were used to accompany

3.1

Origins

public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil

War.[30]

the Afro-Caribbean folk dances performed in New Orleans Congo Square and Gottschalks compositions (for
example Souvenirs From Havana (1859)). Tresillo is
Another inuence came from the harmonic style of the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic
hymns of the church, which black slaves had learned and cell in sub-Saharan African music traditions and the mu[35][36]
incorporated into their own music as spirituals.[31] The sic of the African Diaspora.
origins of the blues are undocumented, though they can
be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as Gerhard Kubik points out, whereas the spirituals
are homophonic, rural blues and early jazz was largely
based on concepts of heterophony.[32]

Tresillo.[37][38] Play

Tresillo is heard prominently in New Orleans second line

music and in other forms of popular music from that city
from the turn of the 20th century to present.[39] By and
large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in
jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to
European rhythmic conceptions, the Jazz historian Gunther Schuller observed. Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed.[40]

The blackface Virginia Minstrels in 1843, featuring tambourine,

ddle, banjo and bones.

In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums,
snare drums and fes, and an original African-American
drum and fe music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic gures.[41] This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. The snare and bass drummers played syncopated cross-rhythms, observed the writer Robert Palmer
(writer), speculating that this tradition must have dated
back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it
could have not have developed in the rst place if there
hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in
the culture it nurtured.[42]

During the early 19th century an increasing number of

black musicians learned to play European instruments,
particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own cakewalk dances. In
turn, European-American minstrel show performers in
blackface popularized the music internationally, combining syncopation with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk adapted slave rhythms
and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into
piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus 3.1.2 Spanish tingethe Afro-Cuban rhythmic
inuence
between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cultures.
African-American music began incorporating AfroCuban rhythmic motifs in the 19th century, when
African rhythmic retention The "Black Codes" out- the habanera (Cuban contradanza) gained international
lawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African popularity.[43] Musicians from Havana and New Orleans
drumming traditions were not preserved in North Amer- would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to
ica, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the muCaribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were re- sically fertile Crescent City. John Storm Roberts states
tained in the United States in large part through body that the musical genre habanera reached the U.S. twenty
rhythms such as stomping, clapping, and patting juba.[33] years before the rst rag was published.[44] For the more
In the opinion of jazz historian Ernest Borneman, what than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime,
preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was Afro-Latin and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the haa consistent part of African-American popmusic, similar to what was played in the Caribbean at banera was[45]
ular
music.
[34]
the time. A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as tresillo is a fundamental rhythmic gure heard in Habaneras were widely available as sheet music, and
many dierent slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as were the rst written music which was rhythmically

HISTORY

based on an African motif (1803),[46] From the perspective of African-American music, the habanera rhythm
(also known as congo,[47] tango-congo,[48] or tango.[49] )
can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and the
backbeat.[50] The habanera was the rst of many Cuban
music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the
United States, and reinforced and inspired the use of
tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music.

Habanera rhythm written as a combination of tresillo (bottom

notes) with the backbeat (top note). Play

New Orleans native Louis Moreau Gottschalk's piano

piece Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was inuenced by the composers studies in Cuba: the habanera
rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.[51] In Gottschalks
symphonic work A Night in the Tropics (1859), the tresillo variant cinquillo appears extensively.[52] The gure
was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers.
Scott Joplin in 1903

Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by

African-American musicians such as the entertainer
Ernest Hogan, whose hit songs appeared in 1895.
Two years later, Vess Ossman recorded a medley of
these songs as a banjo solo known as Rag Time
Cinquillo. Play
Medley.[57][58] Also in 1897, the white composer
William H. Krell published his "Mississippi Rag" as the
Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of rst written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and Tom
Cuba, Wynton Marsalis observes that tresillo is the New Turpin published his "Harlem Rag", the rst rag pubOrleans clave, a Spanish word meaning 'code' or 'key', lished by an African-American.
as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.[53] Although techniThe classically trained pianist Scott Joplin produced his
cally the pattern is only half a clave, Marsalis makes the
"Original Rags" in 1898, and in 1899 had an international
point that the single-celled gure is the guide-pattern of
hit with "Maple Leaf Rag", a multi-strain ragtime march
New Orleans music. Jelly Roll Morton called the rhythwith four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass
mic gure the Spanish tinge, and considered it an essential
line with copious seventh chords. Its structure was the
ingredient of jazz.[54]
basis for many other rags, and the syncopations in the
right hand, especially in the transition between the rst
and second strain, were novel at the time.[59]

3.2

3.2.1

1890s1910s
Ragtime

Main article: Ragtime

The abolition of slavery in 1865 led to new opportunities
for the education of freed African Americans. Although
strict segregation limited employment opportunities for
most blacks, many were able to nd work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, minstrel shows, and in vaudeville, during
which time many marching bands were formed. Black
pianists played in bars, clubs and brothels, as ragtime
developed.[55][56]

Excerpt from Maple Leaf Rag by Scott Joplin (1899). Seventh

chord resolution.[60] Play . Note that the seventh resolves down
by half step.

African-based rhythmic patterns such as tresillo and its

variants, the habanera rhythm and cinquillo, are heard

3.2

1890s1910s

in the ragtime compositions of Joplin, Turpin, and others. Joplins Solace (1909) is generally considered to
be within the habanera genre:[47][61] both of the pianists
hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a march rhythm. Ned Sublette postulates
that the tresillo/habanera rhythm found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,[62] whilst Roberts suggests that
the habanera inuence may have been part of what freed
black music from ragtimes European bass.[63]
3.2.2

Blues

Main article: Blues

Play blues scale or pentatonic scale

WC Handy age 19, 1892

African genesis Blues is the name given to both a

musical form and a music genre,[64] which originated in
African-American communities of primarily the "Deep
South" of the United States at the end of the 19th century
from their spirituals, work songs, eld hollers, shouts and
chants and rhymed simple narrative ballads.[65]

whilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this

folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within
a limited melodic range, sounding like a eld holler,
and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than
strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another voice.[68] Handy
The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the and his band members were formally trained Africandevelopment of blue notes in blues and jazz.[66] As Kubik American musicians who had not grown up with the
explains:
blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band
instrument format, and arrange them in a popular music
Many of the rural blues of the Deep South
form.
are stylistically an extension and merger of baHandy wrote about his adopting of the blues:
sically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt:
The primitive southern Negro, as he sang,
A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as
was
sure to bear down on the third and seventh
found for example among the Hausa. It
tone
of the scale, slurring between major and
is characterized by melisma, wavy intominor.
Whether in the cotton eld of the Delta
nation, pitch instabilities within a penLevee up St. Louis way, it was always
or
on
the
tatonic framework, and a declamatory
the
same.
Till then, however, I had never heard
voice.
this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro,
An ancient west central Sudanic stratum
or by any white man. I tried to convey this efof pentatonic song composition, often asfect ... by introducing at thirds and sevenths
sociated with simple work rhythms in a
(now called blue notes) into my song, although
regular meter, but with notable o-beat
its prevailing key was major ..., and I carried
accents (1999: 94).[67]
this device into my melody as well.[69]
W. C. Handy: early published blues W. C. Handy The publication of his "Memphis Blues" sheet music in
became intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep South 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although

Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but

more like a cakewalk[70] ). This composition, as well
as his later "St. Louis Blues" and others, included the
habanera rhythm,[71] and would become jazz standards.
Handys music career began in the pre-jazz era, and contributed to the codication of jazz through the publication
of some of the rst jazz sheet music.
Within the context of Western harmony The blues
form which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by specic chord progressions, of which the twelve-bar blues
progression is the most common. An important part of
the sound are the blue notes which, for expressive purposes, are sung or played attened, or gradually bent (minor 3rd to major 3rd) in relation to the pitch of the major
scale. The blues were the key that opened up an entirely
new approach to Western harmony, ultimately leading to
a high level of harmonic complexity in jazz.
3.2.3

New Orleans

HISTORY

In New Orleans, a white marching band leader named

Papa Jack Laine integrated blacks and whites in his
marching band. Laine was known as the father of white
jazz because of the many top players who passed through
his bands (including George Brunies, Sharkey Bonano
and the future members of the Original Dixieland Jass
Band). Laine was a good talent scout. During the early
1900s jazz was mostly done in the African-American and
mulatto communities, due to segregation laws. The red
light district of Storyville, New Orleans was crucial in
bringing jazz music to a wider audience via tourists who
came to the port city.[74] Many jazz musicians from the
African-American communities were hired to perform
live music in brothels and bars, including many early jazz
pioneers such as Buddy Bolden and Jelly Roll Morton, in
addition to those from New Orleans other communities
such as Lorenzo Tio and Alcide Nunez. Louis Armstrong
also got his start in Storyville[75] and would later nd success in Chicago (along with others from New Orleans)
after the United States government shut down Storyville
in 1917.[76]

Main article: Dixieland

Syncopation The cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band
The music of New Orleans had a profound eect on the
who are often mentioned as one of the prime originators
of the style later to be called jazz. He played in New
Orleans around 18951906, before developing a mental
illness; there are no recordings of him playing. Boldens
band is credited with creating the big four, the rst syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard
on-the-beat march.[77] As the example below shows, the
second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.

The Bolden Band around 1905.

creation of early jazz. Many early jazz performers played

in venues throughout the city, such as the brothels and
bars of the red-light district around Basin Street, known
as "Storyville".[72] In addition to dance bands, there were
numerous marching bands who played at lavish funerals (later called jazz funerals), which were arranged by
the African-American and European American communities. The instruments used in marching bands and
dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass,
reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale, and drums.
Small bands which mixed self-taught and well educated
African-American musicians, many of whom came from
the funeral-procession tradition of New Orleans, played
a seminal role in the development and dissemination
of early jazz. These bands travelled throughout Black
communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914
onwards, Afro-Creole and African-American musicians
played in vaudeville shows which took jazz to western and
northern US cities.[73]

Buddy Boldens big four pattern.[78] Play

Afro-Creole pianist Jelly Roll Morton began his career in

Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows
around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New
York. In 1905 he composed his "Jelly Roll Blues", which
on its publication in 1915 became the rst jazz arrangement in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orleans style.[79]
Morton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called
the Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz.[80]
In his own words:
Now in one of my earliest tunes, New Orleans Blues, you can notice the Spanish tinge.
In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of
Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able
to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.[54]
Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the
early jazz form known as ragtime to jazz piano, and could

3.2

1890s1910s

9
Swing Morton loosened ragtimes rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a swing
feeling.[81] Swing is the most important and enduring
African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft
quoted denition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: if
you don't feel it, you'll never know it.[82] The New Harvard Dictionary of Music states that swing is: An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing dees analysis;
claims to its presence may inspire arguments. The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description
of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple
subdivisions:[83] swing superimposes six subdivisions of
the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions.
This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in AfricanAmerican music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple
and duple-pulse grids.[84]

Morton published Jelly Roll Blues in 1915, the rst jazz work
in print.

