Syntax Analysis
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Elizier 'Barlee' B. LazoSyntax Analysis
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Elizier 'Barlee' B. LazoSyntax Analysis - Part 1
Syntax Analysis
Outline
Context-Free Grammars (CFGs)
Parsing
Top-Down
Recursive Descent
Table-Driven
Bottom-Up
LR Parsing Algorithm
How to Build LR Tables
Parser Generators
Grammar Issues for Programming Languages
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Top-Down Parsing
!LL Grammars - A subclass of all CFGs
!Recursive-Descent Parsers - Programmed by hand
!Non-Recursive Predictive Parsers - Table Driven
!Simple, Easy to Build, Better Error Handling
Bottom-Up Parsing
!LR Grammars - A larger subclass of CFGs
!Complex Parsing Algorithms - Table Driven
!Table Construction Techniques
!Parser Generators use this technique
!Faster Parsing, Larger Set of Grammars
!Complex
!Error Reporting is Tricky
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Output of Parser?
Succeed is string is recognized
... and fail if syntax errors
Syntax Errors?
Good, descriptive, helpful message!
Recover and continue parsing!
*
Build a Parse Tree (also called derivation tree)
Build Abstract Syntax Tree (AST)
In memory (with objects, pointers)
Output to a file
Execute Semantic Actions
Build AST
Type Checking
Generate Code
Dont build a tree at all!
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Errors in Programs
Lexical
if x<1 thenn y = 5:
Typos
Syntactic
if ((x<1) & (y>5))) ...
{ ... { ...
... }
Semantic
if (x+5) then ...
Type Errors
Undefined IDs, etc.
Logical Errors
if (i<9) then ...
Should be <= not <
Bugs
Compiler cannot detect Logical Errors
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Compiler
Always halts
Any checks guaranteed to terminate
Decidable
Other Program Checking Techniques
Debugging
Testing
Correctness Proofs
Partially Decidable
Okay? ! The test terminates.
Not Okay? ! The test may not terminate!
You may need to run some programs to see if they are okay.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Requirements
Detect All Errors (Except Logical!)
Messages should be helpful.
Difficult to produce clear messages!
Example:
Syntax Error
Example:
Line 23: Unmatched Paren
if ((x == 1) then
^
Compiler Should Recover
Keep going to find more errors
Example:
x := (a + 5)) * (b + 7));
This error missed
Were in the middle of a statement
Skip tokens until we see a ;
Error detected here
Resume Parsing
Misses a second error... Oh, well...
Checks most of the source
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Difficult to generate clear and accurate error messages.
Example
function foo () {
...
if (...) {
...
} else {
...
...
}
<eof>
Missing } here
Not detected until here
Example
var myVarr: Integer;
...
x := myVar;
Misspelled ID here
...
Detected here as
Undeclared ID
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
For Mature Languages
Catalog common errors
Statistical studies
Tailor compiler to handle common errors well
Statement terminators versus separators
Terminators: C, Java, PCAT
{A;B;C;}
Separators: Pascal, Smalltalk, Haskell
Pascal Examples
begin
var t: Integer;
t := x;
x := y;
Tend to insert a ; here
y := t
end
if (...) then
x := 1
else
y := 2;
z := 3;
Tend to insert a ; here
function foo (x: Integer; y: Integer)...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Tend to put a comma here
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Error-Correcting Compilers
!Issue an error message
!Fix the problem
!Produce an executable
Example
Error on line 23: myVarr undefined.
myVar was used.
Is this a good idea???
Compiler guesses the programmers intent
A shifting notion of what constitutes a correct / legal / valid program
May encourage programmers to get sloppy
Declarations provide redundancy
! Increased reliability
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Error Avalanche
One error generates a cascade of messages
Example
x := 5 while ( a == b ) do
^
Expecting ;
^
Expecting ;
^
Expecting ;
The real messages may be buried under the avalanche.
Missing #include or import will also cause an avalanche.
Approaches:
Only print 1 message per token [ or per line of source ]
Only print a particular message once
Error: Variable myVarr is undeclared
All future notices for this ID have been suppressed
Abort the compiler after 50 errors.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
10
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Error Recovery Approaches: Panic Mode
Discard tokens until we see a synchronizing token.
Example
Skip to next occurrence of
} end ;
Resume by parsing the next statement
!Simple to implement
!Commonly used
!The key...
Good set of synchronizing tokens
Knowing what to do then
!May skip over large sections of source
Harry H. Porter, 2005
11
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Error Recovery Approaches: Phrase-Level Recovery
Compiler corrects the program
by deleting or inserting tokens
...so it can proceed to parse from where it was.
Example
while (x = 4)
y := a+b; ...
Insert do to fix the statement.
!The key...
Dont get into an infinite loop
...constantly inserting tokens
...and never scanning the actual source
Harry H. Porter, 2005
12
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Error Recovery Approaches: Error Productions
Augment the CFG with Error Productions
Now the CFG accepts anything!
If error productions are used...
Their actions:
{ print (Error...) }
Used with...
LR (Bottom-up) parsing
!Parser Generators
Error Recovery Approaches: Global Correction
Theoretical Approach
Find the minimum change to the source to yield a valid program
(Insert tokens, delete tokens, swap adjacent tokens)
Impractical algorithms - too time consuming
Harry H. Porter, 2005
13
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
CFG: Context Free Grammars
Example Rule:
Stmt " if Expr then Stmt else Stmt
Terminals
Keywords
else else
Token Classes
ID INTEGER REAL
Punctuation
;
Non-terminals
Any symbol appearing on the lefthand side of any rule
Start Symbol
Usually the non-terminal on the lefthand side of the first rule
Rules (or Productions)
BNF: Backus-Naur Form / Backus-Normal Form
Stmt ::= if Expr then Stmt else Stmt
Harry H. Porter, 2005
14
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Rule Alternatives
E
E
E
E
"E+E
"(E)
"-E
" ID
E "E+E
"(E)
"-E
" ID
All Notations are Equivalent
E "E+E
|(E)
|-E
| ID
E "E+E
| (E) | -E |
ID
Harry H. Porter, 2005
15
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Notational Conventions
Terminals
a b c ...
Nonterminals
A B C ...
S
Expr
Grammar Symbols (Terminals or Nonterminals)
X Y Z U V W ...
Strings of Symbols
# $ % ...
Strings of Terminals
x y z u v w ...
A sequence of zero
Or more terminals
And nonterminals
Including &
Examples
A"#B
A rule whose righthand side ends with a nonterminal
A"x#
A rule whose righthand side begins with a string of terminals (call it x)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
16
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Derivations
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
E "E+E
"E*E
"(E)
"-E
" ID
A Derivation of (id*id)
E ! (E) ! (E*E) ! (id*E) ! (id*id)
Sentential Forms
A sequence of terminals and nonterminals in a derivation
(id*E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
17
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Derives in one step !
If A " $ is a rule, then we can write
#A% ! #$%
Any sentential form containing a nonterminal (call it A)
... such that A matches the nonterminal in some rule.
Derives in zero-or-more steps !*
E !*
If #
(id*id)
!* $ and $ ! %, then # !* %
Derives in one-or-more steps !+
Harry H. Porter, 2005
18
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Given
G
S
A grammar
The Start Symbol
Define
L(G) The language generated
L(G) = { w | S !+ w}
Equivalence of CFGs
If two CFGs generate the same language, we say they are equivalent.
G1 ' G2 whenever L(G1) = L(G2)
In making a derivation...
Choose which nonterminal to expand
Choose which rule to apply
Harry H. Porter, 2005
19
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Leftmost Derivations
In a derivation... always expand the leftmost nonterminal.
