Postharvest Handling and Storage of Fresh Cassava Root and Products A Review

Food Bioprocess Technol (2015) 8:729748
DOI 10.1007/s11947-015-1478-z
REVIEW
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Fresh Cassava Root

and Products: a Review
Amarachi D. Uchechukwu-Agua & Oluwafemi J. Caleb &
Umezuruike Linus Opara
Received: 11 November 2014 / Accepted: 19 January 2015 / Published online: 5 February 2015
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Abstract The increase in global demand for healthy food

products and initiatives to ensure food security in developing
countries has focused on the cultivation of drought-resistant
and biofortified cassava varieties. Cassava is a staple root crop
grown in subtropical and tropical climates. Cassava flour is
gluten free, which can be used as composite flour in essential
foods such as bread. Thus, the role of postharvest handling of
freshly harvested cassava root is essential, owing to the rapid
physiological deterioration of the root soon after harvest. This
situation confers a limited shelf life and, thus, creates poor
utilization of the cassava root. However, processing cassava
root into other food forms such as fufu, garri, starch and highquality flour enhances stability and long-term storage. This
article critically reviewed the postharvest handling, processing
and storage of fresh cassava root. Highlighting on the role of
storage and minimal processing on sustainable cassava production, various spoilage mechanisms of cassava root were
identified. In developing countries, cassava root is a valuable
food and energy source, and understanding the role of optimum postharvest handling, processing and storage techniques
would alleviate some concerns of food insecurity.
A. D. Uchechukwu-Agua : O. J. Caleb : U. L. Opara (*)

Postharvest Technology Research Laboratory, South African
Research Chair in Postharvest Technology, Department of Food
Science, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University, Private
Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa
e-mail: opara@sun.ac.za
O. J. Caleb
e-mail: femicaleb36@hotmail.com
O. J. Caleb : U. L. Opara
Postharvest Technology Research Laboratory, South African
Research Chair in Postharvest Technology, Department of
Horticultural Science, Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch
University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa
Keywords Manihot esculenta . Postharvest . Processing and

storage . Food packaging
Introduction
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) also referred to as yucca
in Spanish, mandioca in Portuguese and tapioca in French,
belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family (Opara 1999; Burrell
2003). It has been reported that the crop originated from
South America and was domesticated between 5000 and
7000 years B.C. (Olsen and Schaal 2001). The first import
of cassava to Africa was by the Portuguese from Brazil in
the eighteenth century, but now cassava is cultivated and consumed in many countries across Africa, Asia and South
America (Nhassico et al. 2008; FAO 2013). Cassava has
drought-resistant root which offers it a low-cost vegetative
propagation with flexibility in harvesting time and seasons
(Haggblade et al. 2012). Cassava can be cultivated throughout
the year between latitude 30 N and 30 S, in different soil
types except hydromorphic soil with excess water (Iyer et al.
2010). The stem grows to about 5-m long with each plant
producing between 5 to 8 tubers with firm, homogenous fibrous flesh covered with rough and brownish outer layer of
about 1-mm thick (Fig. 1). The root can be stored in the
ground for over 2 years, and this serves as a means of food
security to the farmer in West African Countries such as
Nigeria. However, during in-ground storage of the roots, there
is a risk of rodents and insects attacks or microbial infestation
(Nhassico et al. 2008; Falade and Akingbala 2010).
Cassava is a subsistence crop in Africa. It supplies about
200500 cal/day for households in the developing countries
(Snchez et al. 2006; Omodamiro et al. 2007). In the early
years, cassava was neglected because of its low protein content (<2 %) and high cyanide content (1201945 mg HCN
730
Fig. 1 Picture of cassava root (http://www.greenharvest.com.au)
equivalent/kg) (Iglesias et al. 2002; Charles et al. 2005), but it

is considered the fourth most energy-rich food source due to
the high (>70 %) carbohydrate content (Falade and Akingbala
2010). The leaves of cassava plant are higher in protein (3
5 %) and some macronutrients and therefore are consumed as
vegetable in some countries (Salcedo et al. 2010; Burns et al.
2012). Cassava serves as a source of food security against
famine because of its long storage ability in the ground prior
to harvest (El-Sharkawy 2004). The root can be processed into
different food forms for human consumption, animal feed and
as industrial raw material for paper, textiles and alcoholic
drinks (Falade and Akingbala 2010; Haggblade et al. 2012).
In Thailand, cassava dry chips and pellets are the major export
commodities (Falade and Akingbala 2010). Utilization of cassava is numerous, but the utilization of cassava root in food
and other industrial applications is limited by the rapid postharvest physiological deterioration (PPD), which reduces the
shelf life and degrades its quality attributes (Snchez et al.
2006). This physiological deterioration is attributed to its high
moisture level (60 to 75 %, wet basis) (Salcedo et al. 2010),
and high respiration rate (23 L CO 2 /kg/h at 25 C)
(Aracena 1993). The metabolic process continues after harvest, resulting in softening and decay of the root and, thus,
rendering it unwholesome for human consumption (Salcedo
et al. 2010). Other factors which can cause deterioration of
cassava root include pests, disease and mechanical damage
such as cuts and bruises which occur during postharvest handling and processing (Iyer et al. 2010). The cut area exposes
the root to vascular streaking and microbial attack, thereby accelerating deterioration and decay (Opara 1999; Opara 2009;
Buschmann et al. 2000). Studies have shown that physiological
changes start within 24 h after harvest with a blue black
discolouration commonly appearing on the root after 72 h, at
ambient storage temperature (Iyer et al. 2010; Zidenga et al.
2012). The colour change of the root is accompanied by fermentation and, thereafter, an offensive odour indicating
complete rotting (Reilly et al. 2004). This rapid degradation of

quality in fresh cassava roots is a major reason for the poor
utilization, poor market quality, short root storage life and low
processing yield (Reilly et al. 2004; Snchez et al. 2006).
Converting cassava root to other food forms creates products with longer shelf life, adds value to the root and reduces
postharvest loses (Falade and Akingbala 2010). Furthermore,
the application of novel postharvest handling, processing and
packaging and storage techniques is of critical importance for
successful large-scale production and utilization of cassava
roots and products. Successful application of these postharvest
technologies will contribute towards maintaining product
quality and safety as well as reducing incidence of postharvest
losses and, thereby, improve food security (Opara 2013). An
overview of some peer reviewed articles on cassava is presented in Table 1. Majority of this review focused on nutritional value, anti-nutrient, processing and some preharvest
handling technology of cassava root. However, information
on the postharvest handling, processing and storage of cassava
roots and products are limited. Therefore, this article reviews
the postharvest handling and spoilage mechanisms of cassava
root, and the role of packaging and storage on quality of fresh
cassava root and products.
Economic Importance of Cassava

Annual global production of cassava is estimated to be over
260,000 millions of tonnes, with Africa contributing about
54 %, followed by Asia and South America (Table 2).
Cassava root produces excellent flour quality and therefore
has been promoted as composite flour for use in the food
industries (Shittu et al. 2008; Nwabueze and Anoruoh
2009). Cassava flour is highly recommended in the diet of
celiac patients with strict adherence to gluten-free food products (Briani et al. 2008; Niewinski 2008). Celiac disease is an
autoimmune complex that affects the bowel after the ingestion
of gluten-containing grains or cereals such as wheat and rye
(Briani et al. 2008).
In view of enhancing development and cassava productivity, a global mandate on cassava research has been given to the
International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in
Colombia and to the International Institute for Tropical
Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria (El-Sharkawy 2007). However,
cassava cultivation in South Africa is low compared to other
African countries like Angola, Ghana, Tanzania, Uganda and
Malawi. This could be because of the preference for maize.
Cropping is done at small scale by farmers close to
Mozambique boarder, with annual yield of between 8 to
15 t/ha (Mabasa 2007).
Cassava is one of the major tropical staple foods alongside
yam, plantain and sweet potato, and it is considered as a good
source of carbohydrate and the fourth most energy-giving diet