New Orleans brass bands are a lasting inuence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz
with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black
children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans
Camelia Brass Band, D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then
expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also
credited with the abandonment of ragtimes stiness in
favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any
other musician, codied the rhythmic technique of swing
in jazz, and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.[85]

The Original Dixieland Jass Band made the musics

rst recordings early in 1917, and their "Livery
Stable Blues" became the earliest released jazz
Excerpt from Jelly Roll Mortons New Orleans Blues (c. 1902).
record.[86][87][88][89][90][91][92] That year, numerous
The left hand plays the tresillo rhythm. The right hand plays
other bands made recordings featuring jazz in the title
variations on cinquillo. Play
or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records
rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War
I, James Reese Europe's Hellghters infantry band
perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a setook ragtime to Europe,[93] then on their return recorded
ries of recordings for the Library of Congress, in which
Dixieland standards including "Darktown Strutters
he demonstrated the dierence between the two styles.
Ball".[94]
Mortons solos however were still close to ragtime, and
were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in
later jazz; but his use of the blues was of equal impor3.2.4 Other regions
tance.
In the northeastern United States, a hot style of playing ragtime had developed, notably James Reese Europe's
symphonic Clef Club orchestra in New York, which
played a benet concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.[94][95]
The Baltimore rag style of Eubie Blake inuenced James
P. Johnson's development of stride piano playing, in
which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand
provides the rhythm and bassline.[96]
Bottom: even duple subdivisions of the beat. Top: swung
correlativecontrasting of duple and triple subdivisions of the
beat. Play straight drum pattern or Play swung pattern

In Ohio and elsewhere in the midwest the major inuence

was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the
four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and

10

HISTORY

speakeasies which became lively venues of the Jazz

Age, hosting popular music including current dance
songs, novelty songs and show tunes. Jazz began to get
a reputation as being immoral, and many members of
the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of
the Roaring 20s. Professor Henry van Dyke of Princeton
University wrote: "... it is not music at all. Its merely
an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of
the strings of physical passion.[98] The media too began
to denigrate jazz. The New York Times used stories and
headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers were said by
the paper to have used jazz to scare o bears, when in
fact they had used pots and pans; another story claimed
that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was
caused by jazz.[98]

Sheet music for Livery Stable Blues"/"Barnyard Blues by the

Original Dixieland Jazz Band, Leo Feist, Inc., New York, copyright 1917.

rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account

states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gutbucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon
by the Black middle-class.[97]

3.3
3.3.1

1920s and 1930s

Jazz Age

Main article: Jazz Age

From 1920 to 1933 Prohibition in the United States

In 1919 Kid Ory's Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the
rst black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make
recordings.[99][100] That year also saw the rst recording
by Bessie Smith, the most famous of the 1920s blues
singers.[101] Chicago meanwhile was the main center developing the new "Hot Jazz", where King Oliver joined
Bill Johnson. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines
in 1924.
Despite its Southern black origins, there was a larger
market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918 Paul Whiteman and his orchestra became
a hit in San Francisco, California, signing with Victor
Talking Machine Company in 1920 and becoming the
top bandleader of the 1920s, giving hot jazz a white
component, hiring white musicians including Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Frankie Trumbauer, and Joe Venuti. In 1924 Whiteman commissioned
Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, which was premiered by
his orchestra. After the band successfully toured Europe,
huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with
other whites, including Fred Waring, Jean Goldkette, and
Nathaniel Shilkret. Whitemans success was based on a
rhetoric of domestication according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read white) a previously
inchoate (read black) kind of music.[102]
Whitemans success caused blacks to follow suit, including Earl Hines (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe
in Chicago in 1928), Duke Ellington (who opened at
the Cotton Club in Harlem in 1927), Lionel Hampton,
Fletcher Henderson, Claude Hopkins, and Don Redman,
with Henderson and Redman developing the talking to
one another formula for hot Swing music.[103]

The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston,

Texas, January 1921.

banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit

In 1924 Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the
time he joined Hendersons band, he was already a trail-

3.3

1920s and 1930s

11

blazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrongs solos went well
beyond the theme-improvisation concept, and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to
Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrongs bandmates (including a young Coleman Hawkins), sounded
sti, stodgy, with jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality.[104] The following example shows
a short excerpt of the straight melody of Mandy, Make
Up Your Mind by George W. Meyer and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrongs solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).[105] (The example approximates Armstrongs solo, as it doesn't convey his use of
swing.)
Also in the 1920s Skie, jazz played with homemade in- Benny Goodman (1943)
struments such as washboard, jugs, musical saw, kazoos,
etc. began to be recorded in Chicago, Ill., later merging tra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago[108] (well
with country music.
placed for live US time-zones).
Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation
began to relax in America: white bandleaders began
to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white
ones. In the mid-1930, Benny Goodman hired pianist
Teddy Wilson, vibraphonist Lionel Hampton and guitarist Charlie Christian to join small groups. In the
1930s,
Kansas City Jazz as exemplied by tenor saxoTop: excerpt from the straight melody of Mandy, Make Up Your
Mind by George W. Meyer & Arthur Johnston. Bottom: corre- phonist Lester Young (inventor of much of hipster jargon) marked the transition from big bands to the bebop
sponding solo excerpt by Louis Armstrong (1924).
inuence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as
Armstrongs solos were a signicant factor in making jazz jumping the blues or jump blues used small combos,
a true 20th-century language. After leaving Hendersons uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on
group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic Hot Five band, boogie-woogie from the 1930s.
where he popularized scat singing.[106]
Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the New Orleans Rhythm 3.3.3 Beginnings of European jazz
Kings in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926
formed his Red Hot Peppers.
As only a limited amount of American jazz records were
By 1930 the New Orleans-style ensemble was a relic, and released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots
to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul
jazz belonged to the world.[107]
Whiteman and Lonnie Johnson, who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances
which inspired European audiences interest in jazz, as
3.3.2 Swing
well as the interest in all things American (and therefore
exotic) which accompanied the economic and political
Main articles: Swing music and 1930s in jazz
[109]
The beginnings of
The 1930s belonged to popular swing big bands, in which woes of Europe during this time.
a
distinct
European
style
of
jazz
began
to emerge in this
some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band
interwar
period.
leaders. Key gures in developing the big jazz band
included bandleaders and arrangers Count Basie, Cab
Calloway, Jimmy and Tommy Dorsey, Duke Ellington,
Benny Goodman, Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Glenn
Miller, Artie Shaw, Harry James, and Jimmie Lunceford. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to solo and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be very
complex important music.

British jazz began with a tour by the Original Dixieland

Jazz Band in 1919. In 1926 Fred Elizalde and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC.

This distinct style entered full swing in France with the

Quintette du Hot Club de France, which began in 1934.
Much of this French jazz was a combination of AfricanAmerican jazz and the symphonic styles in which French
musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the
Swing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the ra- inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman, since his style
dio live nightly across America for many years, espe- was also a fusion of the two.[110] Belgian guitar virtucially by Earl Hines and his Grand Terrace Cafe Orches- oso Django Reinhardt popularized gypsy jazz, a mix of

12

1930s American swing, French dance hall "musette" and

Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the
main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and
double bass, and solos pass from one player to another
as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section.
Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphias
Eddie Lang and Joe Venuti who pioneered the guitarviolin partnership typical of the genre,[111] which was
brought to France after they had been heard live or on
Okeh Records in the late 1920s.[112]

3.4
3.4.1

1940s and 1950s

HISTORY

as Juan Tizol's "Caravan" and "Perdido", which brought

the "Spanish Tinge" to big-band jazz. Several members
of the orchestra remained with him for several decades.
The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when
Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers
and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices
who displayed tremendous creativity.[114]
3.4.2 Bebop
Main article: Bebop
See also: List of bebop musicians
In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift

American musicthe inuence of Ellington

Thelonious Monk at Mintons Playhouse, 1947, New York City.

jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging musicians music. The most inuential bebop
musicians included saxophonist Charlie Parker, pianists
Bud Powell and Thelonious Monk, trumpeters Dizzy
Gillespie and Cliord Brown, and drummer Max Roach.
Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club (1943)
Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itBy the 1940s, Duke Ellingtons music had transcended self more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popthe bounds of swing, bridging jazz and art music in a ular and commercial appeal.
natural synthesis. Ellington called his music American Composer Gunther Schuller wrote:
Music rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who
impressed him as beyond category.[113] These included
... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines
many of the musicians who were members of his orband
which had Bird in it and all those other
chestra, some of whom are considered among the best in
great
musicians.
They were playing all the atjazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded
ted
fth
chords
and
all the modern harmonies
them into one of the most well-known jazz orchestral
and
substitutions
and
Dizzy Gillespie runs in
units in the history of jazz. He often composed specithe
trumpet
section
work.
Two years later
cally for the style and skills of these individuals, such as
I
read
that
that
was
'bop'
and
the beginning
Jeeps Blues for Johnny Hodges, Concerto for Cootie
of
modern
jazz
...
but
the
band
never made
for Cootie Williams (which later became "Do Nothing
[115]
recordings.
Till You Hear from Me" with Bob Russell's lyrics), and
The Mooche for Tricky Sam Nanton and Bubber Miley.
He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such Dizzy Gillespie wrote:

3.4

1940s and 1950s

13

Earl Hines 1947

... People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band.
But people also have the erroneous impression
that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the
same basic music. The dierence was in how
you got from here to here to here ... naturally
each age has got its own shit.[116]

Charlie Parker, Tommy Potter, Miles Davis, Max Roach (Gottlieb

06941)

Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but infused
with II-V motion) and 'rhythm changes (I-VI-II-V) - the
chords to the 1930s pop standard "I Got Rhythm. Late
bop also moved towards extended forms that represented
a departure from pop and show tunes.