E
!
E+E
!
(E)+E
!
(E*E)+E
!
(id*E)+E
!
(id*id)+E
!
(id*id)+id
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
E "E+E
"E*E
"(E)
"-E
" ID
Let !LM denote a step in a leftmost derivation (!LM* means zero-or-more steps )
At each step in a leftmost derivation, we have
wA% !LM w$%
where A " $ is a rule
(Recall that w is a string of terminals.)
Each sentential form in a leftmost derivation is called a left-sentential form.
If S
!LM* #
Harry H. Porter, 2005
then we say # is a left-sentential form.
20
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Rightmost Derivations
In a derivation... always expand the rightmost nonterminal.
E
1.
!
E+E
2.
!
E+id
3.
!
(E)+id
4.
!
(E*E)+id
5.
!
(E*id)+id
!
(id*id)+id
E "E+E
"E*E
"(E)
"-E
" ID
Let !RM denote a step in a rightmost derivation (!RM* means zero-or-more steps )
At each step in a rightmost derivation, we have
#Aw !RM #$w
where A " $ is a rule
(Recall that w is a string of terminals.)
Each sentential form in a rightmost derivation is called a right-sentential form.
If S
!RM* #
then we say # is a right-sentential form.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
21
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Bottom-Up Parsing
Bottom-up parsers discover rightmost derivations!
Parser moves from input string back to S.
Follow
S !RM* w
in reverse.
At each step in a rightmost derivation, we have
#Aw !RM #$w
where A " $ is a rule
String of terminals (i.e., the rest of the input,
which we have not yet seen)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
22
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Parse Trees
Two choices at each step in a derivation...
!Which non-terminal to expand
!Which rule to use in replacing it
The parse tree remembers only this
Leftmost Derivation:
!
!
!
!
!
!
E
E+E
(E)+E
(E*E)+E
(id*E)+E
(id*id)+E
(id*id)+id
1. E " E + E
2.
"E*E
3.
"(E)
4.
"-E
5.
" ID
E
E
id
id
id
Harry H. Porter, 2005
23
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Parse Trees
Two choices at each step in a derivation...
!Which non-terminal to expand
!Which rule to use in replacing it
The parse tree remembers only this
Rightmost Derivation:
!
!
!
!
!
!
1. E " E + E
2.
"E*E
3.
"(E)
4.
"-E
5.
" ID
id
id
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E
E+E
E+id
(E)+id
(E*E)+id
(E*id)+id
(id*id)+id
id
24
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Parse Trees
Two choices at each step in a derivation...
!Which non-terminal to expand
!Which rule to use in replacing it
The parse tree remembers only this
Leftmost Derivation:
!
!
!
!
!
!
Rightmost Derivation:
E
E+E
(E)+E
(E*E)+E
(id*E)+E
(id*id)+E
(id*id)+id
1. E " E + E
2.
"E*E
3.
"(E)
4.
"-E
5.
" ID
!
!
!
!
!
!
E
E
id
id
E
E+E
E+id
(E)+id
(E*E)+id
(E*id)+id
(id*id)+id
E
id
Harry H. Porter, 2005
25
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Given a leftmost derivation, we can build a parse tree.
Given a rightmost derivation, we can build a parse tree.
Lefttmost Derivation of
Rightmost Derivation of
(id*id)+id
(id*id)+id
Same Parse Tree
Every parse tree corresponds to...
A single, unique leftmost derivation
A single, unique rightmost derivation
Ambiguity:
However, one input string may have several parse trees!!!
Therefore:
!Several leftmost derivations
!Several rightmost derivations
Harry H. Porter, 2005
26
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Ambuiguous Grammars
E
Leftmost Derivation #1
!
!
!
!
!
E
E+E
id+E
id+E*E
id+id*E
id+id*id
id
Input: id+id*id
E
id
id
Leftmost Derivation #2
!
!
!
!
!
1. E " E + E
2.
"E*E
3.
"(E)
4.
"-E
5.
" ID
E
E*E
E+E*E
id+E*E
id+id*E
id+id*id
E
id
id
id
Harry H. Porter, 2005
27
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Ambiguous Grammar
More than one Parse Tree for some sentence.
The grammar for a programming language may be ambiguous
Need to modify it for parsing.
Also: Grammar may be left recursive.
Need to modify it for parsing.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
28
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Translating a Regular Expression into a CFG
First build the NFA.
For every state in the NFA...
Make a nonterminal in the grammar
For every edge labeled c from A to B...
Add the rule
A " cB
For every edge labeled & from A to B...
Add the rule
A" B
For every final state B...
Add the rule
B" &
Harry H. Porter, 2005
29
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Recursive Transition Networks
Regular Expressions ( NFA ( DFA
Context-Free Grammar ( Recursive Transition Networks
Exactly as expressive a CFGs... But clearer for humans!
IfStmt
Expr
Expr
if
...
then
Stmt
Stmt
Expr
elseIf
then
Stmt
...
...
Stmt
else
end
...
Terminal Symbols:
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Nonterminal Symbols:
30
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
The Dangling Else Problem
This grammar is ambiguous!
Stmt " if Expr then Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt else Stmt
" ...Other Stmt Forms...
Example String: if E1 then if E2 then S1 else S2
Interpretation #1: if E1 then (if E2 then S1) else S2
S
if
E1
then
if
S
E2
else
then
S2
S1
Interpretation #2: if E1 then (if E2 then S1 else S2)
S
if
E1
if
E2
then
then
S
S1
else
S2
Harry H. Porter, 2005
31
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
The Dangling Else Problem
Goal: Match else-clause to the closest if without an else-clause already.
Solution:
Stmt
WithElse
"
"
"
"
"
if Expr then Stmt
if Expr then WithElse else Stmt
...Other Stmt Forms...
if Expr then WithElse else WithElse
...Other Stmt Forms...
Any Stmt occurring between then and else must have an else.
i.e., the Stmt must not end with then Stmt.
Interpretation #2: if E1 then (if E2 then S1 else S2)
Stmt
if
if
E1
E2
then
Stmt
then WithElse else WithElse
S1
Harry H. Porter, 2005
S2
32
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
The Dangling Else Problem
Goal: Match else-clause to the closest if without an else-clause already.
Solution:
Stmt
WithElse
"
"
"
"
"
if Expr then Stmt
if Expr then WithElse else Stmt
...Other Stmt Forms...
if Expr then WithElse else WithElse
...Other Stmt Forms...
Any Stmt occurring between then and else must have an else.
i.e., the Stmt must not end with then Stmt.
Interpretation #1: if E1 then (if E2 then S1) else S2
Stmt
if
E1
then
WithElse
else
Stmt
Harry H. Porter, 2005
33
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
The Dangling Else Problem
Goal: Match else-clause to the closest if without an else-clause already.
Solution:
Stmt
WithElse
"
"
"
"
"
if Expr then Stmt
if Expr then WithElse else Stmt
...Other Stmt Forms...
if Expr then WithElse else WithElse
...Other Stmt Forms...
Any Stmt occurring between then and else must have an else.
i.e., the Stmt must not end with then Stmt.
Interpretation #1: if E1 then (if E2 then S1) else S2
Stmt
if
if
E2
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E1
then
WithElse
else
Stmt
then WithElse else WithElse
34
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
The Dangling Else Problem
Goal: Match else-clause to the closest if without an else-clause already.
Solution:
Stmt
WithElse
"
"
"
"
"
if Expr then Stmt
if Expr then WithElse else Stmt
...Other Stmt Forms...
if Expr then WithElse else WithElse
...Other Stmt Forms...
