Birds of North America: Eastern Region

birds
OF nOrth america
eastern
region
editor-in-chief
Franois Vuilleumier
Content previously published in Birds of North America
the ULtIMAte PhOtOGRAPhIC GUIde
BIRDS
OF NORTH AMERICA
EASTERN REGION
BIRDS
OF NORTH AMERICA
Editor-in-Chief
Franois Vuilleumier
EASTERN REGION
Content previously published in
Birds of North America
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CONTENTS
PREFACE
HOW THIS BOOK WORKS
EVOLUTION
10
ANATOMY AND FLIGHT
12
MIGRATION
14
COURTSHIP AND MATING

NESTS AND EGGS
SPECIES GUIDE
22
GAMEBIRDS
23
WATERFOWL
34
LOONS
73
TUBENOSES
76
GREBES
84
STORKS, IBISES, AND HERONS
89
16
PELICANS AND RELATIVES
107
18
BIRDS OF PREY
115
RAILS AND CRANES
138
SHOREBIRDS, GULLS, AND

AUKS
150
PIGEONS AND DOVES
223
PARAKEETS AND PARROTS
230
CUCKOOS AND RELATIVES
232
OWLS
236
NIGHTJARS AND
NIGHTHAWKS
249
SWIFTS AND HUMMINGBIRDS
253
KINGFISHERS
257
WOODPECKERS
259
FLYCATCHERS
270
SHRIKES, VIREOS, JAYS,

AND CROWS
283
WAXWINGS, CHICKADEES,
TITMICE, SWALLOWS, LARKS,
AND KINGLETS
299
IDENTIFICATION 20
316
WRENS, GNATCATCHERS,
NUTHATCHES, TREECREEPERS,
AND THRASHERS
THRUSHES, PIPITS, AND
DIPPERS
332
FINCHES
344
WOODWARBLERS
354
ORIOLES AND BLACKBIRDS
392
LONGSPURS, AMERICAN
SPARROWS, TANAGERS, AND
CARDINALS
406
RARE SPECIES
443
VAGRANTS
471
Glossary
473
Index
475
Acknowledgments
479
PREFACE
THRUSHES
Back in the early 1900s,
the great wildlife artist
Louis Agassiz Fuertes already
painted birds in the style of
modern field guides, as shown
in this plate from Chapmans
Handbook of the Birds of
Eastern North America.
ith its eastern and western volumes, Birds of North America

attempts to fill a gap in the North American bird book market.
No other work offers, for every North American bird species, the same
combination of stunning iconography, including beautiful photographs
and precise distribution maps; scientifically accurate and readable
accounts of salient characteristics; data on identification, behavior, habitat,
voice, social structure, nest construction, breeding season, food, and
conservation status; diagrams of flight patterns; statistics of size, wingspan,
weight, clutch size, number of broods per year, and lifespan; and
geographic information about breeding, wintering, and migration.
Furthermore, no other bird book introduces, in such an up-to-date and
lavishly illustrated manner, general material about birds: their evolution,
classification, anatomy, flight, migration, navigation, courtship, mating,
nests, and eggs. Scientific jargon has been avoided, but a glossary identifies
concepts that benefit from an explanation.With its user-friendly format,
these eastern and western guides to Birds of North America should permit
readers either to enjoy studying one species account at a time, or browse
to make cross comparisons.
Many field guides exist, as well as treatises on groups like gulls,
hummingbirds, or sparrows; other books are dictionary-like, or focus
on species of conservation concern. However, no bird book today
can be called a handbook, a concise reference work that can be
conveniently carried around. I hope that these books will be useful
in this role to all persons interested in birds, whether young or older,
enthusiastic birder or beginner.
Historically, Birds of North America can be viewed as a successor to Frank
M. Chapmans epochal Handbook of the Birds of Eastern North America,
published in 1895. During his 54 years at the American Museum
of Natural History in New York City, Chapman, dean of American
ornithologists, blazed a trail that contributed substantially to what
American ornithology, bird conservation, and birding have become.
The facts that the new book has the imprint of the American Museum
of Natural History, and that I, as its Editor-in-Chief, have worked there
for 31 years as Curator of Ornithology and as Chairman of its
Department of Ornithology, are not coincidental.
In his Handbook, Chapman treated all birds found in Eastern
North America.The description of each species was followed by data
on distribution, nest, and eggs, and a readable, often even brilliant text
about habitat, behavior, and voice.The illustrations included plates by two
pioneer American wildlife artists, Louis Agassiz Fuertes and Francis Lee
Jaques, whose style inspired all those who followed them. Some of these
EASTERN AND WESTERN REGIONS

In a pioneering essay from 1908, Frank
Chapman realized, on the basis of his
own fieldwork, that the 100th Meridian
corresponded to a rather
clear-cut division of
North American bird
faunas into an Eastern
and a Western region.
Of course there are exceptions and the
100th Meridian line is not something
that the birds themselves recognize.
Western
Region
The invisible barrier is located in
a transitional zone between habitats that
represent, respectively, Eastern versus Western
landscape types or biomes. Some, but not all,
modern field guides use the 100th Meridian
as a division between East and West.
Arctic
Circle
Eastern
Region
Tropic of
Cancer
100 W
plates were, already then, executed in field guide fashion. Anybody who
examines Chapmans Handbook today is struck by how modern it is.
Museum man and birder, Chapman was also a gifted educator and
a good writer: a rare combination. Museum research gave him the
taxonomic background, and fieldwork throughout North America
sharpened his birding skills. As Editor-in-Chief of Birds of North America,
working in the department Chapman created, enjoying the same
extraordinary collection and library resources, and traveling as widely as
he did, I have endeavored to make this new book a work of which he
would have been proud. Dont leave home without itand bring along
binoculars and a pencil to jot down notes.
CATCHING
THE LIGHT
Franois Vuilleumier
American Museum of Natural History,
New York City
February 2011
The only hummingbird species

breeding in the Eastern region
is the Ruby-throated
Hummingbird. With the right
lighting, this male displays his
brilliantly colored throat patch.
HOW THIS BOOK WORKS
HOW THIS BOOK WORKS
his guide covers about 550 Eastern North American

bird species. The species are arranged into three
sections: the first profiles common species, each being
given full-page treatment; the second covers rarer birds
in quarter-page entries; the third section consists of
a list of rare visitors.
INTRODUCTION
The species are organized conventionally by

order, family, and genus. Related birds appear
together, preceded by a group introduction.
The book follows the most up-to-date avian
classification system, based on the latest
scientific research.
Family Icteridae
ORIOLES & BLACKBIRDS

T
HE ICTERIDS EXEMPLIFY the wonderful
diversity that exists among birds.
Most members are common and
widespread, occurring from coast to
coast. They are present in nearly every
habitat in North America, from the arid
Southwest and Florida to the boreal forest
zone in the north but do not live in the
tundra. The species reveal a tremendous
variety in color, nesting, and social
behaviorfrom solitary orioles to vast
colonies of blackbirds. One group of
icterids, the cowbirds, are obligatory
brood parasites, and make no nest, but lay
their eggs in the nests of other species,
mostly small songbirds.
ORIOLES
Orioles are generally recognized by their
contrasting black and orange plumage,
although some species tend more toward
yellow or chestnut shades. They are common
tropical to subtropical seasonal migrants to
North America, and their intricate hanging
nests are an impressive combination of
engineering and weaving. Most oriole species
have a loud and melodious song and show
tolerance of humans, a combination that
makes them popular throughout their range.
The Orchard Oriole and the Baltimore
Oriole are widespread in the East, but the
other North American species live either in
the West, the Southwest, or in southern
Texas. The Eastern North American orioles
spend the winter in tropical America.
COWBIRDS
These strictly parasitic

birds have been known
to lay eggs in the nests of
nearly 300 different bird
species in North and
South America.The
SUBTLE BRILLIANCE
males of all three North
Although its plumage is
American species are
dark, the Common Grackle
readily identified by their displays a beautiful iridescence.
thick bills and dark,
iridescent plumage.The females and immatures,
however, are drab, brownish, or blackish birds.The
eastern species, the Brown-headed Cowbird, has
dramatically increased in recent years.
BLACKBIRDS & GRACKLES

This group of birds is
largely covered with
dark feathers, and has a
streamlined appearance
due to long, pointed bills
and tails. Not as
brilliantly colored as
some of the other
icterids, these are among
the most numerous birds
on the continent. After
the breeding season they
gather in huge flocks and
form an impressive sight.
BIG VOICE
A Meadowlarks melodious
voice is a defining feature in
many rural landscapes.
GROUP NAME
The common name of the

group the species belong to
is at the top of each page.
COMMON NAME
IN FLIGHT
Illustrations show the

bird in flight, from above
and/or belowdifferences
of season, age, or sex are
not always visible.
Family Icteridae
Baltimore Oriole
black
and
orange
tail
oran
yello
white-edged
black wings
bla
MALE
(1ST FALL)
orange-yellow
shoulder patch
MALE
IN FLIGHT
orange
rump
Conveys the main features

and essential character of
the species including:
black tail with

orange outer tail
feathers
VOICE
A description of the species

calls and songs, given
phonetically where possible.
yellow-olive
rump
The type of nest and its usual

location; the number of eggs
in a clutch; the number of
broods in a year; the
breeding season.
FEEDING
How, where, and what the

species feeds on.
SIMILAR SPECIES
Similar-looking species
are identified and key
differences pointed out.
olive
upperparts
pale orange
underparts
NESTING
Meadowlarks occur in both North and South

America.The North American species have yellow
breasts; the South American species have bright red
ones. Only one species breeds in the East. It can be
distinguished from its western counterpart by its song.
The magnificently colored

Baltimore Oriole inserts its bill
into the base of a flower, taking
the nectar, but playing no part
in pollination.
Order Passeriformes
DESCRIPTION
MEADOWLARKS
NECTAR LOVER
COMMON SPECIES
The main section of the
book features the 393 most
commonly seen bird species in
Eastern North America. Each
entry is clear and detailed,
following the same format.
two wing
bars
he Baltimore Orioles brilliant colors are familiar to many

persons in the East because this bird is tolerant of human
presence.This species originally favored the American Elm for
nesting, but Dutch Elm disease decimated these trees.The oriole
since adapted to using sycamores, cottonwoods, and other tall tre
for its nesting sites. Its ability to use suburban gardens and parks
helped expand its range to areas densely occupied by humans.T
Baltimore Oriole is Marylands State Bird, somewhat ironically.
VOICE Loud, clear, melodious song comprising one or two,
several short notes in series, often of varying lengths.
NESTING Round-bottomed basket usually woven of grass, h
toward the end of branches; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Hops or flits among leaves and branches picking ins
and spiders; fond of caterpillars; also eats fruits and sips nectar.
LENGTH, WINGSPAN,
AND WEIGHT
Length is tip of tail to tip of

bill; measurements and weights
are averages or ranges.
FEMALE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ORCHARD ORIOLE
BULLOCKS ORIOLE
see p.393
see p.467
incomplete
black hood
darker
overall
chestnutcolored
belly
SOCIAL
The social unit the species is

usually found in.
MAPS
In this book, North America is defined as the area from
the southern tip of Florida and the USMexico border
northward to the Canadian High Arctic. Each species
profile includes a map showing its range, with different
colors reflecting seasonal movements.
distribution
Nonbreeding
distribution
During
migration
huge
white
patch
Length 810in (2026cm)
Wingspan 1012in (2630cm
The length of life, in years,

obtained from either zoo birds
or from banding and recovery
records of wild birds. The
actual average or maximum
life expectancy of many bird
species is still unknown.
Social Solitary/Pairs
Lifespan Up to 11 years
DATE SEEN
WHERE
STATUS
Resident
all year
Breeding
orange
cheeks
LIFESPAN
The conservation status of the

species; (p) means the data
available is only provisional.
KEY
black
eyeline
SYMBOLS
9
8
5 Juvenile 6
4 Immature 7
2 Male
1 Female
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Winter
394
MAPS
See panel, left. The occurrence

caption describes the birds
preferred habitats and range
within North America.
HOW THIS BOOK WORKS
RARE SPECIES
RARE SPECIES
Family Parulidae
CLASSIFICATION
The top band of each

entry provides the scientific
names of order, family, and
species (see glossary,
pp. 473-474, for full
definitions of these terms).
Species Parula pitiayumi
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica chrysoparia
Tropical Parula
Golden-cheeked Warbler
The Tropical Parula is widespread in tropical

America, but in the US is found only in southern
Texas.There, it occasionally interbreeds with
the Northern Parula, which is very close to
it in appearance. Their offspring are difficult
to identify, so that in southern Texas some
parula warblers cannot be identified to species.
OCCURRENCE Breeds from the southern edge
of the Hill Country to coastal Kleberg County
(Texas) southward to central Argentina. Much
local movement in the winter months.
VOICE Songs and calls very similar to those of
the Northern Parula.
Males of this strikingly beautiful warbler species

often sing throughout the day, from conspicuous
perches in oak-juniper woodlands.The
Golden-cheeked Warbler breeds only in
a restricted area of Texas, on and near the Edwards
Plateau. Habitat loss has made this already scarce
species even less common, and it has been listed
as an Endangered Species since 1990.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in extensive oak-juniper
forests mixed with hardwood trees like maple and
ash.Winters in high-elevation pine-oak woodlands.
VOICE Dry tsk call; song a variable series of
relatively low, buzzy notes, often ending on a high,
clear note zo zu zu zo zu zhray ZHEE; another
version ends at a lower pitch
ZOH zu ZO-ZOH zhray.
MALE
white wing
patch
dark mask
Over 100 less common birds

are presented on pp. 443-470.
Arranged in the same group
order used in the main section,
these entries consist of one
photograph of the species
accompanied by a description
of the bird. Information on
geographical distribution,
occurrence, and voice is
also given.
striking yellowand-black face