Table 1
731
Overview of selected peer-reviewed articles on cassava with emphasis on postharvest handling and processing
Scope of review
A. Postharvest
Effect of texture modifiers on the physicochemical
and sensory properties of dried fufu
Utilization of cassava for food; challenges, processing
and raw material improvement
Fermentation activities of the lactic acid bacteria in
garri production
Developments in processing of cassava for value
addition through biotechnological means
The domestic and industrial uses of cassava roots
and products
B. Processing
Traditional cassava foods and processing
Comparison of cyanogen content and chemical
composition of cassava products
Composition, structure and physicochemical
properties of starches from root and tube
Identification of gluten substitutes with low cost
to improve cassava bread volume and structure
Proposed models for the regulation of cyanogenesis
in cassava
Effect of high production cost, starch loss and
environment impact
Cyanide reduction in cassava flour
Nutritional value of cassava as food and recent
advances for advance
Effects of cyanogenic glucoside and glucosidases
in cassava roots
C. Others
Spread of cassava brown streak disease in the
eastern part of Africa and its control
Development of transgenic technology in cassava
The use of improved cassava cultivar to alleviate
economy of the less privileged
The use of industrial fatty waste such as cassava
flour as biosurfactant production
Disorders associated with cassava diet
BioCassava Plus (BC+) programme intended to
improve the health of Africans through
modern biotechnologies
Recommendations/findings
References
Increase in starch stability and on the cooked fufu
Adebowale et al. (2005)
The use of appropriate techniques such as

fermentation enhances value addition
Traditional fermentation of cassava is dominated
by a lactic acid bacteria (LAB) population
Different products from cassava
Falade and Akingbala (2010)

Kostinek et al. (2005)
Pandey et al. (2000)
Need to improve the cultivation of cassava

because of the many uses
Taiwo (2006)
Different processing techniques for cassava products

Wet fermentation decreases nutritional value of
cassava but reduces the cyanogenic level
The utilization of the starches in the industries.
Aloys and Hui Ming (2006)

Muzanila et al. (2000)
Cassava bread was accepted and egg white improved

its nutritional composition
Biochemical and transgenic plant approaches to
reducing the cyanogen content of cassava
Starch processing technology for industrial uses
Eggleston et al. (1992)

McMahon et al. (1995)
Hoover (2001)
Sriroth et al. (2000)
Wetting and drying reduces cyanide content in flour
Cumbana et al. (2007)
Biofortification key to alleviating some aspect

of food insecurity
Effect of processing and detoxification in cassava roots
Montagnac et al. (2009)
Creating awareness of the disease will help

to control its spread
Application of technology to improve cassava
Hillocks and Jennings (2003)

Taylor et al. (2004)
Breeding, one major aspect in cassava productivity
Kawano and Cock (2005)
Biosurfactants helps to lower chemical toxicity
Gautam and Tyagi (2006)
Tropical ataxic neuropathy (TAN) and kenzo

Efficacy of using transgenic strategies for the
biofortification of cassava
Adamolekun (2011)
Sayre et al. (2011)
(Mudombi 2010). Many cultivars are grown which can serve

for different purposes; some of them are produced for human
consumption, while others are for animal feed (Falade and
Akingbala 2010). Studies have shown that cultivars like
TMS 94/0330, 91/02324, 92/0035, 001/0355, TME 1 and
92/0057 are suitable for food as well as animal feed (Aryee
et al. 2006; Eleazu et al. 2011). The starch obtained from the
root of most cultivars are useful for traditional desserts, salad
dressing, soup thickener, binding agent in sausages, in highfructose syrup and in textile industries (Montagnac et al.
2009). In countries such as Brazil, cassava is basically cultivated for industrial purposes, in Thailand for export and in
Africa it is mainly grown by subsistence farmers for consumption as a staple food and source of income (Falade and
Jansz and Uluwaduge (2012)
Akingbala 2010). Cassava is being explored as a potential

biofuel crop in countries like China and Thailand (Zidenga
et al. 2012). In Brazil, the biofuel obtained from cassava is
used by flex-fuel light vehicles, while in the USA, biofuel
serves as gasoline (Adelekan 2010; Adelekan 2012).
The demand for cassava has increased most especially in
developing countries where low supplies of cereals are experienced. This is because of its significant uses in food and
beverage industries as composite flour (Eddy et al. 2012).
Over the years, there have been cases of geographical scarcity
and low supply of wheat, thus leading to high demand for
wheat, high cost of wheat flour and wheat-based food products (Olaoye et al. 2006; Olaoye et al. 2011). This situation led
to the production of different flour products such as plantain
732
Table 2 World leading cassava
producers (tonnes)
Source: FAO (2013) http://

faostat3.fao.org/faostat-gateway/
go/to/download/Q/QC/E
Countries/year
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
World
Africa
Angola
Benin
Cameroon
233,083,324
122,246,224
10,057,375
3,144,551
2,882,734
237,985,098
123,080,801
12,827,580
3,787,918
3,340,562
243,489,480
134,406,803
13,858,681
3,444,950
3,808,239
262,753,309
147,597,851
14,333,509
3,645,924
4,082,903
262,585,741
149,479,840
10,636,400
3,295,785
4,200,000
Congo
Cte dIvoire
Ghana
Malawi
Mozambique
Nigeria
Sierra Leone
Uganda
Tanzania
Zambia
Asia
China, mainland
Cambodia
Democratic Republic
India
Indonesia
Philippines
Thailand
1,196,300
2,531,241
11,351,100
3,491,183
4,054,590
44,582,000
1,988,561
5,072,000
5,392,358
1,185,600
76,046,076
4,400,000
3,676,232
15,013,490
9,056,000
21,593,052
1,941,580
25,155,797
1,231,000
2,262,170
12,230,600
3,823,236
5,670,000
36,822,250
2,814,576
5,179,000
5,916,440
1,160,853
81,345,012
4,500,000
3,497,306
15,054,450
9,623,000
22,039,148
2,043,719
30,088,024
1,148,500
2,306,839
13,504,086
4,000,986
9,738,066
42,533,180
3,250,044
5,282,000
4,547,940
1,151,700
74,951,223
4,550,000
4,247,419
15,013,710
8,059,800
23,918,118
2,101,454
22,005,740
1,150,000
2,359,015
14,240,867
4,259,301
10,093,619
52,403,455
3,412,546
4,757,800
4,646,523
1,266,295
80,477,236
4,500,000
8,033,843
15,024,172
8,076,000
24,009,624
2,209,684
21,912,416
1,200,000
2,412,371
14,547,279
4,692,202
10,051,364
54,000,000
3,520,000
4,924,560
5,462,454
1,300,000
80,744,003
4,560,000
7,613,697
16,000,000
8,120,000
23,922,075
2,223,144
22,500,000,
Viet Nam
South America
Brazil
Colombia
Paraguay
Peru
9,309,900
33,041,504
26,703,039
1,803,911
2,218,530
1,171,818
8,530,500
31,448,411
24,403,981
2,250,233
2,610,000
1,166,017
8,595,600
31,936,808
24,967,052
2,082,440
2,624,084
1,240,121
9,897,913
32,097,924
25,349,088
2,164,850
2,453,837
1,115,593
9,745,546
30,057,840
23,044,557
2,274,358
2,560,000
1,119,560
flour, cocoyam flour, taro flour as well as cassava flour. These

are substitute to wheat flour in varying proportions ranging
from 5 to 30 % (Giami et al. 2004; Eddy et al. 2007). Based on
sensory evaluation studies, wheat:cassava composite flour
(1:4) was recommended for bread recipe because the product
quality attributes showed no distinct variation when compared
with 100 % wheat flour (Eddy et al. 2007; Sanful and Darko
2010). In addition to the food uses of cassava root, it can also
be used in the production of paper, textiles, plywood, glue and
alcohol (Raemakers et al. 2005; Adelekan 2012). Cassava
leaves are rich in protein (35 % (w/w)) and some essential
minerals such as calcium, nitrogen and potassium; therefore,
the leaves serve as vegetable in soups to supplement the low
protein content of the root (Odii 2012). The root, which is the
major source of food, can be boiled or roasted and eaten as
fresh root with sauce or soup especially the low cyanide or
sweet type of cassava roots (Lebot et al. 2009). Cassava roots
could also be minimally processed into various primary and
secondary products (Fig. 2) (Falade and Akingbala 2010).
Classification of Cassava Root

