AP Macro: Economic Models and Graphs Study Guide

Economic Conditions

Recession Serious Inflation

Price LRAS SRAS
Price LRAS SRAS Level
Level
PL1

PL1 AD

AD
YF Y1 Real GDP
Y1 YF Real GDP

Full Employment with Mild Inflation Stagflation

Price LRAS SRAS Price SRAS2 LRAS SRAS1
Level Level
PL2
↓ SRAS
PL1 PL1 Cost-Push
Inflation

AD AD

YF Real GDP Y2 YF Real GDP

Effects of Expansionary Monetary Policy

Sm1 Sm2 Price LRAS SRAS
Interest Interest
Level
Rate Rate

i1 i1 PL2
i2 i2 PL1
AD2
Dm
ID AD1

Q1 Q2 Q of Money Q1 Q2 Q of Investment $ Y1 YF RGDP

↑ MS → ↓i ↓i → ↑ I (and C) ↑ AD → ↑PL ↑ GDP

(Sm) ↓ unemployment
Expansionary Monetary Policy actions by FED: Short Run vs Long Run Effects
↓ reserve requirement Short Run: ↓ i →↑ I →↑ AD (shift right)→ ↑ PL and
↓ discount rate output and ↓ unemployment; net export effect: ↑Xn
Buy U.S. government bonds/securities (Open Long Run eco growth: ↑ I→↑ LRAS (shift right –
Market Operation) same as shift right of PPC curve)
 Effects of Contractionary Monetary Policy
Sm2 Sm1 Price LRAS SRAS
Interest Interest
Level
Rate Rate

i2 i2 PL1
i1 i1 PL2
AD1
Dm
ID AD2

Q2 Q1 Q of Money Q2 Q1 Q of Investment $ YF Y1 R GDP

↓ MS → ↑i ↑i → ↓I (and C) ↓ AD → ↓PL ↓GDP

↑ unemployment
Contractionary (Restrictive) Monetary Policy Short Run vs Long Run Effects
actions by FED: Short Run: ↓I → ↓AD (shift left)→↓ PL ↓ output
↑ reserve requirement ↑unemployment; Net export effect: ↓ Xn
↑ discount rate
Sell U.S. bonds/securities (Open Market Operation) Long Run Eco. growth: ↓ I → ↓ LRAS (shift left –
same as shift left of PPC curve)
Effects of Expansionary Fiscal Policy: ↑G ↓T (creates deficit; government must borrow $ to spend)
Sm Price LRAS SRAS
Interest Interest
Level
Rate Rate

i2 i2 PL2
i1 i1 PL1
AD2
Dm2
AD3
Dm1 ID AD1
Q1 Q of Money Q2 Q1 Q of Investment $ Y1 YF RGDP

↑Dm → ↑i ↑i → ↓I (and C) Crowding out weakens the impact

of expansionary fiscal policy
(Crowding out effect)
Expansionary Fiscal Policy actions: Short Run vs Long Run Effects of Expansionary
Fiscal Policy
Increase in G directly increases AD as G is a Short Run: increases AD (shift right): ↑ PL and
component of AE. Decrease in T increases Yd output; ↓ unemployment. Deficit → ↑Dm→↑i → ↓I
(disposable income) and more spending (C) occurs. due to crowding out effect and ↓Xn due to net export
Overall impact is increase in AD (increase in output, effect (↑I → D foreign demand for bonds
employment and PL). →appreciation of $ ↓Xn)
Side Effect: Deficit spending increases the demand
for money and pushes up interest rates. Higher Long Run Economic Growth: decrease I decreases
interest rates crowd out some business investment and LRAS (shift left – same as shift left of PPC curve)
interest rate sensitive spending by consumers. To the (depends on the amount of crowding out that occurs)
extent that crowding out occurs, the expansionary
impact of the fiscal policy will be weakened.
 Effects of Contractionary Fiscal Policy: ↓G ↑ T (moves budget toward surplus; less borrowing)
Sm Price LRAS SRAS
Interest Interest
Level
Rate Rate

i1 PL1
i1
i2 PL2
i2
AD1
Dm1
2
Dm2 ID

Q1 Q of Money Q1 Q2 Q of Investment $ YF Y1 RGDP

↓Dm→ ↓i ↓i → ↑I (and C)
(lessening of Crowding out effect) overall impact: ↓ AD
Impact of Monetary and Fiscal Policies on Interest Rates and Business Investment Spending
Policy Money Market Interest Rates Investment (I)
Expansionary Monetary Policy Increase supply of money decrease increase
Expansionary Fiscal Policy Increase demand for money increase decrease
Contractionary Monetary Policy Decrease supply of money increase decrease
Contractionary Fiscal Policy Decrease demand for money decrease increase
Effect of an increase in G or decrease in T Effect of a decrease in G or increase in T
Initially at Full Employment Initially at Full Employment
Price LRAS SRAS Price LRAS SRAS
Level Level
PL2
PL1 PL1
PL2
AD2
AD1
AD1
AD2

YF Y2 Real GDP Y2 YF Real GDP

Effect of a supply-side shock: Effect of an increase in G and T of same amount: *

Initially at Full Employment Initially at Full Employment
Price SRAS2 LRAS SRAS1 Price LRAS SRAS
Level Level
PL2
PL2
PL1 PL1

AD2
AD AD1

Y2 YF Real GDP YF Y2 Real GDP

Balanced budget increase in G and T is expansionary.
* If G and T were decreased by the same amount, the effect would be contractionary (↓ AD
 Short Run vs Long Run Adjustments
Short Run --- not enough time for wages to adjust to price level
changes. Changes in PL, output and unemployment occur.
Long Run --- enough time for wages to adjust; key effect is on PL.
LRAS
PL SRAS1
SRAS2 ↓AD → ↓ PL and output
and ↑ unemployment in SR

PL1 a Over time lower PL and

surplus of labor put
PL2 b AD1 downward pressure on wages.
PL3 c
AD2 ↓Wages lower business costs
Y2 YF Real GDP and ↑SRAS.
LR: Lower PL. (a →c)
If PRICES AND WAGES ARE FLEXIBLE --- NOT STICKY!

Short Run vs Long Run Adjustments

If PRICES AND WAGES ARE FLEXIBLE --- NOT STICKY!

SRAS2
LRAS
PL SRAS1
↑ AD → ↑ PL and output
PL3 c and ↓ unemployment in SR
PL2 b
Over time higher PL and
AD2 shortage of labor put
PL1 a
upward pressure on wages.
AD1
↑ Wages raise business costs
YF Y2 Real GDP and ↓ SRAS.
LR: Higher PL.