MALE
yellow
underparts
Length 412 in (11cm)
Wingspan 614in (16cm)
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Species Icterus galbula

Family Parulidae
ngeow head
black head
ack back
straight
bluegray bill
Species Dendroica kirtlandii
Species Icterus cucullatus
Kirtlands Warbler
Hooded Oriole
Named for a physician from Ohio, Kirtlands

Warbler is one of the rarest North American
songbirds. The suppression of fires and spread of
the parasitic Brown-headed Cowbird decreased
this warblers population to a low of 167 males in
1987, but successful conservation resulted in the
population reaching about 5,000 birds in 2007.
OCCURRENCE In northern Michigan, in dense,
low, 6- to 20-year-old Jack Pine stands on sandy
soil, regrowing after fires.
VOICE A strong chip; flight call a high interrupted,
zit; song a loud, low-pitched series of white
eye-ring
staccato chips, rising in pitch and
intensity and ending with
whistled phrase: tup-CHUPchup tup-CHEEP-cheep.
Tall palm trees of suburban and urban landscapes,

especially in California, have become favored
nesting sites for the Hooded Oriole.The increasing
number of palm trees and offerings of nectar
intended for hummingbirds have led to
the expansion of its range in California and the
southwestern US. By contrast, its numbers in
Texas have been shrinking, in part because of its
susceptibility to brood parasitism by Brown-headed
and Bronzed Cowbirds.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in open woodlands along
water courses, especially those with palm trees, in
Mexico, Belize, California, and the southwestern
US, and also in southern Texas. Winters in Mexico.
VOICE A harsh weeek call; song a weakly
long,
whined and rapid series of whistles
curved
bill
where notes often run together;
imitates other birds.
MALE
black
upper
breast
orange
underparts
Family Icteridae
MALE
(BREEDING)
Length 6in (15cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
bright
orange
466
MALE
VAGRANTS & ACCIDENTALS

T
HE LIST THAT FOLLOWS INCLUDES species
that occur rarely in eastern North
America (defined in this book as Canada
and the continental United States east of
the 100th Meridian). These species can
reach North America from Eurasia, Central
or South America, Africa, and even Oceania
and Antarctica. The US and Canada can
receive birds that drift off course, during
migration, from eastern Asia across the Pacific
Ocean, or from Europe across the Atlantic.
The occurrence of these vagrant species
is classified by the American Birding
Association, depending on their relative
COMMON NAME
frequency, and this terminology is followed

in the status column for each species.
Rare species are reported every year in
small numbers. Casual visitors have
been recorded at least a dozen times.
Accidental species have been recorded
no more than five times.
Because of biological, climatological, or
other factors, the status of vagrant species
is constantly changing. The ever greater
number of competent birdwatchers also
permits the regular, even annual, detection
of species that were once considered
rare or accidental.
SCIENTIFIC NAME
FAMILY NAME
STATUS
COLOR BAND
Pink-footed Goose
Anser brachyrhynchus
Anatidae
Accidental from Greenland, Iceland, or Europe to

eastern Canada
The information bands at the top and bottom of

each entry are color-coded for each family.
Lesser White-fronted Goose
Anser erythropus
Anatidae
Accidental from Eurasia to Alaska
Muscovy Duck
Cairina moschata
Anatidae
Rare from Mexico in southern Texas (also escapees)
Eurasian Wigeon
Anas penelope
Anatidae
Rare from Eurasia along East Coast of US
Garganey
Anas querquedula
Anatidae
Casual from Eurasia to eastern North America
Cinnamon Teal
Anas cyanoptera
Anatidae
Casual from West to eastern US
Tufted Duck
Aythya fuligula
Anatidae
Rare from Eurasia to eastern Canada; casual

in eastern US
Waterfowl
PHOTOGRAPHS
FLIGHT: strong with rapid wing beats; full
downstrokes during flight provide great power.
e has
ees
has
The
Smew
These illustrate the species in different views and

plumage variations. Significant differences relating
to age, sex, and season (breeding/nonbreeding) are
shown and the images labeled accordingly; if there
is no variation, the images have no label. Unless
stated otherwise, the bird shown is an adult.
Mergellus albellus
Anatidae
Accidental from Eurasia to eastern US
Pacific Loon
Gavia pacifica
Gaviidae
Casual from Arctic to East Coast
Yellow-billed Loon
Gavia adamsii
Gaviidae
Casual from Arctic to East Coast and Interior US
Pterodroma feae
Procellariidae
Rare from eastern Atlantic to East coast; accidental

to Nova Scotia
Jabiru mycteria
Ciconiidae
Casual to southern Texas from Central America
Phoenicopterus ruber
Phoenoicpteridae
Rare or casual from West Indies to Florida

and Texas
Masked Booby
Sula dactylatra
Sulidae
Breeds in Dry Tortugas; rare at sea, Gulf coast,

Atlantic coast, Florida to North Carolina
White-tailed Tropicbird
Phaethon lepturus
Phaethontidae
Rare visitor from tropical waters off Atlantic coast

north to North Carolina
Pacific Golden Plover
Pluvialis fulva
Charadriidae
Casual from Alaska in the Northeast
Common Ringed Plover
Charadrius hiaticula
Charadriidae
Casual from high Canadian Arctic to East Coast
Lesser Sand Plover
Charadrius mongolus
Charadriidae
Rare visitor from Asia to West Alaska, Pacific coast,

and the East
Bar-tailed Godwit
Limosa lapponica
Scolopacidae
Casual from Alaska and Eurasia to East Coast
Black-tailed Godwit
Limosa limosa
Scolopacidae
Casual from Eurasia along Atlantic Coast
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper
Calidris acuminata
Scolopacidae
Ruff
Philomachus pugnax
Scolopacidae
Rare visitor from Eurasia to East Coast
Wood Sandpiper
Tringa glareola
Scolopacidae
Accidental from Eurasia to East Coast
Red-necked Stint
Calidris ruficollis
Scolopacidae
Rare visitor from Siberia to both coasts in

summer and fall
Loons
Petrels
Feas Petrel
Ibises and Herons

Jabiru
Flamingos
Greater Flamingo
Pelicans and Relatives
or
FLIGHT PATTERNS
hung
sects
PERFECT FOR FORAGING
The Baltimore Oriole forages alone in dense

foliage of trees and bushes or on the ground.
OCCURRENCE
Forest edges and tall, open

mixed hardwoods, especially
close to rivers; regularly uses
forested parks, suburban
and urban areas with
abundant tall trees. Small
numbers winter in southeastern
US and Florida, but most
birds move to Mexico,
Colombia, and Venezuela.
m)
Weight 1116114oz (3035g)
This feature illustrates and briefly describes

the way the species flies. See panel below.
VAGRANTS
Very rare and accidental visitors are
listed at the back of the book with a
brief indication of the species status.
Plovers and Sandpipers
Casual from eastern Russia to the East
471
FLIGHT PATTERNS
Simple line diagrams are used to illustrate eight
basic flight patterns.
Status Secure
Accipiter-like: straight, with several quick, deep

beats between short glides.
NOTES
wing beats
Woodpecker-like: bursts of wing beats

between deeply undulating glides.
HABITAT/
BEHAVIOR
Photographs reveal the

species in its habitat or
show interesting
behavior.
Gull-like: continually flapping, with slow, steady

wing beats; also glides.
Duck-like: continually flapping, with fast

wing beats.
Finch-like: light, bouncy action with flurries of

wing beats between deep, undulating glides.
Buteo-like: deep, slow wing beats between

soaring glides.
Grouse-like: bursts of wing beats between

short, straight glides.
Swallow-like: swooping, with bursts of wing

beats between glides.
EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
rnithologists agree that birds evolved

from dinosaurs about 150 million years ago,
but there is still debate about the dinosaur group
from which they descended. Around 10,000 species
of birds exist today, living in many different kinds of
habitats across the world, from desert to Arctic tundra.
To reconstruct how avian evolution occurred, from
Archaeopteryx on up to the present, scientists use many
clues, especially fossil birds, and now DNA.
SPECIATION
MISSING LINK?
Archaeopteryx, shown here, is

a 145-million-year-old fossil. It
had dinosaur-like teeth, but
bird-like feathers.
What are species and how do they evolve? Species

are biological entities. When two species of a genus
overlap they rarely interbreed and produce hybrids. The
Northern Flicker has an eastern (yellow-shafted)
and a western (red-shafted) form; after the discovery
that these two forms interbreed in the Great Plains, the
flickers, which were formerly split into two species, are
now considered one. In other cases, a previously single
species, such as the Sage Grouse, has been divided. Such
examples illustrate how species evolve, first by geographic
separation, followed in time by overlap. This process can
take from tens of thousands to millions of years.
BIRD GENEALOGY
The diagram below is called a phylogeny, and shows how
evidence, which allows ornithologists to estimate when
selected groups of birds are related to each other. The timescale
different lineages of birds diverged. The names of groups
at the top of the diagram is derived from both fossil and DNA
shown in bold are those living in North America.
MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO
150
125
100
75
50
25
Ratites, Tinamous
Gamebirds
Waterfowl
Neornithes
Button quails
Woodpeckers, Barbets, Honeyguides, Toucans
Jacamars, Puffbirds, Hoopoes, Hornbills, Trogons, Rollers, Bee-eaters, Todies, Motmots, Kingfishers
Colies
Cuckoos, Hoatzin
Parrots
Swifts, Hummingbirds
Turacos, Owls, Nightjars
Pigeons
Cranes, Rails
Sandgrouse, Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns, Auks
Birds of Prey (but not New World vultures)
Grebes
Tropicbirds
Gannets, Cormorants
Herons, Ibises, Flamingos, Pelicans, Storks, New World Vultures
Frigatebirds, Penguins, Loons, Petrels, Albatrosses
Passeriformes (Songbirds)
150
10
125
100
75
50
25
EVOLUTION
CONVERGENCE
BLENDING IN
This magnificent species is

diurnal, unlike most other owls,
which are nocturnal. The Snowy
Owl breeds in the Arctic tundra
and if the ground is covered
with snow, it blends in perfectly.
The evolutionary process

during which birds of two
distantly related groups
develop similarities is called
convergence. Carrion-eating
birds of prey are one example.
Old World vultures belong to
the hawk family (Accipitridae),
while New World vultures are more
closely related to storks. However,
both groups are characterized by
hooked bills, bare heads, and weak
talons. Convergence can involve anatomy
and behavior, as in the vultures, or other traits,
including habitat preference.
PARALLEL EVOLUTION
The African longclaws (family

Motacillidae) and North American
meadowlarks (family Icteridae)
show convergence in plumage
color and pattern. Both groups
live in grassland.
CAPE
LONGCLAW
EASTERN
MEADOWLARK
EXTINCTION
During the last 150 years, North America
has lost the Passenger Pigeon, the
Great Auk, the Carolina Parakeet, the
Labrador Duck, and the Eskimo
Curlew. Relentless hunting and
habitat destruction are the main
factors that have led to extinction. Some
species that seemed doomed have
had a reprieve. Thanks to a breeding
and release program, the majestic
California Condor soars once again
over the Grand Canyon.
The Passenger Pigeon was eradicated as a result

of over hunting.
Class
Aves (Birds)
Order
Passeriformes (Songbirds)
Parulidae (Wood-warblers)
Family
Dendroica
Genus
Species
Dendroica castanea
Dendroica palmarum
Dendroica tigrina
Subspecies
CLASSIFYING BIRDS
All past and present animal life
is named and categorized into
groups. Classifications reflect
the genealogical relationships
among groups, based on traits
such as color, bones, or DNA.
Birds make up the class Aves,
which includes orders; each
order is made up of one or
more families. Genus is
a subdivision of family, and
contains one or more species.
A species is a unique group
of similar organisms that
interbreed and produce fertile
offspring. Some species have
distinct populations, which are
known as subspecies.
OVERHUNTING
D. p. palmarum
11
ANATOMY AND FLIGHT
ANATOMY AND FLIGHT
n spite of their external diversity, birds are

remarkably similar internally. To allow flight, birds
have a skeleton that is both rigid and light. Rigidity
is achieved by the fusion of some bones, especially
the lower vertebrae, while lightness is maintained
by having hollow limb bones.
SKELETON
These are connected to air sacs, Avian skeletal features include
the furcula (wishbone), the
which, in turn, are connected
keeled sternum (breastbone),
to the birds lungs.
and the fused tail vertebrae.
hand
forearm
neck
vertebrae
bill
fused tail
vertebrae
furcula
keeled
sternum
secondaries
FLIGHT ADAPTATIONS
For birds to be able to fly, they need light and rigid bones,
a lightweight skull, and hollow wing and leg bones. In
addition, pouch-like air sacs are connected to hollow bones,
which reduce a birds weight. The air sacs also function as a
cooling system, which birds need because they have a high
metabolic rate. The breast muscles, which are crucial for
flight, attach to the keeled sternum (breastbone). Wing and
tail feathers help support birds when airborne. Feathers
wear out, and are regularly replaced during molt.
tail
feathers
uppertail
coverts
rump
BIRD BONE STRUCTURE
Most bird bones, except those of penguins

and other flightless birds, are hollow,
which reduces their weight. A honeycomb
of internal struts makes the bones
remarkably strong.
tertials
scapulars
LEGS, FEET, AND TOES
UNDERPARTS
When you look at a birds leg, you

do not see its thigh, which is inside
the body cavity, but the leg from
the knee down.When we talk
about a birds feet we really mean
its toes.The shin is a fused tibia
and fibula.This fused bone plus
the heel are known as the
tarso-metatarsus. The four
examples below illustrate some
toe arrangements.
Underwing coverts
have a regular pattern
of overlapping rows.
Short feathers
cover the head,
breast, belly, and
flanks. In most
birds, the toes
are unfeathered.
primaries
axillaries
enables
grip on
ground
enables
strong grip
on branches
WALKING
CLIMBING
Ground-foraging birds usually

have a long hind claw.
Most climbers have two toes

forward and two backward.
webbing
provides
thrust in
water
used to
grasp prey
SWIMMING
HUNTING
Waterbirds have webbing

between their toes.
Birds of prey have powerful

toes and strong, sharp claws.
12
breast
bill
belly
undertail
coverts
toes
ANATOMY AND FLIGHT
primary
coverts
secondary
coverts
coverts
FEATHERS
TYPES OF FEATHERS
All birds, by definition, have feathers.