Cassava roots may be classified into sweet and bitter based on
the level of cyanogenic glucoside in the tissue. The major
cyanogenic glucosides found in cassava are linamarin and
lotaustralin (Fig. 3), which can be hydrolyzed into hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) (Iglesias et al. 2002). Hydrogen cyanide is a
toxic compound harmful to human health and could lead to
death if consumed in excess (Nhassico et al. 2008; Burns et al.
2012). Bitter cultivars of cassava root have higher level of
cyanide content (28 mg HCN/kg) than the sweet type (8 mg
HCN/kg) dry weight bases (ChiwonaKarltun et al. 2004;
Charles et al. 2005). Sweet cassava root cultivars with lower
cyanide content can be eaten fresh or boiled (Nhassico et al.
2008) while the bitter type with higher cyanide concentration
requires further processing to eliminate the toxins before consumption (McKey et al. 2010).
Symptoms of cyanide consumption include fast breathing,
restlessness, dizziness, headache, nausea and vomiting. In
733
Fig. 2 Different products derived

from cassava root (adapted from
Montagnac et al. 2009; Falade
and Akingbala 2010). HQCF
high-quality cassava flour
Cassava root
Garri
Fufu flour
Tapioca
HQCF
Chips
Pellets
Dough
Dough
Starch
Animal feed
Plywood
Bread
Cakes
Beverage
Pastries
Beverage
Textiles
Bio-fuel
Animal feed
chronic cases, symptoms could result in convulsion, low

blood pressure, loss of consciousness, lung injury and respiratory failure which could lead to death (Burns et al. 2012). It
has also been reported that consumption of these cyanogens
causes irreversible paralysis of the legs and stunted growth in
children (Ernesto et al. 2002; Nhassico et al. 2008). Greater
quantity of these glucosides are biosynthesized in the leaves
and are absorbed in the root but predominantly on the peels
(Siritunga and Sayre 2004; Cumbana et al. 2007). Total cyanide found in the fresh unpeeled root and the leaves range
from 9002000 ppm to 201860 ppm, respectively, depending on cultivar (Cardoso et al. 2005). However, during processing, about 90 % of the HCN is lost due to the linamarin
breakdown and the residual cyanogen levels should be below
the safe limit (10 ppm) recommended by the World Health
Organization (WHO) for cassava flour (FAO/WHO 1995
FAO/WHO 2005). Removal of cyanogenic compound from
the root during processing for cassava-based foods is one major approach to promoting safety in cassava consumption
(Iglesias et al. 2002). Processing techniques such as peeling,
soaking/wetting, grating, dewatering and sun drying are
employed as they enhance the detoxification of cassava roots
for safe consumption and prevent the occurrence of diseases
(ChiwonaKarltun et al. 2004; Cumbana et al. 2007). Also,
Fig. 3 Molecular structures of a
linamarin and b lotaustralin, the
major cyanogenic glucosides
found in cassava (Kannangara
et al. 2011)
several modified processing techniques based on the alteration

of traditional processing methods such as peeling, stepwise
washing and cutting cassava roots into chips (chipping) (2
8-cm long and 215-cm thick) in order to increase surface area
and reduce boiling/drying time (FIIRO 2005; Chukwuemeka
2007), optimization of fermentation process (Agbor-Egbe and
Mbome 2006), optimizing conventional drying conditions
(Oghenechavwuko et al. 2013; Rijssen et al. 2013) and the
breeding of cultivars with low cyanogenic compound has
been recommended for the reduction of the cyanide level in
cassava root (Iglesias et al. 2002; Nhassico et al. 2008). The
level of hydrogen cyanide is also influenced by root age, varietal and environmental factors (Charles et al. 2005). Another
significant factor that influences cyanogenic level in the root is
seasonal variation as cyanide content in cassava flour was
observed to be high when roots were harvested during the
period of low rainfall, which was attributed to root dehydration during dry seasons (Cumbana et al. 2007).
Various cultivars of cassava are grown worldwide, most of
which have been bred by the Centro Internacional de
Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) in Colombia, International
Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and National Root
Crops Research Institute Umudike, Nigeria (NRCRI)
(Eleazu et al. 2011; Sayre et al. 2011). Presently, improved
734
cultivars with desirable character traits such as high carotenoid

content were released by researchers from these institutes
(Eleazu et al. 2012). Carotenoids are among the most valuable
food constituents because of the health benefit they offer
against cancer and cardiovascular diseases due to their antioxidant activity (Rodriguez-Amaya et al. 2011), and as precursor
to vitamin A, they prevent cataracts (Krinsky and Johnson
2005). In addition, cassava with high beta carotene shows
longer shelf life on flour and can also reduce the onset of
postharvest physiological deterioration of root (Snchez
et al. 2006; Eleazu et al. 2011).
Cassava cultivars with novel starch content, also known as
waxy cassava (Snchez et al. 2010), with amylose-free or lowamylose starch, have been developed using genetic mutation
techniques (Zhao et al. 2011). High-amylose starch is associated with paste retrogradation which is undesirable for many
applications of starch paste as well as composite flour for
baking purposes (Koehorst-van Putten et al. 2012). In addition, paste from high-amylose starch shows low viscosity and
low gel clarity unlike the waxy starch (Raemakers et al. 2005).
The gels from waxy cassava cultivar show little or no syneresis (liquid separation in gel) during storage even as low as
20 C, and this justifies the use of flour from waxy cassava
cultivars in the formulation of refrigerated or frozen foods
(Snchez et al. 2010). Similarly, waxy cultivars need no modification with chemicals such as alkenyl succinic anhydride
and phenyl isocyanate because they form stable gels
(Shimelis et al. 2006). The chemicals could contribute in
degrading the essential nutrients in the starch, they are
unfavourable to the environment and are expensive to use
(Raemakers et al. 2005; Snchez et al. 2010).
Nutritional Composition of Cassava Root and Products

Cassava root and products serve as one of the major staple
foods in most African countries, especially in West Africa.
Nutritional composition of cassava root could be influenced
by the cultivar, the geographical location of the farm, age of
the plant, environmental conditions, processing and cooking
methods applied (Tewe and Lutaladio 2004). In comparison
with other staple foods, cassava root proved to be the third
highest energy- and carbohydrate-rich food source (Table 3).
Macro- and Micronutrient Contents
Cassava is a starchy fibrous root crop, with low protein content as well as low in some major nutrients such as fat and
fibre. However, it is rich in carbohydrates and the content
ranges from 32 to 35 % in fresh weight and about 80 to
90 % in dry matter, making it a good source of energy
(Montagnac et al. 2009). Carbohydrate content of the fresh
root is more than that of potatoes but less when compared with
rice and wheat from the table above (Montagnac et al. 2009).
The starch formed has about 80 % amylopectin and 1720 %
as amylase, and this ratio gives cassava a functioning quality
for use in making confectioneries (Rawel and Kroll 2003). It
contains monosaccharide level of about 17 % sucrose and
little amount of fructose, and dextrose therefore could also
serve as a raw material in high-fructose syrup, beverages
and pastries (Charles et al. 2005). Fibre contents ranges from
1.5 to 4 % in processed products such as flour; however, the
content varies in different cultivars (Gil and Buitrago 2002).
The lipid content is relatively low when compared with other
staple foods with the exception of potato and rice.
Protein content in cassava root is very low (1 to 2 %);
therefore, excessive consumption of cassava for a prolonged
period of time could lead to protein energy malnutrition
(PEM). About 50 % of the protein in cassava is whole protein
while the remaining 50 % is of the amino acids such as
glutamic and aspartic acids and some non-proteins component
(Montagnac et al. 2009). Most of the macronutrients such as
fat, protein and carbohydrates are higher in the unpeeled root
than in peeled, as shown in Table 4.
Micronutrients are required by the body in smaller quantities. Most of these micronutrients are found in the cassava
leaves and they include iron, zinc, manganese, magnesium
and calcium while the root contains minimal amount of the
following micronutrients: iron, potassium, magnesium, copper, zinc and manganese (Charles et al. 2005). However, the
calcium content is relatively high (16 mg/100 g) compared to
maize (2 mg/100 g) (Montagnac et al. 2009). The lipid content
of cassava roots in fresh wet bases have been reported lower
compared to maize and rice but higher than yam and potato, it
ranges from 0.1 to 0.3 %, and the glycolipids are mainly
galactose-diglyceride (Gil and Buitrago 2002). The high water
content of the root (>65 %) spurs the early postharvest physiological deterioration and thus limiting its utilization and production yield. Therefore, further processing will help to expand the utilization of the root, improve the yield, stabilize
shelf life and increase palatability.
Anti-nutrients in Cassava Root
Cassava contains some anti-nutrients and toxic substances
which inhibit the digestibility and intake of major nutrients,
although these compounds can still be healthy to human
health depending on the amount consumed (Montagnac
et al. 2009). For example, HCN is the most toxic compound
found in higher level in the bitter type which makes the consumption of fresh cassava root to be restricted. It is obtained
from the hydrolysis of a nitrogenous plant metabolite from
amino acid known as cyanogenic glucoside (Falade and
Akingbala 2010). This compound is predominant both in the
roots and the leaves although more abundant in the leaves.
This content is above the FAO/WHO recommendations of