1
 Nonprice Level Determinants of Aggregate Supply and Aggregate Demand
C + I + G + Xn = AE → AD → GDP (Direct relationship between any component of AE and AD and GDP)

Factors that Shift AD Curve Factors that Shift the SRAS

↓ personal taxes (↑ Yd) ↑C ↑AD ↑ resource availability ↑ SRAS
↓ corporate income taxes (↑ profit exp.) ↑I ↑AD ↓ WAGES (or any other resource cost) ↑ SRAS
↑ government spending (exp. Fiscal) ↑G ↑AD New technology ↑ SRAS
↑ G and T by same amount . ↑ G offsets ↑AD ↑ PRODUCTIVITY ↑ SRAS
the ↓ C. Effect = 1 x ↑G.
↑ profit expectations of businesses ↑I ↑AD ↓ government regulation ↑ SRAS
↑ wealth or ↓ consumer indebtedness ↑C ↑AD ↑ government subsidies ↑ SRAS
↑exports / ↓ imports ↑Xn ↑AD ↓ business taxes (sales/excises) ↑ SRAS
$ depreciates ↑Xn ↑AD ↓ costs of production ↑ SRAS
↑ money supply → ↓ interest rates ↑I
↑C ↑AD
Net export effect ↑Xn
↓ deficit spending → ↓DLF and/or ↓ Dm ↑I ↑AD
→ ↓interest rates (i)
↑ in personal taxes (↓ Yd) ↓C ↓AD Supply-side shock (↑ energy prices) ↓ SRAS
↑ corporate income taxes (↓profit exp.) ↓I ↓AD ↓ resource availability ↓ SRAS
↓ government spending (contr. Fiscal ) ↓G ↓AD ↑ WAGES (or any other resource cost) ↓ SRAS
↓ G and ↓T by same amount . ↓ G offsets ↓G ↓AD ↓ technology ↓ SRAS
the ↑C. Effect = 1 x ↓G.
↓ profit expectations of businesses ↓I ↓AD ↓ PRODUCTIVITY ↓ SRAS
↓ wealth or ↑ consumer indebtedness ↓C ↓AD ↑ government regulation ↓ SRAS
↓ exports / ↑ imports ↓ Xn ↓AD ↓ government subsidies ↓ SRAS
$ appreciates ↓ Xn ↓AD ↑ business taxes (sales/excises) ↓ SRAS
↓ money supply → ↑ interest rates ↓I ↑ costs of production ↓ SRAS
↓C ↓AD
Net export effect ↓Xn
↑ deficit spending → ↑DLF and/or ↑ Dm ↓I ↓AD ↑ inflationary expectations → ↑ wages ↓ SRAS
→ ↑ interest rates (i)

INCREASE = SHIFT RIGHT DECREASE = SHIFT LEFT (APPLIES TO BOTH CURVES)

Reasons for the inverse relationship between the price level and the quantity of real output purchased
(negative slope of the AD curve):

• Interest rate effect: ↑PL → ↑Dm → ↑i → ↓ quantity of I and C (real output purchased) (opposite true if ↓PL)
• Wealth/Real balances effect: ↑PL →↓ purchasing power of wealth/real balances →↓ quantity of C
• Foreign Purchases effect: ↑PL →↓ exports (seem more expensive) and ↑ imports (seem cheaper) → ↓Xn

Reason for the positively sloped AS curve (direct relationship between the PL and the quantity of real output
produced): higher PL needed to encourage higher production.
Demand-pull inflation: ↑AD → ↑PL (too much money chasing too few goods)
Cost-push inflation: ↓ SRAS → ↑PL (stagflation)

If ↑AD → no ∆ in PL but increases in output and employment, the economy is operating in the horizontal
(Keynesian) portion of its AS curve. High unemployment allows businesses to hire more workers without
putting pressure on wages or prices. If ↑AD → ↑ PL but no ∆ in output and employment, economy is
operating in the vertical (classical) range of its AS curve. Increased demand puts pressure on prices only as
economy is operating at its maximum of output and employment.
 Key Idea: Interest Rates and Bond Prices Vary Inversely

Effect of Expansionary Monetary Policy Fed buys bonds

Money Market Bond Market
SM1 SM2 Bond
Interest Price SB
Rate
P2
i1 P1
DB2
i2
DB1
DM
Q of Bonds
Q1 Q2 Quantity $
↑ money supply → ↓ interest rates Bond Prices ↑ Yields ↓

Effect of Contractionary Monetary FED sells bonds

Money Market Bond Market
SM2 SM1 Bond
Interest Price SB1
Rate SB2

I2 P1
P2
I1
DB
DM
Q of Bonds
Q2 Q1 Quantity $
↓ money supply → ↑ interest rates Bond Prices ↓ Yields ↑
Effect of Expansionary Fiscal Policy Treasury sells bonds to fund deficit and bondholders sell
existing bonds because the new issues of bonds have higher interest rates than existing issues.
Loanable Funds Market Bond Market
Interest Bond
SLF SB1
Rate Price
i2 SB2

i1 P1
DLF2 P2

DLF1 DB

Q1 Q of LF Q of Bonds
Exp. FP →deficits →↑DLF→↑i Bond Prices ↓ Yields ↑
Effect of Contractionary Fiscal Policy Treasury ↓ bond sales due to surpluses and bondholders do
not want to sell existing bonds because the new issues of bonds will have lower interest rates than existing issues.
Loanable Funds Market Bond Market
SB2
Interest SLF Bond
Rate Price SB1
I1
P2
I2 P1
DLF1

DLF2 DB

Q of LF Q of Bonds
Contractionary FP → surpluses →↓DLF→↓i Bond Prices ↑ Yields ↓

Conclusion: Interest Rates and Bond Prices Vary Inversely

Changes in the domestic money markets:

Supply of Money is fixed by the FED (vertical) ---- SM changes as a result of FED Actions

Fed Action: (Monetary Policy Tools) ∆ SM ∆ Interest Rates ∆ Ig and C ∆ AD

Inflation
↑ reserve requirement ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓
↑ discount rate ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓
Open Market Operation: Sell U.S. Bonds ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓
Recession
↓ reserve requirement ↑ ↓ ↑ ↑
↓ discount rate ↑ ↓ ↑ ↑
Open Market Operation: Buy U.S. Bonds ↑ ↓ ↑ ↑

Fiscal Policy affects the Demand for Money (money market) and/or the Demand for Loanable
Funds (loanable funds market)

Expansionary Fiscal Policy increases Dm in money market. Why: 1) Deficit spending increases
government demand for money. (Also, ↑DLF in loanable funds market); 2) increases in AD resulting
from expansionary fiscal policy increase the price level and GDP. A rising nominal GDP increases
demand for money to purchase the output (Dm in Money Market). In both the money market and the
loanable funds market, the demand curves shift right and interest rates rise --- possibly creating a
crowding-out effect (↓I).

