Flan: Lazenns, manbater 8 pow SH LESIEX. txriomng AM? A bam Memane 4ethe fen. Vicwre4, Wy: Mm, 202, The Language of Art and Architecture i \ CHAPTER | | language of at?FORMAL ELEMENTS ~~ Words are hasic elements of oral and written languages. Likewise, the basic units of visual arts are the formal clement and pat tern, shape and volume, space, and time and motion, Some works also contain che elements of chance, ind spontaneity as well as eng : Tine, light and value, color textur improvisation, other than sight. LINE Mathematically, a fine is a moving point, having length and no width, In art, a fine usually has both length and ‘width, bur length is the more important dimension. Lines mace with some material are actual fines. They physically exist and can be broad, thin, straight, jagged, and so on, Implied Fines in an arework do not physically exist, y al to viewers. For ccxample, the dotted line has several individual, uncon: nected parts that can be grouped into a single “line.” In Figure 2.1, some lines are actual lines, created by con- tinuous stripes, while others are implied lines, created by aligning diserete dots that we perceive as lines, In fact, in the detail from a painting, we can see the image eously as lines, dots, and area the bold, chitk angular lines they seem quice Lines come in great varieties, such seen in Shoki' the Demon Quell Uragawa Kunisada (Fig, 2.2). Lines have direction: horizontal, vertical, diagonal, curved, or meandering, A line’s direction can describe spatial relationships in che world. Something, is above something, elses a path leads from left ro right; an object starts at one location, and then moves to another. Hori zontal lines may imply sleep, quiet, or inactivity, like the ecumbent numa body. Vertical fines may imply aspi- ration and yearning, as if defying. gravity. Diagonal lines suggest movement, because they occur in the pos- ture of running animals and blowing trees, while curv ing lines may suggest flowing movement. These are guidelines, not rules, because the overall context affects the understanding of specific lines. The upper body of Shoki the Demon Queller leans to the lett, implying movement, as does the diagonal line of his sword. His robe's sweeping curves and jagged diagonal lines imply 8 furious energy Among groups of lines, repetition may suggest collide ‘or tangle may seem random, conflicting, or unbalanced. In Paul Klee's They're Biting (Fig. 2.3), from 1920, the meandering, interconnected lines are whimsical, structure or order, as in parallel lines. Lines th: 2% ne, 1849-1853 by" = --Lines-can-also express emotion. Some are precise and controlled, delicate or wavering, sweeping, broad ‘or vigorous. Others are blu result of a gouging, jabbing action. These expressive rough, oF heavy, as ifthe xesture lines not only depict the physical world but also express the artists’ inner beings. Contrast the thick, ular lines of Shoki with the thin, playful lines of They're Biting, ‘An outline can show shape, which is a two-limen Contour lines sional object, sional entity discussed more on page 37, mark the outer edges of a three-dime allowing artists to eliminate internal detail but retain recognition of the object, as with the sailboat and buoy in They're Biting. Cross-contours are internal lines that de around Shoki’s waist. Lines ean also produce tones, or different areas of gray, as in the parallel lines of hatch- ing or in layers to produce erosshatehing that are visible in Albrgcht Durer's Artist drawing a model in foresbort ening through a frame using a grid systems (Fig. 24), Linear elements can exist in theve dimensions. Any thin string, rope, wire, chain, stick, or cod used in a sculpture can function like a line. The length of che Royal Linguist’s Staff from Ghana in the 1900s (Fig. 2.5) gives it an obvious linear quality. Advisorveransla- tors who attend local rulers carry these staffs as signs of their position; the sculpture on top refers to local proverbs, In architeccure, columns are linear elements, as are exposed beams or thick steel cables, as seen later in this chapter in Guncer Behnisch’s and Otto Frei's Olympic Stadium, Munich (Fig. 2.43). sate major areas within an object, like the belt LIGHT AND VALUE Light is the basis for vision Light is et lengths, stimulates the eyes and brain. The sun, moon, stars, lightning, and fie ace natural