These remarkable structures, which
are modified scales, serve two main
functions: insulation and flight.
Special muscles allow birds to raise
their feathers or to flatten them
against the body. In cold weather,
fluffed-out feathers keep an
insulating layer of air between the
skin and the outside. This insulating
capacity is why humans often find
wearing down jackets so effective
against the cold. The first feathers
that chicks have after hatching
are down feathers. The rigidity
of the flight feathers helps create
a supporting surface that birds use
to generate thrust and lift.
Birds have three main kinds

of feathers: down, contour,
and flight feathers. The rigid
axis of all feathers is called
the rachis.
DOWN
FEATHER
CONTOUR
FEATHER
FLIGHT
FEATHER
neck
WING FUNCTIONS
nape
crown
chin
throat
mantle
alula
(bastard wing)
Flapping, soaring, gliding, and hovering are among the ways birds use their
wings.They also exhibit colors or patterns as part of territorial and courtship
displays. Several birds, such as herons, open their wings like an umbrella
when foraging in water for fish. An important aspect of wings is their
relationship to a birds weight.The ratio of a birds wing area to weight is
called wing loading, which may be affected also by wing shape. An eagle has
a large wing area to weight ratio, which means it has lower wing loading,
whereas a swallow has a small wing
area to weight ratio, and therefore
high wing loading.This means that
the slow, soaring eagle is capable of
much more energy-efficient flight
than the fast, agile swallow.
LONG AND BROAD
The broad, long, rectangular wings of an

eagle allow it to soar. The outstretched
alulae (bastard wings) give it extra lift.
UPPERPARTS
The wing feathers from

the hand of the bird
are the primaries, and those
on the forearm are the
secondaries. Each set has
its accompanying row of
coverts. The tertials are
adjacent to the secondaries.
POINTED
SHORT AND ROUND
Broad at their base and tapering toward

a point, and bent at the wrist, a swallows
wings enable fast flight and sharp turns.
Short, broad, and round wings permit warblers

to move easily in dense vegetation.
WING AERODYNAMICS
The supporting surface of a birds wing enables it to take off
and stay aloft. Propulsion and lift are linked in birdswhich
use their wings for bothunlike in airplanes in which these
two functions are separate. Large and heavy birds, like swans,
flap their wings energetically to create propulsion, and need
a long, watery runway before they can fly off. The California
Condor can take off from a cliff with little or no wing flapping,
but the Black and Turkey Vultures hop up from carrion then flap
vigorously and finally use air flowing across their wings to soar.
This diagram shows how airflow affects lift.
low air pressure
faster airflow
slower airflow
high air
pressure
cross section
of birds wing
13
MIGRATION
MIGRATION
ntil recently, the mechanics, or the how of

migration, was poorly understood.Today, however,
ornithologists know that birds use a variety of cues
including visual and magnetic, whether they migrate
by day or by night. Birds do not leave northern breeding
areas because of the winter cold, but because day-length
is getting shorter and food scarcer.
NIGHT MIGRANTS
During migration, ornithologists can point

a telescope on the moon and count the birds
that cross its surface.
INSTINCTIVE MOVE
REFUELING
Red Knots stop on their journey

from Tierra del Fuego to the Arctic
to eat horseshoe crab eggs.
Even though many birds use visual cues and landmarks during their migration,
for example, birds of prey flying along the Appalachians, instinctive behavior
must control much of how and where they move. Instinct is a loose term that
is hard to define, but ornithologists generally understand it as a genetically
programmed activity. They assume that natural selection has molded a behavior
as complex as migration by acting on birds DNA; this hypothesis is reasonable,
but hard to prove. Nevertheless, it would seem to be the only explanation why
many juvenile shorebirds leave their breeding grounds after their parents, and
yet find their way to their final destination.
NAVIGATION
One of the most puzzling aspects of migration
is understanding how birds make their way
from their summer breeding grounds to their
winter destination. Ornithologists have devised
experiments to determine the different
components. Some of these components are
innate, others learned. For example, if visual
landmarks are hidden by fog, a faint sun can give
birds a directional clue; if heavy clouds hide the
sun, then the birds magnetic compass may be
used to ascertain their direction.
OVERLAND FLIERS
Sandhill Cranes migrate over hills and

mountains, from their Arctic tundra
breeding grounds to the marshes of
the Platte River in the midwestern US.
14
FINDING THE WAY
Birds coordinate information their brains receive

from the sun, moon, stars, landmarks, and
magnetite, or iron oxide, and use it as a compass.
MIGRATION
GLOBETROTTERS
EPIC JOURNEY
Some bird species in North America are year-round

residents, although a few individuals of these species
move away from where they hatched at some time in
the year. However, a large number of North American
species are migratory. A few species breed in Alaska,
but winter on remote southwest Pacific islands.
Others breed in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, fly
over land and the Pacific Ocean, and spend the winter
at sea off the coast of Peru. Many songbirds fly from
the Gulf Coast to northern South America.The most
amazing globetrotters, such as the Red Knot, fly all
the way to Tierra del Fuego, making only a few stops
along the way after their short breeding season in
the Arctic tundra.The return journeys of
some of these travelers
are not over the
same route
instead, their
entire trip
is elliptical
in shape.
The Arctic Tern is

a notorious long-distance
migrant, breeding in Arctic
and Subartic regions, and
wintering in the pack ice of
Antarctica before returning
north, a round-trip distance
of at least 25,000 miles
(40,000km).
KEY
Trans-Pacic route
Coastal Pacic route
Arctic to Pacic route
Trans-Gulf route
Atlantic to Caribbean route
Argentina to Arctic route
Arctic-Atlantic Neotropical route
NEOTROPICAL MIGRANT
MIGRATION ROUTES
Many wood-warblers, such as

this Blackpoll Warbler, breed in
boreal forests, before migrating
to their wintering grounds in
the Caribbean, or Central or
South America.
The map above shows the range of migration

routes that some North American species take
to and from their breeding grounds.
V-FORMATION
Geese and other large waterbirds fly in a

V-formation. The leader falls back and is replaced
by another individual, saving energy for all the birds.
PARTIAL MIGRANT
The American Robin is a good example of
a partial migrant, a species in which the birds
of some populations are resident, whereas
others migrate out of their breeding range. Most
Canadian populations of the American Robin fly
south, US populations are largely resident, and
quite a few birds from either population spend
the winter in the Southwest, Florida, or Mexico.
KEY
Breeding distribution
Resident all year
Nonbreeding distribution
15
hether monogamous or not, males and females need to mate for their species
to perpetuate itself. With most species, the male plays the dominant role of
advertising a territory to potential mates using vocal or visual displays. Females then select
a male, and if the two respond positively to each other, a period of courtship follows
ending in mating. The next steps are nest building, egg laying, and rearing the young.
DISPLAYS
DANCING CRANES
During courtship, Sandhill

Cranes perform spectacular
dances, the two birds of a pair
leaping into the air with wings
opened and legs splayed.
Mutual attraction between the sexes starts with

some sort of display, usually performed by the
male. These displays can take a number of forms,
from flashing dazzling breeding plumage,
conducting elaborate dancing rituals, performing
complex songs, offering food or nesting
material, or actually building a nest. Some
birds, such as grebes, have fascinatingly
intricate ceremonies, in which both
male and female simultaneously
perform the same water-dance.
Because they are usually very
ritualized, displays help
ornithologists understand
relationships among birds.
LADIES CHOICE
On a lek (communal display area), male Sage-Grouse inflate

chest pouches while females flock around them and select
a mate. Sage-Grouse are found in the West.
COURTSHIP FEEDING
In some species, males offer food to their
mate to maintain the pair-bond. For
example, male terns routinely
bring small fish to their
mates in a nesting
colony, spreading
their wings and tail
until the females
accept the fish.
MAINTAINING RELATIONS
A male Northern Cardinal offers food to the female,

which is a way of reinforcing their pair bond.
16
WELCOME HOME
Northern Gannets greet

their mates throughout
the breeding season by
rubbing bills together
and opening their wings.
BREEDING
After mating, a nest is made, often by the female,
where she lays from one to a dozen eggs. Not all
birds make nests, however. Nightjars, for example, lay
their eggs directly on the ground. In many species,
incubation doesnt start until the female has laid all
the eggs. Incubation, usually done by the female,
varies from about 12 days to about 45 days. Songbirds
breeding from the temperate zone northward to
the Arctic show a range in clutch size, with more
eggs produced in the North than in the South. The
breeding process can fail at any stage, for example,
a predator can eat the eggs or the chicks. Some birds
will nest again after such a failure but others give
up breeding for the season.
MATING TERNS
Mating is usually brief, and typically takes

place on a perch or on the ground, but
some species, like swifts, mate in the air.
This male Black Tern balances himself
by opening his wings.
MUTUAL PREENING
Many species of albatrosses, like these

Black-footed Albatrosses from the Pacific,
preen each other, with one bird softly
nibbling the feathers on the others head.
POLYGAMY
This Winter Wren collects

nesting material for one of the
several nests he will build.
MONOGAMOUS BONDS
Some birds, such as Snow

Geese, remain paired for life
after establishing a bond.
SINGLE FATHER
A male Red-necked Phalarope
incubates eggs in the Arctic
tundra. Phalaropes are well
known for their reversal of
breeding roles. The female, who
is the larger and more colorful
of the two sexes, aggressively
competes for males, and after
mating with several of them,
plays no role in nest building,
incubation, or caring for chicks,
but tends to her territory instead.
Although the chicks can feed
by themselves immediately
after hatching, they remain with
a male before growing feathers
and living on their own.
17
NESTS AND EGGS
NESTS AND EGGS
ost bird species build their own nest, which is a necessary container for
their eggs. Exceptions include some species of cuckoos and cowbirds, that
lay their eggs in other species nests. Nest-building is often done by the female alone,
but in some species the male may help or even build it himself. Eggs are incubated
either by females only, or by males and females, depending on the species. Eggs,
consisting of 60 percent water, contain a fatty yolk for nourishment of the embryo
as well as sugars and proteins. Eggshells are hard enough to sustain the weight of
incubating parents, yet soft enough for a chick to break its way out. Hatching is
an energy-draining process, and can last for several hours.
NEST TYPES
UNTIDY NEST
In addition to the four types shown below, nests range

from a simple scrape in the ground with a few added
pebbles to an elaborate woven basket-like structure.
Plant matter forms basic nest material. This includes
twigs, grass stems, bark, lichens, mosses, plant down,
and rootlets. Some birds add mud to their nest for
strength. Others incorporate animal hair or feathers to
improve its softness and insulation. Female eider ducks
line their nest with down feathers plucked from their
belly. Some birds include bits of plastic or threads in their
nests. Several species of flycatchers add shed snakeskins to
their nests. Many birds make their nest or lay their eggs
deep inside the empty burrows of other animals.
Burrowing Owls nest in prairie dog burrows, where
they coexist with the rodents.
Huge stick nests, built on top of dead trees,

are the hallmark of Ospreys. They also
readily use custom-made nesting platforms
erected by humans specifically for them.
EGG CUP
NATURAL CAVITY
A clutch of three blue robins eggs rest

in a cup lined with grass stems and
strengthened with mud. Robins build
their nests either in shrubs or trees.
This Northern Saw-whet Owl is nesting