Table 3 Nutritional composition
of cassava root compared with
other major staple foods
(per 100 g)
Source: http://www.nal.usda.gov/
fnic/pubs/foodcomp/search/;
(Nutrient values and weights are
for the edible portion)
735
Compositions
Cassava
Maize
Rice
Wheat
Potato
Sweet potato
Yam
Water (g/100 g)
Energy (kJ)
Protein (g/100 g)
Fat (g/100 g)
CHO (g/100 g)
60
670
1.4
0.28
38
76
360
3.2
1.18
19
12
1528
7.1
0.66
80
11
1419
13.7
2.47
71
79
322
2
0.09
17
77
360
1.6
0.05
20
70
494
1.5
0.17
28
Fibre (g/100 g)
Sugar (g/100 g)
Calcium (mg/100 g)
Magnesium (mg/100 g)
Phosphorus (mg/100 g)
1.8
1.7
16
21
27
2.7
3.22
2
37
89
1.3
0.12
28
25
115
10.7
0
34
144
508
2.2
0.78
12
23
57
3
4.18
30
25
47
4.1
0.5
17
21
55
<10 ppm (Siritunga and Sayre 2004). Studies have shown that
consumption of cassava products with cyanide level within
the recommended is not harmful to health but prolonged intake could lead to glucose intolerance, spastic paralysis of the
legs (kenzo) (Ernesto et al. 2002). Also cyanide intake, if
combined with iodine deficiency, could cause goitre, cretinism and stunted growth in children (Nhassico et al. 2008).
Monotonous consumption of cassava diet has been associated
with a chronic disease known as tropical ataxic neuropathy
(TAN) observed mainly in adult (Oluwole et al. 2002). This
results to weakness of the joint, hardness to hearing, poor
vision and even blindness. In addition, the leaves contain
higher content of cyanide and nitrate, and consumers are
prone to stomach cancer (Wobeto et al. 2007).
Another anti-nutrient is the phytate; a non-toxic nutrient
(Fig. 4). Phytate provides storage for phosphate and insitol
and normally in the seed of plant (Kumar et al. 2010).
Phytate is formed during maturation of plant and represents
between 60 and 90 % of the total phosphate found in the
whole plant (Loewus 2002). Irrespective of the action of this
anti-nutrient against different terminal diseases like cancer, the
negative effect of phytate in the body includes formation of
insoluble phytate- mineral complexes leading to a decrease in
mineral availability and deficiency of iron, zinc, calcium and
magnesium in the body (Konietzny and Greiner 2004). It also
forms non-phytate protein complex and inhibits amlyase
Table 4 Composition of cassava peeled and unpeeled root (adapted
from Gil and Buitrago (2002))
Constituenta
Peeled root
Unpeeled root
Water (%)
Carbohydrate (%)
Crude fibre (%)
Crude protein (%)
Fat (%)
Ash (%)
71.50
26.82
0.12
0.74
0.13
0.69
68.06
29.06
0.99
0.87
0.17
0.85
On a fresh weight (dry matter) basis
activities, thereby degrading carbohydrate utilization (Selle

et al. 2000). Processing techniques such as soaking, malting
and fermentation have been observed to reduce phytate content by increasing activity of naturally occurring phytate properties (Hambidge et al. 2008).
Proximate Composition
Protein, fat and carbohydrate contents contribute to the total
energy content of cassava root and products while water and
ash only contribute to the total mass of the product and influence the shelf life stability (Etudaiye et al. 2009). Ash also
indicates the availability of inorganic minerals in the sample
analysed (Eleazu et al. 2011).
Table 5 shows the proximate composition of fresh cassava
root and some processed cassava products. While moisture
content is higher in fresh cassava root, studies have shown
that the composition of protein, fat, ash and carbohydrates
are higher in the products formed from cassava root (Charles
et al. 2005; Falade and Akingbala 2010; Falade et al. 2014).
This suggests that the products will have a longer shelf life
than the fresh roots, because low moisture level inhibits microbial growth while moisture level above 12 % results in
poor shelf life stability (Aryee et al. 2006). Therefore, processing is a key factor to reduce loss and maintain the quality of
products, thus promoting adequate supply of the crop in all
seasons (Akingbala et al. 2005; Falade and Akingbala 2010).
Fig. 4 The molecular structure of phytate
736
Table 5 Proximate composition of roots and some cassava products

(adapted from Aryee et al. (2006))
Constituent (%)a
Root
Flour
Fufu
Garri
Moisture
Protein
Crude fat
Crude fibre
68.1
1.1
0.4
1.1
9.9
4.4
3.6
3.8
11.9
10.9
4.5
3.2
5.8
1.0
0.2
1.9
Ash
Carbohydrate
0.5
29.1
2.1
9.9
3.5
77.9
1.0
90.9
Percent dry weight base
Functional Properties of Cassava Products

The size and morphology of the starch granules influence the
functional behaviour of cassava flour as well as the valueadded products (Shittu et al. 2008). For example, swelling
index is the measure of starch to imbibe and expand in volume
at a particular temperature. Low swelling power suggests that
the starch granules have strong binding force and lowamylose content (Ikegwu et al. 2009). Low-amylose starch
has an excellent functionality of easy digestibility when compared with the high-amylose starch, and this property is desirable for use in the industries (Kaur et al. 2013). In addition,
Shimelis et al. (2006) reported that low swelling power in
cassava flour is a clear indication of a restricted starch which
shows a high resistance to breaking during cooking, and the
gel formed are stable at cooling phase. Swelling capacity and
solubility of flour and starch are proportional to each other,
such that an increase in swelling power results to increase
solubility pattern. However, solubility is also influenced by
the starch granular size and gelatinization which is a reflection
of the breaking phase of the intermolecular hydrogen bond
(Shimelis et al. 2006).
Another unique functionality of flour is the water-binding
capacity (WBC). This is the ability of food products to take up
and retain water either by adsorption or absorption. It contributes to the easy handling of dough during preparation of highgrade food like noodles and bread (Doporto et al. 2012).
However, WBC of flour to a great extent is influenced by
the extent of starch disintegration, and this implies that the
rate at which starch granules break loose is proportional to
the water-binding capacity of the products (Falade and
Okafor 2013). Low water-binding capacity could be attributed
to the protein content in a product because protein has been
seen to limit the ability of water uptake in the food material
(Wani et al. 2013).
Paste stability during product development is greatly influenced by the gelatinization and pasting properties. This pasting behaviour of starch is important in flour characterization
and use in the food industries (Shimelis et al. 2006). Variation
in the viscosity of gels depends on the amylase content of the
starch; hence, gelatinized food could be used for different

purposes based on the level of viscosity (Iwe and Agiriga
2014). Highly viscous cassava starch is useful in the production of jelly, food thickener and binder while starch with low
viscosity is suitable for weaning food production (Tsakama
et al. 2010).
Physiology of Cassava Root

Cassava requires a warm climate of greater than 20 C mean
day temperature for optimum growth, photosynthesis and for
production (Olaleye et al. 2013). The physiological response
to drought is attributed to the rapid enclosure of its stomata
during water stress (Allem 2002). However, cultivation on a
poor soil during severe drought results to low transpiration
rate as well as reduction in the leaf canopy leading to reduced
photosynthesis rate (El-Sharkawy 2004). Irrespective of the
sparse nature of the root, it can tolerate a depth of more than
2 m in the soil, thus allowing the crop to utilize available water
and nutrient. This condition makes in ground storage for up to
2 years period possible (El-Sharkawy 2007). The in-ground
storage method is vital for preventing the physiological streaking of the root which further lead to decay, it has also been
observed to preserve the root and maintain freshness until they
are needed especially during food shortage periods (Olaleye
et al. 2013). Cassava root as well as other root and tuber crops
continues to respire after harvest and as a result, they are
susceptible to deterioration, shortened/limited shelf life and
postharvest losses (Fadeyibi 2012). The physiological conditions that occur shortly after harvest is associated to root respiration, water loss and attack by pest and diseases on any cut
surface (Fadeyibi 2012). Physical changes on the root commence 2 to 3 days after harvest; this poses a challenge to
optimal storage of freshly harvested root, marketing of the
root and/or consumption.
Deterioration and Spoilage of Cassava Root
Deterioration is a major challenge limiting commercial production of cassava. As soon as the root is uprooted from the
ground, it begins a process of postharvest physiological deterioration within the next 24 h. This situation proposes that
fresh root cannot be stored longer than 4 weeks because of
its high moisture content. The effective utilization of cassava
root is greatly constrained not only by low protein level and
the high cyanide content but also by the rapid rate of deterioration normally characterized by a blue black discolouration
of the root and the streaking of the xylem tissue (Iyer et al.
2010). Therefore, the shelf life of the root is shortened, leading
to wastage, poor products yield, economic losses, reduction in
market quality and poor commercialization (Van Oirschot
et al. 2000). However, the early signs leading to this
postharvest deterioration are not fully understood, but, it has