light sources, while incandescent, fluorescent, neon, and laser lights are aifcial. In’ art and architecture, Tight might be an actual element, a8 in Figure 2.6 showing Bruce Nau man’s neon sculpture Human/Need/Desire, 1983, here totally illuminated, “bur which actually alternates nd thus necessary for art spy shat, in core between “desire” and “need” to suggest the fluctuaring motivations for human behavior. In buildings, the con trol of light is an essential design element, whether with skylights, windows, or artificial lights, Most are does nor emit or manipulace light itself, bur reflects ambient light, which is the light all around tus in our world. In two-dimensional art, artists use value, which is light and dark variation on a surfaceN 283, Neon re, 710 25 The Museum of Modern Art, New Yor Value pm the extremes of white and black, achromatic value scale in Figure 2.7. Value can a sociated with color: red can still be red, but it ean by lighter or dacker, or different values of the color, see in the chromatic value scale in Figuee 2.7. can carefully manipulae gradations in values the apps called shading, and it ball in Figure 2.7. Renaissa chiaroscuro to describe these light-dark gradations can depict objects in ace. For example, in R. Fiorentino’s Recumbent Female Nude Figure Asleep, 1530-1540 (Fig, 2.8), the value range of reddish-browr chalk, from dark to light, is clear. A range emotion, 100. Stark charge, like Shoki the Demow Que ’s drawing may ll Sculpture and architecture may have value differ ence simply because of the many angles at which |with-carved wooden forms inside-stacked -boxss, all — painted black. Or their surfaces may be manipulated, like a painting's, for variety in value COLOR Color is a wonderful phenomenon that people are lucky to enjoy, Color is visible in refracted light, when a prism breaks a light beany into a spectrum of color, fainbow after a storm, Color is also visible in reflected light, when objects around us absorb some of the rest, Those rays that are reflected t0 our eyes are the color of the object A. Achromati vale si the spectrum and bounce ba ‘The properties of color are hue, value, and inten sity. Hue is the pure state of color in the spectrum and is that color’s name, such as red, blue, yellow, geen, purpl darkness within a hue, as we already saw in Figur ‘When black is added to a hue, a shade of that color is created, while the addition of white results in a tint of and orange. Value in color is lightness and that color, Intensity in color is the brightness and dull- ress of a hue, Synonyms for intensity are chroma and saturation, A high-intensity color is brilliant, vivid, and saturated, while a low-intensity color is faded or dull. shady We sce high-intensity colors in the spectrum. Black and Pore of shade heir proper: ties, Neutral colors are very low intensity colors such as cream, 1's Mr CC. Values creating the tlsion of volume land Mrs. Andrews (Fig. 2.10}, the most saturated color is the blue satin dress, moditied with tints and shades. In Mr. Andrews's neutral-color jacket, the variations white have value but not intensity amon: rales light i cas shadow . or beige. In Thomas Gainsboroug Value Diagram 28 Rosso Fionextixe Recumbent Femal Nude Figure Asleep, 1530-1540. 5° 9 icish Muse 30. CHAPTER 2 The Language of Art sn Architecturiy 9 Louise Nevetsos. ‘of the Muse ot Fine A“are rhowtly value changes. Foreground greens are warm Amtists mix colors through one of- cw. systems: land intense compared t0 the cool, blue-geay gecens in additive and subtractive (Fig. 2.11). The additive color cal colors are the colors we normally system applies to light the distance. Lo ‘emitting media. In additive color find in the objects around us. In this painting, the blue systems, absence of all light produces darkness (or dress, yellow hay, and gray-and-white clouds are all in black), and all aided together results in the local colors brightest, whitest light ac the center of Figure 2.11A. In ADDITIVE COLOR SYSTEM SUBTRACTIVE COLOR SYSTEM 1. RED L YELLOW | a) | > 2 1Green ! 