at the bottom of a cavity, in a tree
that has probably been excavated
by a woodpecker.
NEST BOX
COMPLEX WEAVE
Cavity-nesting bluebirds have been

affected by habitat loss, and compete
with other birds for nest sites, which
may include human-made structures.
New World orioles weave intricate nests

from dried grass stems and other plant
material, and hang them from the tip
of branches, often high up in trees.
18
NESTS AND EGGS
EGG SHAPES
COLOR AND SHAPE
There are six basic egg shapes among birds, as

illustrated to the right. The most common egg
shapes are longitudinal or elliptical. Murres lay
pear-shaped eggs, an adaptation for nesting on
the narrow ledges of sea cliffs; if an egg rolls, it
does so in a tight circle and remains on the ledge.
Spherical eggs with irregular red blotches are
characteristic of birds of prey. Pigeons and doves
lay white oval eggs, usually two per clutch. The
eggs of many songbirds, including sparrows and
buntings, are conical and have
a variety of dark markings
on a pale background.
Birds eggs vary widely in terms of shape,

colors, and markings. The American
Robins egg on the left is a beautiful blue.
PEAR SHAPED
LONGITUDINAL
ELLIPTICAL
NEAT ARRANGEMENT
Many shorebirds, such as plovers

and sandpipers, lay four conical
eggs with the narrow ends
pointed in toward each other.
CONICAL
OVAL
SPHERICAL
HATCHING CONDITION
After a period of incubation, which varies from
species to species, chicks break the eggshell, some
of them using an egg tooth, a special bill feature that
falls off after hatching. After a long and exhausting
struggle, the chick eventually tumbles out of the shell
fragments.The transition from the watery medium
inside the egg to the air outside is a tremendous
physiological switch. Once free of their shell,
the hatchlings recover from the
exertion and either beg food
from their parents or feed
on their own.
FOOD DELIVERY
Tern chicks, although able to move around, cannot catch the fish
they need to survive, and must rely on their parents to provide
food until they can fly.
PARENTAL
GUIDANCE
FAST FEEDER
Coots, gallinules, and rails hatch

with a complete covering of down,
and can feed by themselves
immediately after birth.
Birds of prey, such

as these Snowy Owl
owlets, need their
parents to care for
them longer than some
other bird species, and
do not leave the nest
until their feathers are
sufficiently developed
for their first flight.
BROOD PARASITISM
Neither cowbirds in the New World
nor cuckoos in the Old World make
a nest. Female cowbirds deposit up
to 20 eggs in the nests of several
other species. If the foster parents
accept the foreign egg, they will
feed the chick of the parasite until
it fledges. In the picture below,
a tiny wood-warbler feeds its
adopted chick, a huge cowbird
hatchling that has overgrown the
nest. Whereas some host species
readily incubate the foreign egg,
others reject it or abandon the nest.
19
IDENTIFICATION
IDENTIFICATION
ome species are easy to identify, but in many

other cases, species identification is tricky. In
North America, a notoriously difficult group in terms
of identification is the wood-warblers, especially in
the fall, when most species have similar greenish
or yellowish plumage.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE
Each bird species in North America lives in
a particular area that is called its geographic range.
Some species have a restricted range; for example,
Kirtlands Warbler occurs only in Michigan. Other
species, such as the Red-tailed Hawk, range from
coast to coast and from northern Canada to
Mexico. Species with a broad range usually breed
in a variety of vegetation types, while species with
narrow ranges often have a specialized habitat;
Kirtlands Warblers is jack pine woodland.
BLUEBIRD VARIATIONS
Species of the genus Sialia,

such as the Mountain Bluebird
above, and the Eastern Bluebird
below, are easy to identify.
bright
blue
wings
white
belly
chestnut
flanks
SIZE AND WEIGHT

From hummingbird to Tundra Swan and from extra-light (116oz)
to heavy (15lb), such is the range of sizes and weights found
among the bird species of North America. Size can be measured
in several ways, for example the length of a bird from bill-tip to
tail-tip, or its wingspan. Size can also be estimated for a given
bird in relationship with another that is familiar. For example,
the less familiar Bicknells Thrush can be compared with the
well-known American Robin.
SEMIPALMATED PLOVER
LESSER YELLOWLEGS
Smaller shorebirds, with shorter legs and bills,

forage in shallow water, but larger ones have
longer legs and bills and can feed in deeper water.
HUDSONIAN GODWIT
GENERAL SHAPE
Just as birds come in all sizes, their
tall, narrow
body
body shapes vary, but size and shape
are not necessarily correlated. In the
dense reed beds in which it lives,
the American Bitterns long and
thin body blends in with stems.
The round-bodied Sedge
Wren hops in shrubby
vegetation or near the
short
ground where slimness is
tail
not an advantage. In dense
forest canopy, the slender and
AMERICAN BITTERN
long-tailed Yellow-billed Cuckoo
can maneuver easily. Mourning Doves
inhabit rather open habitats and their
plumpness is irrelevant when it comes
to their living space. The relative
thickset
shape and length of the wings and
body
tail are often, but not always,
an important component on
how a particular bird
long, pointed tail
species behaves.
20
SIZE MATTERS
LONG-BILLED CURLEW
YELLOW-BILLED
CUCKOO
long tail
slender shape
small
head
tiny tail
round
body
MOURNING DOVE
SEDGE WREN
IDENTIFICATION
BILL SHAPE
These images show a range of bill
shapes and sizes relative to the
birds head size. In general, bill
form, including length or thickness,
corresponds to the kinds of food
a birds consumes. With its
pointed bill, the Mountain
Chickadee picks tiny
insects from crevices in
tree bark. At another extreme,
dowitchers probe mud with their
long thin bills, feeling for worms.
The avocet swishes its bill back
and forth in briny water, in
search of shrimp.
worms
and fruit
seeds and
caterpillars
HOUSE FINCH
AMERICAN
ROBIN
worms
from deep
mud
MOUNTAIN
CHICKADEE
AMERICAN
AVOCET
small
shrimps in
water
LONG-BILLED
DOWITCHER
marine
mollusks
mammals
and birds
GOLDEN
EAGLE
BROAD-TAILED
HUMMINGBIRD
just a blur
in flight
REDTAILED
HAWK
MOUNTAIN
QUAIL
short and
round
GREATER
YELLOWLEGS
long,
rounded
angled,
pointed
TAIL SHAPE
long,
It is not clear why some songbirds,
pointed
like the American Goldfinch, have
a notched tail while other similar
sized birds do not. Tail shapes vary
as much as wing shapes, but are
not so easily linked to a function
medium
or to the habitat in which
length,
square
a given species lives. Irrespective
of shape, tails are needed for
balance. In some birds, tail
shape, color, and pattern are
WESTERN
KINGBIRD
used in courtship displays
or in defensive displays
when threatened.
COLORS AND MARKINGS
Melanin and carotenoid pigments
determine color. Gray and
brown-plumaged birds have
melanin (under hormonal
influence), yellow and red ones,
carotenoid (derived from food).
Flamingos are pink because they
eat carotenoid-rich crustaceans.
Diversity in color and markings
also results from scattering of white
light by feathers (producing blue
colors) and optical interference
(iridescence) due to the structural
properties of some feathers (as in
hummingbirds). Bare patches of
skin are often used in displays.
GREAT BLUE
HERON
fish
SURF
SCOTER
WING SHAPE
Birds wing shapes are correlated
with their flight style. The long,
round-tipped wings of the
Red-tailed Hawk are perfect for
soaring, while the tiny wings of
hummingbirds are exactly what
is needed to hover in front of
flowers and then to back away
after a meal of nectar. When flushed,
quails flutter with their round wings
and quickly drop down.
tiny
insects,
seeds
broad
and
blunt
AMERICAN
WOODCOCK
MOURNING
DOVE
AMERICAN
GOLDFINCH
medium
length,
notched
long
and
forked
RUFFED
GROUSE
black-and-white
streaks
white wing
bars
BLACK-ANDWHITE
WARBLER
LAZULI
BUNTING
SCISSORTAILED
FLYCATCHER
short and
round
black
spots
WOOD THRUSH
black-andwhite head
pattern
white eyering
bare
skin
WHITE-CROWNED
SPARROW
GREATER PRAIRIE
CHICKEN
BLUE-HEADED
VIREO
21
SPECIES GUIDE
Families Cracidae, Odontophoridae, Phasianidae
GAMEBIRDS
T
HIS DIVERSE AND ADAPTABLE GROUP of
birds thrives in habitats ranging from

hot desert to frozen tundra. Gamebirds
spend most of their time on the ground,
springing loudly into the air when alarmed.
QUAILS
Among the most terrestrial of all gamebirds, quails
are renowned for their great sociability, often
forming large family groups, or coveys, of up to
100 birds.The Northern Bobwhite is the only quail
species found in the east, and ranges over a variety
of habitats. Each of the five species found in western
North America lives in
a specific habitat or at a
particular elevation.
DRESSED TO THRILL
With its striking plumage,

Gambels Quail is one of the
best-known desert birds in
southwestern North America.
Prairie grouse, including the Sharp-tailed Grouse,

are found throughout the middle of the continent.
All three tundra and mountaintop grouse or
ptarmigans are found in the extreme North and the
Rockies. Grouse often possess patterns that match
their surroundings,
providing camouflage
from both animal and
human predators.
GRASSLAND GROUSE
The aptly named Sharp-tailed

Grouse is locally common in
western prairies. It searches for
grasshoppers in the summer.
PHEASANTS & PARTRIDGES

These Eurasian gamebirds were introduced into
North America in the 19th and 20th centuries to
provide additional targets for recreational hunters.
While some introductions failed, species such as
the colorful Ring-necked Pheasant adapted well
and now thrive in established populations.
GROUSE
The most numerous and widespread of gamebirds,
the 12 different species of grouse can be divided
into three groups based on their preferred habitats.
Forest grouse include the Ruffed Grouse in the
East, the Spruce Grouse in the North, and the
Sooty Grouse and Dusky Grouse in the West.
SNOW BIRD
The Rock Ptarmigans white

winter plumage camouflages it
against the snow, helping hide
it from predators.
GAMEBIRDS
Order Galliformes
Family Odontophoridae
Species Colinus virginianus
Northern Bobwhite
brown, beige,
and black
head pattern
round
wings
black-andwhite face
thick,
decurved
bill
tan
throat
short
MALE
tail
IN FLIGHT
complex
markings on
upperparts
FEMALE
short wings
fine streaking
on breast
FLIGHT: rapid and startling flight, followed by
MALE
brief glide; seldom flies far before landing.
he Northern Bobwhite, a small, plump,

chicken-like bird, is second only to the
Ruffed Grouse among North American
gamebirds in distribution across the eastern
US states. Loved by hunters, when flushed it
erupts in coveys of 10 to 20 individuals,
bursting from groundcover and dispersing
in many directions. Large numbers are raised in captivity and
released to supplement wild populations for hunting.
VOICE Characteristic bob-WHITE or bob-bob-WHITE whistled
by males in breeding season; call to reunite flock includes hoi-lee
and hoi following dispersal.
NESTING Shallow depression lined with plant matter, located
on ground within sight of an opening; 1015 eggs; sometimes
multiple broods per season; JanuaryMarch.
FEEDING Forages for wide variety of plant matter (seeds, buds,
leaves), and insects, snails, and spiders, depending on the season.
COVEY LIFE
Male, female, and immature Northern Bobwhites

live together in tight flocks called coveys.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MONTEZUMA QUAIL
GRAY
PARTRIDGE
larger black-andwhite facial

pattern
see p.32
mostly
gray
dark sides
with white
spots
Widely distributed but only

locally common in much of
the eastern US, and in Mexico,
southward to Guatemala.
Most often associated with
agricultural fields, it thrives
in a patchwork of mixed
young forests, fields,
and brushy hedges.
A permanent resident.
reddish
cheeks
striped
belly
Weight 6oz (175g)
Social Small flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
24
WHERE
NOTES
GAMEBIRDS
Order Galliformes
Family Phasianidae
Species Meleagris gallopavo
Wild Turkey
tail fanned
in display
MALE (EAST)
unfeathered
blue-and-red
head
black-and-white
barred wings
IN FLIGHT
no feathers
on head
humped
back
rusty tail
with black
band
long legs
dark body,
with bronze
iridescence
IMMATURE
dark
overall
MALE (WEST)
iridescent
bronze-andpurplish body
hair-like
beard
on breast
FEMALE
nce proposed by Benjamin Franklin as the national emblem

of the US, the Wild Turkeythe largest gamebird in North
Americawas eliminated from most of its original range by the
early 1900s due to over-hunting and habitat destruction. Since
then, habitat restoration and the subsequent reintroduction of
Wild Turkeys has been very successful.
VOICE Well-known gobble, given by males especially during
courtship; female makes various yelps, clucks, and purrs, based
on mood and threat level.
NESTING Scrape on ground lined with grass; placed against
or under protective cover; 10 15 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJune.
FEEDING Omnivorous, it scratches in leaf litter on forest floor
for acorns and other food, mostly vegetation; also takes plants
and insects from agricultural fields.
FLIGHT: after running, leaps into the air
with loud, rapid wing beats, then glides.
COLLECTIVE DISPLAY
Once the population expands into new areas,

