ENCh 09

Chapter 9
MORE SQL: Assertions, Views,
and Programming Techniques
Copyright 2004 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter Outline
9.1 General Constraints as Assertions
9.2 Views in SQL
9.3 Database Programming
9.4 Embedded SQL
9.5 Functions Calls, SQL/CLI
9.6 Stored Procedures, SQL/PSM
9.7 Summary
Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition
Copyright 2004 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant Navathe
Chapter 9-3
Chapter Objectives
Specification of more general
constraints via assertions
SQL facilities for defining views (virtual
tables)
Various techniques for accessing and
manipulating a database via programs in
general-purpose languages (e.g., Java)

Chapter 9-4
Constraints as Assertions
General constraints: constraints that do
not fit in the basic SQL categories
(presented in chapter 8)
Mechanism: CREAT ASSERTION
components include: a constraint name,
followed by CHECK, followed by a condition

Chapter 9-5
Assertions: An Example
The salary of an employee must not be
greater than the salary of the manager of
the department that the employee works
for
CREAT ASSERTION SALARY_CONSTRAINT
CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE M, DEPARTMENT D
WHERE E.SALARY > M.SALARY AND
E.DNO=D.NUMBER AND D.MGRSSN=M.SSN))
Chapter 9-6
Using General Assertions

Specify a query that violates the
condition; include inside a NOT EXISTS
clause
Query result must be empty
if the query result is not empty, the assertion
has been violated

Chapter 9-7
SQL Triggers
Objective: to monitor a database and
take action when a condition occurs
Triggers are expressed in a syntax
similar to assertions and include the
following:
event (e.g., an update operation)
condition
action (to be taken when the condition is
satisfied)
Chapter 9-8
SQL Triggers: An Example

A trigger to compare an employees salary to his/her
supervisor during insert or update operations:
CREATE TRIGGER INFORM_SUPERVISOR
BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OF
SALARY, SUPERVISOR_SSN ON EMPLOYEE
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN
(NEW.SALARY> (SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SSN=NEW.SUPERVISOR_SSN))
INFORM_SUPERVISOR (NEW.SUPERVISOR_SSN,NEW.SSN;

Chapter 9-9
Views in SQL
A view is a virtual table that is derived
from other tables
Allows for limited update operations
(since the table may not physically be
stored)
Allows full query operations
A convenience for expressing certain
operations
Chapter 9-10

Specification of Views
SQL command: CREATE VIEW
a table (view) name
a possible list of attribute names (for
example, when arithmetic operations are
specified or when we want the names to be
different from the attributes in the base
relations)
a query to specify the table contents
Chapter 9-11

SQL Views: An Example

Specify a different WORKS_ON table
CREATE TABLE WORKS_ON_NEW AS
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, PNAME, HOURS
FROM EMPLOYEE, PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER
GROUP BY PNAME;
Chapter 9-12

Using a Virtual Table

We can specify SQL queries on a newly
create table (view):
SELECT FNAME, LNAME FROM WORKS_ON_NEW
WHERE PNAME=Seena;
When no longer needed, a view can be

dropped:
DROP WORKS_ON_NEW;
Chapter 9-13

Efficient View Implementation

Query modification: present the view
query in terms of a query on the
underlying base tables
disadvantage: inefficient for views defined
via complex queries (especially if additional
queries are to be applied to the view within a
short time period)
Chapter 9-14

Efficient View Implementation

View materialization: involves physically
creating and keeping a temporary table
assumption: other queries on the view will
follow
concerns: maintaining correspondence
between the base table and the view when
the base table is updated
strategy: incremental update
Chapter 9-15

View Update
Update on a single view without
aggregate operations: update may map
to an update on the underlying base
table
Views involving joins: an update may
map to an update on the underlying base
relations
not always possible
Chapter 9-16

Un-updatable Views
Views defined using groups and
aggregate functions are not updateable
Views defined on multiple tables using
joins are generally not updateable
WITH CHECK OPTION: must be added to
the definition of a view if the view is to be
updated
to allow check for updatability and to plan
for an execution strategy
Chapter 9-17

Database Programming
Objective: to access a database from an
application program (as opposed to
interactive interfaces)
Why? An interactive interface is
convenient but not sufficient; a majority
of database operations are made thru
application programs (nowadays thru
web applications)
Chapter 9-18

Database Programming
Approaches
Embedded commands: database
commands are embedded in a generalpurpose programming language
Library of database functions: available
to the host language for database calls;
known as an API
A brand new, full-fledged language
(minimizes impedance mismatch)
Chapter 9-19