been attributed to the increase in cellular respiration and the
biochemical changes observed from 3 to 4 h after harvest (Iyer
et al. 2010). The accumulation of secondary metabolite from
the phenyl-propanoid pathway (Bayoumi et al. 2010) as well
as the increase in enzyme activities such as phenylalanine
ammonia lyase (PAL) glucanase, proteinase, peroxidase and
polyphenol oxidase have also been seen as factors contributing to the rate of this deterioration (Iyer et al. 2010). The onset
of the enzyme PAL begins within 2 to 3 min of cuts or wounds
on the root and follows the progress of PPD on the root on the
second day (Akingbala et al. 2005). Also, the point of cuts,
wounds or abrasion has been observed to be the breeding
place for the microorganism, thus enhancing the postharvest
physiological deterioration (Reilly et al. 2004).
Over the years, postharvest deterioration was not a problem
but with the increasing rate of urbanization, distance between
fields and processing site coupled with the unstable transport
scheme in the developing countries, deterioration of root has
become a serious problem. Similarly, because of the rapid
deterioration rate of the root, storage of the root becomes like
an impossible task. The marketing of 2- to 3-day harvested
cassava root becomes challenging as the roots are regarded
unwholesome for consumption and have poor processing
quality. Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is another early sign leading to the onset of PPD. This process is an
unavoidable situation caused by the aerobic respiration, damages during harvest under stress or when attacked by pathogens (Zidenga et al. 2012). However, this early sign was induced by the level of cyanogenesis in the root; therefore, to
prevent the rapid case of PPD, reduction in cyanide-induced
accumulation of ROS is recommended (Bayoumi et al. 2010).
The postharvest deterioration which generally causes spoilage of the root can be classified into three different factors,
namely physiological, microbial and mechanical. Spoilage of
cassava root under storage has been observed to instigate from
the activities of polyphenol oxidases as they were observed in
the discoloured root (Buschmann et al. 2000).
Physiological Deterioration
The postharvest physiological deterioration (PPD) often
known as primary deterioration has been assumed to be triggered by the breaks and cuts created on the roots during harvest or processing leading to the colour change on the roots.
Often, there are cuts and bruises when the roots are pulled out
of the ground and such areas forms the onset of deterioration
(Reilly et al. 2004). This type of deterioration is not caused by
microorganisms, but as a result of the mechanical damage and
stress induced by water loss from wounds which therefore
encourages the growth of microbes (Iyer et al. 2010). PPD is
associated with colour change and the streaking of the xylem
parenchyma tissue. This signs begin from the second day of
737
harvest and has been likened to the normal biochemical and

oxidative changes that occur as plants respond to wounds.
Increased respiration of about 20 to 30 C and low relative
humidity between 65 to 80 % encourage deterioration
(Snchez et al. 2006). This implies that cassava root will still
undergo deterioration and spoil even without any mechanical
damage because of the aerobic respiration process which continues in the root even after harvest. In addition, oxidation is
observed within 15 min from the part of the injured root leading to alteration in the genes and accumulation of the secondary metabolite (Reilly et al. 2004). Various techniques to reduce this postharvest deterioration have been investigated
such as use of paraffin wax to coat each roots but this method
could only extend and maintain quality of root for few weeks
(Reilly et al. 2004). The exclusion of oxygen or submerging
roots in water or storing in an anaerobic environment can
inhibit the streaking of the xylem tissue. In addition, Van
Oirschot et al. (2000) observed that pruning cassava plant
2 weeks before harvesting is another technique that reduces
the susceptibility of this physiological deteriorative response
of the root. Similarly, Snchez et al. (2006) in their study on
the effect of the total carotenoids content in cassava root on the
reduction and delay of postharvest deterioration concluded
that roots kept at 10 C and 80 % relative humidity can remain
fresh till after 2 weeks. Also, total amount of carotenoids in the
roots is proportional to the rate of postharvest physiological
deterioration in the root, this means that higher carotenoid can
reduce or delay the onsets of PPD and extend the shelf life of
the root, thereby broadening the industrial uses of cassava
(Chvez et al. 2007).
Microbial Deterioration
Physical damage such as wounds, cuts and bruises (especially
during harvesting, handling operations and transportation) can
serve as focal points for microorganisms and lead to the second stage of cassava root spoilage known as the microbial
deterioration or the secondary deterioration (Falade and
Akingbala 2010). Microorganisms that cause rotting induce
microbial deterioration, and two types of rot have been identified. These include Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus,
Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillium citrinum and Rhizopus
spp. (Onyimonyi 2002). Under aerobic conditions, these organisms cause a dry rot, which results in discoloration and a
slight increase in acidity of the cassava root. Also, fungi attack
on cassava product like chips has an influence on colour
change, off-flavour and taste attributes (Gnonlonfin et al.
2008). Also, under anaerobic conditions, deterioration is initiated by the activities of bacteria such as the Bacillus spp.; this
results in a rapid development of acid in the root (Onyimonyi
2002). The microbial deterioration of cassava root is characterized by fermentation and softening of the root tissue; this
ccommences 45 days shortly after the primary deterioration
738
from the wounded point (Buschmann et al. 2000; Reilly et al.

2004). This highlights on the importance of optimum postharvest handling practices, in order to minimize mechanical damage of the cassava root.
influences the quality of the product formed as well as its yield

(Akingbala et al. 2005).
Storage of Fresh Cassava Root

Mechanical Damage
Mechanical damage occurs as a result of careless handling
when harvesting, transportation from the field to the processing site and during processing and peeling of the root (Iyer
et al. 2010). Unfortunately, the effects of the injuries on the
root are overlooked, but it has been attributed as the major
factor constituting the physiological deterioration of the root
(Fadeyibi 2012). In most cases, damages occur during harvest
with the use of farm tools and machineries or in pulling of the
root from the ground. The damages on the root during transportation could be caused by the vibration or compression in
the packaging materials used.
However, mechanical damage can be avoided through
careful handling of root after harvest. Therefore, to minimize
the effect of mechanical damage, once the root is harvested
with cuts, the fresh root with cuts are subjected to a curing
process for about 4 days under storage temperature between
3040 C and 90100 % relative humidity (RH) (Fadeyibi
2012). The time for complete curing cannot be said certainly
because it is determined by factors such as extent of wound,
season, condition of the crop at harvest and the cultivars. The
process has been seen as a means of reducing the onset of
microorganism and disease as well as PPD and extending
the shelf life of the fresh root.
Postharvest Handling and Storage of Fresh Root