1. BLUE RED 1 BLUE | | 2.Gan vu | | : | | | | » | | | “OS | ic COLOR WHEE | 2.11 Dingram showing the Additive and Suber ‘lor Soscour diagram, we see what happens as red, greeny and blue tights are mixed. Theater lighting, performance art, light displays, and computer and video. monitors use the additive color system. In the subtractive color system, artists. mix. pi ments t0 control the light that is reflected from the Pigments are powdered substances ground into. oil, acrylic polymer, or other binders to create paints. In the subtractive color system, white is a pigment that reflects almost the entire spectrum of light. Black absorbs almost all light, reflecting back very litte, Our diagram shows the mixi Mixing more and more pigments gives darker results, as the mixture increasingly absorbs the available light, fas we see in the center of Figure 2.11B, Primary colors combine to produce the laugest umber of new colors, Various dlistinet primary colors. For example, for light-emitting, media, the primary colors are red, blue, and green, as wwe see on our additive color system diagram. Sec~ ondary colors result from mixing ewo primary colors, Again, in light-emitting media, the secondary colors are yellow, cyan, and magenta. For paints and pigments, the primary colors are red, yellow, and blue, while the secondary colors are orange, green, and purple. Mixi tone primacy color with one of its neighboring second- ary colors produces tertiary colors. Blue-gseen is a tert ary color in paint. Analogous colors are those that are similae in appearance, especially those in which we can see related hues, such as yellow, yellow-orange, and ‘orange, Analogous colors are next to each other on the of red, yellow; and bl + media have their calor ‘wheel. Complementary calors-are opposites of ach other and, when mixed, give a dull result, In pain, red and green are complementary colors. The color wheel again shows us this relationship, We ean sce the various colors on the eolor wheel in Figare 2.11C, which applies only £0 color mixing with paints and pigments Many color images we encounter in our lives are commercially printed, including the color images in this book. Commercial printers use semieransparent inks, with these primary colors: yellow, magenta (a bright pink}, and eyan (a bright blue-green), plus black added for darkness and contrast, The secondary colors. are blue, red, and green. You can e and their resulting mixtures, if you use a strong magni lass while looking at a newspaper's color photo. ly see these primaries, inks and the same blacks K = black) pri and your prine ‘outs of color images are made from migpures of these colors The chart in Figure 2.12 sums up the primary and secondary colors in various media, plus other color antributes Color perception is relaive, meaning that we sce colors differently depending upon thei surroundings Light-emitirg media are much moze dramatic in dim light, like watching television in caedark. Ip a very bright room, the television imagi-is barely visible. Con versely, reflective media need a lot of light ro be seen well. A spotlight on a painting makes its colors vivid. while a dim vom makes them hard to see. Because graph. You encounter the CMYK (eyan, magenta, yellow rmaries in your home computer print | COLOR PROPERTIES IN VARIOUS MEDIA | Color System Effects of Environmental Tight Levels Primary Colors brighter the colors blue, red, yellow Secondary Colors purple (blue + red) | Bern elon = blue) | | range (red + yellow) Compleentaries blue ~ orange red ~ green yellow — purple Mixture of All Primaries gray or dull neutral ‘lor Properties in Various Media Light-Emitting Media {e.8., Computer Monitor) additive subtractive cor Computer Printer less room light, the brighter the colors mote room light, the brighter the colors red, green, blue cyan, magenta, yellow, black (CMYK) red (magenac + yellow) blue (eyan + magenta) en (yellow + cyan) red ~ cyan cyan ~ red igreen ~ megenta tmaigenta — gecen bhue ~ yellow yellow ~ blue yellow (eed + green} cyan (geeen * blue) magenta (red + blue) white bisck Formal Elements | 33nacural light ig constantly. changing; ouc visual percep: tion is also, and so there i no single, fixed, permanent state thar the painting “looks like.” We also experience relativity of color perception when we louk at certain combinations of colors. In Fig ture 2.13, the colors in the center of the top row of squares appear to be different even chough they are exactly the same, while the dull pink squares in the lower row appear to be the same, but are different. Fye fatigue also affects our color perception. Stare at the white dot in the center of the “flag” printed