Any Stmt occurring between then and else must have an else.
i.e., the Stmt must not end with then Stmt.
Interpretation #1: if E1 then (if E2 then S1) else S2
Stmt
if
if
E2
E1
then
WithElse
else
Stmt
then WithElse else WithElse
Oops, No Match!
Harry H. Porter, 2005
35
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Top-Down Parsing
Find a left-most derivation
Find (build) a parse tree
Start building from the root and work down...
As we search for a derivation...
Must make choices:
!Which rule to use
!Where to use it
May run into problems!
Option 1:
Backtracking
Made a bad decision
Back up and try another choice
Option 2:
Always make the right choice.
Never have to backtrack: Predictive Parser
Possible for some grammars (LL Grammars)
May be able to fix some grammars (but not others)
!Eliminate Left Recursion
!Left-Factor the Rules
Harry H. Porter, 2005
36
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
37
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
S
A
Harry H. Porter, 2005
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
38
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
39
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
S
A
a
Harry H. Porter, 2005
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
40
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
41
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
Harry H. Porter, 2005
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
42
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
43
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
Harry H. Porter, 2005
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
44
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Failure Occurs Here!!!
Harry H. Porter, 2005
45
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
S
A
a
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
We need an ability to
back up in the input!!!
Harry H. Porter, 2005
46
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
47
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
Harry H. Porter, 2005
a
b
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
48
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
a
b
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
49
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
Harry H. Porter, 2005
a
b
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
50
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
a
b
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
51
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
a
a
b
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Failure Occurs Here!!!
Harry H. Porter, 2005
52
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
A
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
53
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
Harry H. Porter, 2005
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
54
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
C
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
55
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
S
C
a
Harry H. Porter, 2005
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
56
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
C
a
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
57
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Backtracking
Input: aabbde
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S
C
a
Harry H. Porter, 2005
S " Aa
" Ce
A " aaB
" aaba
B " bbb
C " aaD
D " bbd
58
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Predictive Parsing
Will never backtrack!
Requirement:
For every rule:
A " #1 | #2 | #3 | ... | #N
We must be able to choose the correct alternative
by looking only at the next symbol
May peek ahead to the next symbol (token).
Example
A
" aB
" cD
"E
Assuming a,c ) FIRST (E)
Example
Stmt " if Expr ...
" for LValue ...
" while Expr ...
" return Expr ...
" ID ...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
59
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Predictive Parsing
LL(1) Grammars
Can do predictive parsing
Can select the right rule
Looking at only the next 1 input symbol
Harry H. Porter, 2005
60
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Predictive Parsing
LL(1) Grammars
Can do predictive parsing
Can select the right rule
Looking at only the next 1 input symbol
LL(k) Grammars
Can do predictive parsing
Can select the right rule
Looking at only the next k input symbols
Harry H. Porter, 2005
61
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Predictive Parsing
LL(1) Grammars
Can do predictive parsing
Can select the right rule
Looking at only the next 1 input symbol
LL(k) Grammars
Can do predictive parsing
Can select the right rule
Looking at only the next k input symbols
Techniques to modify the grammar:
!Left Factoring
!Removal of Left Recursion
Harry H. Porter, 2005
62
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Predictive Parsing
LL(1) Grammars
Can do predictive parsing
Can select the right rule
Looking at only the next 1 input symbol
LL(k) Grammars
Can do predictive parsing
Can select the right rule
Looking at only the next k input symbols
Techniques to modify the grammar:
!Left Factoring
!Removal of Left Recursion
But these may not be enough!
Harry H. Porter, 2005
63
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Predictive Parsing
LL(1) Grammars
Can do predictive parsing
Can select the right rule
Looking at only the next 1 input symbol
LL(k) Grammars
Can do predictive parsing
Can select the right rule
Looking at only the next k input symbols
Techniques to modify the grammar:
!Left Factoring
!Removal of Left Recursion
But these may not be enough!
LL(k) Language
Can be described with an LL(k) grammar.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
64
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left-Factoring
Problem:
Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt else Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt
" OtherStmt
With predictive parsing, we need to know which rule to use!
(While looking at just the next token)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
65
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left-Factoring
Problem:
Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt else Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt
" OtherStmt
With predictive parsing, we need to know which rule to use!
(While looking at just the next token)
Solution:
Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt ElsePart
" OtherStmt
ElsePart " else Stmt | &
Harry H. Porter, 2005
66
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left-Factoring
Problem:
Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt else Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt
" OtherStmt
With predictive parsing, we need to know which rule to use!
(While looking at just the next token)
Solution:
Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt ElsePart
" OtherStmt
ElsePart " else Stmt | &
General Approach:
Before: A
" #$1 | #$2 | #$3 | ... | *1 | *2 | *3 | ...
After:
A
C
" #C | *1 | *2 | *3 | ...
" $1 | $2 | $3 | ...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
67
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left-Factoring
Problem:
Stmt
A
" if Expr then Stmt else Stmt
#
& $1
$2
" if Expr then Stmt
" OtherStmt
*
1
With predictive parsing,
we need to know which rule to use!
(While looking at just the next token)
Solution:
Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt ElsePart
" OtherStmt
ElsePart " else Stmt | &
General Approach:
Before: A
" #$1 | #$2 | #$3 | ... | *1 | *2 | *3 | ...
After:
Harry H. Porter, 2005
A
C
" #C | *1 | *2 | *3 | ...
" $1 | $2 | $3 | ...
68
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left-Factoring
Problem:
Stmt
A
" if Expr then Stmt else Stmt
#
& $1
$2
" if Expr then Stmt
" OtherStmt
*
1
With predictive parsing,
we need to know which rule to use!
(While looking at just the next token)
Solution:
Stmt
" if Expr then Stmt ElsePart
" OtherStmt
*1
ElsePart " else Stmt | &
C
2
General Approach: 1
Before: A
" #$1 | #$2 | #$3 | ... | *1 | *2 | *3 | ...
After:
A
C
" #C | *1 | *2 | *3 | ...
" $1 | $2 | $3 | ...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
69
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion
Whenever
A !+ A#
Simplest Case: Immediate Left Recursion
Given:
A " A# | $
Transform into:
A " $A'
A' " #A' | &
where A' is a new nonterminal
More General (but still immediate):
A " A#1 | A#2 | A#3 | ... | $1 | $2 | $3 | ...
Transform into:
A " $1A' | $2A' | $3A' | ...
A' " #1A' | #2A' | #3A' | ... | &
Harry H. Porter, 2005
70
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
Example:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | e
Is A left recursive? Yes.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
71
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
Example:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | e
Is A left recursive? Yes.
Is S left recursive?
Harry H. Porter, 2005
72
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
Example:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | e
Is A left recursive? Yes.
Is S left recursive? Yes, but not immediate left recursion.
S ! Af ! Sdf
Harry H. Porter, 2005
73
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
Example:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | e
Is A left recursive? Yes.
Is S left recursive? Yes, but not immediate left recursion.
S ! Af ! Sdf
Approach:
Look at the rules for S only (ignoring other rules)... No left recursion.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
74
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
Example:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | e
Is A left recursive? Yes.
Is S left recursive? Yes, but not immediate left recursion.
S ! Af ! Sdf
Approach:
Look at the rules for S only (ignoring other rules)... No left recursion.
Look at the rules for A...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
75
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
Example:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | e
Is A left recursive? Yes.
Is S left recursive? Yes, but not immediate left recursion.
S ! Af ! Sdf
Approach:
Look at the rules for S only (ignoring other rules)... No left recursion.