The quality, sustainability and the safety of the plant lies not
just on the preharvest factors but most importantly on the
postharvest management especially for a crop like cassava
with rapid deterioration rate (Iyer et al. 2010). Reduction of
postharvest losses can help to improve the quality of fresh
cassava root. Some proven measures to prevent loss include
the use of improved cultivars with longer shelf life, application of proper agriculture practices during cultivation, proper
handling during and after harvest and the use of the appropriate processing techniques (Kader and Rolle 2004).
Postharvest handling of cassava roots include storage of the
fresh root, processing, packaging and storage of the processed
product (Opara and Mditshwa 2013). In addition, packaging
and storage are the most major factor in postharvest handling
that ensures food security and safety of the final product
(Daramola et al. 2010). Packaging guarantees the quality of
the root by protecting it from bruises and injuries and also
prevents excessive moisture loss. Also the stored root
Storage of agricultural raw materials is a vital aspect in postharvest handling. It guarantees that produce remains available
and adequate even when they are out of season. Root and
tuber are crops with high moisture content and they are usually bulky to carry; therefore, storing and transportation is
often challenging. During storage, most tropical root crops
such as yam and cassava transpire and lose moisture; this leads
to reduction in acidity level of the crops and thereby degrading
the cooking quality as well as the market value. In the rural
areas, storage of cassava root was not an issue because the
farmers harvest and process root immediately for consumption and this practice reduces the epidemic of deterioration
(Reilly et al. 2004).
Cold storage of cassava is often not viable in many developing countries, due to financial and technical limitations
(Kormawa et al. 2002), but may be applicable for premium
markets. Cassava roots are sensitive to chilling injury, internal
breakdown, with increased water loss and decay, loss of eating
quality as well as failure to sprout when stored at temperatures
below 58 C, depending on cultivar and agroclimatic conditions (Brecht 2003). However, cassava roots have been reported to store best at 3 C, with a total weight loss of 14 and 23 %
after 2 and 4 weeks, respectively. Cassava roots stored below
3 C exhibit internal browning disorder (Rickard and Coursey,
1981), and the rate of deterioration is faster for cassava roots
once removed from low temperatures to room temperature
(Lebot 2009). Thus, several methods have been developed
to extend the shelf life of fresh cassava root (Westby 2002;
Akingbala et al. 2005; Fadeyibi 2012).
Traditional Methods
In-ground storage is the simplest and easiest traditional way of
extending the root and improves food security. Cassava root
has an optimum harvesting age and flexibility of harvest
which offers the advantage of longer in-ground storage.
However, the storage root can be lignified due to long storage
and some characteristic features are degraded in the process
(Westby 2002). Also, root could be infested by some pathogens (Fusarium solani, Phaeolus manihotis) or even by rodents. Some methods such as burying the root in the soil and
pilling the root in heaps with constant watering were also
exploited (Westby 2002). The methods were not reliable as
deterioration could set in from the root kept under. Another
traditional method is the coating of root with loamy soil.
Nevertheless, the traditional methods were only successful
in extending the shelf life of the root for few days. It has been
739
shown that during storage, the cyanide, moisture and starch

content in the root decrease while the ash, sugar, crude fibre as
well as the acidic content increase with the length of storage
(Table 6) (Akingbala et al. 2005).
Improved Method
Several improved methods to prevent deterioration and extend
the shelf life of root were introduced such as breeding cassava
cultivars with resistance or tolerance to physiological deterioration (Morante et al. 2010). Pruning of cassava plants before
harvest (Iyer et al. 2010), and advanced processing technology
which is the most reliable means of preventing the occurrence
of PPD (Buschmann et al. 2000). These technologies are encouraging as it further improves the market situation of the
crop and guarantees the quality of the fresh root for longer
days, but that notwithstanding very few of the technology is
being harnessed in the developing countries. The methods
included are discussed below.
Field Clamp
This method has been considered as a traditional method of
storage of cassava roots, and roots can be stored for up to
8 weeks as it was also confirmed with the storage of potato.
Clamps are constructed by laying straws on the floor and
arranging the roots followed by another layer of straws and
then with soil making a heap. There is always an opening for
ventilation, but this method is usually affected by the wet
season as the ground should be kept dry during the storage
period (Fadeyibi 2012). It is also labour intensive and requires
skilled labourers (Westby 2002).
Storage in a Box with Moist Sawdust
In this method, sawdust and cassava root are placed alternatively in the box with the sawdust being on the top and at the
bottom. The sawdust is kept moist as deterioration could occur
if the sawdust becomes dry and if too damp it would favour
the growth of spoilage microorganism causing root decay, so
Table 6 Chemical compositions (g/kg) of cassava root stored in a
trench and polyethylene bags at 302 C (Akingbala et al. 2005)
Storage duration Moisture
(days)
0
7
14
21
Ash
Crude
fibre
Sugar
Starch
670
610
620
571
670
646
648
641
6
8
13
18
6
8
14
15
13
14
21
26
13
14
19
24
51
73
111
151
51
88
100
132
764
673
627
558
764
694
599
534
P polyethylene bags, T trench
the box should always be monitored and water applied when

necessary (Fadeyibi 2012). Olaleye et al. (2013) investigated
the effectiveness of trench and sawdust storage in maintaining
moisture content of cassava root. They observed that the root
stored at ambient temperature using both methods showed
high level of water retention up to the sixth week of storage.
This is a clear indication of the good keeping quality of and
postharvest of freshly harvested roots (Karim et al. 2009).
However, the limitation of these techniques is that the high
relative humidity in the storage environment could inhibit the
growth of microorganisms (Olaleye et al. 2013).
Storage in Plastic Bags
Plastics bags are the most useful means of transportation to the
urban sectors (Fadeyibi 2012). Studies have proven storage of
cassava root up to 3 weeks in plastic airtight films. Also, treating
the root with fungicides like thiabendazole for few seconds
before packaging in the polymeric film could extend the shelf
life of the root. Hence, the technology could favour commercial
exportation of cassava root. However, due to limited mechanical
protection of the plastic bags, the root could be damaged during
transportation (Fadeyibi 2012). Akingbala et al. (2005) investigated the effect of packaging cassava root in polyethylene bags
and trench for 21 days. Their study showed low water retention
in polyethylene bag after the period of storage, indicating deterioration of root and poor keeping quality. Another improved
method is digging pit with soil of 15 % moisture content. This
method was observed to extend the root to about 8 weeks, but
nutrient loss in the root was observed after the storage period.
Advanced Technology
Some advanced methods have been developed by the Centro
Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) Palmira,
Colombia, in conjunction with National Resources Institute
(NRI), Chatham, UK, for the storage of cassava (Fadeyibi
2012). These methods include refrigeration at lower temperature range of values 05 C, freeze drying and waxing with
paraffin wax (Reilly et al. 2004). These methods are used for
export purposes but it is expensive to maintain the equipment
used for the purpose, and also handling requires skilled personnel (Fadeyibi 2012). It can improve storage of fresh cassava root up to 2 weeks but refrigeration is not the most practised
method in the developing countries (Reilly et al. 2004). The
use of paraffin wax also creates the possibility to market the
crop and further increase the margin of holding stock of fresh
root only for few weeks. Storage conditions of high temperature and low RH favours the curing process, but prior to storage it require proper handling and selection of root. However,
none of these methods can extend the shelf life of root while
maintaining the quality attributes. Therefore, processing into
different food forms is a better option for extending the shelf
740
life, eliminate some toxic compound like cyanide and also

retain the quality of the product for a longer period of time
(Cardoso et al. 2005; Kolawole et al. 2009).
Processing of Cassava Roots