The harmonic development in bebop is often traced back

to a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker
Rhythm Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not while performing Cherokee at Clark Monroes Uptown
danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted House, New York, in early 1942:
to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ride
I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped
cymbal was used to keep time while the snare and bass
changes that were being used, ... and I kept
drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncothinking theres bound to be something else. I
pated linear rhythmic complexity.[117]
could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it....
I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did,
Harmony Bebop musicians employed several harI found that by using the higher intervals of
monic devices which were not previously typical in jazz,
a chord as a melody line and backing them
engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based imwith appropriately related changes, I could play
provisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an
the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive
added chromatic passing note;[118] bebop also uses passParker.[120]
ing chords, substitute chords, and altered chords. New
forms of chromaticism and dissonance were introduced Gerhard Kubik postulates that the harmonic development
into jazz, and the dissonant tritone (or atted fth) in- in bebop sprang from the blues and other African-related
terval became the most important interval of bebop[119] tonal sensibilities, rather than 20th-century Western art
Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken di- music as some have suggested:
rectly from popular swing-era songs and reused with a
Auditory inclinations were the African
new and more complex melody to form new composilegacy in [Parkers] life, reconrmed by the extions, a practice which was already well-established in
perience of the blues tonal system, a sound
earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style.

14

3
world at odds with the Western diatonic
chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated
Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of
the blues as a basis for drawing upon various
African matrices.[121]

HISTORY

3.4.3 Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)

Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz

Samuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock and
propelling force of bebop, bringing about three main developments:
A new harmonic conception, using extended chord
structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and
melodic variety.
A developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity
in which the blue note of the fth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device.
The reestablishment of the blues as the musics primary organizing and functional principle.[117]
As Kubik explained:
While for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to
be inspired by experiences in Western serious music, from Claude Debussy to Arnold
Schoenberg, such a scheme cannot be sustained
by the evidence from a cognitive approach.
Claude Debussy did have some inuence on
jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke
Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts
as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop
has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct
borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any
kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop
then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted
through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate signicance of
all this is that the experiments in jazz during the
1940s brought back to African-American music several structural principles and techniques
rooted in African traditions[122]
These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time
initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile, response
among fans and fellow musicians, especially established
swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds.
To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be lled with racing,
nervous phrases.[123] But despite the initial friction, by
the 1950s bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz
vocabulary.

Machito (maracas) and his sister Graciella Grillo (claves)

Machito and Mario Bauza The general consensus

among musicians and musicologists is that the rst original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was Tanga
(1943), composed by Cuban-born Mario Bauza and
recorded by Machito and his Afro-Cubans in New York
City. Tanga began as a spontaneous descarga (Cuban
jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.[124]
This was the birth of Afro-Cuban jazz. The use of clave
brought the African timeline, or key pattern, into jazz.
Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled
(binary) structure, which is a complex level of African
cross-rhythm.[125] Within the context of jazz however,
harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and
the harmonic one is always understood to be one. If
the progression begins on the three-side of clave, it is
said to be in 3-2 clave. If the progression begins on the
two-side, its in 2-3 clave.[126]

Clave: Spanish for 'code,' or key,' as in the key to a puzzle. The

antecedent half (three-side) consists of tresillo. The consequent
half consists of two strokes (the two-side). Play

Bobby Sanabria mentions several innovations of Machitos Afro-Cubans, citing them as the rst band: to
wed big band jazz arranging techniques within an original
composition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an authentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful

3.4

1940s and 1950s

manner; to explore modal harmony (a concept explored

much later by Miles Davis and Gil Evans) from a jazz
arranging perspective; and to overtly explore the concept
of clave counterpoint from an arranging standpoint (the
ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to
the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within
the structure of a musical arrangement). They were also
the rst band in the United States to publicly utilize the
term Afro-Cuban as the bands moniker, thus identifying itself and acknowledging the West African roots of
the musical form they were playing. It forced New York
Citys Latino and African-American communities to deal
with their common West African musical roots in a direct
way, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly or
not.[127]

15
gave Manteca a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauzas modal Tanga of a few
years earlier.
Gillespies collaboration with Pozo brought specic
African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the
boundaries of harmonic improvisation, cu-bop, as it was
called, also drew more directly from African rhythmic
structures. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section
and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during
solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes
of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be
heard on pre-1980 recordings of Manteca, "A Night in
Tunisia", Tin Tin Deo, and "On Green Dolphin Street".

Mongo Santamaria (1969)

Dizzy Gillespie, 1955

African cross-rhythm Cuban percussionist Mongo

Santamaria rst recorded his composition "Afro Blue"
in 1959.[129] Afro Blue was the rst jazz standard
built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) crossrhythm, or hemiola.[130] The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8,
or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats6:4 (two cells of 3:2).
The following example shows the original ostinato Afro
Blue bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the main
beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your
foot to keep time.

Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo It was Mario Bauz

who introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to the
Cuban conga drummer and composer Chano Pozo. Gillespie and Pozos brief collaboration produced some of the
most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "Manteca"
(1947) is the rst jazz standard to be rhythmically based
on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal guajeos (Afro-Cuban ostinatos) of the
A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the
bridge. Gillespie recounted: If I'd let it go like [Chano]
wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the Afro Blue bass line, with main beats indicated by slashed noteway. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was heads.
writing an eight-bar bridge, but ... I had to keep going and
ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge.[128] The bridge When John Coltrane covered Afro Blue in 1963, he

16

HISTORY

inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a

3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3).
Originally a B pentatonic blues, Coltrane expanded the
harmonic structure of Afro Blue.
Perhaps the most respected Afro-cuban jazz combo of the
late 1950s was vibraphonist Cal Tjader's band. Tjader
had Mongo Santamaria, Armando Peraza, and Willie
Bobo on his early recording dates.
3.4.4

Dixieland revival

Main articles: 1940s in jazz and 1950s in jazz

In the late 1940s there was a revival of "Dixieland" music,
harking back to the original contrapuntal New Orleans
style. This was driven in large part by record company
reissues of early jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and
Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types
of musicians involved in the revival: the rst group was
made up of those who had begun their careers playing in
the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as Bob
Crosby's Bobcats, Max Kaminsky, Eddie Condon, and
Wild Bill Davison.[131] Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number
of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of
revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those
in the Lu Watters band, Conrad Janis, and Ward Kimball
and his Firehouse Five Plus Two Jazz Band. By the late
1940s, Louis Armstrongs Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland
was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in
the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.[131]
3.4.5

Cool jazz and West Coast jazz

Main article: Cool jazz

In 1944 jazz impresario Norman Granz organized the
rst Jazz at the Philharmonic concert in Los Angeles,
which helped make a star of Nat King Cole and Les
Paul. In 1946 he founded Clef Records, discovering
Canadian jazz pianist Oscar Peterson in 1949, and merging Clef Records with his new label Verve Records in
1956, which advanced the career of Ella Fitzgerald et al.
By the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension
of bebop was replaced with a tendency toward calm and
smoothness with the sounds of cool jazz, which favored
long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City,
and dominated jazz in the rst half of the 1950s. The
starting point was a collection of 1949 and 1950 singles
by a nonet led by Miles Davis, released as the Birth of
the Cool (1957). Later cool jazz recordings by musicians
such as Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck, Bill Evans, Gil Evans,
Stan Getz, the Modern Jazz Quartet, and Gerry Mulligan
usually had a lighter sound that avoided the aggressive

Jazz at the Philharmonic announcement, 1956

tempos and harmonic abstraction of bebop.

Cool jazz later became strongly identied with the West
Coast jazz scene, as typied by singers Chet Baker, Mel
Torm, and Anita O'Day, but it also had a particular
resonance in Europe, especially Scandinavia, where gures such as baritone saxophonist Lars Gullin and pianist
Bengt Hallberg emerged. The theoretical underpinnings
of cool jazz were laid out by the Chicago pianist Lennie
Tristano, and its inuence stretches into such later developments as bossa nova, modal jazz, and even free jazz.

3.4.6 Hard bop

Main article: Hard bop
Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or bop) music which
incorporates inuences from rhythm and blues, gospel
music and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano
playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response
to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s, and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis 1954
performance of Walkin'" at the rst Newport Jazz Festival announced the style to the jazz world. The quintet Art
Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by Blakey and
featuring pianist Horace Silver and trumpeter Cliord
Brown, were leaders in the hard bop movement along with
Davis.