Look at the rules for A...
Do any of As rules start with S? Yes.
A " Sd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
76
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
Example:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | e
Is A left recursive? Yes.
Is S left recursive? Yes, but not immediate left recursion.
S ! Af ! Sdf
Approach:
Look at the rules for S only (ignoring other rules)... No left recursion.
Look at the rules for A...
Do any of As rules start with S? Yes.
A " Sd
Get rid of the S. Substitute in the righthand sides of S.
A " Afd | bd
Harry H. Porter, 2005
77
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
Example:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | e
Is A left recursive? Yes.
Is S left recursive? Yes, but not immediate left recursion.
S ! Af ! Sdf
Approach:
Look at the rules for S only (ignoring other rules)... No left recursion.
Look at the rules for A...
Do any of As rules start with S? Yes.
A " Sd
Get rid of the S. Substitute in the righthand sides of S.
A " Afd | bd
The modified grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Afd | bd | e
Harry H. Porter, 2005
78
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
Example:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | e
Is A left recursive? Yes.
Is S left recursive? Yes, but not immediate left recursion.
S ! Af ! Sdf
Approach:
Look at the rules for S only (ignoring other rules)... No left recursion.
Look at the rules for A...
Do any of As rules start with S? Yes.
A " Sd
Get rid of the S. Substitute in the righthand sides of S.
A " Afd | bd
The modified grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Afd | bd | e
Now eliminate immediate left recursion involving A.
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | eA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
Harry H. Porter, 2005
79
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | e
Harry H. Porter, 2005
80
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
Assume there are still more nonterminals;
Look at the next one...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
81
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
Harry H. Porter, 2005
82
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
B " Ag | Sh | k
Look at the B rules next;
Does any righthand side
start with S?
Harry H. Porter, 2005
83
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
B " Ag | Afh | bh | k
Substitute, using the rules for S
Af... | b...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
84
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
B " Ag | Afh | bh | k
Does any righthand side
start with A?
Harry H. Porter, 2005
85
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
B " Ag | Afh | bh | k
Do this one first.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
86
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
B " bdA'g | BeA'g | Afh | bh | k
Substitute, using the rules for A
bdA'... | BeA'...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
87
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
B " bdA'g | BeA'g | Afh | bh | k
Do this one next.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
88
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
B " bdA'g | BeA'g | bdA'fh | BeA'fh | bh | k
Substitute, using the rules for A
bdA'... | BeA'...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
89
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
B " bdA'g | BeA'g | bdA'fh | BeA'fh | bh | k
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Finally, eliminate any immediate
Left recursion involving B
90
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be
B " Ag | Sh | k
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
B " bdA'gB' | bdA'fhB' | bhB' | kB'
B' " eA'gB' | eA'fhB' | &
Finally, eliminate any immediate
Left recursion involving B
Harry H. Porter, 2005
91
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Left Recursion in More Than One Step
The Original Grammar:
S " Af | b
A " Ac | Sd | Be | C
If there is another nonterminal,
B " Ag | Sh | k
then do it next.
C " BkmA | AS | j
So Far:
S " Af | b
A " bdA' | BeA' | CA'
A' " cA' | fdA' | &
B " bdA'gB' | bdA'fhB' | bhB' | kB' | CA'gB' | CA'fhB'
B' " eA'gB' | eA'fhB' | &
Harry H. Porter, 2005
92
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Algorithm to Eliminate Left Recursion
Assume the nonterminals are ordered A1, A2, A3,...
(In the example: S, A, B)
for each nonterminal Ai (for i = 1 to N) do
for each nonterminal Aj (for j = 1 to i-1) do
Let Aj " $1 | $2 | $3 | ... | $N be all the rules for Aj
if there is a rule of the form
A i " Aj #
then replace it by
Ai " $1# | $2# | $3# | ... | $N#
endIf
endFor
A1
Eliminate immediate left recursion
A2
among the Ai rules
A3
Inner Loop
endFor
...
Aj
...
A7
Ai
Outer Loop
Harry H. Porter, 2005
93
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Table-Driven Predictive Parsing Algorithm
Assume that the grammar is LL(1)
i.e., Backtracking will never be needed
Always know which righthand side to choose (with one look-ahead)
!No Left Recursion
! Grammar is Left-Factored.
Example
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Step 1:
Step 2:
Term ...
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
+Term +Term + ... +Term
Factor ...
* Factor * Factor * ... * Factor
From grammar, construct table.
Use table to parse strings.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
94
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Table-Driven Predictive Parsing Algorithm
(
X
Y
Z
$
Stack of
grammar symbols
* 4 )
Input String
Algorithm
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Output
Pre-Computed Table:
Harry H. Porter, 2005
95
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Table-Driven Predictive Parsing Algorithm
(
X
Y
Z
$
Stack of
grammar symbols
* 4 )
Input String
id
E"TE'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
Output
Input Symbols, plus $
+
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
Nonterminals
Algorithm
Pre-Computed Table:
E
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
96
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Table-Driven Predictive Parsing Algorithm
(
X
Y
Z
$
Stack of
grammar symbols
* 4 )
Input String
id
E"TE'
Output
Input Symbols, plus $
+
T"FT'
F"id
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
Blank entries
indicate ERROR
E"TE'
E'"+TE'
E'
Nonterminals
Algorithm
Pre-Computed Table:
E
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
97
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Predictive Parsing Algorithm
Set input ptr to first symbol; Place $ after last input symbol
Push $
Push S
repeat
X = stack top
a = current input symbol
if X is a terminal or X = $ then
if X == a then
Pop stack
Advance input ptr
else
Error
endIf
elseIf Table[X,a] contains a rule then
// call it X " Y1 Y2 ... YK
Pop stack
Push YK
Y1
...
Push Y2
Y2
Push Y1
...