numerous males will be seen displaying together.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREATER SAGE GROUSE
see p.116
dark
head
pointed
tail
Found in mixed mature

woodlands, fields with
agricultural crops; also in
various grasslands, close
to swamps, but adaptable
and increasingly common
in suburban and urban
habitats. Quite widespread,
but patchily distributed
across North America.
TURKEY VULTURE
white
breast
small red
head
dark
overall
Length 234 4ft (0.9 1.2m)
Wingspan 4 5ft (1.21.5m)
Weight 1024lb (4.511kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
25
GAMEBIRDS
Order Galliformes
Family Phasianidae
Species Bonasa umbellus
Ruffed Grouse
ADULT (RUFOUS FORM)
spotted gray
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
brown-barred
underparts
rusty tail
with black
band
heavy white
spotting on
brown
upperparts
dark
patch
on neck
raised
crest
gray-barred
underparts
ADULT
(GRAY FORM)
feathered
legs
ADULT (RUFOUS FORM)
he Ruffed Grouse is perhaps the most widespread gamebird

in North America. There are two color forms, rufous and
gray, both allowing the birds to remain camouflaged and
FLIGHT: an explosive take-off, usually at close
undetected on the forest floor, until they eventually burst into
range, glides for a short distance before landing.
the air in an explosion of whirring wings. The male is well
known for his extraordinary wing beating or drumming display,
which he performs year-round, but most frequently in the spring.
VOICE Hissing notes, and soft purrt, purrt, purrt when alarmed, by both sexes;
males drumming display when heard from distance resembles small engine
starting, thumpthumpthump...thump... thump...thuthuthuth.
NESTING Shallow, leaf-lined bowl set against a tree trunk, rock or fallen log
in forest; 614 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJune.
FEEDING Forages on ground for leaves, buds, and
fruit; occasionally insects.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SPRUCE GROUSE 1
smaller overall;
see p.27
rusty
orange
tip
shorter
tail
DUSKY GROUSE
larger
and
darker
overall
heavier barring
on chest
less
barring
WARM RED
The rufous form of the Ruffed

Grouse is more common in
wetter parts of the continent.
Found in young, mixed forests

throughout the northern US
and much of Canada except
tundra. Southern edge of range
extends along higher elevations
of the Appalachians and middle
levels of the Rocky Mountains,
if suitable habitat is available.
Weight 2022oz (575 625g)
Social Solitary/Small flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
26
WHERE
NOTES
GAMEBIRDS
Order Galliformes
Family Phasianidae
Species Canachites canadensis
Spruce Grouse
MALE
(FRANKLINS)
paler
overall
FEMALE
C. c. canadensis
(TAIGA)
ADULT
bright red comb

above eye
heavy barring
on underparts
IN FLIGHT
black
throat
white spots
on black tail
black
breast
gray
upperparts
heavily
barred
underparts
triangular white
spots on underparts
MALE
C. c. canadensis
(TAIGA)
FEMALE
C. c. franklinii
(FRANKLINS)
erhaps because of the remoteness of their habitat and lack of

human contact, Spruce Grouse are not afraid of humans.This
lack of wariness when approached has earned them the name fool
hens. Their specialized diet of pine needles causes the intestinal
tract to expand in order to accommodate a large volume of food to
compensate for its low nutritional value.There are two subspecies of
Spruce Grouse (C. c. canadensis and C. c. franklinii) both of which
have red and gray forms; taiga is the eastern one.
VOICE Mostly silent; males clap their wings during courtship
display; females often utter long cackle at dawn and dusk.
NESTING Lined with moss, leaves, feathers; often at base of tree;
naturally low area in forest floor 46 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Feeds mostly on pine but also spruce needles; will eat
insects, leaves, fruits, and seeds when available.
FLIGHT: generally avoids flying; when
disturbed, bursts into flight on whirring wings.
RUFOUS BAND
The male taiga subspecies displays the thin

rufous band on the tip of his tail.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RUFFED GROUSE
see p.26
spotted gray
upperparts
DUSKY GROUSE
Present year-round in
forests dominated by
conifers, including Jack,
Lodgepole, Spruce, Red
Spruce, Black Spruce,
Balsam Fir, Subalpine Fir,
Hemlock, and Cedar.
Found from western Alaska
to the Atlantic Coast.
much
larger
longer,
charcoalgray tail
gray-barred
underparts
grayer
overall
Weight 16oz (450g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
27
GAMEBIRDS
Order Galliformes
Family Phasianidae
Species Tympanuchus phasianellus
Sharp-tailed Grouse
ADULT
long central
tail feather
mottled
wings
naked pink
skin
heavily mottled
brown, white, and
black upperparts
IN FLIGHT
pale, wedgeshaped tail,
with protruding
central feathers
tan eyebrow
white
undertail
feathers
MALE
brown wings with
white dots
white underside,
with dark brown
arrowheads
along flanks
FLIGHT: flushes from hiding with rapid wing
beats, then switches to glide-flap-glide.
he most widespread of the three species in

its genus, the Sharp-tailed Grouse is able to
adapt to the greatest variety of habitats. It is not
migratory, but undertakes seasonal movements between
grassland summer habitats and woodland winter habitats.These
birds are popular with hunters and are legal quarry in most of
their range. Elements of this grouses spectacular courtship display
have been incorporated into the culture and dance of Native
American people, including foot stomping and tail feather rattling.
VOICE Male calls a variety of unusual clucks, cooing, barks, and
gobbles during courtship; females cluck with different intonations.
NESTING Shallow depression lined with plant matter close at
hand as well as some feathers from female, usually near overhead
cover; 10 12 eggs; 1 brood; MarchMay.
FEEDING Forages primarily for seeds, leaves, buds, and fruit; also
takes insects and flowers when available.
PRAIRIE DANCER
The courtship dance of the Sharp-tailed Grouse

heralds the arrival of spring to the grasslands.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREATER PRAIRIE CHICKEN
see p.29
RING-NECKED
PHEASANT 1
shorter, square
tail
see p.33
Has a northern and western

distribution in North America,
from Alaska (isolated
population) southward to
northern prairie states. Prefers
a mixture of fallow and active
agricultural fields combined
with brushy forest edges and
woodlots along river beds.
light
brown
longer
tail
more
heavily
barred
naked
orange
skin
scalloped
pattern on
underparts
Weight 26 34oz (750950g)
Social Flocks
Status Declining (p)
DATE SEEN
28
WHERE
NOTES
GAMEBIRDS
Order Galliformes
Family Phasianidae
Species Tympanuchus cupido
Greater Prairie Chicken

rounded
wings
no display
feathers
two sets
of feathers
raised during
display
FEMALE
square tail
MALE
orange skin
over eye
IN FLIGHT
display feathers
against neck
barred
overall
MALE
beard-like
feathers
bright
orange skin
of air sac
MALE
(DISPLAYING)
FLIGHT: bursts from cover with loud, rapid
wing beats when approached.
nce common in prairie and

woodland across central
and eastern North America,
populations of the Greater Prairie
Chicken have been greatly reduced as their habitats gave way to
agriculture. The Atlantic coast population (Heath Hen) became
extinct in 1932. During the breeding season, males defend
communal territories called leks and perform spectacular
displays, inflating the air sacks on their necks, and booming.
VOICE During courtship, males emit booming sounds like
a three-part low hoot; also cackling calls.
NESTING Depression in soil lined with vegetation and feathers,
in thick grass or other cover; 1012 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Eats berries, leaves, seeds, and grain; also insects.
BOOMING MALES
At a lek in the early morning, a male sends out

a booming call and displays to attract a female.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SHARP-TAILED GROUSE
see p.28
pointed
tail
slightly
larger
Separate populations occur

in the Dakotas, Minnesota,
Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas,
Illinois, Oklahoma, Texas, and
Missouri. Breeds in openings
mixed with oak-forested river
corridors, especially where
these interact with areas
of native tallgrass prairie;
resident year-round.
LESSER PRAIRIE CHICKEN
pink
skin
pronged
feathers
smaller
overall
v-shaped
markings on
underparts
reddish
orange
skin
Length 1512 1712in (40 45cm)
Wingspan 26 29in (6674cm)
Weight 3036oz (8501,000g)
Social Flocks
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
29
GAMEBIRDS
Order Galliformes
Family Phasianidae
Rock Ptarmigan
mostly gray
upperparts
black
tail
Species Lagopus muta

brown-and-black
barring
white
wings
MALE
(WINTER)
small,
round
head
small
bill
red comb
mottled
belly
all-white
wings
FEMALE (S
SUMMER)
gray wing
patch
IN FLIGHT
MALE
(SUMMER)
white
plumage
black line
between eye
and bill
small,
delicate
bill
salt-and-pepper
barring on gray
upperparts
FEMALE (WINTER)
MALE
(WINTER)
white
belly
feathered
feet and toes
MALE
(SUMMER)
FLIGHT: bursts into flight with rapid wing
beats, followed by gliding and shallow flapping.
he Rock Ptarmigan is the most northern

of the three ptarmigan species found in
North America. Although some birds make a short
migration to more southern wintering grounds, many remain
on their breeding grounds year-round. This species is well
known for its distinctive seasonal variation in plumage, which
helps to camouflage it against its surroundings. Ptarmigan are a
common food of the Inuit, who inhabit the same Arctic habitat.
VOICE Quiet; male call a raspy krrrh, also growls and clucks.
NESTING Small scrape or natural depression, lined with plant
matter, often away from cover; 810 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJune.
FEEDING Feeds on buds, seeds, flowers, and leaves, especially
birch and willow; eats insects in summer.
IN BETWEEN PLUMAGE
Various transitional plumage patterns can be

seen on the Rock Ptarmigan in spring and fall.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN 8
all-white tail in winter;
Local in dry, rocky tundra and

shrubby ridge tops; will use
edges of open meadows and
dense evergreen stands along
fairly high-elevation rivers and
streams during winter. Occurs
throughout the Northern
Hemisphere in Arctic tundra
from Iceland to Kamchatka
in the Russian Far East.
WILLOW
PTARMIGAN 8
see p.31
larger
overall
smaller
overall
lighter
brown
upperparts
Length 12121512in (3240cm)
Wingspan 19122312 in (5060cm)
Weight 1623oz (450 650g)
Social Winter flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
30
WHERE
NOTES
GAMEBIRDS
Order Galliformes
Family Phasianidae
Willow Ptarmigan
reddish
brown
body
Species Lagopus lagopus

white
between eye
and black bill
black
tail
red comb
black
bill
ADULT
(WINTER)
all-white
body
black
bill
rich
reddish
brown
body
IN FLIGHT
lacks
red comb
MALE
(SUMMER)
ADULT (WINTER)
yellow-brown
body
dark,
scaly
bars
white
belly
FEMALE
(SUMMER)
feathered
feet
MALE
(SUMMER)
FLIGHT: strong, rapid wing beats before
gliding; prefers to walk.
he most common and widespread of the three

ptarmigan species, the Willow Ptarmigan is the state bird
of Alaska. The Willow Ptarmigan is an unusual gamebird species,
as male and female remain bonded throughout the chick-rearing
process, in which the male is an active participant. The
Red Grouse of British moors is a subspecies (L. l. scotica)
of the Willow Ptarmigan.
VOICE Variety of purrs, clucks, hissing, meowing noises; KowKow-Kow call given before flushing, possibly alerting others.
NESTING Shallow bowl scraped in soil, lined with plant matter,
protected by overhead cover; 810 eggs; 1 brood; MarchMay.
FEEDING Mostly eats buds, stems, and seeds, but also flowers,
insects, and leaves when available.
PERFECT BLEND-IN
Its reddish brown upperparts camouflage this

summer ptarmigan in the shrubby areas it inhabits.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN 8
ROCK PTARMIGAN 8
browner
plumage
grayer
plumage
Prefers tundra, in Arctic,

sub-Arctic and subalpine
regions. Thrives in willow
thickets along low, moist
river corridors; also in the
low woodlands of the
sub-Arctic tundra.
see p.30
smaller
overall
darker
Weight 1528oz (425800g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
31
GAMEBIRDS
Order Gallifornes
Family Phasianidae
Gray Partridge
Species Perdix perdix

cinnamon
face
rusty
head
gray neck and

chest with fine
black barring
ADULT
brown, rounded
wings
gray back
with fine
barring
dark
cinnamon tail
IN FLIGHT
underparts
gray overall
horseshoe-shaped
belly patch
ADULT
ADULT
chestnut
barred
gray flanks
FLIGHT: erupts from cover on loud, rapid wing
beats; levels off, flaps and glides; flies low.
member of the pheasant family,

the Gray Partridge is native to
Eurasia. Introduced to North America in
the late 18th century, it became a resident
after repeated re-introductions. Hunters call it the
Hungarian Partridge or Huns for short.This species has
benefited from the mixture of agricultural and fallow fields, that
resulted from long-term conservation programs, and its population
is stable or expanding in the west.The isolated eastern populations,
however, are declining due to changes in land use.This species is
popular with hunters in both North America and Europe.
VOICE Short kuk-kuk-kuk, quickly and in a series when
alarmed; prruk-prruk between adults and young when threatened.
NESTING Shallow depression in soil lined with vegetation,
usually in hedgerows; 1418 eggs; 1 brood; MarchMay.
FEEDING Eats mostly seeds and row crops such as corn and
wheat; succulent green leaves in spring; insects when breeding.
NOISY TAKEOFF
When the Gray Partridge takes flight its wings

make a loud, whirring sound.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
NORTHERN
BOBWHITE 1
CHUKAR
see p.24
buffy
throat
and
face
white streaks
on rusty red
body
white face
edged in
black
Primarily agricultural fields

of crops including corn, wheat,
and oats, as well as associated
hedgerows and fallow
grasslands. Most birds are
nonmigratory, but there is
some movement by eastern
birds after breeding.
red
bill
black
barring
on white
anks
Weight 1218oz (350500g)
Social Family groups
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
32
WHERE
NOTES
GAMEBIRDS
Order Galliformes
Family Phasianidae
Species Phasianus colchicus
Ring-necked Pheasant
pale
brown
body
MALE
long
tail
iridescent
ear tufts
green-black
head
short, round
wings
pale rump
bold black
markings
white
neck
ring
FEMALE
pointed
tail
red face
wattles
orangecopper
flanks
IN FLIGHT
FEMALE
MALE
(DARK FORM)
iridescent
bronze
sheen
long,
pointed tail
FLIGHT: bursts vertically from cover on loud
barred
underparts
rapid wing beats; levels off, flaps, then glides.
MALE
native of Asia, the variable-looking