3.4
3.4.7

1940s and 1950s

17

Modal jazz

free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose
harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this
approach was rst developed. The bassist Charles MinMain article: Modal jazz
gus is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in
jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles
Modal jazz is a development which began in the later
and genres.
1950s which takes the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a The rst major stirrings came in the 1950s with the
solo was meant to t into a given chord progression, but early work of Ornette Coleman (whose 1960 album Free
with modal jazz the soloist creates a melody using one (or Jazz: A Collective Improvisation coined the term) and
a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted Cecil Taylor. In the 1960s exponents included Albert
from harmony to melody:[132] Historically, this caused a Ayler, Gato Barbieri, Carla Bley, Don Cherry, Larry
seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking Coryell, John Coltrane, Bill Dixon, Jimmy Giure, Steve
vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal ap- Lacy, Michael Mantler, Sun Ra, Roswell Rudd, Pharoah
Sanders, and John Tchicai. In developing his late style,
proach (the scale),[133] explained pianist Mark Levine.
Coltrane was especially inuenced by the dissonance of
The modal theory stems from a work by George RusAylers trio with bassist Gary Peacock and drummer
sell. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater
Sunny Murray, a rhythm section honed with Cecil Taylor
jazz world with Kind of Blue (1959), an exploration of
as leader. In November 1961 Coltrane played a gig at the
the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the
Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic Chasin'
best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis
the 'Trane, which Down Beat magazine panned as Antiearlier work with hard bop and its complex chord proJazz. On his 1961 tour of France he was booed, but
gression and improvisation,[134] the entire Kind of Blue
persevered, signing with the new Impulse! Records in
album was composed as a series of modal sketches, in
1960 and turning it into the house that Trane built,
which each performer was given a set of scales that dewhile championing many younger free jazz musicians,
ned the parameters of their improvisation and style.[135]
notably Archie Shepp, who often played with trumpeter
I didn't write out the music for Kind of Blue, but brought
Bill Dixon, who organized the 4-day October Revolution
in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play bein Jazz in Manhattan in 1964, the rst free jazz festival.
cause I wanted a lot of spontaneity,[136] recalled Davis.
The track So What has only two chords: D-7 and A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the rst
half of 1965 show Coltranes playing becoming increasE7.[137]
ingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like
Other innovators in this style include Jackie McLean,[138]
multiphonics, utilization of overtones, and playing in the
and two of the musicians who had also played on Kind of
altissimo register, as well as a mutated return to Coltranes
Blue: John Coltrane and Bill Evans.
sheets of sound. In the studio, he all but abandoned his
By the 1950s, Afro-Cuban jazz had been using modes soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addifor at least a decade, as much of it borrowed from Cuban tion, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with
popular dance forms which are structured around mul- increasing freedom. The groups evolution can be traced
tiple ostinatos with only a few chords. A case in point through the recordings The John Coltrane Quartet Plays,
is Mario Bauza's Tanga (1943), the rst Afro-Cuban Living Space and Transition (both June 1965), New Thing
jazz piece. Machitos Afro-Cubans recorded modal tunes at Newport (July 1965), Sun Ship (August 1965) and First
in the 1940s, featuring jazz soloists such as Howard Meditations (September 1965).
McGhee, Brew Moore, Charlie Parker and Flip Phillips.
In June 1965 Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded
However, there is no evidence that Davis or other mainAscension, a 40-minute long piece without breaks that
stream jazz musicians were inuenced by the use of
included adventurous solos by young avante-garde mumodes in Afro-Cuban jazz, or other branches of Latin
sicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarjazz.
ily for the collective improvisation sections that separated
the solos. Dave Liebman later called it the torch that
lit the free jazz thing.. After recording with the quar3.4.8 Free jazz
tet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah
Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While
Main article: Free jazz
Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional
exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his enFree jazz, and the related form of avant-garde jazz broke tire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching
through into an open space of free tonality in which in the altissimo range of the instrument.
meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a
range of World music from India, Africa and Arabia were
melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgias- Free jazz in Europe Free jazz quickly found a
tic style of playing.[139] While loosely inspired by bebop, foothold in Europe, in part because musicians such as

18

HISTORY

3.5 1960s and 1970s

Main articles: 1960s in jazz and 1970s in jazz

3.5.1 Latin jazz

Main article: Latin jazz
Latin jazz is the term used to describe jazz which employs
Latin American rhythms, and is generally understood to
have a more specic meaning than simply jazz from Latin
America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz,
as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either
have a direct analog in Africa, or exhibit an African rhythmic inuence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other
jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are AfroCuban jazz and Brazilian jazz.
In the 1960s and 1970s many jazz musicians had only a
basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and
jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as Latin tunes, with no
distinction between a Cuban son montuno and a Brazilian bossa nova. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridleys
Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, a bossa nova bass line is
referred to as a Latin bass gure.[140] It was not uncomA shot from a 2006 performance by Peter Brtzmann, a key gmon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playure in European free jazz
ing a Cuban tumbao while the drumset and bass played a
Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such
as Manteca, On Green Dolphin Street and Song for
My Father have a Latin A section and a swung B
section. Typically, the band would only play an eveneighth Latin feel in the A section of the head, and swing
throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like Cal
Ayler, Taylor, Steve Lacy and Eric Dolphy spent ex- Tjader tended to be the exception. For example, on a
tended periods there, and European musicians Michael 1959 live Tjader recording of A Night in Tunisia, piMantler, John Tchicai et al. traveled to the U.S. to anist Vince Guaraldi soloed through the entire form over
learn it rsthand. A distinctive European contemporary an authentic mambo.[141]
jazz (often incorporating elements of free jazz but not
limited to it) also ourished because of the emergence
of European musicians such as Peter Brtzmann, John Afro-Cuban jazz Main article: Afro-Cuban jazz
Surman, Zbigniew Namysowski, Albert Mangelsdor,
Kenny Wheeler, and Mike Westbrook, who were anxious
to develop new approaches reecting their national and Afro-Cuban jazz often uses Afro-Cuban instruments
regional musical cultures and contexts. Since the 1960s such as congas, timbales, giro and claves, combined with
various creative centers of jazz have developed in Eu- piano, double bass, etc. Afro-Cuban jazz began with Marope, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Fol- chitos Afro-Cubans in the early 1940s, but took o and
lowing the work of veteran drummer Han Bennink and entered the mainstream in the late 1940s when bebop mupianist Misha Mengelberg, musicians started to explore sicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Billy Taylor began
free music by collectively improvising until a certain form experimenting with Cuban rhythms. Mongo Santamaria
(melody, rhythm, or even famous song) is found by the and Cal Tjader further rened the genre in the late 1950s.
band. Jazz critic Kevin Whitehead documented the free Although a great deal of Cuban-based Latin jazz is modal,
jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents Latin jazz is not always modal: it can be as harmonically
such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his expansive as post-bop jazz. For example, Tito Puente
book New Dutch Swing. Since the 1990s Keith Jarrett has recorded an arrangement of Giant Steps done to an
been prominent in defending free jazz from criticism by Afro-Cuban guaguanc. A Latin jazz piece may momentarily contract harmonically, as in the case of a percussion
traditionalists.

3.5

1960s and 1970s

19

solo over a one or two-chord piano guajeo.

Guajeos Guajeo is the name for the typical AfroCuban ostinato melodies which are commonly used motifs in Latin jazz compositions. They originated in the
genre known as son. Guajeos provide a rhythmic and
melodic framework that may be varied within certain parameters, whilst still maintaining a repetitive - and thus
danceable - structure. Most guajeos are rhythmically
based on clave (rhythm).
Guajeos are one of the most important elements of the
vocabulary of Afro-Cuban descarga (jazz-inspired instrumental jams), providing a means of tension and resolution
and a sense of forward momentum, within a relatively
simple harmonic structure. The use of multiple, contrapuntal guajeos in Latin jazz facilitates simultaneous collective improvisation based on theme variation. In a way,
this polyphonic texture is reminiscent of the original New
Orleans style of jazz.
Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance For most of its history,
Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing
jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of
the 1970s a new generation of New York City musicians
had emerged who were uent in both salsa dance music
and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and
Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best
represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and
trumpet) and Andy (bass).[142] During 1974-1976 they
were members of one of Eddie Palmieri's most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri
was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated
parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others
led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City.
This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba[143]
The rst Cuban band of this new wave was Irakere. Their
Chkere-son (1976) introduced a style of Cubanized
bebop-avored horn lines that departed from the more
angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban
popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was
based on Charlie Parkers composition Billies Bounce,
jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn
lines.[144] In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakeres Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion,
their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic
and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz, and in the jazzy
and complex contemporary form of popular dance music
known as timba.

Nan Vasconcelos playing the Afro-Brazilian Berimbau

in Portuguese or English, whilst he related term jazzsamba describes an adaptation of street samba into jazz.
The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians Joo
Gilberto and Antnio Carlos Jobim, and was made popular by Elizete Cardoso's recording of "Chega de Saudade"
on the Cano do Amor Demais LP. Gilbertos initial releases, and the 1959 lm Black Orpheus, achieved significant popularity in Latin America; this spread to North
America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by Charlie Byrd and Stan Getz cemented bossa novas popularity and led to a worldwide
boom, with 1963s Getz/Gilberto, numerous recordings by
famous jazz performers such as Ella Fitzgerald and Frank
Sinatra, and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova
style as a lasting inuence in world music.
Brazilian percussionists such as Airto Moreira and Nan
Vasconcelos also inuenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms
into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater
audience to them.[145][146][147]

3.5.2 Post-bop
Afro-Brazilian jazz Brazilian jazz such as bossa nova
is derived from samba, with inuences from jazz and Main article: Post-bop
other 20th-century classical and popular music styles.
Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung Post-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from

20

HISTORY

earlier bop styles. The genres origins lie in seminal work

by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, Wayne Shorter and Herbie Hancock. Generally, the
term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties
onwards that assimilates inuences from hard bop, modal
jazz, the avant-garde and free jazz, without necessarily
being immediately identiable as any of the above.
Much post-bop was recorded for Blue Note Records. Key
albums include Speak No Evil by Shorter; The Real McCoy by McCoy Tyner; Maiden Voyage by Hancock; Miles
Smiles by Davis; and Search for the New Land by Lee
Morgan (an artist who is not typically associated with the
post-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in other
genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with the
later hard bop.
3.5.3

Soul jazz

Main article: Soul jazz

Soul jazz was a development of hard bop which incorporated strong inuences from blues, gospel and rhythm
and blues to create music for small groups, often the organ
trio of Hammond organ, drummer and tenor saxophonist.
Unlike hard bop, soul jazz generally emphasized repetitive grooves and melodic hooks, and improvisations were
often less complex than in other jazz styles. It often had
a steadier funk style groove, which was dierent from
the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop.
Horace Silver had a large inuence on the soul jazz style,
with songs that used funky and often gospel-based piano
vamps. Important soul jazz organists included Jimmy
McGri, Jimmy Smith and Johnny Hammond Smith,
and inuential tenor saxophone players included Eddie
Lockjaw Davis and Stanley Turrentine.

Randy Weston

Sanders, Hubert Laws and Wayne Shorter, began using African instruments such as kalimbas, bells, beaded
gourds and other instruments which were not traditional
to jazz.