Print (X " Y1 Y2 ... YK)
else
// Table[X,a] is blank
YK
X
Syntax Error
A
A
endIf
$
$
until X == $
Harry H. Porter, 2005
98
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
( id * id )
id
E"TE'
+ id
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
T
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
99
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
( id * id )
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
+ id
Add $ to end of input
Push $
Push E
E
id
E"TE'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
T
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
100
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
( id * id )
E
T
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Add $ to end of input
Push $
Push E
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
101
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
( id * id )
E
$
id
E"TE'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
+ id $
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
T
Look at Table [ E, ( ]
Use rule E"TE'
Pop E
Push E'
Push T
Print E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
102
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
" T E'
( id * id )
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
Look at Table [ E, ( ]
Use rule E"TE'
Pop E
Push E'
Push T
Print E"TE'
E'"+TE'
E'
T
+ id $
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
103
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
" T E'
( id * id )
Table [ T, ( ] = T"FT'
Pop T
Push T
Push F
Print T"FT'
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
+
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
104
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
" T E'
" F T'
( id * id )
Table [ T, ( ] = T"FT'
Pop T
Push T
Push F
Print T"FT'
F
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
105
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
" T E'
" F T'
( id * id )
F
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
T
Table [ F, ( ] = F"(E)
Pop F
Push (
Push E
Push )
Print F"(E)
+ id $
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
106
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
" T E'
" F T'
" ( E )
( id * id )
(
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ F, ( ] = F"(E)
Pop F
Push )
Push E
Push (
Print F"(E)
E'"+TE'
E'
T
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
107
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
" T E'
" F T'
" ( E )
( id * id )
(
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
E'"+TE'
E'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
108
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
" T E'
" F T'
" ( E )
( id * id )
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
E'"+TE'
E'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
109
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
" T E'
" F T'
" ( E )
( id * id )
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
+ id $
Table [ E, id ] = E"TE'
Pop E
Push E'
Push T
Print E"TE'
E'"+TE'
E'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
110
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
"
"
"
"
T
F
(
T
E'
T'
E )
E'
( id * id )
T
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ E, id ] = E"TE'
Pop E
Push E'
Push T
Print E"TE'
E'"+TE'
E'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
111
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
"
"
"
"
T
F
(
T
E'
T'
E )
E'
( id * id )
T
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
+ id $
Table [ T, id ] = T"FT'
Pop T
Push T'
Push F
Print T"FT'
E'"+TE'
E'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
112
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
"
"
"
"
"
T
F
(
T
F
E'
T'
E )
E'
T'
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ T, id ] = T"FT'
Pop T
Push T'
Push F
Print T"FT'
E'"+TE'
E'
T
( id * id )
F
T
E
)
T
E
$
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
113
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
"
"
"
"
"
T
F
(
T
F
E'
T'
E )
E'
T'
id
E"TE'
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
+ id $
Table [ F, id ] = F"id
Pop F
Push id
Print F"id
E'"+TE'
E'
T
( id * id )
F
T
E
)
T
E
$
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
114
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ F, id ] = F"id
Pop F
Push id
Print F"id
E'"+TE'
E'
T
( id * id )
id
T
E
)
T
E
$
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
115
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
id
E"TE'
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
E'"+TE'
E'
T
( id * id )
id
T
E
)
T
E
$
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
116
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
( id * id )
T
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
E'"+TE'
E'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
117
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
( id * id )
T
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ T', * ] = T'"*FT'
Pop T'
Push T'
Push F
Push *
Print T'"*FT'
E'"+TE'
E'
T
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
118
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
*
F
T
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ T', * ] = T'"*FT'
Pop T'
Push T'
Push F
Push *
Print T'"*FT'
E'"+TE'
E'
T
( id * id )
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
119
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
*
F
T
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
E'"+TE'
E'
T
( id * id )
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
120
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
E'"+TE'
E'
T
( id * id )
F
T
E
)
T
E
$
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
121
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
E"TE'
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
+ id $
Table [ F, id ] = F"id
Pop F
Push id
Print F"id
E'"+TE'
E'
T
( id * id )
F
T
E
)
T
E
$
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
122
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ F, id ] = F"id
Pop F
Push id
Print F"id
E'"+TE'
E'
T
( id * id )
id
T
E
)
T
E
$
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
123
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
id
E"TE'
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
E'"+TE'
E'
T
( id * id )
id
T
E
)
T
E
$
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
124
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
( id * id )
T
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
E'"+TE'
E'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
125
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
( id * id )
T
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
+ id $
Table [ T', ) ] = T'"&
Pop T'
Push <nothing>
Print T'"&
E'"+TE'
E'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
126
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
( id * id )
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ T', ) ] = T'"&
Pop T'
Push <nothing>
Print T'"&
E'"+TE'
E'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
127
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
( id * id )
E
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
+ id $
Table [ E', ) ] = E'"&
Pop E'
Push <nothing>
Print E'"&
E'"+TE'
E'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
128
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
( id * id )
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Table [ E', ) ] = E'"&
Pop E'
Push <nothing>
Print E'"&
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
129
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
( id * id )
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
+
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
)
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
130
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
( id * id )
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
131
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
( id * id )
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
+
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Table [ T', + ] = T'"&
Pop T'
Push <nothing>
Print T'"&
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
132
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
E
( id * id )
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Table [ T', + ] = T'"&
Pop T'
Push <nothing>
Print T'"&
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
133
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
E
( id * id )
E
$
id
E"TE'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ E', + ] = E'"+TE'
Pop E'
Push E'
Push T
Push +
Print E'"+TE'
E'"+TE'
E'
T
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
134
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
E
( id * id )
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
T
+ id $
Table [ E', + ] = E'"+TE'
Pop E'
Push E'
Push T
Push +
Print E'"+TE'
+
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
135
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
E
( id * id )
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
+
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
+
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
136
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
E
( id * id )
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
137
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
E
( id * id )
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
+
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Table [ T, id ] = T"FT'
Pop T
Push T'
Push F
Print T"FT'
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
138
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
E
( id * id )
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Table [ T, id ] = T"FT'
Pop T
Push T'
Push F
Print T"FT'
F
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
139
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
E
( id * id )
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
T"FT'
T'
F
+
E'"+TE'
E'
+ id $
Table [ F, id ] = F"id
Pop F
Push id
Print F"id
F
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
140
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id E
E'
T
( id * id )
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
E'"+TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ F, id ] = F"id
Pop F
Push id
Print F"id
id
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
141
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id E
E'
T
( id * id )
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T"FT'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
E'"+TE'
T'
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
id
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
142
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id E
E'
T
( id * id )
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
E'"+TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Top of Stack matches next input
Pop and Scan
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
143
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id E
E'
T
( id * id )
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T"FT'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
E'"+TE'
T'
+ id $
Table [ T', $ ] = T'"&
Pop T'
Push <nothing>
Print T'"&
T
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
144
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id E
&
E'
T
( id * id )
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
E'"+TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ T', $ ] = T'"&
Pop T'
Push <nothing>
Print T'"&
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
145
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id E
&
E'
T
( id * id )
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T"FT'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
E'"+TE'
T'
+ id $
Table [ E', $ ] = E'"&
Pop E'
Push <nothing>
Print E'"&
E
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
146
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id E
&
E'
&
T
( id * id )
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
E"TE'
E'"+TE'
T"FT'
T"FT'
T'"&
T'
F
+ id $
Table [ E', $ ] = E'"&
Pop E'
Push <nothing>
Print E'"&
$
id
E"TE'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"id
F"(E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
147
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Example
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id E
&
E'
&
T
( id * id )
Harry H. Porter, 2005
+ id $
Input symbol == $
Top of stack == $
Loop terminates with success
$
id
E"TE'
T"FT'
E'"&
E'"&
T'"&
T'"&
T"FT'
T'"&
F"id
E"TE'
E'"+TE'
T'
F
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'"*FT'
F"(E)
148
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
" T E'
E'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
149
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
" T E'
" F T'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
E'
T
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'
150
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
" T E'
" F T'
" ( E )
E'
T
F
(
T'
)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
151
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
"
"
"
"
T
F
(
T
E'
T'
E )
E'
(
T
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
E'
T
F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'
)
E'
152
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
"
"
"
"
"
T
F
(
T
F
E'
T'
E )
E'
T'
E'
T
F
(
T'
)
E'
T'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
153
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
E'
T
F
(
T
F
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'
)
E'
T'
id
Harry H. Porter, 2005
154
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
E'
T
F
(
T'
)
E'
T'
F
id
T'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
155
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
E'
T
F
(
T'
)
E'
T'
F
id
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'
id
Harry H. Porter, 2005
156
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
E'
T
F
(
T'
)
E'
T'
F
id
T'
id
&
Harry H. Porter, 2005
157
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
F
(
T'
)
id
E'
&
T'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
E'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'
id
&
158
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
E'
T
F
(
T'
)
&
E'
&
T'
F
id
T'
id
&
Harry H. Porter, 2005
159
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F
(
T'
)
id
E'
&
E'
&
T'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
E'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'
id
&
160
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
E'
T
F
(
&
T
F
E'
T'
E'
&
T'
F
id
T'
T'
id
&
Harry H. Porter, 2005
161
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id
F
(
T'
)
&
E'
T
F
E'
T'
id
&
T'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
E'
id
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'
id
&
162
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
T'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id
&
E'
T
F
(
&
E'
E'
T'
id
&
&
T'
F
id
T'
T'
id
&
Harry H. Porter, 2005
163
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id
&
&
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
E'
T
F
(
T'
)
id
&
E'
E'
T'
id
&
&
&
T'
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
T'
id
&
164
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Reconstructing the Parse Tree
Input:
(id*id)+id
Output:
E
T
F
E
T
F
T'
F
T'
E'
T'
E'
T
F
T'
E'
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
F T'
( E )
T E'
F T'
id
* F T'
id
&
&
&
+ T E'
F T'
id
&
&
Leftmost Derivation:
E
T E'
F T' E'
( E ) T' E'
( T E' ) T' E'
( F T' E' ) T' E'
( id T' E' ) T' E'
( id * F T' E' ) T' E'
( id * id T' E' ) T' E'
( id * id E' ) T' E'
( id * id ) T' E'
( id * id ) E'
( id * id ) + T E'
( id * id ) + F T' E'
( id * id ) + id T' E'
( id * id ) + id E'
( id * id ) + id
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E "
E' "
T "
T' "
F "
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
165
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
FIRST Function
Let # be a string of symbols (terminals and nonterminals)
Define:
FIRST (#) = The set of terminals that could occur first
in any string derivable from #
= { a | # !* aw, plus & if # !* & }
Harry H. Porter, 2005
166
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
FIRST Function
Let # be a string of symbols (terminals and nonterminals)
Define:
FIRST (#) = The set of terminals that could occur first
in any string derivable from #
= { a | # !* aw, plus & if # !* & }
Example:
E"
E'"
T"
T'"
F "
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
FIRST (F) = ?