in Figure 2.13 for one minute, You will notice as the minute ‘wears on that you have trouble seeing the colors, which 2.13 Diagram Showing the \akditive and Subractive Color Sestems, and Relativity of Color Seaeat che white dot atthe center ofthe fag for 30 seco 34 . at first were so clear and bright, After the minute has passed, look at a white wall to sce an afterimage of the flag, with colors shifted co red, white, and blue. Because of eye fatigue, your eyes sce the compleme ‘or opposites, of the printed colors. Colors associated with the sun and fire, such as yellows, reds, and oranges, are considered warm, Col- fors associated with plane life, sky, and water, such as greens, blues, and purples, are cool. Warm and cool colors ean affect an audience both physically ane emo: tionally, Certain colors in the surroundings ean actually influence your alertness, sense of well-being, and sense of inner peace ote = The thre small enter squares above seem ev be dillerent shades of wang, but thy areal he same, bur they ae diferenteen ener an Siias Colors can be symbolic and, thus, associated with: ideas or events. The colors of a country’s flag are tied to concepts of national identity and patriotism, Certain colors might mean a holiday or a celebration, stich as red and green for Christmastime in Western cultures, oF red for a wedding in Asian cultures, One color may be associated with different, and even contrad ideas. For example, you might think of blue in relation to the ethereal, to purity, or to depression, Yellow might mean cowardice, or it might mean youth, spring, and rebirth, Associations change from culeure eo culture (so the red for weddings in Asia becomes white in Western cultures). TEXTURE AND PATTERN ists of physical surface varia tions that can be perceived by the-sense-of tonch: Sculptures often have distinctive tactile textures, as in the Liowr Capital from Sarnath, India (Fig. 2.1 BCE. The gleaming smooth sandstone on the lion's lees contrasts with the rough texture of the lion's: mane Sometimes a medium has an inherent texture, For example, mosaic is a method of creating a picture out of glass or stone pieces, which are affixed to a surface, as seen in Figure 2.15, Detail of Deesis Mosaic in Hagia Sop ach mosaic piece reflects ambient light in a ing may have a ta Jifferene direction. A paint fexture when there are thick, textured brushstrokes. Visual texture is illusionary, tn Mr. and Mrs. Andrews (Fig, 2 ulated che paint to create the illus bristly hay, and fluffy clouds, even though the painting surface is fla“Texture can be-simuiated, abscracted, ‘or invented. — Simulated textures mimic reality, as in Mr. and Mrs. Andrews. Texture can be abstracted as well, meaning that it is based on some existing texture, but has been simplified and regularized. The mane on the Lion Cap) ital is an abstracted texture. Invented textures are apparently products of human imagination, Building, macerials often have unique textures. Just think of marbl stone, wood, conerete, cloth, glass, stucco, plaster, metal, brick, or glazed tile, each with a different visual appeal, each with ies own texture Texture and pattern are rélated—it a pattern is reduced drastically in size, tis often perceived as a tex: ture, and if a texture is greatly incre likely to be perceived asa pattern. The lion's mane on the Lion Capital can be read as either texture or pat tern. Pattern is a configuration with a repeated visual form (or forms). Natural patterns occur all around us, in leaves and flowers, in cloud and crystal formations, in wave patterns, and so on, In natural patterns, the repeated elements may cesemble each other, but not be ‘exactly alike, The intervals between elements also may vary. The tree branches and furrows in the field in Mr. and Mrs, Andrews (Fig. 2.10) simulate natural pat 2.16 Blanket. Tlingie Mountain goat wool and cedar bark, 31° 71 ding feinge Newark Museum, 36 guage of Ai t -serns. Geometric patterns have regular elements spaced at regular intervals, They are common in math, interior design, and art, The Chilkat Blanket (F ered with bold patterns abstracted animal forms. The eyes overall were intended as a form ‘of protection and power Pattern in artis often an organizing element, as with the Blanket, and the extensive use of pattern makes striking visual impression. Some patterns are rotally