Rhythm During this period there was an increased use

of the typical African 12/8 cross-rhythmic structure in
jazz. Herbie Hancocks Succotash on Inventions and
Dimensions (1963) is an open-ended modal 12/8 improvised jam, in which Hancocks pattern of attack-points,
rather than the pattern of pitches, is the primary focus
of his improvisations, accompanied by Paul Chambers
3.5.4 African-inspired
on bass, percussionist Osvaldo Martinez playing a tradiThemes There was a resurgence of interest in jazz and tional Afro-Cuban cheker part and Willie Bobo playing
other forms of African-American cultural expression dur- an Abaku bell pattern on a snare drum with brushes.
ing the Black Arts Movement and Black nationalist pe- The rst jazz standard composed by a non-Latino to use
riod of the 1960s and 1970s. African themes became an overt African 12/8 cross-rhythm was Wayne Shorters
popular, and many new jazz compositions were given "Footprints" (1967).[148] On the version recorded on
African-related titles: Black Nile (Wayne Shorter), Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches to a 4/4
Blue Nile (Alice Coltrane), Obirin African (Art tresillo gure at 2:20. Footprints is not, however, a
Blakey), Zambia (Lee Morgan), Appointment in Latin jazz tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed
Ghana (Jackie McLean), Marabi (Cannonball Adder- directly by Ron Carter (bass) and Tony Williams (drums)
ley), Yoruba (Hubert Laws), and many more. Pianist via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout the
Randy Weston's music incorporated African elements, piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are mainsuch as in the large-scale suite Uhuru Africa (with the tained as the temporal referent. In the example below,
participation of poet Langston Hughes) and Highlife: the main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads, which
Music From the New African Nations. Both Weston do not indicate bass notes.
and saxophonist Stanley Turrentine covered the Nigerian
Bobby Benson's piece Niger Mambo, which features
Afro-Caribbean and jazz elements within a West African Pentatonic scales The use of pentatonic scales was anHighlife style. Some musicians, including Pharoah other trend associated with Africa. The use of penta-

3.5

1960s and 1970s

21
a sort of Africanizing of the piece, which provides an
alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes
that when mixed in with more conventional playing the
changes, pentatonic scales provide structure and a feeling of increased space.[157]
3.5.5 Jazz fusion

Ron Carters two main bass lines for Footprints by Wayner

Shorter (1967). The main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads.

Main article: Jazz fusion

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of

tonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of

years.[149]
McCoy Tyner perfected the use of the pentatonic scale
in his solos,[150] and also used parallel fths and fourths,
which are common harmonies in West Africa.[151]
The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can
be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following
pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by Joe Henderson on Horace Silver's African Queen (1965).[152]
Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator Mark Levine refers
to the scale generated by beginning on the fth step of a Fusion trumpeter Miles Davis in 1989
pentatonic scale as the V pentatonic scale.[153]
jazz-rock fusion was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and
the highly amplied stage sound of rock musicians such
as Jimi Hendrix and Frank Zappa. Jazz fusion often uses
mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex
C pentatonic scale beginning on the I (C pentatonic), IV (F pen- chords and harmonies.
tatonic), and V (G pentatonic) steps of the scale.

Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all
three chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression.[154]
This is a very common progression, used in pieces such
as Miles Davis Tune Up. The following example shows
the V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression.[155]

According to AllMusic:
...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and
rock were nearly completely separate. [However, ...] as rock became more creative and its
musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz
world became bored with hard bop and did not
want to play strictly avant-garde music, the two
dierent idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces.[158]

Miles Davis new directions In 1969 Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with In
V pentatonic scale over II-V-I chord progression.
a Silent Way, which can be considered his rst fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by
Accordingly, John Coltranes "Giant Steps" (1960), with producer Teo Macero, this quiet, static album would be
its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three equally inuential to the development of ambient music.
pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied Nicolas Slonimsky's
Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns, which contains As Davis recalls:
material that is virtually identical to portions of Giant
The music I was really listening to in 1968
Steps.[156] The harmonic complexity of Giant Steps is
on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music.
was James Brown, the great guitar player Jimi
Superimposing the pentatonic scale over Giant Steps is
Hendrix, and a new group who had just come
out with a hit record, "Dance to the Music",
not merely a matter of harmonic simplication, but also

22

3
Sly and the Family Stone... I wanted to make it
more like rock. When we recorded In a Silent
Way I just threw out all the chord sheets and
told everyone to play o of that.[159]

Two contributors to In a Silent Way also joined organist

Larry Young to create one of the early acclaimed fusion
albums: Emergency! by The Tony Williams Lifetime.
Psychedelic-jazz

HISTORY

crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene

into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock
(such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and
synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful
amplication, fuzz pedals, wah-wah pedals and other
eects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable
performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, Eddie
Harris, keyboardists Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea and
Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist Gary Burton, drummer
Tony Williams (drummer), violinist Jean-Luc Ponty,
guitarists Larry Coryell, Al Di Meola, John McLaughlin
and Frank Zappa, saxophonist Wayne Shorter and
bassists Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke. Jazz fusion
was also popular in Japan, where the band Casiopea
released over thirty fusion albums.

Bitches Brew Davis Bitches Brew (1970) album was his

most successful of this era. Although inspired by rock and
funk, Davis fusion creations were original, and brought
about a new type of avant-garde, electronic, psychedelic- According to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, just as free
jazz, as far from pop music as any other Davis work.
jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briey suggested
Herbie Hancock Pianist Herbie Hancock (a Davis the promise of doing the same with albums such as
alumnus) released four albums in the short-lived (1970 Williams Emergency! (1970) and Davis Agharta (1975),
1973) psychedelic-jazz subgenre: Mwandishi (1972), which Nicholson said suggested the potential of evolvCrossings (1973) and Sextant (1973). The rhythmic back- ing into something that might eventually dene itself as a
ground was a mix of rock, funk, and African-type tex- wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and
conventions of anything that had gone before. This detures.
velopment was stied by commercialism, Nicholson said,
Musicians who had previously worked with Davis formed
as the genre mutated into a peculiar species of jazzthe four most inuential fusion groups: Weather Report
inected pop music that eventually took up residence on
and Mahavishnu Orchestra emerged in 1971, and were
FM radio at the end of the 1970s.[161]
soon followed by Return to Forever and The Headhunters.
Weather Report Weather Report's self-titled electronic and psychedelic Weather Report debut album
caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971,
thanks to the pedigree of the groups members (including percussionist Airto Moreira), and their unorthodox
approach to music. The album featured a softer sound
than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing soprano
saxophone, and with no synthesizers involved), but is still
considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avantgarde experiments which Joe Zawinul and Shorter had
pioneered with Miles Davis on Bitches Brew, including
an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favour
of continuous rhythm and movement but took the music further. To emphasise the groups rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable
avant-garde atmospheric piece Milky Way, which featured by Shorters extremely muted saxophone inducing
vibrations in Zawinuls piano strings while the latter pedalled the instrument. Down Beat described the album as
music beyond category, and awarded it Album of the
Year in the magazines polls that year.

3.5.6 Jazz-funk
Main article: Jazz-funk
By the mid-1970s the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong back beat (groove),
electried sounds[162] and, often, the presence of electronic analog synthesizers. Jazz-funk also draws inuences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban
rhythms and Jamaican reggae, notably Kingston bandleader Sonny Bradshaw. Another feature is the shift of
emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important.
The integration of funk, soul and R&B music into jazz
resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide
and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk
or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz ris and jazz solos,
and sometimes soul vocals.[163]

Early examples are Herbie Hancocks Headhunters band

and Miles Davis On the Corner album, which in 1972
began Davis foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed,
an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audiWeather Report's subsequent releases were creative funkence which had largely forsaken jazz for rock and funk.
[160]
jazz works.
While there is a discernible rock and funk inuence in
the timbres of the instruments employed, other tonal and
Jazz-rock Although some jazz purists protested rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas
against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered

3.6

1980s

23

soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the

musique concrte approach that Davis and producer Teo
Macero had begun to explore in the late 1960s.
3.5.7

Other trends

Jazz continued to expand and change, inuenced by other

types of music such as world music, avant garde classical music and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to
improvise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz harp
(Alice Coltrane), the electrically amplied and wah-wah
pedaled jazz violin (Jean-Luc Ponty) and the bagpipes
(Rufus Harley). In 1966 jazz trumpeter Don Ellis and Indian sitar player Harihar Rao founded the Hindustani Jazz
Sextet. In 1971 guitarist John McLaughlin's Mahavishnu
Orchestra began playing a mix of rock and jazz infused
with East Indian inuences. In the 1970s the ECM record
label began in Germany with artists including Keith Jarrett, Paul Bley, the Pat Metheny Group, Jan Garbarek,
Ralph Towner, Kenny Wheeler, John Taylor, John Surman, and Eberhard Weber, establishing a new chamber
music aesthetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occasionally incorporating elements of world music and folk.

Wynton Marsalis

and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly Modal Jazz and PostBop); nonetheless there were many other manifestations
of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if Fusion and Free
Jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve.

For example, several musicians who had been prominent

in the fusion genre during the 1970s began to record
acoustic jazz once more, including Chick Corea and
Herbie Hancock. Other musicians who had experimented
3.6 1980s
with electronic instruments in the previous decade had
abandoned them by the 1980s, for example Bill Evans,
Main article: 1980s in jazz
Joe Henderson and Stan Getz. Even the 1980s music of
Miles Davis, although certainly still fusion, adopted a far
In 1987, the United States House of Representatives and more accessible and recognisably jazz-oriented approach
Senate passed a bill proposed by Democratic Represen- than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return
tative John Conyers, Jr. to dene jazz as a unique form to a theme-and-solos approach.
of American music, stating:
The emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz com... that jazz is hereby designated as a
munity. In the 1970s, the groups of Betty Carter and Art
rare and valuable national American treasure to
Blakey and the Jazz Messengers retained their conservawhich we should devote our attention, support
tive
jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz- rock,
and resources to make certain it is preserved,
and
in addition to diculty booking their acts, struggled
understood and promulgated.
to nd younger generations of personnel to authentically
play traditional styles such as hard bop and bebop. In the
It passed in the House of Representatives on September late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz play23, 1987 and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.[164]
ers in Blakeys band began to occur. This movement included musicians such as Valery Ponomarev and Bobby
Watson, Dennis Irwin and James Williams. In the 1980s,
3.6.1 Resurgence of traditionalism
in addition to Wynton and Branford Marsalis, the emerThe 1980s saw something of a reaction against the Fusion gence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as Donald
and Free Jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter Brown, Mulgrew Miller, and later, Benny Green, bassists
Wynton Marsalis emerged early in the decade, and strove such as Charles Fambrough, Lonnie Plaxico (and later,
to create music within what he believed was the tradition, Peter Washington and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as
rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating exten- Bill Pierce, Donald Harrison and later Javon Jackson and
sions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by Terence Blanchard emerged as talented jazz musicians,
contributions in later 1990s
artists such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington, as all of whom made signicant
[165] [166]
and
2000s
jazz
music.
well as the hard bop of the 1950s. Its debatable whether
Marsalis critical and commercial success was a cause or The young Jazz Messengers contemporaries, includa symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz ing Roy Hargrove, Marcus Roberts, Wallace Roney

24

HISTORY

and Mark Whiteld were also inuenced by Wynton

Marsalis's emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger
rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead
championed the acoustic jazz sound of Charlie Parker,
Thelonious Monk and early recordings of the rst Miles
Davis quintet. This group of Young Lions sought to
rearm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of European classical music. [167]
In addition, Betty Carter's rotation of young musicians
in her group foreshadowed many of New Yorks preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers.
Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni
Benny Green, Branford Marsalis and Ralph Peterson,
Jr., as well as Kenny Washington, Lewis Nash, Curtis
Lundy, Cyrus Chestnut, Mark Shim, Craig Handy, Greg
Hutchinson and Marc Cary, Taurus Mateen and Geri
Allen.[168]
Blue Note Records's O.T.B. ensemble featured a rotation of young jazz musicians such as Kenny Garrett, Steve
Wilson, Kenny Davis, Renee Rosnes, Ralph Peterson, Jr.,
Billy Drummond and Robert Hurst. [169]
A similar reaction took place against free jazz. According
to Ted Gioia:
the very leaders of the avant garde started
to signal a retreat from the core principles of
Free Jazz. Anthony Braxton began recording
standards over familiar chord changes. Cecil
Taylor played duets in concert with Mary Lou
Williams, and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his
blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even
more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as David Murray or Don Pullen may
have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they
never forgot all the other ways one could play
African-American music for fun and prot.[170]

David Sanborn, 2008

This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists

including Al Jarreau, Anita Baker, Chaka Khan and Sade,
as well as saxophonists including Grover Washington, Jr.,
Kenny G, Kirk Whalum, Boney James and David Sanborn. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most
widely played tracks are of 90105 beats per minute),
and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and legato electric guitar are
popular).