Harry H. Porter, 2005
167
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
FIRST Function
Let # be a string of symbols (terminals and nonterminals)
Define:
FIRST (#) = The set of terminals that could occur first
in any string derivable from #
= { a | # !* aw, plus & if # !* & }
Example:
E"
E'"
T"
T'"
F "
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
FIRST (F) = { (, id }
FIRST (T') = ?
Harry H. Porter, 2005
168
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
FIRST Function
Let # be a string of symbols (terminals and nonterminals)
Define:
FIRST (#) = The set of terminals that could occur first
in any string derivable from #
= { a | # !* aw, plus & if # !* & }
Example:
E"
E'"
T"
T'"
F "
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
FIRST (F) = { (, id }
FIRST (T') = { *, &}
FIRST (T) = ?
Harry H. Porter, 2005
169
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
FIRST Function
Let # be a string of symbols (terminals and nonterminals)
Define:
FIRST (#) = The set of terminals that could occur first
in any string derivable from #
= { a | # !* aw, plus & if # !* & }
Example:
E"
E'"
T"
T'"
F "
FIRST (F)
FIRST (T')
FIRST (T)
FIRST (E')
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
= { (, id }
= { *, &}
= { (, id }
=?
170
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
FIRST Function
Let # be a string of symbols (terminals and nonterminals)
Define:
FIRST (#) = The set of terminals that could occur first
in any string derivable from #
= { a | # !* aw, plus & if # !* & }
Example:
E"
E'"
T"
T'"
F "
FIRST (F)
FIRST (T')
FIRST (T)
FIRST (E')
FIRST (E)
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
= { (, id }
= { *, &}
= { (, id }
= { +, &}
=?
Harry H. Porter, 2005
171
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
FIRST Function
Let # be a string of symbols (terminals and nonterminals)
Define:
FIRST (#) = The set of terminals that could occur first
in any string derivable from #
= { a | # !* aw, plus & if # !* & }
Example:
E"
E'"
T"
T'"
F "
FIRST (F)
FIRST (T')
FIRST (T)
FIRST (E')
FIRST (E)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
= { (, id }
= { *, &}
= { (, id }
= { +, &}
= { (, id }
172
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
To Compute the FIRST Function
For all symbols X in the grammar...
if X is a terminal then
FIRST(X) = { X }
if X " & is a rule then
add & to FIRST(X)
if X " Y1 Y2 Y3 ... YK is a rule then
if a + FIRST(Y1) then
add a to FIRST(X)
if & + FIRST(Y1) and a + FIRST(Y2) then
add a to FIRST(X)
if & + FIRST(Y1) and & + FIRST(Y2) and a + FIRST(Y3) then
add a to FIRST(X)
...
if & + FIRST(Yi) for all Yi then
add & to FIRST(X)
Repeat until nothing more can be added to any sets.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
173
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
To Compute the FIRST(X1X2X3...XN)
Result = {}
Add everything in FIRST(X1), except &, to result
Harry H. Porter, 2005
174
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
To Compute the FIRST(X1X2X3...XN)
Result = {}
Add everything in FIRST(X1), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X1) then
Add everything in FIRST(X2), except &, to result
endIf
Harry H. Porter, 2005
175
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
To Compute the FIRST(X1X2X3...XN)
Result = {}
Add everything in FIRST(X1), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X1) then
Add everything in FIRST(X2), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X2) then
Add everything in FIRST(X3), except &, to result
endIf
endIf
Harry H. Porter, 2005
176
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
To Compute the FIRST(X1X2X3...XN)
Result = {}
Add everything in FIRST(X1), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X1) then
Add everything in FIRST(X2), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X2) then
Add everything in FIRST(X3), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X3) then
Add everything in FIRST(X4), except &, to result
endIf
endIf
endIf
Harry H. Porter, 2005
177
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
To Compute the FIRST(X1X2X3...XN)
Result = {}
Add everything in FIRST(X1), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X1) then
Add everything in FIRST(X2), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X2) then
Add everything in FIRST(X3), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X3) then
Add everything in FIRST(X4), except &, to result
...
if & + FIRST(XN-1) then
Add everything in FIRST(XN), except &, to result
endIf
...
endIf
endIf
endIf
Harry H. Porter, 2005
178
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
To Compute the FIRST(X1X2X3...XN)
Result = {}
Add everything in FIRST(X1), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X1) then
Add everything in FIRST(X2), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X2) then
Add everything in FIRST(X3), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(X3) then
Add everything in FIRST(X4), except &, to result
...
if & + FIRST(XN-1) then
Add everything in FIRST(XN), except &, to result
if & + FIRST(XN) then
// Then X1 !* &, X2 !* &, X3 !* &, ... XN !* &
Add & to result
endIf
endIf
...
endIf
endIf
endIf
Harry H. Porter, 2005
179
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
To Compute FOLLOW(Ai) for all Nonterminals in the Grammar
add $ to FOLLOW(S)
repeat
if A"#B$ is a rule then
add every terminal in FIRST($) except & to FOLLOW(B)
if FIRST($) contains & then
add everything in FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B)
endIf
endIf
if A"#B is a rule then
add everything in FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B)
endIf
until We cannot add anything more
Harry H. Porter, 2005
180
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = {
FOLLOW (E') = {
FOLLOW (T) = {
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = {
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
?
?
?
?
?
Harry H. Porter, 2005
181
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = {
FOLLOW (E') = {
FOLLOW (T) = {
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = {
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Add $ to FOLLOW(S)
182
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $,
FOLLOW (E') = {
FOLLOW (T) = {
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = {
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Add $ to FOLLOW(S)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
183
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $,
FOLLOW (E') = {
FOLLOW (T) = {
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = {
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
F " ( E ) | id
What can follow E?
184
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = {
FOLLOW (T) = {
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = {
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
F " ( E ) | id
What can follow E?