Processing cassava root into different food forms helps to
stabilize shelf life, improve quality and detoxify the root
(Inyang et al. 2006; Kolawole et al. 2009). Additionally, processing can also increase or decrease the quality attributes of
the processed products (Falade and Omojola 2010). Studies
have shown that during traditional processing over 40 % of the
product is lost at the drying stage. This is because the products
are usually dried on bare floor where they are exposed to
various contaminants such as dust and birds (Inyang et al.
2006). However, these contaminations can be avoided by
modifying the production and drying process, adherence to
food sanitary and hygienic practices (Tsav-Wua et al. 2004).
These products from cassava root are either processed into
unfermented or fermented foods and drinks, but their processing methods such as boiling steaming, roasting as well as the
form (solid, semi-solid or liquid) in which they are consumed
differ (Falade and Akingbala 2010). The processed products
from root can be for industrial purposes or for consumer food
(Table 7). Some of the unfermented products discussed below
are common in some African countries while others are available in several regions of the world.
Unfermented Cassava Products
Tapioca
Tapioca grit is a partially gelatinized flake commonly consumed in many countries in West Africa as a convenience
food (Adebowale et al. 2007). Tapioca processing is varietal
sensitive and can be processed using rotary dryer or traditionally by roasting method but the former is widely used as it is
applicable for all varieties (Adebowale et al. 2007). Therefore,
with the rotary drying method, time of drying, the changes in
moisture content, as well as shelf life stability of tapioca and
other products can be predicted (Falade and Akingbala 2010).
Cassava Chips and Pellets
Exporting of cassava products in minimally processed form is
becoming a common practice and cassava chips and pellets
are very efficient means for this purpose. They readily satisfy
the market demand (Adamade and Azogu 2013). They are
simply dried slices of cassava roots of varying sizes between
2 and 5 cm usually packed in a jute bag or paper bag for
exporting (Adebowale et al. 2007). Chips can be used for
animal feed but its use is being constrained by many factors
such as growth of mould as a result of environmental conditions in the package during longer distance of shipping. In
addition, chips production and demand is inconsistent and
there is problem of market competition in supply (Westby
2002). However, chips and pellet have reduced moisture content and therefore prevent both quality and quantity postharvest loss (Adamade and Azogu 2013).
Pellet is similar to chips but has lower moisture content of
about 9 % compared to chips. Hence, pellets have a longer
storage life compared to chips (Falade and Akingbala 2010). It
is cylindrical in shape, dry and hard with length of about 2
3 cm and diameter about 0.4 and 0.8 cm (Adebowale et al.
2007). Pellets can be processed either from the root and
leaves. It can also be from the peels of the root and it involves
milling and extrusion, resulting in gelatinized products which
become hardened on cooling. Pellet is recommended for shipment purposes because it has less storage weight and the ability to retain the quality after long distance of travel due to the
low moisture content (Raji et al. 2008).
Cassava Starch
Cassava starch is a very good raw material in the food industry. It can be processed by peeling and washing of the roots,
grating and sieving to remove the fibre (Inyang et al. 2006).
The mash is allowed to sediment then followed by decanting
to collect the starch (Raji et al. 2008). The starch has a low
gelatinization temperature, high water-binding capacity (thus,
a good stabilizer of food) and high viscosity and it does not
retrograde easily. The lipid, protein ash and phosphorous content are generally low, but its carbohydrate content ranges
between 73.5 and 84.9 %. However, the quality of cassava
starch can be altered during drying and therefore renders it
unacceptable (Jekayinfa and Olajide 2007). Both the modified
and unmodified starch are used as raw materials in food industries, either directly as starch food in form of custard or as a
thickener in baby foods and gravies and as a binder for products during cooking to prevent drying out (Taiwo 2006).
Unfermented Cassava Flour
Unfermented cassava flour is generally referred to as highquality cassava flour (HQCF). It is white, smooth and
odourless flour and can be used as composite flour. The introduction of HQCF to the developing countries will encourage
the use of cassava based-products and thereby reduce the dependency of imported cereals and grains (Taiwo 2006).
Traditionally, cassava flour was processed by sorting and peeling, washing and grating. The grated pulp is then dewatered
(using rock to compress the sack bags) and pounded with
pestle and mortar; this process contributes to soften the tuber.
The mash is then sun dried and pounded again and then sieved
(sieving the flour gives a good quality product) and finally

Table 7
741
Common names used to describe some cassava products
Common names
Description
Location
Use
References
Partially gelatinized dried

cassava starch
Dried irregular slices of root
Dried mash from which the
fibre is removed
Fried cassava starch in oil
Milled cassava chip/
reconstituted mash
Boiled and pounded dough
Mashed boiled root
Grated cassava root and
mixed with banana
West Africa/Asia
Consumer food
Adebowale et al. (2007)
Nigeria
South India, Asia
and Nigeria
India
Nigeria
Industrial purposes
Food industry
Adamade and Azogu (2013)

Inyang et al. (2006)
Consumer food
Industrial/domestic

Taiwo (2006)
West Africa
Brazil
Indonesia
Consumer food
Consumer food
Consumer food

Uganda
Consumer drink
Uganda
Consumer drink
Cameroun
Consumer food
West African/Asia
Consumer food
Shittu et al. (2008)
Brazil
West Africa
Nigeria
West Africa
Consumer food
and industrial
Consumer food
Consumer food
Consumer food
Srinivas (2007)
Garri
Lafun
Agbelima
Flour mixed with water

and yeast and made
to ferment
Distilled liquor from
crushed cassava root
Dried cassava cut
into pieces
Made from wheat
and cassava flour
Fermented root used
for baking
Pregelatinized granulated mash
Cassava porridge
Fermented root
Akyeke/Attieke
Steamed sour granulated product
Cte dIviore and Ghana
Consumer food
Obilie et al. (2003)
Unfermented products
Tapioca
Chips and pellets
Cassava starch
Wafer
Cassava flour
Unfermented fufu
Ampesi
Cassava puddings
Fermented products
Cassava bear
Banu or Uala
Gatot
Cassava bread
Fermented cassava starch
package for further use in the food industries (Eddy et al.

2007; Fadeyibi 2012). This method, however, could lead to
fermentation as the dewatering and drying may take longer
time, thereby making the flour lose the functionality for composite flour (Falade and Akingbala 2010). Therefore, new
technique of processing was developed which is widely used
to improve the system of agriculture and encourage the local
farmers (Olaoye et al. 2011). It is a fast method which involves
harvesting and sorting of good roots, peeling and washing
manually, grating (usually done with a motorized cassava
grater), dewatering (with screw or hydraulics press), pulverizing, drying (solar or oven drying), fine milling, sifting the
milled flour with a motorized flour sifter 250 m and then
packaging (Jekayinfa and Olajide 2007). Products from unfermented cassava include cassava macaroni and wafer (India),
cassava puddings (Indonesia) and cassava cakes or wayano
(India, Thailand and Malaysia) (Falade and Akingbala 2010).
Fadeyibi (2012)
Obilie et al. (2003)
the product but extend the shelf life (Falade and Akingbala
2010). Fermentation is one major method employed during
processing which enhances the reduction of the cyanide level
and detoxification of the root (Kostinek et al. 2005). Some
notable products from fermented cassava are discussed below.
Cassava Bread
Cassava bread is a fermented product prepared from the combination of wheat flour and cassava flour in the ratio of 5:1
(Shittu et al. 2008). This proportion has been observed to give
acceptable fresh loaf. However, cassava flour is processed into
dry flour by drying at temperature of about 50 C to ensure
that flour retains its creamy colour after drying. This process
has the ability of improving the use of cassava flour as composite flour in bakery industries.
Fermented Cassava Starch
Fermented Cassava Products

Fermentation is one method of processing cassava into another food form which not only improve the flavour and taste of
This is a modified starch from fermentation of cassava root. It

can be used for frying and baking of cheese bread in some
countries such as Brazil (Srinivas 2007). The process involves
742
steeping already peeled and grated cassava roots in a tank of

water for a period of 20 to 70 days to allow fermentation. This
steeping process in adequate water helps in separating the
starch granules from the fibre and other soluble compound.
After fermentation, the obtained starch is dried to produce a
powered product. Although the soaking process is essential, it
could cause deterioration of starch and, thus, reduce its uses in
the food and pharmaceutical industries (Taiwo 2006). The
quality and the physicochemical properties of the fermented
starch obtained are greatly affected by the varietal and environment factors such as the temperature during fermentation.
Cassava Fufu
Fufu is an acid-fermented cassava product that is processed
through the submerged fermentation of peeled roots in water.
Fufu is a common traditional food for the West African countries (Oyewole and Sanni 1995). The softened root is then
pounded into wet fufu and the following process are adopted:
steeping the root in water for 23 days to soften the pulp and,
thereafter, it is screened, allowed to sediment, dewatered with
cloth bags, cooked and finally pounded into fufu. The quality
of fufu is determined by the texture, aroma and colour
(creamy-white or yellowish) depending on the variety used.
The quality of fufu is greatly affected by season, the processors and also most especially the variety (Obadina et al. 2009).
Deterioration rate is high because it is processed as a wet paste
with moisture content of about 50 %; therefore, the shelf life is
short and will not be useful to be suitable for large-scale and
commercial purposes. However, a modern technology has
been developed to extend the shelf life and market quality of
fufu. This is obtained by drying in high temperature for about
60 C to produce flour which can be further reconstituted with
hot water (Dipeolu et al. 2001).
Garri
Garri is the most commercial and useful product from cassava
processing. It is creamy-white, pregelatinized granular and
high-calorie food with slightly sour taste (Falade and
Akingbala 2010). It is processed from fresh cassava roots
following very tedious operation of peeling, grating into mash
(Fadeyibi 2012). The grated pulp is put in sacks (Jute or polypropylene) and the sacks are placed under heavy stones or
pressed with a hydraulic lack between wooden platforms for
34 days to dewater the pulp and allow fermentation to take
place (Falade and Akingbala 2010). This traditional way of
processing cassava root into garri requires more labour, is
monotonous, time-consuming and hazardous to health because processors are usually exposed to smoke and heat during toasting (Taiwo 2006).
Thereafter, the pulp is sieved with traditional woven splinters of cane and finally toasted over a heated metallic surface
(garrification) to dextrinize and dry the grits (Akingbala et al.