In his Newsweek article The Problem With Jazz

Criticism,[171] Stanley Crouch considers Miles Davis
Pianist Keith Jarrett whose bands of the 1970s had playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth
played only original compositions with prominent free jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negajazz elements established his so-called 'Standards Trio' tive perceptions of smooth jazz, stating:
in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring
collective improvisation, has primarily performed and
recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began
exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected
I challenge the prevalent marginalization
them for the 1970s.
and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question
the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfor3.6.2 Smooth jazz
tunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome
Main article: smooth jazz
of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that
In the early 1980s a commercial form of jazz fusion
smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that
called pop fusion or smooth jazz became successful,
merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origarnering signicant radio airplay in "quiet storm" time
gins, critical dialogues, performance practice,
slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S.
and reception.[172]

3.6
3.6.3

1980s

25

Acid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap

Acid jazz developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s,

inuenced by jazz-funk and electronic dance music. Acid
jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including Sampling (music) or a live DJ
cutting and scratching), but it is just as likely to be played
live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation
as part of their performance. Jazz-funk musicians such
as Roy Ayers and Donald Byrd are often credited as the
forerunners of acid jazz.[173]
Nu jazz is inuenced by jazz harmony and melodies,
and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can
be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in
sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of
live instrumentation with the beats of jazz house (as exemplied by St Germain, Jazzanova and Fila Brazillia)
to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example The Cinematic Orchestra, Kobol and
the Norwegian future jazz style pioneered by Bugge
Wesseltoft, Jaga Jazzist and Nils Petter Molvr).
Jazz rap developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and
incorporates jazz inuences into hip hop. In 1988, Gang
Starr released the debut single Words I Manifest, which
sampled Dizzy Gillespie's 1962 Night in Tunisia, and
Stetsasonic released Talkin' All That Jazz, which sampled Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starrs debut LP No
More Mr. Nice Guy (1989) and their 1990 track Jazz
Thing sampled Charlie Parker and Ramsey Lewis. The
groups which made up the Native Tongues Posse tended
toward jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut Straight Out the Jungle (1988), and A Tribe
Called Quest's Peoples Instinctive Travels and the Paths
of Rhythm (1990) and The Low End Theory (1991). Rap
duo Pete Rock & CL Smooth incorporated jazz inuences on their 1992 debut Mecca and the Soul Brother.
Rapper Guru's Jazzmatazz series began in 1993, using
jazz musicians during the studio recordings.
Though jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis nal album Doo-Bop (released posthumously in 1992) was based around hip hop beats and
collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Davis exbandmate Herbie Hancock also absorbed hip-hop inuences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album Dis Is Da
Drum in 1994.

3.6.4

John Zorn performing in 2006

with free jazz and punk)[175] and the Lounge Lizards[175]

(the rst group to call themselves "punk jazz").
John Zorn took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and
incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the Spy
vs. Spy album in 1986, a collection of Ornette Coleman
tunes done in the contemporary thrashcore style.[176] In
the same year, Sonny Sharrock, Peter Brtzmann, Bill
Laswell and Ronald Shannon Jackson recorded the rst
album under the name Last Exit (free jazz band), a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.[177] These
developments are the origins of jazzcore, the fusion of
free jazz with hardcore punk.

Punk jazz and jazzcore

The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with

post-punk in London and New York City led to a new
appreciation of jazz. In London, the Pop Group began
to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk
rock.[174] In New York, No Wave took direct inspiration
from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include Lydia Lunch's Queen of Siam,[175] Gray, the work
of James Chance and the Contortions (who mixed Soul

3.6.5 M-Base
Main article: M-Base
The M-Base movement started in the 1980s, when a
loose collective of young African-American musicians in
New York which included Steve Coleman, Greg Osby
and Gary Thomas developed a complex but grooving[178]
sound.

26

5 NOTES
cluding pianists Jason Moran and Vijay Iyer, guitarist
Kurt Rosenwinkel, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeters Roy Hargrove and Terence Blanchard, saxophonists Chris Potter and Joshua Redman, clarinetist Ken Peplowski and bassist Christian McBride.
Although jazz-rock fusion reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and
rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the
1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include
Pat Metheny, John Abercrombie, John Scoeld and the
Swedish group e.s.t.

Steve Coleman in Paris, July 2004

In the 1990s most M-Base participants turned to more

conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance
with the M-Base concept.[179] Colemans audience decreased, but his music and concepts inuenced many
musicians,[180] both in terms of music technique[181] and
of the musics meaning.[182] Hence, M-Base changed
from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman school,[183]
with a much advanced but already originally implied
concept.[184] Steve Coleman's music and M-Base concept
gained recognition as next logical step after Charlie
Parker, John Coltrane and Ornette Coleman.[185]

3.7

1990s2010s

Since the 1990s jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide
range of active styles and genres are popular. Individual
performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in
the same performance. Pianist Brad Mehldau and power
trio The Bad Plus have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by
rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A rm avant-garde
or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players,
such as saxophonists Greg Osby and Charles Gayle, while
others, such as James Carter, have incorporated free jazz
elements into a more traditional framework.
On the other side, even a singer like Harry Connick, Jr.
(who has ten number-1 US jazz albums)[186] is sometimes
called a jazz musician, although there are only a few elements from jazz history in his mainly pop oriented music.
Other recent vocalists have achieved popularity with a
mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms, such as Diana
Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling and
Jamie Cullum.
A number of players who usually perform in largely
straight-ahead settings have emerged since the 1990s, in-

In 2001 Ken Burns's documentary Jazz was premiered

on PBS, featuring Wynton Marsalis and other experts reviewing the entire history of jazz to that time.

4 See also
List of jazz genres
Jazz royalty
List of jazz musicians
List of jazz standards
List of jazz venues in the United States
List of jazz venues
List of jazz festivals
Bibliography of jazz
Timeline of jazz education
Victorian Jazz Archive

5 Notes
[1] Hennessey, Thomas, From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1917-1935. Ph.D. dissertation,
Northwestern University, 1973, pp. 470-473.
[2] Alyn Shipton, A New History of Jazz, 2nd edn., Continuum, 2007, pp. 45.
[3] Bill Kirchner, The Oxford Companion to Jazz, Oxford
University Press, 2005, Chapter Two.
[4] Starr, Larry, and Christopher Waterman. Popular Jazz
and Swing: Americas Original Art Form. IIP Digital.
Oxford University Press, 26 July 2008.
[5] Seagrove, Gordon (July 11, 1915). Blues is Jazz and
Jazz Is Blues (PDF). Chicago Daily Tribune. Retrieved
November 4, 2011. Archived at Observatoire Musical
Franais, Paris-Sorbonne University.
[6] Benjamin Zimmer (June 8, 2009). ""Jazz": A Tale of
Three Cities. Word Routes. The Visual Thesaurus. Retrieved June 8, 2009.

27

[7] Joachim E. Berendt. The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond. Translated by H. and B. Bredigkeit with
Dan Morgenstern. 1981. Lawrence Hill Books, p. 371.
[8] Berendt, Joachim Ernst (1964) The New Jazz Book: a History and Guide, p. 278. Peter Owen. At Google Books.
Retrieved 4 August 2013.
[9] Christgau, Robert (October 28, 1986). Christgaus Consumer Guide. The Village Voice (New York). Retrieved
September 10, 2015.
[10] In Review of The Cambridge Companion to Jazz by Peter
Elsdon, FZMw (Frankfurt Journal of Musicology) No. 6,
2003.
[11] Cooke, Mervyn; Horn, David G. (2002). The Cambridge
companion to jazz. New York: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 1, 6. ISBN 0-521-66388-1.
[12] Luebbers, Johannes (September 8, 2008). Its All Music. Resonate (Australian Music Centre).

[27] https://web.archive.org/web/
20150921182328/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/
african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/
how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/
[28] Cooke 1999, pp. 79
[29] The primary instrument for a cultural music expression
was a long narrow African drum. It came in various sized
from three to eight feet long and had previously been
banned in the South by whites. Other instruments used
were the triangle, a jawbone, and early ancestors to the
banjo. Many types of dances were performed in Congo
Square, including the 'at-footed-shue' and the 'Bamboula.'" African American Registry.
[30] Palmer, Robert (1981: 37). Deep Blues. New York: Penguin.
[31] Cooke 1999, pp. 1417, 2728
[32] Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 112).