Harry H. Porter, 2005
185
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = {
FOLLOW (T) = {
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = {
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
E " T E'
Whatever can follow E
can also follow E'
186
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = {
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = {
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
E " T E'
Whatever can follow E
can also follow E'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
187
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = {
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = {
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
E'0 " + T E'1
Whatever is in FIRST(E'1)
can follow T
188
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = { +,
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = {
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
E'0 " + T E'1
Whatever is in FIRST(E'1)
can follow T
Harry H. Porter, 2005
189
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = { +,
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = {
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
T'0 " * F T'1
Whatever is in FIRST(T'1)
can follow F
190
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = { +,
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = { *,
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
T'0 " * F T'1
Whatever is in FIRST(T'1)
can follow F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
191
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = { +,
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = { *,
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
E'0 " + T E'1
Since E'1 can go to &
i.e., & + FIRST(E')
Everything in FOLLOW(E'0)
can follow T
192
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = { +, $, )
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = { *,
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
E'0 " + T E'1
Since E'1 can go to &
i.e., & + FIRST(E')
Everything in FOLLOW(E'0)
can follow T
Harry H. Porter, 2005
193
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = { +, $, )
FOLLOW (T') = {
FOLLOW (F) = { *,
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
T " F T'
Whatever can follow T
can also follow T'
194
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = { +, $, )
FOLLOW (T') = { +, $, )
FOLLOW (F) = { *,
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
T " F T'
Whatever can follow T
can also follow T'
Harry H. Porter, 2005
195
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = { +, $, )
FOLLOW (T') = { +, $, )
FOLLOW (F) = { *,
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
T'0 " * F T'1
Since T'1 can go to &
i.e., & + FIRST(T')
Everything in FOLLOW(T'0)
can follow F
196
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, )
FOLLOW (E') = { $, )
FOLLOW (T) = { +, $, )
FOLLOW (T') = { +, $, )
FOLLOW (F) = { *, +, $, )
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Look at rule
T'0 " * F T'1
Since T'1 can go to &
i.e., & + FIRST(T')
Everything in FOLLOW(T'0)
can follow F
Harry H. Porter, 2005
197
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example of FOLLOW Computation
Previously computed FIRST sets...
FIRST (F)
= { (, id }
FIRST (T')
= { *, &}
FIRST (T)
= { (, id }
FIRST (E')
= { +, &}
FIRST (E)
= { (, id }
The FOLLOW sets...
FOLLOW (E) = { $, ) }
FOLLOW (E') = { $, ) }
FOLLOW (T) = { +, $, ) }
FOLLOW (T') = { +, $, ) }
FOLLOW (F) = { *, +, $, ) }
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E
E'
T
T'
F
"
"
"
"
"
T E'
+ T E' | &
F T'
* F T' | &
( E ) | id
Nothing more can be added.
198
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Building the Predictive Parsing Table
The Main Idea:
Assume were looking for an A
i.e., A is on the stack top.
Assume b is the current input symbol.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
199
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Building the Predictive Parsing Table
The Main Idea:
Assume were looking for an A
i.e., A is on the stack top.
Assume b is the current input symbol.
If A"# is a rule and b is in FIRST(#)
then expand A using the A"# rule!
Harry H. Porter, 2005
200
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Building the Predictive Parsing Table
The Main Idea:
Assume were looking for an A
i.e., A is on the stack top.
Assume b is the current input symbol.
If A"# is a rule and b is in FIRST(#)
then expand A using the A"# rule!
What if & is in FIRST(#)? [i.e., # !* & ]
If b is in FOLLOW(A)
then expand A using the A"# rule!
Harry H. Porter, 2005
201
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Building the Predictive Parsing Table
The Main Idea:
Assume were looking for an A
i.e., A is on the stack top.
Assume b is the current input symbol.
If A"# is a rule and b is in FIRST(#)
then expand A using the A"# rule!
What if & is in FIRST(#)? [i.e., # !* & ]
If b is in FOLLOW(A)
then expand A using the A"# rule!
If & is in FIRST(#) and $ is the current input symbol
then if $ is in FOLLOW(A)
then expand A using the A"# rule!
Harry H. Porter, 2005
202
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" if E then S S'
" otherStmt
" else S
"&
" boolExpr
if b then if b then otherStmt else otherStmt
Harry H. Porter, 2005
203
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
ibtibtoeo
Harry H. Porter, 2005
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" if E then S S'
" otherStmt
" else S
"&
" boolExpr
, if b then if b then otherStmt else otherStmt
204
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
ibtibtoeo
Harry H. Porter, 2005
205
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
Harry H. Porter, 2005
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
206
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
Look at Rule 1: S " i E t S S'
If we are looking for an S
and the next symbol is in FIRST(i E t S S' )...
Add that rule to the table
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
S
S'
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
207
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
Look at Rule 1: S " i E t S S'
If we are looking for an S
and the next symbol is in FIRST(i E t S S' )...
Add that rule to the table
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
o
S
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
i
S " iEtSS'
S'
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
208
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
Look at Rule 2: S " o
If we are looking for an S
and the next symbol is in FIRST(o)...
Add that rule to the table
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
i
S " iEtSS'
S'
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
209
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
Look at Rule 2: S " o
If we are looking for an S
and the next symbol is in FIRST(o)...
Add that rule to the table
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
o
S S"o
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
i
S " iEtSS'
S'
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
210
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
Look at Rule 5: E " b
If we are looking for an E
and the next symbol is in FIRST(b)...
Add that rule to the table
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
o
S S"o
i
S " iEtSS'
S'
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
211
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
Look at Rule 5: E " b
If we are looking for an E
and the next symbol is in FIRST(b)...
Add that rule to the table
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
o
S S"o
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
i
S " iEtSS'
S'
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
E"b
212
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
Look at Rule 3: S' " e S
If we are looking for an S'
and the next symbol is in FIRST(e S )...
Add that rule to the table
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
o
S S"o
i
S " iEtSS'
S'
E"b
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
213
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
Look at Rule 3: S' " e S
If we are looking for an S'
and the next symbol is in FIRST(e S )...
Add that rule to the table
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
o
S S"o
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
Harry H. Porter, 2005
i
S " iEtSS'
S' " e S
S'
E
E"b
214
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
Look at Rule 4: S' " &
If we are looking for an S'
and & + FIRST(rhs)...
Then if $ + FOLLOW(S')...
Add that rule under $
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
o
S S"o
i
S " iEtSS'
S' " e S
S'
E"b
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
215
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
Look at Rule 4: S' " &
If we are looking for an S'
and & + FIRST(rhs)...
Then if $ + FOLLOW(S')...
Add that rule under $
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
o
S S"o
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
S' " e S
S'
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
i
S " iEtSS'
$
S' " &
E"b
216
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
Look at Rule 4: S' " &
If we are looking for an S'
and & + FIRST(rhs)...
Then if e + FOLLOW(S')...
Add that rule under e
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
o
S S"o
i
S " iEtSS'
S' " e S
S'
$
S' " &
E"b
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
217
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
Look at Rule 4: S' " &
If we are looking for an S'
and & + FIRST(rhs)...
Then if e + FOLLOW(S')...
Add that rule under e
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
o
S S"o
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
S' " e S
S' " &
S'
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
i
S " iEtSS'
$
S' " &
E"b
218
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
CONFLICT!
Two rules in one table entry.
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
o
S S"o
i
S " iEtSS'
S' " e S
S' " &
S'
$
S' " &
E"b
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
219
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Example: The Dangling Else Grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
S
S
S'
S'
E
" i E t S S'
"o
"eS
"&
"b
CONFLICT!
Two rules in one table entry.