Impedance Mismatch
Incompatibilities between a host
programming language and the
database model, e.g.,
type mismatch and incompatibilities;
requires a new binding for each language
set vs. record-at-a-time processing
need special iterators to loop over query results
and manipulate individual values
Chapter 9-20

Steps in Database Programming

1. Client program opens a connection to
the database server
2. Client program submits queries to
and/or updates the database
3. When database access is no longer
needed, client program terminates the
connection
Chapter 9-21

Embedded SQL
Most SQL statements can be embedded
in a general-purpose host programming
language such as COBOL, C, Java
An embedded SQL statement is
distinguished from the host language
statements by EXEC SQL and a
matching END-EXEC (or semicolon)
shared variables (used in both languages)
usually prefixed with a colon (:) in SQL
Chapter 9-22

Example: Variable Declaration

in Language C
Variables inside DECLARE are shared and can appear
(while prefixed by a colon) in SQL statements
SQLCODE is used to communicate errors/exceptions
between the database and the program
int loop;
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
varchar dname[16], fname[16], ;
char ssn[10], bdate[11], ;
int dno, dnumber, SQLCODE, ;
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
Chapter 9-23

SQL Commands for

Connecting to a Database
Connection (multiple connections are
possible but only one is active)
CONNECT TO server-name AS connection-name
AUTHORIZATION user-account-info;
Change from an active connection to

another one
SET CONNECTION connection-name;
Disconnection
DISCONNECT connection-name;
Chapter 9-24

Embedded SQL in C
Programming Examples
loop = 1;
while (loop) {
prompt (Enter SSN: , ssn);
EXEC SQL
select FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS, SALARY
into :fname, :lname, :address, :salary
from EMPLOYEE where SSN == :ssn;
if (SQLCODE == 0) printf(fname, );
else printf(SSN does not exist: , ssn);
prompt(More SSN? (1=yes, 0=no): , loop);
END-EXEC
}
Chapter 9-25

Embedded SQL in C
Programming Examples
A cursor (iterator) is needed to process
multiple tuples
FETCH commands move the cursor to
the next tuple
CLOSE CURSOR indicates that the
processing of query results has been
completed
Chapter 9-26

Dynamic SQL
Objective: executing new (not previously
compiled) SQL statements at run-time
a program accepts SQL statements from the
keyboard at run-time
a point-and-click operation translates to certain SQL
query
Dynamic update is relatively simple; dynamic

query can be complex
because the type and number of retrieved attributes
are unknown at compile time
Chapter 9-27

Dynamic SQL: An Example
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;

varchar sqlupdatestring[256];
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
prompt (Enter update command:, sqlupdatestring);

EXEC SQL PREPARE sqlcommand FROM :sqlupdatestring;
EXEC SQL EXECUTE sqlcommand;
Chapter 9-28

Embedded SQL in Java

SQLJ: a standard for embedding SQL in
Java
An SQLJ translator converts SQL
statements into Java (to be executed
thru the JDBC interface)
Certain classes, e.g., java.sql have to
be imported
Chapter 9-29

Java Database Connectivity

JDBC: SQL connection function calls for
Java programming
A Java program with JDBC functions
can access any relational DBMS that
has a JDBC driver
JDBC allows a program to connect to
several databases (known as data
sources)
Chapter 9-30

Steps in JDBC Database Access

1. Import JDBC library (java.sql.*)
2. Load JDBC driver:
Class.forname(oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver)
3. Define appropriate variables

4. Create a connect object (via getConnection)
5. Create a statement object from the
Statement class:
1. PreparedStatment
2. CallableStatement
Chapter 9-31

Steps in JDBC Database Access

(continued)
6. Identify statement parameters (to be
designated by question marks)
7. Bound parameters to program variables
8. Execute SQL statement (referenced by
an object) via JDBCs executeQuery
9. Process query results (returned in an
object of type ResultSet)
ResultSet is a 2-dimentional table
Chapter 9-32

Embedded SQL in Java:

An Example
ssn = readEntry(Enter a SSN: );
try {
#sql{select FNAME< LNAME, ADDRESS, SALARY
into :fname, :lname, :address, :salary
from EMPLOYEE where SSN = :ssn};
}
catch (SQLException se) {
System.out.println(SSN does not exist: ,+ssn);
return;
}
System.out.println(fname+ +lname+ );
Chapter 9-33