invented, some are geometric, some contain highly abstracted forms (like the Blanket), and some are inher ent in the materials, ike wood grain Architectural ornamentation is the embvlishment of forms or surfaces beyond structucal necessity. Omnamen tation, however, frequently serves an important function. Ie may direct your eye to certain features of a building, like enteances. Pattern can also have symbolic value. In Islamic religious architeceure, like the Great Mosqne Cordoba (Fig, 2. the idea thae all the wonder of creation originates in Allah (sce also Chapter Opener image, page 25). As des wallpaper, of fabric design. Pactern’s function in these instances is to give visual pleasure. Yet pattern is also 7), the amgzing, rich patterns express ation, pattern appears on wrapping paperoe i | | | an important tool for thinking visually, Pattern helps organize ideas and concepts into visual diagrams that make relationships clear. Pattern is the basis of flow charts, street maps, mechanical diageams, and tloor plans. We see patterns in the creative work of many artists, engineers, and scientists, Parrern is inherent in almost all structural systems in architecture, which evident in the di ms later in this chapter (page SHAPE AND VOLUME Shape is a two-dimensional visual entity. Regular shapes are geometric. We have name regula ar shapes are unique and ‘ Volume is a three-dimensional entity, in contrast co two-dimensional shape. Like shape, volumes can be regular or irregular, geometric or biomorphic. Shape volume may simulate reality, maybe abstracted nt reality, or may be invented. Martin Puryear's Thai ie. 2.18) is a reenlar volume hut its name si .cted from a biomorphic form. Vol tumes may have more or less physical bulk, oF open or wireframe structure, like That Pro have a laege volume but little mass. A more solid. blocklike piece has both mass and volume, as the Lior av ok at the buildings around you. What are their pre dominant shape t volumes do they enclose? How much my he structures have? Whatars Powvtak. Th 71999, Stainless steel, hronze, $40” 360" % 136 Gorey Museum, Los Angels. it occupies and the voids it con: rains; and (3) the space of perfo and inter-media work All two-dimen: First, space in two-dimensional act: sional art has is planar space, the bi ey're Biting (Fig, 2.3), th the height and width of the pictute plane. Yet, artists can create the illusion of deep space on the flat surface of «vo: dimensional art. Overlapping image are two simple ways. Again, in They're Biting, he pa ne fish ar the bottom of the picture seem closer than he boar and buoy near the top. And the boat and buoy themselves are pushed forward because they overlap the horizon, which then is moved back More complex illusions of space are created chro group of methods for creating the illusion ie perspec . bleached handling of distant forms to make them We have alread) ueimospherie perspective del (Fig. 2.4), where fo perspective wna flat picture plane, Atmosph vot depth We {or aerial perspective) refers co the 38 are bold and heavily shaded, versus the light, linear handling of the distant landscape; and (2) Mr. and Mrs Andrews (Fig. 2.10), where the distant landscape is less colorful and less derailed Another kind of perspective is linear perspective, which operates on the theory thar parallel lines appear to converge as thew recede, They seem to meet on an imaginary line called the horizon line, of ac eye level The horizon line corresponds to the viewer's eye level nn a picture, determining what the viewer perceives as “above” or “below.” The three types of linear perspective—one-, rwo-, shown in the diagram in Figure he frontal plane of a and three-point 2.19, In one-point perspes volume is closest to the viewers and all othe to a single vanishing point. In two- appear £0 rece point perspective, « single edge (or line) of a volume is closest t6 the viewer, and all planes appear to recede to ‘one of two vanishing points. In three-point perspective, the viewer, only a single point of a volume is closest « and all planes seem to recede to one of three vanishing points. Figure 2.4 po gure ercise in one-point perspective, Giovanni Battistme 2.19 Diagram af Linear Perspective eo2.20, Giownyst Barr Piuanest Prisons, p.X Piranesi’s Prisons, p. XIII (Fig, 2.20) is an example of two-point perspe-tive. In this ease. th: rel of the viewer