Contractionary Fiscal Policy ↓ Dm in the money market. 1) a reduction in deficit spending or

surpluses decrease government demand for money. In the loanable funds market, government
needs to borrow less; therefore, ↓DLF. 2) decreasing price level and nominal GDP result in less
money demanded to purchase output, thus ↓ Dm in the money market. In both markets,
contractionary fiscal policy shifts the demand curve to the left and interest rates fall – possibly
encouraging business investment spending (lessening the crowding-out effect).
 Money, Banking and The FED
Key Terms:
Money Anything acceptable as a medium of exchange that is portable, durable, stable in
value, and divisible.
Barter System Requires a double coincidence of wants
Functions of Money Medium of exchange; store of value; unit of account or standard of value
M1 Most narrow definition of money; consists of currency and checkable deposits
M2 M1 + small time deposits and noncheckable savings deposits
M3 M2 + large time deposits and institutional money market funds
Transactions Demand Money demanded for transactions; insensitive to interest rates (perfectly inelastic);
changes directly with nominal GDP.
Asset Demand (Speculative) Demand for money as a money balance ---varies inversely with interest rates - ↑
interest rates ↑ opportunity cost of holding money, so people reduce money balances;
a ↓ in interest rates ↓ the opportunity cost of holding money so people hold more.
Negatively sloped.
MV = PQ Equation of Exchange
M Money Supply
V Velocity of money --- number of times $ is spent
PQ Nominal GDP
Fractional Reserve System System in which banks loan out a portion of their actual reserves (keep some in bank
vault or on deposit at the FED, loan out the remainder).
Actual reserves Money held by the bank (money in bank reserves is not counted in circulation)
Required Reserves Percentage (actual $) of deposits banks must keep in bank vault or on deposit at the
FED
Reserve Ratio or Reserve Percent (%) of deposits FED requires banks to keep in bank vault or on deposit at the
Requirement FED.
Excess Reserves Reserves in excess of required reserves; amount available for loans. Actual reserves –
required reserves = excess reserves.
Deposit Multiplier The multiple by which the banking system can create money; = 1/RR
Loans Means by which banks can create money.
Demand Deposit Checkable deposit
The FED (Federal Reserve Independent regulatory agency of the U.S. government—our nation’s central bank;
System) controls the money supply through monetary policy, provides services to member
banks; supervises the banking system; etc.

Banks and Money Creation:

Key Principles:
• A single bank can create money (through loans) by the amount of its excess reserves
• The banking system as a whole can create money by a multiple (deposit or money multiplier) of the initial
excess reserves.
• Reserves lost to one bank are gained by other banks in the system (under the assumptions below)
Key Assumptions for banking system to create its maximum potential:
• Banks loan out all of their excess reserves
• Loans are redeposited in checking accounts rather than taken in cash.
Initial Deposit New or Existing $ Bank Reserves Immediate Change in MS
cash Existing Increase (amount of deposit) No; changes M1 composition
from cash to currency.
FED Purchase of a bond New Increase (amount of deposit) Yes; money coming out of
from public FED is new $ in circulation
Bank Purchase of a bond New Increase (amount of deposit) Yes; money coming out of
from the public bank reserves is new $
Buried Treasure New (has been out of Increase (amount of deposit) Yes.
circulation)
If initial deposit is new money, the MS increases immediately by the amount of the deposit in the bank.
 Money Creation Process (Assume 10% reserve requirement)

$1000 in cash deposited in checking $1000 FED purchase of Bonds

account from the Public (Deposited in
Checking Account)

No immediate Immediate ↑ MS of $1000

Either deposit
Change in MS would increase
actual reserves
by $1000.

Assets Liabilities
Reserves $1000 Checking Deposits $1000

Required Reserves = $100 (.10 x $1000 deposit)

Single Bank: Amount of money single bank can create (loan out) = ER
Actual Reserves – Required Reserves = Excess Reserves
$1000 - $100 = $900 in Excess Reserves

Banking System: Can create money by a MULTIPLE of its initial

EXCESS RESERVES
Deposit Multiplier = 1/RR = 1/.10 = 10

System New $ = Deposit Multiplier x Initial Excess Reserves

10 x $900 = $9000

Total Change in the Money Supply as a Result of the Deposit:

Initial Deposit (if new) + Banking System Created Money = Total Change in MS
$1000 + $9000 = $10,000

If initial deposit is not new money, the total change in the MS is only
the new money created by the banking system = $9000.

Additional key terms and things to know:

FED Funds Rate --- interest rate banks charge each other for temporary (overnight) loans. The FED usually targets this
interest rate with its open market operations.

Although each tool of the FED theoretically can work to increase or decrease the money supply, the most used tool of the
FED is OPEN MARKET OPERATIONS (buying or selling government securities on the open market).

Changes in the reserve requirement are not frequently made because they can be destabilizing. The Discount Rate is
relatively insignificant because banks are more likely to borrow from each other and pay the FED funds rate rather than
borrow from the FED (lender of last resort). Discount rate changes usually simply act as a signal of the direction the FED
is taking with monetary policy: expansionary (↓ discount rate) or contractionary (↑ discount rate).
 Elasticity and Macroeconomics
Elasticity: degree of responsiveness of quantity demanded or quantity supplied to a change in price; in macro it is often
referred to as a “sensitivity” (relatively elastic) or lack of sensitivity (relatively inelastic) of quantity to a
change in interest rates, PL, prices, etc. Macro applications of elasticity are found below:

Money Market Supply Curve Loanable Funds Supply Curve

i SM i SLF

QM QLF

SM in the money market is “fixed” by the SLF in the loanable funds market reflects a sensitivity
FED; therefore, it is perfectly inelastic between interest rate changes and the quantity of
(vertical) indicating a lack of sensitivity of QM to loanable funds supplied. At higher interest rates, there is
interest rate changes. Interest rate changes more saving to provide a pool of loanable funds; at lower
do not change the quantity of money supplied; interest rates, saving declines. Therefore, the quantity
however, changes in the SM do change interest of loanable funds varies directly with interest rates
rates. making the SLF curve positively sloped.

It is important to make the above distinction in supply curves when drawing graphs of the markets above.
Failure to draw the SM curve as a vertical line and the SLF curve as a positively sloped (upward sloping) line will
cost you points on the free response.