[13] http://www.npr.org/2016/03/19/470879654/
[33] Palmer, Robert (1981: 39). Deep Blues.
the-musical-that-ushered-in-the-jazz-age-gets-its-own-musical
[34] Borneman, Ernest (1969: 104). Jazz and the Creole Tra[14] Giddins 1998, 70.
dition. Jazz Research I: 99112.
[15] Giddins 1998, 89.
[16] Jazz Drum Lessons Drumbook.org
[17] Jazz Inc.: The bottom line threatens the creative line in
corporate Americas approach to music at the Wayback
Machine (archived July 20, 2001) by Andrew Gilbert,
Metro Times, December 23, 1998.
[18] African American Musicians Reect On 'What Is This
Thing Called Jazz?' In New Book By UC Professor.
Oakland Post 38 (79): 77. 20 March 2001. Retrieved
December 6, 2011.
[19] Imamu Amiri Baraka (2000). The LeRoi Jones/Amiri
Baraka Reader (2 ed.). Basic Books. p. 42. ISBN 156025-238-3.
[20] Philip Larkin (2004). Jazz Writings. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 94. ISBN 0-8264-7699-6.

[35] Sublette, Ned (2008: 124, 287). The World that made
New Orleans: from Spanish silver to Congo Square.
Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 1-55652-958-9
[36] Pealosa 2010, pp. 3846
[37] Garrett, Charles Hiroshi (2008). Struggling to Dene a
Nation: American Music and the Twentieth Century, p.54.
ISBN 978-0-520-25486-2. Shown in common time and
then in cut time with tied sixteenth & eighth note rather
than rest.
[38] Sublette, Ned (2007), Cuba and Its Music: From the First
Drums to the Mambo, p. 134. ISBN 978-1-55652-632-9.
Shown with tied sixteenth & eighth note rather than rest.
[39] Wynton Marsalis states that tresillo is the New Orleans
"clave. Wynton Marsalis part 2. 60 Minutes. CBS
News (June 26, 2011).

[21] Andrew R. L. Cayton, Richard Sisson, Chris Zacher, eds.

(2006). The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia. Indiana University Press. p. 569. ISBN 0-25300349-0.

[40] Schuller 1968, p. 19

[22] Santelli, Robert. The Big Book of Blues, Penguin Books,

pg. 20, (2001); ISBN 0-14-100145-3

[42] Palmer 1981, p. 39

[23] Murph, John. NPRs Jazz Proles: Women In Jazz, Part

1. www.npr.org. Retrieved 2015-04-24.
[24] 15 Most Inuential Jazz Artists. Listverse. 2010-02-27.
Retrieved 27 July 2014.
[25] Criswell, Chad. What Is a Jazz Band?". Retrieved 25
July 2014.
[26] http://www.pbs.org/wnet/
african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/
how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/

[41] Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 52). Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi.

[43] "[Afro]-Latin rhythms have been absorbed into black

American styles far more consistently than into white
popular music, despite Latin musics popularity among
whites (Roberts 1979: 41).
[44] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 12) Latin Jazz. New York:
Schirmer Books.
[45] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 16) Latin Jazz. New York:
Schirmer Books.
[46] Manuel, Peter (2009: 67). Creolizing Contradance in the
Caribbean. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

28

[47] Manuel, Peter (2009: 69). Creolizing Contradance in the

Caribbean. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
[48] Acosta, Leonardo (2003: 5). Cubano Be Cubano Bop;
One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba. Washington D.C.:
Smithsonian Books.

5 NOTES

[70] Schuller (1968: 66, 145n.).

[71] W. C. Handy, Father of the Blues: An Autobiography,
edited by Arna Bontemps: foreword by Abbe Niles.
Macmillan Company, New York; (1941), pp. 99, 100 (no
ISBN in this rst printing).

[49] Maulen (1999: 4), Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. ISBN 09614701-9-4.

[72] Cooke 1999, pp. 47, 50

[50] Pealosa 2010, p. 42

[74] http://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/jazz-map.
htm

[51] Sublette, Ned (2008: 125). The World that made New
Orleans: from Spanish silver to Congo Square. Chicago:
Lawrence Hill Books. ISBN 1-55652-958-9
[52] Sublette, Ned (2008:125). Cuba and its Music; From the
First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chicago Review
Press.
[53] Wynton Marsalis part 2. 60 Minutes. CBS News (June
26, 2011).

[73] Original Creole Orchestra. The Red Hot Archive. Retrieved October 23, 2007.

[75] http://www.storyvillelife.com/eksempel-side/
[76] http://web.archive.org/web/20140506062223/http:
//web.wm.edu/americanstudies/370/2001/sp3/legend_
of_storyville.htm
[77] Marsalis, Wynton (2000: DVD n.1).
Pbs.org. Retrieved 2013-10-02.

Jazz.

PBS.

[54] Morton, Jelly Roll (1938: Library of Congress Recording)

The Complete Recordings By Alan Lomax.

[78] "Jazz and Math: Rhythmic Innovations", PBS.org. The

Wikipedia example shown in half time compared to the
source.

[55] Cooke 1999, pp. 28, 47

[79] Cooke 1999, pp. 38, 56

[56] Catherine Schmidt-Jones (2006). Ragtime. Connexions. Retrieved October 18, 2007.

[80] Roberts, John Storm 1979. The Latin Tinge: The impact
of Latin American music on the United States. Oxford.

[57] Cooke 1999, pp. 2829

[81] Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 61). Jazz Styles: History and

Analysis, 7th edn.

[58] The First Ragtime Records (18971903)". Retrieved

October 18, 2007.

[82] Schuller 1968, p. 6

[59] Tanner, Paul, David W. Megill, and Maurice Gerow. Jazz.

11th edn. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2009,
pp. 328-331.
[60] Benward & Saker 2003, p. 203.

[83] The New Harvard Dictionary of Music (1986: 818).

[84] Greenwood, David Pealosa; Peter; collaborator; editor
(2009). The Clave Matrix: Afro-Cuban rhythm: its principles and African origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Books. p.
229. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.

[61] Matthiesen, Bill (2008: 8). Habaneras, Maxixies & Tangos The Syncopated Piano Music of Latin America. Mel
Bay. ISBN 0-7866-7635-3

[85] Gridley, Mark C. (2000). Jazz Styles: history & analysis

(7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 72
73. ISBN 978-0130212276.

[62] Sublette, Ned (2008:155). Cuba and its Music; From the
First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chicago Review
Press.

[86] Schoenherr, Steven. Recording Technology History.

history.sandiego.edu. Retrieved December 24, 2008.

[63] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 40). The Latin Tinge. Oxford
University Press.
[64] Kunzlers Dictionary of Jazz provides two separate entries:
blues, an originally African-American genre (p. 128), and
the blues form, a widespread musical form (p. 131).
[65] The Evolution of Diering Blues Styles. How To Play
Blues Guitar. Archived from the original on 2010-01-18.
Retrieved 2008-08-11.
[66] Cooke 1999, pp. 1114
[67] Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 96).
[68] Palmer (1981: 46).
[69] Handy, Father (1941), p. 99.

[87] Thomas, Bob (1994). The Origins of Big Band Music.

redhotjazz.com. Retrieved December 24, 2008.
[88] Alexander, Scott. The First Jazz Records. redhotjazz.com. Retrieved December 24, 2008.
[89] Jazz Milestones. apassion4jazz.net. Retrieved December 24, 2008.
[90] Original Dixieland Jazz Band Biography. pbs.org. Retrieved December 24, 2008.
[91] Martin, Henry; Waters, Keith (2005). Jazz: The First 100
Years. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 55. ISBN 0-534-628044.
[92] Tim Gracyks Phonographs, Singers, and Old Records
Jass in 19161917 and Tin Pan Alley. Retrieved October
27, 2007.

29

[93] Cooke 1999, p. 44

[117] Floyd, Samuel A., Jr. (1995). The Power of Black Music: Interpreting its history from Africa to the United States.
[94] Floyd Levin (1911). Jim Europes 369th Infantry HellNew York: Oxford University Press.
ghters Band. The Red Hot Archive. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
[118] Levine 1995, p. 171
[95] Cooke 1999, p. 78

[119] Joachim Berendt. The Jazz Book, 1981, p. 15.

[96] Cooke 1999, pp. 4142

[120] Charlie Parker quoted by Gerhard Kubik (2005). Bebop:

A Case in Point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic
Practices (critical essay), Black Music Research Journal
22 March. Digital.

[97] Palmer (1968: 67).

[98] Ward, Georey C.; Burns, Ken (October 8, 2002). Jazz:

A History of Americas Music (1st ed.). New York: Al- [121] Gerhard Kubik (2005). Bebop: A Case in Point. The
fred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0679765394. Retrieved 27
African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices (critical esJuly 2014.
say), Black Music Research Journal March 22, Digital.
[99] Cooke 1999, p. 54

[122] Kubik (2005).

[100] Kid Ory. The Red Hot Archive. Retrieved October 29, [123]
2007.
[124]
[101] Bessie Smith. The Red Hot Archive. Retrieved October
29, 2007.
[102] Mario Dunkel, W. C. Handy, Abbe Niles, and
(Auto)biographical Positioning in the Whiteman Era, [125]
Popular Music and Society 38.2 (2015): 122-139.
[126]
[103] Cooke 1999, pp. 8283, 100103
[127]
[104] Schuller 1968, p. 91
[105] Schuller 1968, p. 93
[106] Cooke 1999, pp. 5659, 7879, 6670
[107] Schuller 1968, p. 88
[108] See lengthy interviews with Hines in [Nairn] Earl Fatha
Hines: see External Links below.

Joachim Berendt. The Jazz Book. 1981, p. 16.

In 1992 Bauza recorded Tanga in the expanded form
of an Afro-Cuban suite, consisting of ve movements.
Mario Bauza and his Afro-Cuban Orchestra. Messidor CD
(1992).
Pealosa 2010, p. 56
Pealosa 2010, pp. 131136
Bobby Sanabria, posting to the Latinjazz discussion list
(2008). http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/latinjazz/

[128] Fraser, Dizzy Gillespie, with Al (March 1, 1985). To Be

or Not to Bop: Memoirs of Dizzy Gillespie. New York,
N.Y.: Da Capo Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0306802362.
[129] Afro Blue, Afro Roots (Mongo Santamaria) Prestige CD
24018-2 (1959).