is set very low, so that the architecture over whelms and looms | Two other systems to sho isometric perspective and oblique perspective. Isometric recede in space (Fig. 2.21A), The side planes are drawn ata thirey-degree angle to the left and right. In oblique perspective, a three-dimensional object is rendered with e front and back parallel (Fig. 2.21). The 1 a forty-five-degre 2.22 is Festivities, a detail of a screen ngle from the front < | | x wt ‘X 221A. An example of an BOMETRIC propetion. BA ‘sample ofan OBLIQUE poneaonHY Ur suc es Le yd HOVERS : Me OY 4U — empty space that the-framework contains, and the back drop of the sky and landscape that it activates, ‘The voids and solids in Louise Nevelson’s Mirror Image 1 (Fig. 2.9) ereate a chythmic dance of dark shapes am even darker voids, Finally, space in installation of performance act car be particularly significant, because such artwork may draw part of its meaning from its environment. Huang Yong Ping's installation, Bat Project 1 (Shenzhen), 2001 (Fig, 2.24), is a replica of a U.S. spy plane thar collided with a Chinese plane in April 2001 and had so land in China, which caused an international furor. Hwang's reconstruction of the back half of the plane was tc exhibited as part of a major international exhibition amid skyscrapers in the city of Shenzhen, Before th. installation was finished, the replica was removed with four the artist's permission because officials feared that it might damage international relations berween thy 2.23. Groncio DE CuaKICo. The Mystery and Melancholy of Street, 1914. Oil on canvas, 34 Me" 138", Private collection, depicting popular festivities from the Muromachi period, Oblique perspective is used co depict the architecture and people behind the fence, under the cloud. Artists may use multipoint perspective in an image, where they employ many different systems for various details all in the same drawing. They also may use amplified of distorted perspective to give their image dramatic emphasis. In Th a Street, 1914 (Fig. 2.2 ferent horizon lines and vanishing points for the white re Mystery and Melancholy of |, Giorgio de Chirico used dif building on the left and the dark structure to the right, to give a sense of the fractured space of a dream or a memory. He has also used extreme perspectival views, so that the white building seems to' streteh far into space, while the other one leans down dramatically into the earth Now, let us turn to space in sculpture and architec ture, which of course consists of the footprint occupied | | | | | by the structure, But it also encompasses the voids and solids within each piece and immediately surrounding 4.54 jfuane You Pine Bar rn), 2001 it. Look again at Martin Puryear’s That Profile (Fig. Replica of an American spy plane from middle of body tot 2.18), which is so memorable because of the large — China aTIME AND MOTIONee CE ERT j ' (No. 2), from 1912 (Fig. 2.25). Factors that contribu to its illusion of motion are (1) the rhythmic repetition of abstracted forms in a walking pattern, and (2) the descending arrangement of elements from the upper left down to the lower right. However, motion is integeal to filmvvideo, interac tive digital art, kinetic sculpture, and performance. In these works, time and motion are related, as motion cannot exist without time, and motion marks the pas: sage of time, Cai Guo-Qiang’s Black Rainbow: Explo- sion Project for Valencia, Spain 2.26) is one fof a series that occurs in cities such as Edinburgh and Beijing, These black rainbows were intended as omens ‘of international unease, and although violence and with their power and beauty. In a matter of mere rin Cx Gu0-QUANG. Black Rainbows Explosion P utes, the loud explosions are set_off and black smoke appears in the sky, spreads into a rainbow-like aré, and then dissipates. Wich architecture and large sculpture, we cannot grasp all cheir features in an instant, from a single point fof view, These works unfold in time as we move through them or around them. For example, a traveler first sees the Ajanta Caves as doorways and porches carved into a cueving hillside in west central India. This modest outside view does nor prepare the viewer for the amazing Ceiling of Cave 26 in a darkened, columned hall with a shrine to Buddha, all cut out of ). Yet even more unfolds in the living cock (Fig, 2 time