The grammar is not LL(1)!
ibtibtoeo
FIRST(S) = { i, o }
FIRST(S') = { e, & }
FIRST(E) = { b }
o
S S"o
FOLLOW(S) = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(S') = { e, $ }
FOLLOW(E) = { t }
S' " e S
S' " &
S'
E
Harry H. Porter, 2005
i
S " iEtSS'
$
S' " &
E"b
220
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Algorithm to Build the Table
Input: Grammar G
Output: Parsing Table, such that TABLE[A,b]= Rule to use or ERROR/Blank
Harry H. Porter, 2005
221
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Algorithm to Build the Table
Input: Grammar G
Output: Parsing Table, such that TABLE[A,b]= Rule to use or ERROR/Blank
Compute FIRST and FOLLOW sets
Harry H. Porter, 2005
222
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Algorithm to Build the Table
Input: Grammar G
Output: Parsing Table, such that TABLE[A,b]= Rule to use or ERROR/Blank
Compute FIRST and FOLLOW sets
for each rule A"# do
for each terminal b in FIRST(#) do
add A"# to TABLE[A,b]
endFor
endFor
Harry H. Porter, 2005
223
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Algorithm to Build the Table
Input: Grammar G
Output: Parsing Table, such that TABLE[A,b]= Rule to use or ERROR/Blank
Compute FIRST and FOLLOW sets
for each rule A"# do
for each terminal b in FIRST(#) do
add A"# to TABLE[A,b]
endFor
if & is in FIRST(#) then
for each terminal b in FOLLOW(A) do
add A"# to TABLE[A,b]
endFor
endIf
endFor
Harry H. Porter, 2005
224
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Algorithm to Build the Table
Input: Grammar G
Output: Parsing Table, such that TABLE[A,b]= Rule to use or ERROR/Blank
Compute FIRST and FOLLOW sets
for each rule A"# do
for each terminal b in FIRST(#) do
add A"# to TABLE[A,b]
endFor
if & is in FIRST(#) then
for each terminal b in FOLLOW(A) do
add A"# to TABLE[A,b]
endFor
if $ is in FOLLOW(A) then
add A"# to TABLE[A,$]
endIf
endIf
endFor
Harry H. Porter, 2005
225
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Algorithm to Build the Table
Input: Grammar G
Output: Parsing Table, such that TABLE[A,b]= Rule to use or ERROR/Blank
Compute FIRST and FOLLOW sets
for each rule A"# do
for each terminal b in FIRST(#) do
add A"# to TABLE[A,b]
endFor
if & is in FIRST(#) then
for each terminal b in FOLLOW(A) do
add A"# to TABLE[A,b]
endFor
if $ is in FOLLOW(A) then
add A"# to TABLE[A,$]
endIf
endIf
endFor
TABLE[A,b] is undefined? Then set TABLE[A,b] to error
Harry H. Porter, 2005
226
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Algorithm to Build the Table
Input: Grammar G
Output: Parsing Table, such that TABLE[A,b]= Rule to use or ERROR/Blank
Compute FIRST and FOLLOW sets
for each rule A"# do
for each terminal b in FIRST(#) do
add A"# to TABLE[A,b]
endFor
if & is in FIRST(#) then
for each terminal b in FOLLOW(A) do
add A"# to TABLE[A,b]
endFor
if $ is in FOLLOW(A) then
add A"# to TABLE[A,$]
endIf
endIf
endFor
TABLE[A,b] is undefined? Then set TABLE[A,b] to error
TABLE[A,b] is multiply defined?
The algorithm fails!!! Grammar G is not LL(1)!!!
Harry H. Porter, 2005
227
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
LL(1) Grammars
LL(1) grammars
Are never ambiguous.
! Will never have left recursion.
Using only one symbol of look-ahead
Find Leftmost derivation
Furthermore...
Scanning input left-to-right
If we are looking for an A and the next symbol is b,
Then only one production must be possible.
More Precisely...
If A"# and A"$ are two rules
If # !* a... and $ !* b...
then we require a - b
(i.e., FIRST(#) and FIRST($) must not intersect)
If # !* &
then $ !* & must not be possible.
(i.e., only one alternative can derive &.)
If # !* & and $ !* b...
then b must not be in FOLLOW(A)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
228
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Error Recovery
We have an error whenever...
!Stacktop is a terminal, but stacktop - input symbol
!Stacktop is a nonterminal but TABLE[A,b] is empty
Options
1. Skip over input symbols, until we can resume parsing
Corresponds to ignoring tokens
2. Pop stack, until we can resume parsing
Corresponds to inserting missing material
3. Some combination of 1 and 2
4. Panic Mode - Use Synchronizing tokens
!Identify a set of synchronizing tokens.
!Skip over tokens until we are positioned on a synchronizing token.
!Pop stack until we can resume parsing.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
229
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Option 1: Skip Input Symbols
Example:
Decided to use rule
S " IF E THEN S ELSE S END
Stack tells us what we are expecting next in the input.
Weve already gotten IF and E
Assume there are extra tokens in the input.
if (x<5))) then y = 7; ...
A syntax error occurs here.
THEN
S
ELSE
S
END
...
$
Harry H. Porter, 2005
...
<
) TH y
...
We want to skip tokens until
we can resume parsing.
230
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Option 2: Pop The Stack
Example:
Decided to use rules
S " IF E THEN S ELSE S END
E" (E)
Weve already gotten if ( E
Assume there are missing tokens.
if (x < 5 then y = 7;...
A syntax error occurs here.
)
THEN
S
ELSE
S
END
...
$
...
IF (
<
5 TH y
...
We want to pop the stack until
we can resume parsing.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
231
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Panic Mode Recovery
The Synchronizing Set of tokens
... is determined by the compiler writer beforehand
Example: { SEMI-COLON, RIGHT-BRACE }
Skip input symbols until we find something in the synchronizing set.
Idea:
Look at the non-terminal on the stack top.
Choose the synchronizing set based on this non-terminal.
Assume A is on the stack top
Let SynchSet = FOLLOW(A)
Skip tokens until we see something in FOLLOW(A)
Pop A from the stack.
Should be able to keep going.
Idea:
Look at the non-terminals in the stack (e.g., A, B, C, ...)
Include FIRST(A), FIRST(B), FIRST(C), ... in the SynchSet.
Skip tokens until we see something in FIRST(A), FIRST(B), FIRST(C), ...
Pop stack until NextToken + FIRST(NonTerminalOnStackTop)
Harry H. Porter, 2005
232
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Error Recovery - Table Entries
Each blank entry in the table indicates an error.
Tailor the error recovery for each possible error.
Fill the blank entry with an error routine.
The error routine will tell what to do.
Harry H. Porter, 2005
233
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Error Recovery - Table Entries
Each blank entry in the table indicates an error.
Tailor the error recovery for each possible error.
Fill the blank entry with an error routine.
The error routine will tell what to do.
Example:
id
SEMI
RPAREN
E4
E'
E5
LPAREN
...
...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
234
Syntax Analysis - Part 1
Error Recovery - Table Entries
Each blank entry in the table indicates an error.
Tailor the error recovery for each possible error.
Fill the blank entry with an error routine.
The error routine will tell what to do.
Example:
E
id
SEMI
RPAREN
E4
E'
E5
LPAREN
...
...
E4:
Error-Handling Code
E5:
...
Harry H. Porter, 2005
...
Choose the SynchSet
based on the
particular error
SynchSet = { SEMI, IF, THEN }
SkipTokensTo (SynchSet)
Print (Unexpected right paren)
Pop stack
break
...
235
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