AS Curve in the Classical View AS Curve in the Keynesian View

PL AS PL

AS
AD
AD AD AD
Y Y GDPR
YF GDPR
The classical school of thought depicts the AS curve Keynesians view the AS curve as horizontal
as vertical (output/employment are not sensitive to (perfectly elastic) at output levels below full
price level changes – perfectly inelastic curve) at full employment. This reflects their belief that prices and
employment, reflecting the belief that changes in AD wages are inflexible downward and that increases in
cause only temporary instability and the economy AD at less than full employment do not put upward
adjusts back to full employment through price/wage pressure on the price level due to large numbers of
flexibility. AD has its greatest effect on PL --- not unemployed workers. Changes in AD have their
output and employment, and supply creates its own greatest effects on output and employment, not PL.
demand (Say’s Law).

LRAS Curve Short-Run Phillips Curve Long-run Phillips Curve

LRAS Inflation Inflation LRPC
PL rate rate

PC
Unemployment Rate Unemployment Rate
YF GDPR
The LRPC (vertical) reflects the same
The LRAS is vertical (perfectly inelastic) The PC reflects a trade-off point as the LRAS curve – no trade-off
at YF representing a maximum between inflation and exists between PL and output and
productive potential at any point in time; unemployment – ↑ PL → ↓ unemployment in the LR --- only the PL
in the LR, only the PL changes. unemployment changes.
Interest Rate Sensitivity and Money Demand Interest Rate Sensitivity and Investment Demand
Interest Interest
rates rates i1

DmA
i2 DIA
DmB
DIB

Quantity of $ QI1 QI2 QI3 Quantity of I$

An ↑ Sm results in a small change in interest
A change in interest rates from i1 to i2 results in a
rates if the Dm is more elastic (DmA) and a
much larger increase (Q1 to Q3) in business
larger change in interest rates if the Dm is
investment spending (I) if the Investment Demand
more inelastic (DmB). If investment demand is
curve is more elastic (DIA) than if the Investment
sensitive to interest rates, the change in Ig,
Demand curve is more inelastic (less sensitivity to
AD, output, etc., will be greater the more
interest rate changes results in QI1 to QI2).
inelastic the money demand curve.

Production Possibilities Curves and Connections to the AD-AS Model.

• PPC represents potential (maximum combinations of output given resources/technology) to produce

output. (LRAS in the AD-AS model.)
• Points on curve are possible combinations of output if all resources are used fully/efficiently. (LRAS
at YF in the AD-AS model)
• Movement on the curve results in trade-offs and opportunity costs --- to produce more of one/the
other must be given up.
• Opportunity cost --- what is given up when making a choice; the most valued alternative not taken
(capital goods vs. consumer goods; guns vs. butter).
• Points under (inside or to the left) the PPC represent less than full employment (unemployment) or
inefficient use of resources (underemployment). Correlates to recession in the AD-AS model.
• Points outside (to the right of or outside) the PPC are not possible given resources/technology
available. (Inflationary or overheated economy in the AD-AS model --- not sustainable over time –
adjusts back to YF).
• Shift right of the PPC curve (add resources – land/labor/capital; improve productivity with
education/training/technology; improve technology). (Shift right of the LRAS curve for same reasons).
Economy has greater potential to produce --- real economic growth.
• Shift left of the PPC curve (↓ resources, technology, productivity). Shift left of the LRAS in the AD-
AS model.
Good A Capital Capital
Goods Goods

Good B Consumer Goods Consumer Goods

LRAS1 LRAS2 LRAS2 LRAS1
PL PL

YF1 YF2 GDPR YF2 YF1 GDPR

 Short run- but not the long-run:
Long –run economic growth depends on:
• Supply of labor Temporary changes in production costs (OPEC)
• Supply of capital Inflationary expectations
• Level of technology
Factors that can influence the above:
• Saving --- saving supplies loanable funds for business investment in capital (I)
• Research --- funds for research provide a basis for technological development
• Comparative advantage in trade - encourages more efficient use of global resources
• Education/training --- improves the quality of labor resources and ↑ productivity
• Business taxes that actually dampen profit expectations and investment in capital

Business investment spending (I) increases AD in the short run as purchases of capital are made;
however, after new plant/equipment is operational (the long-run) the additional capital changes the LRAS. If
asked to determine the impact of government policies on long-run economic growth, determine the
impact of the policy on business investment spending (I).

Key Concepts related to Fiscal Policy

Fiscal Policy Actions taken by Congress and the President to stabilize the economy with changes
in G and/or T.
deficit Budget shortfall; occurs when expenditures > revenues
surplus Occurs when expenditures are < revenues
balanced budget Expenditures = Revenues
National debt Accumulated deficits over time; deficits are funded by the selling of government
securities.
Automatic stabilizer Automatically moves the budget toward a deficit (if the economy is moving toward a
recession) or a surplus (if the economy is expanding) without action taken by
Congress or the President. Nondiscretionary --- system is already in place and
works automatically without action by Congress. Ex. Progressive tax system and
unemployment compensation
discretionary Requires action by Congress or the President ---- changes in G or T.
Crowding-out effect Decreases in business investment spending resulting from high interest rates
due to government deficit spending (increases in government demand for loanable
funds / increases in demand for money drive up interest rates and discourage
business investment spending)
 The Phillips Curve

Key Idea: A tradeoff exists between inflation and unemployment in the short run.

Inflation Inflation
Rate Rate

PC PC

Unemployment Rate Unemployment Rate

An increase in AD in the AD-AS model results in an A decrease in AD in the AD-AS model results in a
increase in PL and a decrease in unemployment as decrease in PL and an increase in unemployment as
shown by movement up the SR Phillips curve. shown by movement down the SR Phillips curve.

Inflation Inflation
Rate Rate

PC2 PC1

PC1 PC2

Unemployment Rate Unemployment Rate

A decrease in SRAS in the AD-AS model results in An increase in SRAS in the AD-AS model results in
an increase in PL and an increase in unemployment a decrease in PL and a decrease in unemployment
(stagflation) as shown by a shift right in the SR as shown by a shift left in the SR Phillips curve.
Phillips curve. The shift right of the Phillips curve The shift left of the Phillips curve indicates that a
indicates that a specified rate of inflation now is specified rate of inflation now is associated with a
associated with a higher rate of unemployment. lower rate of unemployment.

The Long Run Phillips Curve

Inflation LRPC The LRPC can be associated with LR
Rate adjustments in the AD-AS model assuming
price-wage flexibility and no government
intervention. Increases and decreases in
AD in the LR affect only the price level and
not output and unemployment.