and with the viewer's motion. To one side in Cave 26 is Pavinirvana (F death of Buddh 2.28), of a sculpture of th ind a row of columns. View of the Ceiling ve Ajanta dating back « AD. Maharasheray India, See 43Caves, Maha shir, Indi, CHANCE/IMPROVISATION/ SPONTANEITY Many artists purposely allow for chai improvisa: tion, or spontaneity, to add something unexpected in their work or to make it unique each time it is seen. Some aspects of chance are due to uncontrollable fac tors, such as atmospheric conditions at the moment shat Cai Guo-Qiang’s Blac race chance and weave it into the of the work (Yh Connection ai pil Connesse 16.21) was 0 pening performed by several men a4 Cave 26 at Ajanta. Pariirvara between tive Columns. Cave 26 (chaitya hall, Late Sth century. Ajanta ENGAGING ALL THE SENSES Although we tend to think of art in visual terms, many artworks appeal 10 other senses as well, Cai ig explosions are one obvious example. The Ajanta Caves stimulate sound, smell, temperature and visual sensations. Film, vide and_ performance pany the visual. African masqui art objects, sin tions and ituals. The Brew Faso ‘bra weraders of Burkina ng, dancing, and community ig. 2.29) disguise their identities with masks and among the people, promote community well-being, and ensure good erops and other necessities, Masks are not considered static sculptures but are integral parts of the larger masquerade art form. j | <PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION The arrangement of the formal elements in a work of art is called its composition. As artists compose a work, they ‘employ the principles of compositions balance, rhythm, proportion and se BALANCE Balance in an artwork results from placing the elements so that their visual weights scem evenly: distributed Weight generally means the amount of attention an ele ment commands from the viewer. For example, hapes demand more attention thon small; comples forms have greater visual weight than simple ones; and vivid colors are visually weightier than faded colors. In symmetrical balance, visual weight is distribused evenly ighout the composition, If an imaginary line is other, as in the Chilkat I balance is achieved by the disteiburion of uneven elements. In The Mystery and Melancholy areas are approximately bal the bright and dark weed around a centeal ver tical axis, Radial balance results when all che elements in the composition visually radiate outward from tral point, Radial balance is often an organizing princi ple in spiritually based art, feacured in mandala church windows, temple pla The magnificent Angkor Wat temple in Cambodia is laid oue in a modified radial plan (Fig. 2.30 and mosque domes. 2.30 Angkor ‘Geneal TempRHYTHM _ = In a composition, rhythm is the repetition of carefully placed elements separated by intervals. These recurrent viswal “beats” move the viewer's eye through the com- position in jerky, smooth, fast, or slow ways. Rhythm is related to pattern, but it affects the entire composition, Regular rhythm is smooth and « visual element is systematically repeated with a standard, interval in between, Closely relaced is alternating rhythm, where different elements are repeatedly placed side by side, which produces a regelar and anticipated sequenes, In architecture, rhythm is often alternating solids and voids, Eecentric rhythm is irregular, but not so much so that the visual bears do nor connect. In the bas-relief of the Churning of the Ocean of Mill, from Angkor Wat (Fig, 2.31), we see examples of regular rhythm (the hheads), alternating rhythm (the legs), and. cecentric rhythm (the dancing spirits overhead), The relief shows. fan eternal, cosmic struggle in which demons and gods churn the ocean for precious things that have been lost. The visual repetition is a fitting expression for this rhythmic physical struggle 231 Chiming 46 cuaprer 2 7 age of Ari and Archit PROPORTHON-AND-SCALE~—=— Proportion refers to the size of one part in relation to another wichin a work of art, or the size of one part in relation co the whole, The small dancers at the top of Churning of te Ocean of Mill: ate proportionally much smaller than the larger fi ‘example of proportion, return to the Bua Masquer: ders to see how large the masks are in relation to the below. For another da weers’ bodies and, even within the masks, the size tionship between the face