Multiple Tuples in SQLJ

SQLJ supports two types of iterators:
named iterator: associated with a query
result
positional iterator: lists only attribute types in
a query result
A FETCH operation retrieves the next tuple

in a query result:
fetch iterator-variable into program-variable
Chapter 9-34

Database Programming with

Functional Calls
Embedded SQL provides static
database programming
API: dynamic database programming
with a library of functions
advantage: no preprocessor needed (thus
more flexible)
drawback: SQL syntax checks to be done at
run-time
Chapter 9-35

SQL Call Level Interface

A part of the SQL standard
Provides easy access to several
databases within the same program
Certain libraries (e.g., sqlcli.h for C)
have to be installed and available
SQL statements are dynamically created
and passed as string parameters in the
calls
Chapter 9-36

Components of SQL/CLI
Environment record: keeps track of
database connections
Connection record: keep tracks of info
needed for a particular connection
Statement record: keeps track of info
needed for one SQL statement
Description record: keeps track of tuples
Chapter 9-37

Steps in C and SQL/CLI

Programming
1. Load SQL/CLI libraries
2. Declare record handle variables for the
above components (called: SQLHSTMT, SQLHDBC,
SQLHENV, SQLHDEC)
3. Set up an environment record using
SQLAllocHandle
4. Set up a connection record using

SQLAllocHandle
5. Set up a statement record using

SQLAllocHandle
Chapter 9-38

Steps in C and SQL/CLI

Programming (continued)
6. Prepare a statement using SQL/CLI
function SQLPrepare
7. Bound parameters to program variables
8. Execute SQL statement via SQLExecute
9. Bound columns in a query to a C
variable via SQLBindCol
10. Use SQLFetch to retrieve column values
into C variables
Chapter 9-39

Database Stored Procedures

Persistent procedures/functions (modules) are
stored locally and executed by the database
server (as opposed to execution by clients)
Advantages:
if the procedure is needed by many applications, it
can be invoked by any of them (thus reduce
duplications)
execution by the server reduces communication
costs
enhance the modeling power of views
Chapter 9-40

Stored Procedure Constructs

A stored procedure
CREATE PROCEDURE procedure-name (params)
local-declarations
procedure-body;
A stored function
CREATE FUNCTION fun-name (params) RETRUNS return-type
local-declarations
function-body;
Calling a procedure or function

CALL procedure-name/fun-name (arguments);
Chapter 9-41

SQL Persistent Stored Modules

SQL/PSM: part of the SQL standard for
writing persistent stored modules
SQL + stored procedures/functions +
additional programming constructs
e.g., branching and looping statements
enhance the power of SQL
Chapter 9-42

SQL/PSM: An Example
CREATE FUNCTION DEPT_SIZE (IN deptno INTEGER)
RETURNS VARCHAR[7]
DECLARE TOT_EMPS INTEGER;
SELECT COUNT (*) INTO TOT_EMPS
FROM SELECT EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO = deptno;
IF TOT_EMPS > 100 THEN RETURN HUGE
ELSEIF TOT_EMPS > 50 THEN RETURN LARGE
ELSEIF TOT_EMPS > 30 THEN RETURN MEDIUM
ELSE RETURN SMALL
ENDIF;
Chapter 9-43

Summary
Assertions provide a means to specify
additional constraints
Triggers are a special kind of
assertions; they define actions to be
taken when certain conditions occur
Views are a convenient means for
creating temporary (virtual) tables
Chapter 9-44

Summary (continued)
A database may be accessed via an
interactive database
Most often, however, data in a database is
manipulate via application programs
Several methods of database programming:
embedded SQL
dynamic SQL
stored procedure and function
Chapter 9-45


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Chapter 9

MORE SQL: Assertions, Views,

and Programming Techniques

Copyright 2004 Pearson Education, Inc.

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Using General Assertions

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

SQL Triggers: An Example

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

SQL Views: An Example

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Using a Virtual Table

When no longer needed, a view can be

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Efficient View Implementation

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Efficient View Implementation

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Steps in Database Programming

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Example: Variable Declaration

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

SQL Commands for

Change from an active connection to

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Dynamic update is relatively simple; dynamic

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Dynamic SQL: An Example

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;

prompt (Enter update command:, sqlupdatestring);

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Embedded SQL in Java

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Java Database Connectivity

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Steps in JDBC Database Access

3. Define appropriate variables

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Steps in JDBC Database Access

ResultSet is a 2-dimentional table

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Embedded SQL in Java:

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Multiple Tuples in SQLJ

A FETCH operation retrieves the next tuple

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition

Database Programming with

Elmasri/Navathe, Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth Edition