[130] Pealosa 2010, p. 26

[109] Wynn, edited by Neil A. (2007). Cross the Water Blues:
African American music in Europe (1st ed.). Jackson, [131] Collier, 1978.
Miss.: University Press of Mississippi. p. 67. ISBN
[132] Litweiler 1984, pp. 110111
9781604735468. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
[133] Levine 1995, p. 30
[110] Jackson, Jerey (2002). Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927-1934.. French His- [134] Liner note reprint: Miles Davis Kind of Blue (FLAC
torical Studies 25 (1): 149170. doi:10.1215/00161071 Master Sound Super Bit Mapping)". Stupid and
25-1-149.
Contagious. Retrieved July 27, 2008.
[111] Ed Lang and his Orchestra. redhotjazz.com. Retrieved [135] Palmer, Robert (1997). Kind of Blue (CD)". New York,
March 28, 2008.
NY: Sony Music Entertainment, Inc./Columbia Records.
|contribution= ignored (help)
[112] Crow, Bill (1990). Jazz Anecdotes. New York: Oxford
University Press.
[136] Davis, Miles (1989: 234). The Autobiography. New
York: Touchstone.
[113] Tucker 1995, p. 6 writes He tried to avoid the word 'jazz'
preferring 'Negro' or 'American' music. He claimed there [137] Levine 1995, p. 29
were only two types of music, 'good' and 'bad' ... And he
embraced a phrase coined by his colleague Billy Strayhorn [138] Litweiler 1984, pp. 120123
'beyond category' as a liberating principle.
[139] Joachim Berendt. The Jazz Book. 1981. Page 21.
[114] Jazz Musicians Duke Ellington. Theory Jazz. Re[140] Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 444). Jazz Styles: History and
trieved July 14, 2009.
Analysis, 7th ed.
[115] Gunther Schuller November 14, 1972. Dance, p. 290.
[141] Tjader, Cal (1959). Monterey Concerts. Prestige CD.
[116] Dance p. 260.
ASIN: B000000ZCY.

30

5 NOTES

[142] Andy Gonzalez interviewed by Larry Birnbaum. Ed. [162] Free Jazz-Funk Music: Album, Track and Artist Charts
Boggs, Vernon W. (1992: 297298). Salsiology; Afroat the Wayback Machine (archived September 20, 2008),
Cuban Music and the Evolution of Salsa in New York City.
Rhapsody Online Rhapsody.com (October 20, 2010).
New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28468-7
[163] Explore: Jazz-Funk at the Wayback Machine (archived
October 19, 2010)
[143] Acosta, Leonardo (2003). Cubano Be, Cubano Bop: One
Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba, p. 59. Washington, D.C.:
[164] HR-57 Center HR-57 Center for the Preservation of Jazz
Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1-58834-147-X
and Blues, with the six-point mandate.
[144] Moore, Kevin (2007) History and Discography of
[165] Fitzgerald, Michael and Schwartz, Steve, Chronology of
Irakere. Timba.com.
Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers.
[145] Yanow, Scott (August 5, 1941). Airto Moreira. AllMu- [166] Drummerworld: Art Blakey.
sic. Retrieved 2011-10-22.
[167] Guiliatt, Richard. JAZZ : The Young Lions Roar : Wyn[146] Allmusic Biography
ton Marsalis and the 'Neoclassical' Lincoln Center Orchestra are helping fuel the noisiest debate since Miles
[147] Palmer, Robert (1982-06-28). Jazz Festival - Jazz Festiwent electric".
val - A Study Of Folk-Jazz Fusion - Review. New York
Times. Retrieved 2012-07-07.
[168] The Betty Carter Biography.
[148] Footprints Miles Smiles (Miles Davis). Columbia CD [169]
(1967).
[170]
[149] An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic
song composition, often associated with simple work
rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable o-beat accents ... reaches back perhaps thousands of years to early [171]
West African sorgum agriculturalistsKubik, Gerhard
(1999: 95). Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MI: University
Press of Mississippi.
[172]
[150] Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 270). Jazz Styles: History and
Analysis, 7th ed.

Out of The Blue-Album Discography.

Where Did Our Revolution Go? (Part Three) Jazz.com
| Jazz Music Jazz Artists Jazz News. Jazz.com. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
Stanley Crouch (June 5, 2003). Opinion: The Problem With Jazz Criticism. Newsweek. Retrieved April
9, 2010.
Caught Between Jazz and Pop: The Contested Origins, Criticism, Performance Practice, and Reception of
Smooth Jazz. Digital.library.unt.edu. October 23, 2010.
Retrieved November 7, 2010.

[151] Map showing distribution of harmony in Africa. Jones, [173] Ginell, Richard S. allmusic on Roy Ayers.
A.M. (1959). Studies in African Music. Oxford Press.
sic.com. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
[152] Levine 1995, p. 235

Allmu-

[174] Dave Lang, Perfect Sound Forever, February 1999. Access date: November 15, 2008.

[153] Levine, Mark (1989: 127). The Jazz Piano Book.

Petaluma, CA: Sher Music. ASIN: B004532DEE
[175] Bangs, Lester. Free Jazz / Punk Rock. Musician Magazine, 1979. Access date: July 20, 2008.
[154] Levine (1989: 127).
[176] ""House Of Zorn, Goblin Archives, at. Sonic.net. Re[155] After Mark Levine (1989: 127). The Jazz Piano Book.
trieved November 7, 2010.
[156] Bair, Je (2003: 5). Cyclic Patterns in John Coltranes [177] Progressive Ears Album Reviews. Progressiveears.com.
Melodic Vocabulary as Inuenced by Nicolas Slonimskys
October 19, 2007. Retrieved November 7, 2010.
Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns: An Analysis of Selected Improvisations. PhD Thesis. University [178] "... circular and highly complex polymetric patterns
which preserve their danceable character of popular
of North Texas. Web. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:
Funk-rhythms despite their internal complexity and asym/67531/metadc4348/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf
metries ... (Musicologist and musician Ekkehard Jost,
[157] Levine, Mark (1995: 205). The Jazz Theory Book. Sher
Sozialgeschichte des Jazz, 2003, p. 377)
Music. ISBN 1-883217-04-0
[179] Steve Coleman
[158] Explore: Fusion. AllMusic. Retrieved November 7,
[180] Pianist Vijay Iyer (who was chosen as Jazz musician of
2010.
the year 2010 by the Jazz Journalists Association) said:
Its hard to overstate Steve (Colemans) inuence. Hes
[159] Davis, Miles, with Quincy Troupe (1989: 298) The Autoaected more than one generation, as much as anyone
biography. New York: Simon and Schuster.
since John Coltrane. ()
[160] Dan, Morgenstern (1971). Down Beat May 13.
[181] His recombinant ideas about rhythm and form and his
[161] Harrison, Max; Thacker, Eric; Nicholson, Stuart (2000).
eagerness to mentor musicians and build a new vernacuThe Essential Jazz Records: Modernism to Postmodernism.
lar have had a profound eect on American jazz. (Ben
A&C Black. p. 614. ISBN 0720118220.
Ratli, )

31

[182] Vijay Iyer: Its not just that you can connect the dots by
playing seven or 11 beats. What sits behind his inuence
is this global perspective on music and life. He has a point
of view of what he does and why he does it. ()
[183] Michael J. West (June 2, 2010). Jazz Articles: Steve
Coleman: Vital Information. Jazztimes.com. Retrieved
June 5, 2011.
[184] What Is M-Base?". M-base.com. Retrieved June 5,
2011.
[185] In 2014 drummer Billy Hart said that Coleman has quietly inuenced the whole jazz musical world, and is the
next logical step after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane,
and Ornette Coleman. (Source: Kristin E. Holmes, Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redening jazz, October 09, 2014, web portal Philly.com, Philadelphia Media
Network) Already in 2010 pianist Vijay Iyer (who was
chosen as Jazz Musician of the Year 2010 by the Jazz
Journalists Association) said: To me, Steve [Coleman]
is as important as [John] Coltrane. He has contributed
an equal amount to the history of the music. He deserves to be placed in the pantheon of pioneering artists.
(Source: Larry Blumenfeld, A Saxophonists Reverberant
Sound, June 11, 2010, The Wall Street Journal) In September 2014, Coleman was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship
(a.k.a. Genius Grant) for redening the vocabulary and
vernaculars of contemporary music. (Source: Kristin E.
Holmes, Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redening
jazz, October 09, 2014, web portal Philly.com, Philadelphia Media Network)
[186] Chart Beat, Billboard, April 9, 2009

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Carr, Ian. Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in
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Dance, Stanley (1983). The World of Earl Hines.

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120-page interview with Hines plus many photos.
Davis, Miles. Miles Davis (2005). Boplicity. Delta
Music plc. UPC 4-006408-264637.
Downbeat (2009). The Great Jazz Interviews: Frank
Alkyer & Ed Enright (eds). Hal Leonard Books.
ISBN 978-1-4234-6384-9
Elsdon, Peter. 2003. "The Cambridge Companion to Jazz, Edited by Mervyn Cooke and David
Horn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2002. Review. Frankfrter Zeitschrift fr Musikwissenschaft 6:15975.
Giddins, Gary. 1998. Visions of Jazz: The First
Century. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-507675-3
Gridley, Mark C. 2004. Concise Guide to Jazz,
fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-182657-3
Nairn, Charlie. 1975. Earl 'Fatha' HInes: 1 hour
'solo' documentary made in Blues Alley Jazz Club,
Washington DC, for ATV, England, 1975: produced/directed by Charlie Nairn: original 16mm
lm plus out-takes of additional tunes from that
lm archived in British Film Institute Library at
b.org.uk and http://www.itvstudios.com: DVD
copies with Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library [who
hold The Earl Hines Collection/Archive], University
of California, Berkeley: also University of Chicago,
Hogan Jazz Archive Tulane University New Orleans
and Louis Armstrong House Museum Libraries.
Pealosa, David (2010). The Clave Matrix; AfroCuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins.
Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3.
Schuller, Gunther (1968). Early Jazz: Its Roots and
Musical Development. New York: Oxford University Press. New printing 1986.
Schuller, Gunther. 1991. The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 19301945. Oxford University
Press.

7 External links
Jazz Foundation of America
Jazz at the Smithsonian Museum
Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame website
Jazz Screen - Videos and live music Resource
RedHotJazz.com

32
Jazz at Lincoln Center
American Jazz Museum website
The International Archives for the Jazz Organ
Classic and Contemporary Jazz Music
The Jazz Archive at Duke University
Jazz Festivals in Europe
Free 1920s Jazz Collection available for downloading at Archive.org
Jazz History Database
Acid Jazz Database
DownBeats Jazz 101 A Guide to the Music This
section of the Downbeat magazine website has several short pages to allow the beginning student of
jazz to acquire an education.
The Historyscoper
Philosophy of Jazz wiki

EXTERNAL LINKS

33

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1

Text

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34

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8.2

Images

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8.2

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8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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8.3

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