area and the elaborate forms above them, Seale is the size of something in relation to what we assume to he “normal.” Figure 2.32 shows real scale shift upward with cars driving through The Binocular Entrance to the Chiat Building (sculpture by Claes Oldenburg. and Coosje van Bruggen; architect, Frank ©. Gehry), Proportion and scale are expressive devices. The Binocular Entrance is meant to be dramatic, mémo: rable, and humorous. The tall sculptural forms on the masks of the Bia Masqueraders suggest their other- worldly power. Hieratic scaling is a device that points the Ocean of Milt. Bas-ecliel, Angkor Wat. Cambodia,1985-1991, Venice, Califonia, to the highest-ranking person in the scene, as in Parinireuna (Fig, 2. enormous compared to all other Scale in architecture is its overall size in relation to the human body, which also has expressive potential scale 8) where the reclining Buddha is while small buildings often see individual In real life, most people see art in reproductions. But then scale ean be very uncertain, with no way of ally is, Reading the knowing how large an artwork: caption gives you some infor exert your imagination to really “see” the piece. This chapter contains several reproductions of paintings. Can you remember which was the largest: Sboki the Demon Queller (Fig, 2.2); They're Bitin aid Mrs. Andrews (Fig. 2.10); Festivities Nude Descending a Staircase (Fig. 2.25} EMPHASIS. Emphasis is the creation of one or more focal points in an artwork. When there are several focal points, lesser Cuts OLDENBURG, Code FN BRECSEN, and FRANK ©. Grrny. The Binocular Entrance to the Chiat Bui Nude Descend: tones are called accents. In Figu ing a Staircase, the lightest tones are sized, Emphasis in architecture means that one part of a building becomes a focal point. Architects often use ‘ornamentation for emphasis. The Binocular Entrance is UNITY AND VARIETY Unity is the quality of overall cohesion within an art work, Variety is the element of difference within an art work, They would seem on the surface 10 be mutually in viewers a fascination that makes them hack and keep looking. In Nude Descend- tunity is achieved with the brown palette, works, evokin; keep com versions of the human body. Variety is introduced in the illusion of movement and the changes in lighting. In architecture. unity is the quality thar makes the disparate architectural parts coalesce, while variety adds opposing elements to buildings. Ieis interesting 10 see how architects use nature to create variety in their ardesigns. House plants add variety to the interior, while planter beds and gardens relieve the austerity of the exterior, Within neighborhoods, rows of houses a juxtaposed with greenbelts and parks. Connection An extreme example of variety is the density tanh lieved by the cexpansiveness of New York City’s Central Park, designed by land: scape architects Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux Fig. 18, page 436). STRUCTURA IN ARCH SYSTEMS So far in this ch, and principles of composition that apply to both ar and architecture, Now we turn to structural systems, which apply to architecture only. Structural systems enable buildings to stand up and enclose space, using materials like brick, stone, wood, steel, and concrete Structural systems and mazerials strongly influence the. design and visual appearance of buildings. TRADITIONAL BUILDING METHODS Load-Bearing Construction Farly architecture was made of shaped earth, bones, wood, or stacked stone, Builders used whatever materi als were locally available. The igloo made af ice blocks ight ‘out of the earth. In many places, people stacked mace is one example. Ancient houses in China were dug Fial ro create solid walls that were usually thicker at the bottom to provide stability, Early roofs were often lightweight, impermanent material like reeds or thatch, as in the sun-dried brick structures in the ancient Near East. This kind of architecture is called “load bearing” because all areas of the walls support the struetuce above them, and the walls have few openings. An extreme example of a load-bearing structure is, FI Castillo, a Mayan pyramid and temple at Chichén Itai, in Mexico (Fig, 2.33). The pyramid base is almost solid, with only a steep, claustrophobic tunnel inside that runs from the ground to the top. The small stone 48 APTER Chichén lea, Mesiee reo