Unemployment Rate
 Policy Mixes

Policy Interaction PL Output Unemployment Interest Rates

Expansionary Monetary and Fiscal ↑ ↑ ↑ ?
Contractionary Monetary and Fiscal ↓ ↓ ↓ ?
Expansionary Monetary/Contractionary Fiscal ? ? ? ↓
Contractionary Monetary / Expansionary Fiscal ? ? ? ↑

Explanations:
• Expansionary monetary and fiscal policies have different effects on interest rates.
Monetary policy increases the money supply and lowers interest rates. Fiscal policy increases
the demand for loanable funds (due to deficit spending) and drives up interest rates. The
actual impact on interest rates depends on the relative strength of each policy.
• Contractionary monetary policy decreases the money supply and increases interest rates.
A contractionary fiscal policy lessens deficit spending and moves the budget toward a
surplus; therefore, government demand for loanable funds decreases and interest rates fall.
The actual impact would depends on the relative strength of each policy.
• Expansionary monetary (↑AD) and contractionary fiscal (↓AD) policies move price level,
output, and unemployment in opposite directions, thus the actual change in each would
depend on the relative strength of each policy action. Both policies, however, decrease
interest rates. Expansionary monetary policy actions increase the money supply and reduce
interest rates. Contractionary fiscal policy (surpluses) reduces government demand for
loanable funds, also putting downward pressure on interest rates.
• Contractionary monetary (↓AD) and expansionary fiscal (↑AD) policies move price level,
output, and unemployment in opposite directions, thus the actual change in each depends on
the relative strength of each policy action. Both policies, however, increase interest rates.
Contractionary monetary policy decreases the money supply and increases interest rates.
Expansionary fiscal policies increase government demand for loanable funds and drive up
interest rates.

Effects of Government Policies on Interest Rates, Xn, Business Investment and LR Economic Growth

Business Long Run

Policy Interest Rates Net Exports Investment (I) Economic Growth
Expansionary Fiscal ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓
Contractionary Fiscal ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
Expansionary Monetary ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
Contractionary Monetary ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓

Factors to consider when explaining the above:

• Fiscal policy affects the demand for money and/or demand for loanable funds; monetary policy
affects the supply of money. Changes in the supply and demand for money (and supply and
demand for loanable funds) affect interest rates
• Net export effect of changes in interest rates
• Crowding out effect of government deficit spending
• Changes in capital stock (business investment decisions) and LR economic growth
• Changes in business investment spending affect AD in the short run, but AS in the long run.
 Measurement of Economic Performance

GDP: measures OUTPUT of goods and services

GDP (Gross Domestic Product) GNP (Gross National Product)

Total value of all final goods and services produced in Total value of all final goods and services produced by
the United States in a year Americans in a year.
Includes: all production or income earned within the U.S. Includes: production or income earned by Americans
by U.S. and foreign producers. Excludes: production anywhere in the world. Excludes: production by non-
outside of the U.S., even by Americans. Americans, even in the U.S.

Two approaches to measuring GDP: Expenditures or Income

Expenditures for G&S produced = Income generated from production of G&S

Expenditures Approach: C + Ig + G + Xn (Expenditures for output

Income Approach: Add all the income (R,W,I,P) generated from the production of final output plus indirect
business taxes and depreciation charges.
National Income: sum of rent, wages, interest and profits earned by Americans (excludes net foreign factor
income)
Disposable Income (Yd): personal income minus taxes (income that can be spent or saved; Yd = C +S

What is included/excluded in GDP calculation:

Included Excluded
Final Goods and Services Intermediate Goods (avoid double counting)
Income earned (Rent, wages, interest, profit) Transfer (public and private) Payments (social security,
unemployment compensation; personal money gifts)
Interest payments on corporate bonds (part of income Purchases of stocks and bonds (purely financial
earned) transactions)
Current production of final goods Second-hand sales (avoid double counting)
Unsold output (business inventories) – counted as Ig Nonmarket transactions (legal and illegal non-recorded
transactions --- illegal drugs, prostitution, doing your own
housework or repair jobs, babysitting, growing your own
vegetables for personal consumption (etc.)
Leisure time --- understates GDP
Quality improvements --- understate GDP
Underground economy ---- understates GDP
Gross National Garbage --- overstates GDP

Expenditures approach to GDP: C + Ig + G + Xn

C = Consumption = purchases of final durable and nondurable goods and services by consumer households.
Ig = Gross Private Domestic Investment = purchases (spending) by businesses of capital goods, all
construction and changes in inventories (unsold output)
• Increases in inventories are added to GDP (represent output currently produced)
• Decreases in inventories are subtracted from GDP (selling goods produced in previous years)

•Gross Investment – Depreciation = Net Investment

o Positive net investment = increases in capital stock = shift right in PPC
o Negative net investment = decreases in capital stock = shift left in PPC
o Zero net investment = stable capital stock = static economy (unchanging in productive
capacity)
G = government expenditures for goods and services (missiles, tanks, etc.)
Xn = Net Exports (exports – imports) [X – M]
GDP and price level changes:

Nominal GDP Real GDP

Unadjusted for price level changes Adjusted for price level changes
GDP in current dollars GDP in constant dollars
PXQ (Nominal GDP / GDP Price Index ) x 100
GDP Price Index = GDP Deflator
Less accurate measure of output because price level More accurate measure of output because price level
changes are included. changes have been adjusted to reflect base (reference) year
prices.

If the price level is rising, nominal GDP may increase, but output may be increasing or decreasing or remaining stable.
Changes in the price level: MEASURED BY PRICE INDEX
Price level changes (changes in the rate of inflation) are measured by price indexes. A price index relates expenditures of
a group of goods (market basket) in a given year to expenditures for the same group of goods in a base (reference) year.
Price indexes are used to adjust nominal GDP and nominal income to obtain real GDP or real income.
Price Index # = [Expenditures in Given Year / Expenditures in Base Year] x 100.
Real GDP = [ Nominal GDP / GDP price index] x 100
Real Income = [Nominal Income / Consumer Price Index] x 100
Change in Price Level = [(b-a)/a] x 100 = [(Change in Price Index/Beginning Price Index) x 100]
Three Key Price Indexes:

Consumer Price Index (CPI) GDP Price Index (Deflator) Wholesale Price Index
A weighted index that measures A broader index than the CPI, it Measures changes in wholesale prices
expenditures for a specific market includes goods purchased by each (producer/distributor to retailer);
basket of goods purchased by a sector of the economy: C, I, G, Xn. reflects changes in business costs due
typical urban consumer; often used Used to adjust nominal GDP to obtain to price level changes.
as a standard for labor contracts and real GDP.
COLAs (cost of living adjustments in
social security, etc.)