Ring-necked Pheasant was originally
introduced in North America for recreational
hunting purposes, and is now widely distributed
across North America. Birds released after being
bred in captivity are used to supplement natural
reproduction for hunting purposes. In the wild, several
females may lay eggs in the same nesta phenomenon called egg-dumping.
There is a less common dark form, which can be distinguished principally
because it lacks the distinctive white band around the neck.
VOICE Male emits a loud, raucous, explosive double note, Karrk-KORK,
followed by loud wing-flapping; both sexes cackle when flushed.
NESTING Shallow bowl composed of grasses, usually on ground in tall grass
or among low shrubs; 715 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJune.
FEEDING Feeds on corn and other grain, seeds, fruit, row crops, grass, leaves
and shoots; eats insects when available.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREATER SAGE GROUSE
SHARP-TAILED GROUSE
larger
slightly smaller;
shorter
see p.28
tail
long, dark tail
dark
belly
pale
breast
FLUSHED OUT
darker brown
overall
The Ring-necked Pheasant is

a powerful flier when alarmed
or flushed out of its cover.
Widespread across southern

Canada and the US; prefers
mixture of active agricultural
crops (especially corn fields),
fallow fields, and hedgerows;
also cattail marshes and
wooded river bottoms. The
Ring-necked Pheasant is
native to Asia from the
Caucasus east to China.
Social Solitary/Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
33
Family Anatidae
WATERFOWL
R
ECENT SCIENTIFIC studies
indicate that
waterfowl are closely related to
gamebirds. Most species of waterfowl
molt all their flight feathers at once after
breeding, making them flightless for several
weeks until they grow new ones.
GEESE
Ornithologists group geese and swans together
into the subfamily Anserinae. Intermediate in
body size and neck length between swans and
ducks, geese are more terrestrial than either, and
are often seen grazing on dry land. Like swans,
geese pair for life. They are highly social, and most
species are migratory, flying south for the winter
in large flocks.
SWANS
Swans are essentially large, long-necked geese.
Their heavier weight makes them ungainly on
land, and they tend to be more aquatic than their
smaller relatives. On water, however, they are
extremely graceful. When feeding, a swan stretches
its long neck to reach water plants at the bottom,

submerging up to half its body as it does so. The
Trumpeter Swan of the Northwest is North
Americas largest native waterfowl, growing up to
5ft (1.5m) long, and weighing up to 25lb (12kg).
DUCKS
Classified in their
own subfamily, called
the Anatinae, ducks
are more varied than
swans or geese, with
many more species.
They are loosely
INSTANT TAKEOFF
grouped by their
Puddle ducks like the Mallard
feeding habits. Dabblers, can shoot straight out of the
or puddle ducks, such as water and into the air.
the Mallard, teals, and
wigeons, eat plants and animal matter, such as
snails. They feed by upending on the surface of
shallow water. By contrast diving ducks, a group
that includes scaups, scoters, eiders, mergansers,
and the Ruddy Duck, dive deep underwater
for their food.
GAGGLING GEESE
Gregarious Snow Geese

form large, noisy flocks
during migration and on
winter feeding grounds.
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Dendrocygna bicolor
Fulvous Whistling-Duck
dark wings
tawny buff
head and neck
ADULT
tawny head
and underparts
white
rump
gray feet
extend
beyond
tail
faint crest
gray
bill
IN FLIGHT
white flank
plumes
barred
back
ADULT
tawny buff
underparts
lthough often thought of as dabbling ducks, whistling-ducks act

more like swans, as they form long-term pairs, but without an
elaborate courtship display, and the male helps to raise the brood.
The Fulvous Whistling-Duck is a widespread species in tropical
regions, but in the US it is closely associated with rice fields, where
numbers of these noisy birds have steadily recovered from
the use of pesticides in the 1960s.
VOICE High-pitched squeaky
pi-teeeew; often calls in flight.
NESTING Simple bowl-shaped nest
made of plant matter; among dense
floating plants, or on ground;
6 20 eggs; 1 brood; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Filter feeds on rice, seeds
BOTTOMS UP!
of water plants, insects, worms, snails, When feeding in water, the bird
and clams by swimming, wading, or
often up-ends to feed on snails
dabbling along or below the surface.
and submerged rice seeds.
FLIGHT: fairly shallow wing beats; legs extend
beyond tail.
SHORT NECKED
The Fulvous Whistling-Duck is shorter-necked than

its black-bellied relative, and can be confused with
other ducks when its long legs are hidden.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
see p.444
all-black
tail
Permanent resident in southern

Texas and Florida; range
expands in summer to coastal
Texas and Louisiana. In the
US, often found in rice fields
together with the Black-bellied
Whistling-Duck. Casual vagrant
as far north as British Columbia
and Nova Scotia.
NORTHERN PINTAIL 1
BLACK-BELLIED
WHISTLING-DUCK
see p.52
brown-andlonger
black mottled
neck
plumage
no white
on anks
bold white
wing stripe
Length 1612 20in (4251cm)
Weight 19 34oz (550975g)
Social Flocks
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
35
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Anser albifrons
Greater White-fronted Goose

gray wing
feathers
pink bill with

white base
brownish
gray head
ADULT
white
rump
band
white flank
streak
IN FLIGHT
white tip
to tail
darker chocolatebrown upperparts
dull yellowish
orange bill
brown underparts
with black bands
larger
body
A. a. gambeli (TULE)
bright
orange
legs
no belly
barring
MALE
A. a. frontalis (TUNDRA)
JUVENILE
he Greater White-fronted Goose is the most widespread

goose in the Northern Hemisphere. It is easily distinguished
by its black-barred belly and the patch of white at the base of its
bill. There are five subspecies, two of which are commonly seen
in North America. The tundra (A. a. frontalis), makes
up the largest population, breeding in extreme northwestern
Canada and Alaska. The tule (A. a. gambeli), while larger,
occurs in smaller numbers, and breeds farther east in
north-central Canada.
VOICE Laugh-like klow-yo or klew-yo-yo; very musical in a flock.
NESTING Bowl-shaped nest made of plant material, lined with
down, constructed near water; 37 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Eats sedges, grasses, berries, and plants on both land and
water in summer; feeds on grasses, seeds, and grains in winter.
FLIGHT: strong, direct flight; flies alone, in
multiple lines, or in a V-formation.
FLIGHT FORMATIONS
This heavy-bodied, powerful flier can often be

seen in tightly packed flocks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Different habitats are utilized for

breeding and wintering. Nesting
areas include tundra ponds and
lakes, dry rocky fields, and grassy
slopes in Alaska and northern
Canada. In winter, coastal
marshes, inland wetlands,
agricultural fields, and refuges
are used in the southern US
and eastern Mexico.
CANADA GOOSE
see p.39
black head,
neck, and bill
white chin strap
HEAVY GRAZER
Grass is the major component

of this gooses diet.
Wingspan 414 514ft (1.31.6m)
Weight 4 612lb (1.8 3kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
36
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Snow Goose
dark flight
feathers
Species Anser caerulescens

elongated,
white
head
gray bill
blackish
brown back
gray
upperparts
pale wing
feathers
ADULT
(BLUE)
dark belly
pale
underparts
gray legs
and feet
gray wing
patch
black
patch on
long bill
long
neck
IMMATURE
(BLUE FORM)
ADULT
(BLUE FORM)
ADULT
(WHITE)
white
upperparts
gray-brown
all over
IN FLIGHT
grayish
legs
IMMATURE
(WHITE FORM)
ADULT
(WHITE FORM)
pink
legs
FLIGHT: direct, strong flight with moderate
wing beats in either V-shaped or bunched flocks.
he abundant Snow Goose has two subspecies. The

greater (A. c. atlanticus) is slightly larger and is found
breeding farther east. The smaller lesser (A. c. caerulescens)
breeds farther west. Snow Geese have two color formswhite
and blue (actually dark grayish brown with a white head), and
there are also intermediate birds.
VOICE Basic a call nasal whouk, kowk, or kow-luk, also higherpitched heenk; feeding call a series of hu-hu-hur.
NESTING Scrapes on hummock, lined with plant material
and down; 2 6 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Grazes on aquatic and terrestrial vegetation,
including stems, seeds, leaves, tubers, and roots; also grain
and young leaves in agricultural fields in winter.
TOUCHING DOWN
Snow Geese are well known for migrating in

flocks that number in the tens of thousands.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREATER WHITEFRONTED GOOSE
ROSSS GOOSE
see p.38
see p.36
Breeding colonies in High Arctic

from Wrangel Island in the
West to Greenland in the East;
a population of lesser Snow
Geese breeds near Hudson Bay.
Winters along interior valleys
westward to coastal lowlands
and central plateau of Mexico;
Atlantic populations winter
in coastal marshes.
shorter
bill
white
forehead
dark head
and neck
much
smaller
overall
barred
underparts
Wingspan 414 512ft (1.31.7m)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
37
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Rosss Goose
Species Anser rossii
light gray
crown
black wing
tips
ADULT
(WHITE)
round head
short,
triangular
bill
dusky line
through eye
gray wash on
upperparts
short,
deeply
furrowed
neck
IMMATURE
(WHITE FORM)
IN FLIGHT
clean white
upperparts
mostly dark
brown upperparts
white
rump
and tail
ADULT (BLUE FORM)

ADULT
(WHITE FORM)
reddish pink
legs
FLIGHT: strong and direct, with rapid
wing beats.
his diminutive white goose is not much

bigger than a Mallard, and half the weight of a
Snow Goose; like its larger relative, it also has a blue form.
About 95 percent of Rosss Geese nest at a single sanctuary
in Arctic Canada, the rest breed along Hudson Bay and at several
island locations. Hunting reduced the population to just 6,000 in
the early 1950s, but the species has rebounded substantially,
becoming more common along the East Coast as numbers increase.
VOICE Call a keek keek keeek, higher-pitched than Snow Goose;
also a harsh, low kork or kowk; quiet when feeding.
NESTING Plant materials placed on ground, usually in colonies
with Lesser Snow Geese; 35 eggs; 1 brood; JuneAugust.
FEEDING Grazes on grasses, sedges, and small grains.
TRAVELING IN FAMILIES
Groups migrate thousands of miles together, for

example from northern Canada to central California.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SNOW GOOSE
white form;
see p.37
larger SNOW GOOSE

bill
blue form;
see p.37 longer
longer
neck
neck
Breeding grounds are

amidst tundra in scattered,
High Arctic locations. Main
wintering areas in California.
On the wintering grounds,
it feeds in agricultural fields,
and also grasslands. Roosts
overnight in several types
of wetlands.
black
patch
on bill
pink legs
Length 221225in (57 64cm)
Wingspan 314ft (1.1m)
Weight 134 412lb (0.85 2kg)
Social Flocks
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
38
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Canada Goose
plain grayish brown
wings with darker
flight feathers
grayish brown
upperparts
and sides
Species Branta canadensis
black head
very
long
neck
broad white
chin strap
ADULT
white
U-shaped
patch on
rump
paler upper
breast
IN FLIGHT
white
undertail
feathers
smaller, white
chin strap
ADULT
dark brown overall