2005). During this time, constant stirring with a wooden paddle is required until low moisture content usually between 8
and 10 % is achieved (Falade and Akingbala 2010). Garri is
regarded as precooked convenient food which can be eaten as
a snack, and the long period of roasting contributes greatly to
its longer shelf life (Fadeyibi 2012).
Lafun and Agbelima
Lafun is fermented cassava flour common in southwest
Nigeria; it is prepared like porridge and eating with soup
(Falade and Akingbala 2010). The process involves manual
peeling, chipping to enhance fermentation and detoxification
of the root; the tuber are soaked in a large quantity of water for
2 to 3 days for fermentation to take place, and the mash is
dewatered and dried for a maximum of 3 days before packaging for household consumption or marketing (Falade and
Akingbala 2010). Agbelima is a traditional food of the West
African especially in Ghana, Togo and Benin. It involves grating and fermentation of the cassava tuber with inoculums,
although these inoculums enhance the fermentation to about
2 days but it degrades the taste and texture. The fermentation
process in agbelima promotes detoxification of cassava root
and gives a peculiar organoleptic quality such as souring taste
and soften texture (Obilie et al. 2003).
Akyeke or Attiek
Akyeke or attiek is an indigenous food product from cassava
popular in Cte dIviore and Ghana. It is a steamed sour granulated product, fermented to modify the rubbery texture of the
peeled cassava roots. Peeled cassava roots are washed and
grated together with traditional inoculums (peeled cassava
chunks soaked in water for 3 days). The mash is packed into
polyethene sacks and allowed to ferment for 57 days depending on the amount of inoculum added. The mash is further
dewatered with screw press, and the granules are then
sundried and steamed to obtain the akyeke. The inoculum is
prepared by soaking peeled cassava chunks in water for about
3 days to soften and ferment (Obilie et al. 2003).
Bioenergy
Ethanol from Cassava
Another significant use of cassava that has become of scientific interest globally is its use as a renewable energy source
(Adelekan 2010). This was necessary because of the rate of
deforestation in the developing countries to produce firewood
for domestic as well as industry purposes (Fadeyibi 2012).
Cassava being an energy crop offers a cheaper alternative to
743
packaging materials, changes occurred in the proximate composition, and this was suggested to be due to the different
relative permeability of the packaging materials either to atmospheric conditions, gases and environmental changes (Butt
et al. 2004). Similarly, during long periods of storage, the pH
of the sample is decreased due to the microbial activities, and
the metabolites are reactivated leading to an increase in titratable acid in the cassava products (Ogiehor and Ikenebomeh
2006). However, the use of the appropriate packaging materials could inhibit the growth of microorganism and extend the
shelf life of the product (Ogugbue and Gloria 2011).
Most products from cassava are hygroscopic in nature and if
exposed to the atmosphere can absorb moisture and gases from
the environment and will in turn encourages the growth of microbes (Ogugbue and Gloria 2011). On exposure to high humidity and moisture content, flour products tend to glue to the body
of the packaging film due to increase in the wall friction (Iqbal
and Fitzpatrick 2006). This situation therefore reduces the crispiness of the final product processed from such flour sample
(Kulchan et al. 2010). Various packaging materials have been
recommended in literature for the packaging of cassavaprocessed products. The product quality and shelf life is influenced by the characteristics of the packaging film used; therefore, each product has a particular packaging material suitable for
it (Robertson 2012). The different packaging materials used for
storage of cassava products are mainly paper, plastic and sack
bags or a combination of one or two of the materials (Table 8).
Paper materials can be coated or laminated with aluminium, and it is superior over other materials because it can be
recycled at low cost (Opara and Mditshwa 2013). Plastic films
which include low-density polyethylene (LDPE), highdensity polyethylene (HDPE), laminated aluminium foil
(LAF), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and plastics
containers are widely used for packaging. However, some of
these materials are faced with a major setback of the inability
to resist light and moisture which can further contribute to
degrading the physicochemical and quality of products such
as the colour and carotenoids which are heat and light sensitive (Chvez et al. 2007).
conventional energy sources and providing favourable impression to the utilization of natural resources (Ubalua
2007). Similarly, development of ethanol from cassava will
further enhance value addition and reduce postharvest losses
since cassava waste could be used for the production (Ubalua
2007). Also, this technology will propel agricultural productivity especially in the developing countries and reduce the
reliance on fossil fuel for source of energy (Adelekan 2012;
Fadeyibi 2012). Ethanol fuel (ethyl alcohol) is similar to the
alcohol found in alcoholic beverages and can be used for
biofuel as alternative to gasoline and as oxygenate to gasoline
in the USA (Adelekan 2010).
Packaging and Storage of Cassava Products

Packaging is essential in food system because it helps to reduce loss, add value, extend shelf life, maintain quality and
wholesomeness of a products, improve market standard and
food safety (Inyang et al. 2006; Opara and Mditshwa 2013). It
is the easiest and cheapest way of preventing food contamination with undesirable organisms (Opara and Mditshwa 2013).
Postharvest losses often occurred due to poor or inadequate
packaging, which results in shelf life instability (Ogiehor and
Ikenebomeh 2006; Caleb et al. 2012).
The shelf life of packaged cassava products is influenced
by the storage conditions, moisture content and the water activity (aw) of the product. Water activity influences the microbial load and facilitates physicochemical deterioration; this is
because high water activity level suggests an increase in moisture content and high relative humidity (Ikhu-Omoregbe
2006). Optimum packaging keeps the product readily available for the consumers in a wholesome quality and prevents
deterioration caused by microorganisms. Ogiehor and
Ikenebomeh (2006) observed garri stored in different packaging material, at the end of the storage period each of the stored
sample in the materials showed an increase in the fungal and
viable bacterial count which varied between each materials.
Also, studies have shown that during storage in the different
Table 8
Packaging materials and storage conditions for handling different cassava products
Products
Package materials
Storage conditions
Duration (weeks)
Comments
Reference
Cassava flour-baked
products
Garri
LDPE, OPP, plastic bag
301 C
24
Kulchan et al. (2010)
Gunny sack, HDPE,

LDPE, plastic container
LDPE, HDPE, plastic
bucket and Hessian
bags
Airtight dishes
Ambient
301 C
24
Shelf life stability

in LDPE, OPP
Microbial stability
in HDPE
Proximate best
in HDPE
282 C; 33 C,
76 % RH
16 and 36 C
Garri
Fufu flour
Garri
Unpackaged, PP, PE,

Hessian bag
24
Flour was best

at 33 % RH
Best in PP and PE
Ogugbue and Gloria (2011)

Ogiehor and Ikenebomeh (2006)
Obadina et al. (2009)

Adejumo and Raji (2012)
744
Conclusions
Cassava root is highly susceptible to postharvest deterioration
because of its high moisture content which reduces the market
quality of the harvested root. The postharvest handling and
storage of freshly harvested cassava root and processed products were discussed in this review. Various processing techniques intended to facilitate commercial production of cassava
root into more convenient food forms such as garri, flour, fufu
and tapioca and the different packaging method for root and
processed product were highlighted. This review showed that
traditional storage method of burying cassava root in the soil
or pilling the root in heaps with constant watering could contribute to the drastic reduction in the produce quality and percentage production yield due to increased incidence of physiological disorders and decay.
Optimum storage and processing techniques offer an effective way of reducing postharvest losses of and adding value to
fresh cassava root. However, processing must be done within
the first 2 days after harvest before deterioration sets in. Proper
hygienic practices such as thorough washing of roots with
potable water should be adopted and machines should also
be washed to avoid cross-contamination during processing.
Packaging of processed products is also vital in postharvest
handling as it determines the shelf life and availability of the
processed products. This means that degradation of quality
attributes could still occur during storage of the produce depending on the type of packaging materials used, thereby
resulting in physicochemical, functional as well as the nutritional losses of the processed products.
Therefore, research should focus more on evaluating the
optimum packaging and storage conditions for the shelf life
stability of fresh cassava products especially high-quality cassava flour. This will enable the food processors to make proper
selection of composite flour during product development.
Furthermore, research on technology applicable in reducing
the onset of postharvest physiological deterioration of freshly
harvested cassava root and extending the shelf life for commercial and domestic purposes should be emphasized.
Acknowledgments This work is based upon research supported by the
South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science
and Technology and National Research Foundation. The financial support of the West African Agricultural Productivity Programme (WAAPP)
of the Federal Government of Nigeria through the award of scholarship to
Mrs. Uchechukwu-Agua is gratefully acknowledged.
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Food Bioprocess Technol (2015) 8:729748