Nominal vs. Real Income:

Nominal Income --- money income – actual dollar amount of income (unadjusted for price level changes)
Real Income ---- purchasing power of income – what a given income can comparatively purchase in goods and services;
adjusted for price level changes.
Change in Real Income = Change in Nominal Income – Rate of Inflation
Example: If nominal income increases by 5% and inflation increases by 8%, real income will fall by 3%.
If nominal income increases by 10% and the rate of inflation is 6%, real income will rise by 4%.
Nominal interest rate – percentage increase in money the borrower must pay the lender for a loan. For example, if the
nominal interest rate is 5% on a $1000 loan, the borrower must pay the lender $50 or 5% of the loan.
Real interest rate – the percentage increase in purchasing power the borrower must pay the lender for a loan. For
example, if the nominal interest rate is 5% and the rate of inflation is 6%, the $50 paid to the lender as interest on a $1000
loan provides the lender with less purchasing power (-1%) when repaid.
Unanticipated inflation: Nominal interest rate – inflation rate = real interest rate received
Anticipated inflation (Fisher Effect): Nominal interest rate = Expected interest rate + inflation premium
Short Run vs. Long Run Changes in Nominal and Real Interest Rates

Assume an increase in the Supply of Money (Sm) by the FED:

Short Run: Long Run:

↑ Sm → ↓ in both nominal and real interest rates ↑Sm →↑ AD →↑PL → creditors to add an inflation
premium to expected interest rates → ↑ nominal
interest rate and a return of real interest rates to the LR
equilibrium.
(Fisher Effect)
↓Sm → ↑in both nominal and real interest rates ↓Sm → ↓ AD →↓PL → ↓ nominal interest rates; real
interest rates return to the LR equilibrium

Who is hurt/helped (loses/gains) by unanticipated inflation:

Fixed income recipients hurt Purchasing power falls as PL rises
Savers hurt Purchasing power of saving falls as PL rises
debtors helped $ paid back is worth less in purchasing power than $
borrowed
creditors hurt $ loaned is worth less in purchasing power than $ paid
back
Flexible income recipient uncertain Depends on if the nominal income exceeds the rate of
inflation
A buyer who pays fixed payments helped Rising inflation will decrease the purchasing power of the
money paid; recipient of payment is hurt.

Measurement of Unemployment:
Labor Force Employed + Unemployed
Employed Worked for pay in the last week
Unemployed Looking for work in the last month
Discouraged Worker Given up looking for work (out of the labor force)
Part-time workers Counted as full time; underemployed understate the unemployment rate
Labor Force Participation Rate Labor Force as a percent of the population [(Labor force/population) x 100]
Unemployment Rate (# of unemployed / labor force) x 100

Types of Unemployment:
Frictional In-between jobs; looking for first job (temporary)
Structural Workers skills are no longer in demand or obsolete: results from automation,
foreign competition, changes in demand for products; can be lengthy and may
require retraining or relocation to find a new job.
Cyclical Caused by insufficient AD; associated with a recession; Actual
unemployment is greater than the natural rate of unemployment; associated
with a GDP gap
Natural Rate of Unemployment Sum of frictional and structural unemployment; exists at YF (full
employment); approximately 4-6%; associated with potential output
GDP gap gap between actual and potential GDP; lost output; occurs when the economy
falls below the full employment level of output (YF)
Okuns Law Each 1% cyclical unemployment = 2% GDP Gap
Potential output Output that could be produced if at full employment (YF)

Business cycle: ups and downs in business activity; 4 phases: recovery/expansion; peak/boom; contraction;
and trough. Phases are not equal in duration.
 The Circular Flow Model and Other Basic Concepts
Scarcity exists. Unlimited Wants vs. Limited Resources
Capital Goods Goods used to make other goods; machinery, equipment, factory, etc.
Consumer Goods Goods for immediate consumption
Trade-off To get something, you have to give up something
Opportunity Cost What is given up when making a choice; the most valued alternative not taken; = sum of
explicit and implicit (hidden) costs
Factors of Production Land (natural resources); labor; capital (machinery, equipment); entrepreneurship
Factor Payments Income or return for L, L,C, E: rent, wages, interest, profit (RWIP)

Payments for Goods and Services

Goods and Services

Consumer Product Market
Business
Households Resource Market Firms

Factors of Production: L,L, C, E

Payments for Factors of Production: RWIP

The Simple Circular Flow Model (diagram above):

• Consumers make expenditures for goods and services supplied by business firms in the product market.
• Consumers earn income by selling their factors of production in the resource market.
• Payment for factors of production in the resource market becomes income to consumers who make expenditures
in the product market.
• Output can be measured by the expenditures for the goods and services or the income generated from the
production of the goods and services.
• Government can influence the circular flow model through taxes, subsidies, transfer payments, factor payments
for land, labor, capital; and provision of public goods and services.

Economic Schools of Thought

Keynesian Classical Monetarists

AE = C+I +G+Xn Says Law: supply creates its own Neoclassical

Demand-siders demand Main determinant of economic activity
AE is the main determinant of output and AS curve: vertical at YF is money supply
unemployment Price/wages are flexible MV = PQ
AS curve: horizontal
Laissez-faire policy for government Velocity is stable
Prices/wages are inflexible downward
Government action is needed to “fix” the Instability is temporary The MS has a direct impact on
economy (monetary and fiscal policies) The economy has inherent nominal GDP
No inherent mechanisms exist to maintain mechanisms that can maintain full Do not fine-tune economy with MS
full employment employment levels of output Follow the Money Rule: set the MS
The economy can be at equilibrium at Changes in AD are caused by changes on a stable growth page of 3-5 % (rate
less than full employment in the MS and mainly have their of growth in GDP)
Instability can be lengthy in duration impact on PL.
Supply-siders Rational Expectations Theory

Main determinant of economic activity Informed expectations negate

is AS government policies; therefore,
Government should encourage people government actions are ineffective and
to work hard, save, invest destabilizing
Cut taxes and government regulations Economy adjusts immediately to
to increase AS changes
Laffer Curve (Tax Rates vs. Revenues) Phillips Curve is vertical (no trade-off)
 Keynesian Theory and the Multiplier Effect
Key ideas:
• Aggregate Expenditures (C+I+G+Xn) are the main determinant of output, employment and price level.
• Income (Yd) is the main determinant of C and S. C and S vary directly with income.