ADULT
he Canada Goose is the most common, widespread, and

familiar goose in North America. Given its vast range, it
is not surprising that the Canada Goose should have much
geographic variation. Twelve subspecies have been recognized.
With the exception of the Cackling Goose, which has recently
been separated, it is difficult to confuse it, with its distinctive
white chin strap, black head and neck, and grayish brown body,
with any other species of goose. It is a monogamous species, and
once pairs are formed, they stay together for life.
VOICE Male call a honk or bark; females have higher pitched hrink.
NESTING Scrape lined with available plant matter and down,
near water; 12 broods; 212 eggs; MayAugust.
FEEDING Grazes on grasses, sedges, leaves, seeds, agricultural
crops and berries; also insects.
FLIGHT: strong and direct with fairly slow,
deep wing beats; often flies in V-formation.
TRICK OF THE LIGHT
A low sun can play tricksthese birds are

actually pale grayish underneath.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREATER WHITEFRONTED GOOSE
see p.36
Variety of inland breeding

habitats near water, including
grassy urban areas, marshes,
prairie, parkland, coastal
temperate forest, northern
coniferous forest, and Arctic
tundra. Winters in agricultural
fields, mudflats, saltwater
marshes, lakes, and rivers.
white on base CACKLING GOOSE

see p.40
of pink bill
steep
forehead
smaller
overall
bright
orange
legs
Length 214 312ft (0.71.1m)
Wingspan 414512ft (1.31.7m)
Weight 6 12934lb (3 4.4kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
39
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Branta hutchinsii

dark
brown
breast
Cackling Goose
plain grayish
brown wings
broad, white
neck ring
ADULT
black line
separates white
chin strap
small, black
head
ADULT
B. h. minima
small
stubby
bill
darker breast
white
U-shaped
patch on
rump
IN FLIGHT
white
chin
strap
ADULT
B. h. leucopareia
no black
under
chin
black tail
pale
breast
ADULT
B. h. hutchinsii
he Cackling Goose has recently been split from the Canada

Goose; it can be distinguished from the latter by its short
stubby bill, steep forehead, and short neck. There are four
subspecies of Cackling Goose, which vary in breast color,
ranging from dark in C. h. minima, fairly dark in C. h. leucopareia,
and pale in C. h. hutchinsii. The Cackling Goose is much smaller
than all subspecies of Canada Goose, except the lesser Canada
Goose, which has a longer neck and a less sloped forehead.
VOICE Male call a honk or bark; females have higher pitched
hrink; also high-pitched yelps.
NESTING Scrape lined with available plant matter and down;
28 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Consumes plants in summer; in winter, grazes on
grass livestock and dairy pastures; also in agricultural fields.
FLIGHT: strong with rapid wing beats; flies in
bunched Vformations.
LITTLE GEESE
Cackling Geese are tiny when seen together with

the larger Canada Goose.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CANADA GOOSE
see p.39
larger overall
(except one
subspecies)
more
sloped
forehead
BRANT
see p.41
barred
flanks
At the northernmost fringe

of the Canada Gooses range,
in the tundra, it breeds on
rocky tundra slopes from the
Aleutians east to Baffin Island
and Hudson Bay. Winters from
British Columbia to California,
also central US, Texas, and
New Mexico in pastures
and agricultural fields.
black
neck
pale
belly
Weight 2 612lb (0.93kg)
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
40
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Branta bernicla
Brant
pale bars
across wings
ADULT
(WESTERN)
ADULT
(EASTERN)
white
rump
black neck
and head
small, white
necklace not
crossing throat
weakly
barred
flanks
IN FLIGHT
dark gray-brown
upperparts
grayish white
flank patch
necklace
crosses throat
black neck
stops
abruptly
at breast
pale
belly
black chest
bold, barred
flanks
B. b. hrota
(EASTERN)
ADULT B. b. nigricans (WESTERN)
small-billed, dark, stocky sea goose, the Brant winters on

both the east and west coasts of North America. There
are two subspecies in the US (three overall)the pale-bellied
Atlantic Brant (B. b. hrota), found in the east, and the darker
black Brant (B. b. nigricans), in the west. In addition, there is an
intermediate gray-bellied form that winters in the Puget Sound
region along the Washington State coast. Unlike other North
American geese, the Brant feeds mainly on eelgrass in winter.
VOICE Nasal cruk, harsh-sounding in tone; rolling series of cut
cut cut cronk, with an upward inflection at end.
NESTING Scrape lined with grass, plant matter, and down on
islands or gravel spits; 35 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats grass and sedges when nesting; eelgrass in winter;
also green algae, salt marsh plants, and mollusks.
FLIGHT: rapid and strong; low, irregular
flight formations.
GRASSY MEAL
In winter, Brants forage almost exclusively on

eelgrass between the high and low tide marks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
see p.39
see p.37
pale wing
feathers
Breeds in colonies in northern

Canada and Alaska, and
winters along both Pacific and
Atlantic coasts. The western
breeding population of the
Brant (black) winters from
the Aleutian Islands to northern
Mexico, while the pale-bellied
form (Atlantic) is restricted
in range to the East Coast.
CANADA GOOSE
SNOW GOOSE
(BLUE FORM) 4
darker
underparts
broad, white
chin strap
browner
coloration
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
41
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Cygnus olor

small
knob
on bill
Mute Swan
extended
neck
ADULT
blackbased
dusky bill
swollen
knob
during
breeding
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
long, pointed
tail extends
past toes
blotchy brown
body
JUVENILE
MALE
conspicuous
black knob
at base of
orange bill
white
overall
long,
S-shaped neck
often arches
wings over
back
ADULT
large,
heavy body
ne of the heaviest birds in North America, the Mute Swan

was introduced from Europe because of its graceful
appearance on water, if not on land, and easy domestication.
However, this is an extremely territorial and aggressive bird.
When threatened, it points its bill downwards, arches its wings,
hisses, and then attacks. Displacement of native waterfowl species
and overgrazing by this species have led to efforts to reduce
its numbers in North America.
VOICE Not mute; hisses, grunts, snorts, and snores; during
courtship, trumpets, although more quietly than other swans.
NESTING Platform nest of plant materials, built on ground
near water; 48 eggs; 12 broods; MarchOctober.
FEEDING Dabbles, dips, and upends, mainly for underwater
plants, but occasionally for small creatures too.
FLIGHT: strong, steady wing beats; creating
a distinctive whirring and throbbing sound.
FORMATION FLYING
Groups of Mute Swans will sometimes fly in

a line, and at other times, as here, they will
arrange themselves in a V formation.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
TRUMPETER SWAN 5
TUNDRA
SWAN 5
see p.444
Bulk of population is found

along the Atlantic Coast from
Maine to North Carolina;
smaller populations around
the Great Lakes and southern
British Columbia. Breeds and
lives year-round on sluggish
rivers, ponds, or lakes,
preferring still water with
emergent vegetation.
pink at
much smaller; base of bill

see p.43
larger
head
straighter,
black bill
gray plumage
straighter
neck
Length 4 5ft (1.21.5m)
Wingspan 612 7ft (22.3m)
Weight 1232lb (5.5 14.5kg)
Social Pairs/Family groups
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
42
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Cygnus columbianus

eye stands out
from face at
close range
Tundra Swan
yellow
facial skin
next to eye
ADULT
dull grayish
body
small head
and bill
dark
legs
dirty
pink bill
large
yellow
bill patch
fairly thick
neck
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
all-white
plumage
BEWICKS SWAN
ADULT
esting in the Arctic tundra, this well-named species

is North Americas most widespread and smallest swan.
Two populations exist, with one wintering in the West, and
the other along the East Coast. The Tundra Swan can be
confused with the Trumpeter Swan, but their different
calls immediately distinguish the two species. When they are
silent, weight and bill structure are the best way to tell them
apart. In Eurasia, this species is known as Bewicks Swan and
possesses a larger yellow patch at the base of its bill.
VOICE Clear, high-pitched yodelling whoo-hooo calls mixed
with garbles, yelping, and barking sounds.
NESTING Mound-shaped nest made of plant matter near water;
36 eggs; 1 brood; MaySeptember.
FEEDING Eats aquatic vegetation, insects, mollusks; also grain.
FLIGHT: flight pattern like that of other swans
but with slightly faster wing beats.
WINTER FLOCKS
Its size, white plumage, and flocking habits make

the Tundra Swan a conspicuous species.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MUTE SWAN 5
TRUMPETER SWAN
see p.42
pointed
tail
Nests around lakes and pools

in northern tundra from the
Aleutians to the Yukon, and
east to northwest Qubec.
Winters in southern British
Columbia, western US, and
mid-Atlantic states, mostly
New Jersey to south Carolina.
Winter habitat includes shallow
coastal bays, ponds, and lakes.
see p.444
heavier
bodied
more
curved
neck
all-black bill
straighter
edge from
eye to bill
Length 45ft (1.21.5m)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
43
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Aix sponsa
Wood Duck
brown
eye
subdued
facial pattern
blue wing patch
bold, tear-shaped
eye-ring
long wings
smaller
crest
MALE
head held
high
IN FLIGHT
grayish
bill
IMMATURE
brownish
breast
white-edged
feathers
red eye
complex,
white facial
markings
helmet-like
head profile
FEMALE
burgundy
flanks
black tip
of bill
white-flecked
maroon breast
appears black
at a distance
long,
dark tail
MALE
white, vertical
breast stripe
he male Wood Duck is perhaps the most striking of all North

American ducks.With its bright plumage, red eye and bill, and
its long sleek crest that gives its head a helmet-shaped profile, the
male is unmistakable. It is related to the Mandarin Duck of Asia.
The Wood Duck is very dependent on mature swampy forestland.
It is typically found on swamps, shallow lakes, ponds, and park
settings that are surrounded by trees. Although it adapts
to human activity, it is quite shy. When swimming, the Wood Duck
can be seen jerking its head front to back. Of all waterfowl, this
is the only species that regularly raises two broods each season.
VOICE Male gives a wheezy upslurred whistle zweeet; females
call a double-note, rising oh-eek oh-eek.
NESTING Nests in natural tree cavities or nest boxes in close
proximity to water; 1013 eggs; 2 broods; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Forages for seeds, tree fruits, and small acorns; also
spiders, insects, and crustaceans.
FLIGHT: rapid flight with deep wing beats;
flies with head up; leaps straight off the water.
PLAIN BELLY
Wings raised, a male reveals one of the only plain

areas of its plumageits pale belly and underwing.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BUFFLEHEAD 1
see p.66
Usually found throughout the

year, along rivers, streams, and
creeks, in swamps, and marshy
areas. Has a preference for
permanent bodies of water. If
good aquatic feeding areas are
unavailable, the Wood Duck
feeds in open areas, including
agricultural fields.
HOODED MERGANSER 1
white on
cheek
narrower wings;
see p.69
long, tan
crest
shorter
neck
no eyering
shorter tail
Length 1812 2112in (4754cm)
Wingspan 26 29in (66 73cm)
Weight 16 30oz (450 850g)
Social Small flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
44
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Anas strepera
Gadwall
brown,
scalloped back
conspicuous
white patch
mostly
white
underwings
silvery gray
area
white
belly
rusty
sides
white wing
patch
MALE
(WINTER)
dark eyestripe
FEMALE
brown,
rounded head
MALE (ECLIPSE)
IN FLIGHT
dark grayish
overall
black bill
black
uppertail
MALE
(WINTER)
finely patterned
gray flanks
and breast
orangeyellow legs
lthough the Gadwalls appearance is somewhat somber, many

birders consider this duck one of North Americas most
elegant species because of the subtlety of its plumage. Despite
being common and widespread, Gadwalls are often overlooked
because of their retiring behavior and relatively quiet vocalizations.
This dabbling duck is slightly smaller and more delicate than the
Mallard, yet female Gadwalls are often mistaken for female Mallards.
Gadwalls associate with other species, especially in winter.
VOICE Low, raspy meep or reb given in quick succession; female
quack similar to that of female Mallard, but higher-pitched and
more nasal; high-pitched peep, or pe-peep; both sexes give ticketytickety-tickety chatter while feeding.
NESTING Bowl nest made of plant material in a scrape;
812 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Dabbles on the surface or below for seeds, aquatic
vegetation, and invertebrates, including mollusks and insects.
FLIGHT: direct flight with fast wing beats;
leaps straight off the water.
BROOD ON THE MOVE
Females lead their ducklings from their nest to

a brood-rearing habitat that provides cover and
ample food for the ducklings to forage.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MALLARD 1
see p.48
darker
eye-line
From the western prairie

pothole country of Canada and
the northern US, the Gadwalls
range has expanded as it has
adapted to man-made bodies
of water, such as reservoirs
and ponds. In winter, mostly
found on lakes, marshes, and
along rivers.
MOTTLED DUCK 1
see p.49
olive to
yellow bill
thicker,
longer bill
bufer
face
whitish tail
Length 18 2212in (46 57cm)
Weight 18 45oz (500 1,250g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
45
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
American Wigeon
MALE (BREEDING)
white
underwing
patch
IN FLIGHT
long,
pointed
tail
rufous-edged
wing feathers
Species Anas americana
gray head
dark smudge
around eye
narrow, black
line along bill
gray head
contrasts with
pinkish brown
breast and flanks
warm brown
breast and
flanks
FEMALE
cream
forehead
and crown
green band
from eye to
nape
MALE
(BREEDING)
blacktipped bill
black
rump
pinkish brown
flanks
ften found in mixed flocks with other ducks, the American