Key Terms:
Average Propensity to Consume (APC) Fraction of income that is spent; C/Yd; varies inversely with Yd
Average Propensity to Save (APS) Fraction of income that is saved; S/Yd, varies directly with Yd
Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) Fraction of any change in income that is spent; ∆C/∆Yd
Marginal Propensity to Save (MPS) Fraction of any change in income that is saved; ∆S/∆Yd
MPS + MPC = 1
APS +APC = 1
Multiplier Effect Small changes in AE give rise to much larger changes in GDP and Yd
Spending Multiplier 1/MPS or 1/1-MPC or ∆GDPe/∆AE
Key Multiplier formula: ∆ AE x Multiplier = ∆ GDPe
Unplanned investment Changes in business inventories
Planned investment Business spending on capital goods; Ip = Saving at GDPe
If AE> GDP, then: Inventories fall and production increases
If AE < GDP, then: Inventories rise and production decreases
If AE = GDP, then: Equilibrium in the Keynesian AE model
Inflationary Gap: Amount by which spending exceeds the full employment level of output;
Amount by which spending must be decreased to return to YF.
Recessionary Gap: Amount by which spending falls short of the full employment level of
output; Amount by which spending must be increased to close a GDP gap
and return to full employment.
GDP gap Amount by which actual output falls short of potential (YF) output.
At equilibrium: GDPe = AE; Ip = S; Iunplanned = to 0.
Balanced budget Multiplier = 1 times the change in G
↑ G and T by same amount Expansionary by the amount of ↑G
↓ G and T by the same amount Contractionary by the amount of ↓G

Multiplier Effect: a change in AE → change in Yd → change in C and S → change in Yd by the amount of the
change in C → more spending → more income → spending → income . . .

If G changes by 50 billion and the MPS is = .20, then the change in GDPe = $250 billion [∆AE x M = ∆ GDP]

Keynesian Expenditures Model (You do not have to draw this model for the free response, but you may have to
interpret it on a multiple choice question).
450 If a ∆AE of 50 gives rise to a ∆
AE
GDPe of 200, then the multiplier
C+I+G+Xn must be 4 and the MPS = .25 and the
MPC = .75.

100 ∆AE x Multiplier = ∆GDPe

∆ AE of 50
50 x 4 = 200
50

If 700 represented YF, then a

GDP gap of 200 would exist
500 700 GDP/Yd requiring an ↑G of 50 to close
the gap.
∆ GDP of 200
A decrease in Taxes of $50 billion has a smaller impact on the economy as an increase in G of $50 billion. The decrease in taxes first
changes Yd which then changes C and S. The change in spending C x the multiplier = the multiple effect of the change in taxes.
 Foreign (Currency) Exchange Markets (International Money Markets)

↑ Foreign Demand for U.S. goods/services/investments → ↑ Demand for U.S. dollar and ↑ Supply of Foreign Currency.

Market for U.S. Dollar Market for Foreign Currency

Price of $ in Price of
foreign S$ foreign SFC1
currency currency
P2 in dollars SFC2
PP1
1 PP1
1
P2
D$2
DFC
D$1

Q1 Q2 Q of Dollars Q1 Q2 Q of For. Curr.

Price ↑; U.S. dollar appreciates Price ↓; foreign currency depreciates

↓ Foreign Demand for U.S. goods/services/investments → ↓ Demand for U.S. dollar and ↓ Supply of Foreign Currency.

Market for U.S. Dollar Market for Foreign Currency

Price of $ in Price of
foreign S$ foreign SFC2
currency currency
P1 in dollars
SFC1
PP2
1 PP2
1
P1
D$1
D$2 DFC

Q2 Q1 Q of Dollars Q2 Q1 Q of For. Curr.

Price↓; U.S. dollar depreciates Price ↑; foreign currency appreciates

↑ U.S. Demand for foreign. goods/services/investments → ↑ Demand for Foreign Currency and ↑ Supply of U.S. dollar

Market for U.S. Dollar Market for Foreign Currency

Price of $ in Price of
foreign S$1 foreign SFC
currency currency
in dollars
S$2 P2
P1
P PP1
1 1

P2 DFC2

D$ DFC1

Q1 Q2 Q of Dollars Q1 Q2 Q of For. Curr.

Price↓; U.S. dollar depreciates Price ↑; foreign currency appreciates

If the dollar appreciates, the foreign currency depreciates. If the dollar depreciates, the foreign currency appreciates.
↓ U.S. Demand for foreign. goods/services/investments → ↓ Demand for Foreign Currency and ↓ Supply of U.S. dollar

Market for U.S. Dollar Market for Foreign Currency

Price of $ in Price of
foreign S$2 foreign SFC
currency currency
in dollars
S$1 P1
P2
P PP2
1 1

P1 DFC1

D$ DFC2

Q2 Q1 Q of Dollars Q2 Q1 Q of For. Curr.

Price↑; U.S. dollar appreciates Price ↓; foreign currency depreciates

Dollar Value Relative Price of U.S. Explanation M Relative Price of Explanation X Xn

Imports (M) U.S. Exports (X)
Foreign buyers
U.S. gives up fewer give up more of
Appreciate cheaper $ to purchase ↑ more expensive their currency to ↓ ↓
foreign goods buy American
goods.

U.S. gives up more Foreign buyers

Depreciate more expensive $ to purchase ↓ cheaper give up less of their ↑ ↑
foreign goods currency to buy
American goods.

Event U.S. Dollar Dollar Value Foreign Currency Value of For. Cur. Xn
Higher price level in the U.S. ↓ demand depreciates ↓ supply appreciates ↑
Higher interest rates in U.S. ↑ demand appreciates ↑ supply depreciates ↓
Higher interest rates in foreign nation ↑ supply depreciates ↑ demand appreciates ↑
Higher foreign incomes ↑ demand appreciates ↑ supply depreciates ↓
Increased tourism in U.S. ↑ demand appreciates ↑ supply depreciates ↓
Increased tourism abroad by Americans ↑ supply depreciates ↑ demand appreciates ↑

Net export Effect ---- changes in interest rates:

Higher U.S. interest rates attract foreign investors seeking a higher rate of return on interest-bearing investments
(bonds). An inflow of foreign capital to the U.S. results from foreign purchases of U.S. bonds. ↑ demand for U.S.
bonds → ↑foreign demand for U.S. dollars and an ↑supply of foreign currency → The dollar appreciates and the
foreign currency depreciates →foreign goods seem cheaper to American buyers (Americans give up fewer dollars for
each unit of foreign currency) →U.S. imports ↑. A depreciation of foreign currency → U.S. goods seem relatively more
expensive (foreign buyers must give up more currency for the U.S. dollar); →U.S. exports ↓. Xn decreases.

↓ U.S. interest rates → ↓ demand for U.S. bonds by foreign investors (why: lower rate of return on investment) →
↓ demand for U.S. dollar and ↓ supply of foreign currency. Foreign currency appreciates relative to dollar /
dollar depreciates → U.S. exports seem cheaper / U.S. imports seem more expensive → ↑ Xn

Higher U.S. interest rates ----- financial capital flows to the U.S. from foreign nations (inflow of capital)
Higher foreign interest rates ---- financial capital flows from the U.S. to foreign nations (outflow of capital)
 Balance of Payments

Balance of Payments: record of all payments made and received between two nations. Must sum to zero.

• + (credit: foreign payment to the U.S. --- a credit means the U.S. earn supplies of foreign currencies)
• - (debit: U.S. payment to a foreign nation --- a debit means the U.S. uses its reserves of foreign currency to
make a purchase; foreign nations gain reserves of U.S. dollars)
• Deficit in the Balance of Payments --- U.S. is paying out more for foreign goods, services, investments etc., than
it is receiving. U.S. is not earning enough foreign reserves to cover our purchases from foreign nations.
• Surplus in the Balance of Payments --- Payments to the U.S are greater than U.S. payments to foreign nations.
U.S. is earning more in foreign currencies than it is using to purchase foreign goods, services, investments.

Current Account Capital Account Official Reserves

Balance on Goods (exports/imports of U.S. purchases of foreign real and + reserves: if deficit in balance of
goods and services) financial assets (outpayments/outflows payments (official reserves of the FED
Balance on Services (exports/imports of capital) are drawn down to balance the
of services) shortfall in foreign currency)
Balance on Goods and Services Foreign purchases of U.S.real and
(balance of trade) financial assets (inpayments / inflows - reserves: if surplus in balance of
Net Transfer Payments of capital) payments (official reserves of the FED
Net Dividends and Interest (net increase to due to the excess in foreign
returns on previous investments) currency)
Official reserves held by central
banks (the FED in the U.S.) are the
Balance on the Current Account Balance on the Capital Account means by which the capital and
current accounts are balanced to
zero.

Effects of Tariffs, Quotas and Subsidies in International Trade

U.S. tariffs and quotas ↓ the domestic supply of foreign goods and ↑their prices. In the short-run, domestic
production ↑ due to the higher prices. Subsidies ↑ the supply of goods and ↓ their price in the short-run.
Effect of a Tariff Effect of a Quota Effect of a Subsidy
SD SD no subsidy
SD
P P
P SD +F w /Q SD +F no sub
SD +F w /T
SD +F SD +F
SD +F PD PD
PD with
PQ P
PT subsidy

PF+D PS
PF+D
D D
D

QD QD QQ QD+F no Quota Q Q Q with subsidy Q

QD QD QT QD+F no tariff Q

Domestic Q Domestic Q Total Q ↓ Total Q without Total Q with

Domestic Q Domestic Q Total Q ↓ without Q after Q subsidy
without T after T with Quota subsidy
with Tariff
U.S. tariffs reduce the total world trade U.S. quotas reduce the total world trade Subsidies increase the total world trade
quantity and increase the market price. quantity and increase the market price. quantity and decrease its price. The price is
Domestic producers will produce more at Domestic producers will produce more less for consumers and quantity is greater.
higher price but consumers will still pay at higher price, but overall price is Effect on domestic production depends on if
more and have less Q available after the higher/Q less for consumers because subsidies are domestic (↑ due to lower
production costs) or foreign (↓ domestic
tariff because the tariff restricts foreign quota ↓ foreign Supply available to production due to lower costs of foreign
supply available to U.S. consumers. U.S. consumers. competition and lower market price).
 Absolute and Comparative Advantage and International Trade
Absolute advantage (AA): can produce more with given resources
Input problem: nation that produces the same amount with fewer resources (i.e., less hours)
Output problem: nation that produces the greatest quantity of any product given the resources

A nation can have an absolute advantage in the production of both products or a comparative disadvantage in both products,
but a nation can only have a comparative advantage in 1 product.

Even if a nation has an absolute advantage in both products, it is more efficient and output gains can be achieved if the nation
specializes and trades according to comparative advantage. When this occurs, the PPCs of each nation are extended by the
trading possibilities.

Comparative advantage (CA): can produce more at a LOWER domestic OPPORTUNITY COST (give up less to produce) –
relatively more efficient; COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE IS THE BASIS FOR SPECIALIZATION AND TRADE. If
all nations specialize according to comparative advantage, there will be a more efficient use of global resources and gains
from trade (more can be produced given the resources)

To determine comparative advantage: Output problem (data in terms of products produced)

Set up the problem (see class handout for more details)
• Identify production maximums for each nation
• Reduce ratio of maximum production in each nation (reduce within nations not between nations)
• Determine domestic opportunity cost of one unit of each product within each nation (what is given up to produce 1 unit)
• Compare (nation to nation) opportunity costs of producing each product; LOWEST OC should specialize.
Wheat Nations Wheat Computers
20 Nation A A 20 1 (1C) 20 1 (1W)
16 B 16 2 (1/2 C) 8 1 (2W)
Nation B Nation A has the CA in Computers (gives up 1W to produce 1
computer as compared to 2W in Nation B). Nation B has the
CA in Wheat (gives up ½ C to produce 1 wheat as compared to 1
C given up by nation A). Therefore, Nation A should export
computers and import wheat; Nation B should export wheat
8 20 Computers
and import computers.
Even though Nation A has the absolute advantage in both, it
should specialize according to CA and trade with B.
Gains from trade: Total the output of each product before specialization and trade. Compare to output of each product AFTER
specialization (maximum output of product).

Terms of trade: look at original reduced ratios. The range of the terms of trade is set by those ratios. (See output problem above)
Wheat Computers
Nation A 1W 1C
Possible term of trade = 1C = 1.5 W (must fall between)
Nation B 2W 1C
Range of Trading Terms : 1W < 1 computer < 2 W beneficial to both nations
Explanation: If trade occurs between the two nations at 1 Computer = 1.5 Wheat, both nations will benefit from the terms of trade.
Prior to specialization, Nation A domestically gave up 1 computer to produce 1 unit of wheat. By specializing in computers, it can
now get 1.5W from Nation B for 1 computer, thus increasing the amount of wheat received per computer given up. Prior to
specialization and trade, Nation B had to give up 2 units of wheat to domestically produce one computer. By specializing in wheat
production, it can now trade 1.5 units of wheat for 1 computer from Nation A, thus giving up less wheat to get 1 computer.
SPECIALIZATION AND TRADE ACCORDING TO COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE INCREASES OUTPUT AND USES
GLOBAL RESOURCES MORE EFFICIENTLY, THUS INCREASING THE TRADING POSSIBILITIES of EACH
NATION.
Input problem (data in terms of resources needed to produce a unit of product – labor hours, acres, etc)
• Determine absolute advantage first (Do not swap data for AA) – LEAST AMOUNT OF RESOURCES USED.
• To determine comparative advantage, do either of the following to convert to an output problem:
o Swap data (i.e. U.S. can produce cars in 6 hours and computers in 2 hours – swap: cars : 2, computers: 6 . Swap puts
problem into output. Follow output procedures. EASY METHOD
o Alternative method: seek a common multiple of all the numbers and divide the inputs into that common multiple.
Result: output of each product. Follow output procedures.