Wigeon is a common and widespread, medium-sized
dabbling duck. This bird is an opportunist that loiters around
other diving ducks and coots, feeding on the vegetation they
dislodge. It is more social during migration and in the
nonbreeding season than when breeding.
VOICE Slow and fast whistles; males most common call a slow,
high-pitched, wheezy, three-syllable whew-whew-whew, with
middle note loudest; also, a faster whee whistle.
NESTING Depression lined with plant material and down,
usually in tall grass away from water;
FEEDING Grazes on grass, clover,
algae, and, in agricultural fields;
feeds on many seeds, insects,
mollusks, and crustaceans during
the breeding season.
FLIGHT: rapid, fairly deep wing beats; leaps
almost vertically off the water.
COMING IN FOR LANDING
This males cream-colored forehead is clearly

visible, as is the sharp contrast between the
white belly, and the pinkish breast and flanks.
FLAPPING WINGS
This bird has a white patch on its underwing,

while the Eurasian Wigeon has a gray patch.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GADWALL 1
see p.45
white
patch
The northernmost breeder

of the dabbling ducks, occurs
from Alaska to the Maritimes.
Prefers pothole and grassland
habitats; found almost
anywhere near water in winter.
Winters south to northern
South America and the
Caribbean, in freshwater
and coastal bay habitats.
GREEN-WINGED
TEAL 2
dark line
through
eye
see p.53
black-andorange bill
longer
bill
green
patch on
wing
Weight 118 3lb (0.51.3kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
46
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Anas rubripes
American Black Duck

rich violet
patch
olive
bill
heavily streaked
head and neck
white
underwing
pale
head
dark cap
narrow, dark
eye-line
MALE
dark IN FLIGHT
tail
FEMALE
cinnamonedged flank
feathers
greenish
yellow
bill
dark body
MALE
he American Black Duck, a large dabbling duck, is closely

related to the Mallard. In the past, the two species were
FLIGHT: fast, shallow, and regular; often flies
separated by different habitat preferencesthe American Black
in groups.
Duck preferring forested locations, and the Mallard favoring
more open habitats. Over the years, these habitats became less distinct as the
East was deforested and trees were planted in the Midwest. As a result, there
are now many hybrids between the two species. It has also been argued that
the introduction of Mallards to various areas in the East has further increased
interbreeding. The American Black Duck breeds throughout a wide area in
the northern part of its range. When breeding, males can be seen chasing away
other males to maintain their territories.
VOICE Males call a reedy raeb, given once or twice; female quack sounds very
similar to Mallard.
NESTING Scrape lined with plant material and down, usually on ground or
DARK PLUMAGE
close to water; 410 eggs; 1 brood; MarchSeptember.
This species is the darkest of
FEEDING An omnivore, the American Black Duck eats plant leaves and stems, all the Mallard-type ducks that
roots, seeds, grains, fruit, aquatic plants, fish, and amphibians.
occur in North America.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MALLARD 1
see p.48
whitish
tail
paler
body
Nests in eastern Canada and

adjacent areas of the US in
a variety of habitats including
northerly and mixed hardwood
forest, wooded uplands, bogs,
salt- and freshwater marshes,
and on islands. Resident in
the central part of its range,
but large numbers winter in
saltwater marshes.
MOTTLED DUCK 1
orange see p.49

bill
mottled
brown
upperparts
unstreaked
face
Weight 112312lb (0.7 1.6kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
47
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Mallard
broad-based
wings
dark eye-line
and cap
short,
round,
pale tail
MALE (WINTER)
Species Anas platyrhynchos

oliveyellow
bill
grayer head
orange
bill with
blackish
patch
yellowish
brown back
rusty
MALE (SUMMER) underparts
mottled
brown belly
heavy
body
metallic
green head
FEMALE
FEMALE
blue wing
patch
brown
underparts
bright
yellow
bill
warm gray
body
narrow,
white neck
collar
IN FLIGHT
whitish
outer tail
feathers
short, black
curls above
white tail
chestnutbrown
breast
MALE
(WINTER)
he Mallard is perhaps the most familiar of all ducks, and

occurs in the wild all across the Northern Hemisphere.
It is the ancestor of most domestic ducks, and hybrids between
the wild and domestic forms are frequently seen in city lakes
and ponds, often with patches of white on the breast. Mating
is generally a violent affair, but outside the breeding season
the wild species is strongly migratory and gregarious, sometimes
forming large flocks that may join with other species.
VOICE Males call a quiet raspy raab; during courtship a
high-pitched whistle; female call a quack or repeated in series.
NESTING Scrape lined with plant matter, usually near
water, often on floating vegetation; 615 eggs; 1 brood;
FebruarySeptember.
FEEDING Feeds omnivorously on insects, crustaceans, mollusks,
and earthworms when breeding; otherwise largely vegetarian; takes
seeds, acorns, agricultural crops, aquatic vegetation, and bread.
FLIGHT: fast, shallow, and regular; often
flies in groups.
STICKING TOGETHER
The mother leads her ducklings to water soon

after they hatch. She looks after them until they
can fend for themselves.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GADWALL 1
see p.45
slimmer
body
Occurs throughout the region,

choosing shallow water in
natural wetlands, such as
marshes, prairie potholes,
ponds, and ditches; can
also be found in man-made
habitats such as city parks
and reservoirs, preferring
more open habitats in winter.
AMERICAN BLACK DUCK 1
steeper
forehead
white
wing patch
see p.47
dark
tail
dark
olive
bill
darker
brown
orange
strip on bill overall
Weight 1783lb (0.91.4kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
48
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Anas fulvigula
Mottled Duck
dark
eye-line
iridescent blue-green
wing patch
bright white
underwing
dull green to
orange-yellow bill
unstreaked
face and
throat
paler breast
than male
MALE
duller orange
legs than male
IN FLIGHT
paler edges to dark

body feathers
FEMALE
dark body
no
white
on tail
pale buffy
head and
neck
oliveyellow bill
MALE
orange legs
long with the American Black Duck, the Mottled Duck

belongs to the so-called Mallard complex, in which all three FLIGHT: direct with regular wing beats; flies at
species are closely related and interbreed easily, especially with feral relatively low levels.
or semi-domesticated Mallards.There is concern that
the fertile hybrid ducks produced may dilute the
purity of the Mottled Duck population, and so
eventually displace it.The Mottled Duck is a little
smaller and darker than the similar female Mallard,
and lacks a white edge to the blue wing patch.
VOICE Males give a variety of raspy raab calls;
females quack.
NESTING Bowl-shaped depression constructed in
dense grass; 812 eggs; 1 brood; JanuarySeptember. COLOR CONTRAST
STANDING MALE
FEEDING Dabbles for aquatic vegetation,
The male Mottled Duck has
This male has a cleaner, buffier
crustaceans, mollusks, insects, rice, seeds, and
a yellower bill than the smaller,
face and brighter orange legs
some small fish.
orange-billed female.
than the female Mottled Duck.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GADWALL 1
MALLARD 1
white belly; see p.45

white wing
patch
lighter
upperparts
bold white wing bars;

see p.48
paler
plumage
larger,
thicker
neck
Prefers shallow freshwater

wetlands, breeding on coastal
marshes. This nonmigratory
species has distinct populations
in the Gulf of Mexico between
Alabama and Tamaulipas, and
in central and southern Florida,
though both populations may
stray slightly outside this range
in winter.
black on
orange
bill
Weight 21 46oz (0.61.4kg)
Social Flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
49
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Anas discors
Blue-winged Teal
white facial
crescent
dark grayish
head
powdery blue forewing

with green patch
MALE
(BREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
white facial
crescent
white
underwing
stripe
broken,
contrasting,
white eye-ring
pale eyebrow,
dark cape,
and eye-line
grayish brown
overall
MALE (FALL)
white facial
crescent
pale spot
at base
of bill
black spots
on rich, buffbrown breast
and flanks
long
blackish
bill
FEMALE
rich tan
flanks
black
bill
warmer
brown overall
MALE
(BREEDING)
conspicuous
white patch
his small dabbling duck is a common and widespread North

American breeding species. With a bold white crescent
between bill and eye on its otherwise slate-gray head and neck,
the male Blue-winged Teal is quite distinctive. The Blue-winged
and Cinnamon Teals, together with the Northern Shoveler,
constitute the three blue-winged ducks; this is a feature that
is conspicuous when the birds are flying. The Cinnamon and
the Blue-winged Teals are almost identical genetically and
interbreed to form hybrids. The Blue-winged Teal winters
mostly south of the US and migrates back north in spring.
VOICE Male a high-pitched, raspy peew or low-pitched paay
during courtship; female a loud single quack.
NESTING Bowl-shaped depression lined with grasses, close to
waters edge, in meadows; 6 14 eggs; 1 brood; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Eats seeds of a variety of plants; feeds heavily on
insect larvae, crustaceans, and snails, when breeding.
FLIGHT: fast, twisting flight; flies in compact,
small groups.
OUTSTRETCHED WING
Wing stretch behavior shows the white feathers

between the blue forewing and green speculum.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CINNAMON TEAL 1
GREEN-WINGED TEAL 1
see p.471
see p.53
plain face
warmer
brown
different
wing
pattern
Nests across North America, with

highest numbers in the prairie
and parkland regions of the
midcontinent. Prefers shallow
ponds or marshes during nesting;
freshwater to brackish water
and (less so) saltwater marshes
during migration. In winter,
prefers saline environments,
including mangroves.
smaller, more
compact body
smaller
bill
streaked
rump
Length 1412 16in (37 41cm)
Weight 1118oz (300 500g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
50
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Anas clypeata
Northern Shoveler
dark, narrow eye-line

brown
overall
pale blue
wing patch
grayish blue
wing patch
dusky
olive-gray
to orange
bill
IN FLIGHT
whitish
tail
pale-edged,
brown flank
feathers
long
bill
FEMALE
FEMALE
yellow
eye
heavy fronted
MALE
large, dark
spatulashaped bill
dark green
head
MALE
white
breast
chestnut belly
and flanks
black-andwhite rump
he Northern Shoveler is a common, medium-sized,

dabbling duck found in North America and Eurasia. It is
monogamouspairs remain together longer than any other
dabbler species. Its distinctive long bill is highly specialized; it is
wider at the tip and contains thin, comb-like structures (called
lamellae) along the sides, used to filter food items from the
water. Shovelers often form tight feeding groups, swimming
close together as they sieve the water for prey.
VOICE Male call a nasal, muffled thuk thukthuk thuk; also
a loud, nasal paaaay; female call a variety of quacks, singly or
in a series of 45 descending notes.
NESTING Scrape lined with
plant matter and down, in short
plants, near water; 619 eggs;
1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Forages for seeds;
filters small crustaceans and
mollusks out of the water.
FLIGHT: strong direct flight; males wings
make a rattling noise when taking off.
UPSIDE DOWN FEEDER
This male upends to feed below

the waters surface, revealing
his orange legs.
FILTER FEEDING
Their bills open, these ducks sieve

small invertebrates from the water.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
larger; see p.48
Widespread across North

America, south of the tundra.
Breeds in a variety of wetlands,
in edges of shallow pools
with nearby tall and short
grasslands. Occurs in fresh- and
salt marshes, ponds, and other
shallow bodies of water in
winter; does not feed on land.
CINNAMON TEAL 1
MALLARD 1
slimmer bill
darker blue
wing patch
see p.471
plainer
plumage
plainer
face
longer
tail
Weight 1429oz (400825g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
51
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Anas acuta
Northern Pintail
white, trailing
edge of wing
green wing
patch with
buff bar
MALE
(WINTER)
plain buff
face with
dark eye
FEMALE
mottled graybrown body

outstretched
head and
IN FLIGHT
neck
long, pointed
black tail
gray
bill
dull, grayish body
MALE (SUMMER)
blackish
bill
pale,
chocolatebrown head
whitish
belly
pointed tail
shorter than
male
gray back
and flanks
long
neck
FEMALE
black bill
with gray
sides
MALE
(WINTER)
black undertail
with white
flank patch
white neck
and breast
n elegant, long-necked dabbler, the Northern Pintail has

extremely distinctive marking and a very long tailin fact,
the longest tail to be found on any freshwater duck. One of the
earliest breeders in the year, these ducks begin nesting soon after
the ice thaws. Northern Pintails were once one of the most
abundant prairie breeding ducks. However, in recent decades,
droughts, combined with the reduction of habitat on both their
wintering and breeding grounds, have resulted in a significant
decline in their population.
VOICE Male call a high-pitched rolling prrreep prrreep; lowerpitched wheezy wheeeee, which gets louder then drops off;
female call a quiet, harsh quack or kuk singularly or as short
series; also a loud gaak, often repeated.
NESTING Scrape lined with plant materials and down,
usually in short grass, brush, or even in the open; 312 eggs;
1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Feeds on grains, rice, seeds, aquatic weeds, insect
larvae, crustaceans, and snails.
FLIGHT: fast, direct flight; can be very
acrobatic in the air.
FEEDING TIME
Even when tipping up to feed, these pintails can

be identified by their long, black, pointed tails.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GADWALL 1
see p.45
shorter
tail
orangesided bill
white wing
patch
Widely distributed in North

America; breeding in open
country in shallow wetlands or
meadows in mountainous
forest regions. Found in tidal
wetlands and saltwater
habitats in migration and
winter; dry harvested and
flooded agricultural fields
in autumn and winter.
AMERICAN WIGEON 1
see p.46
darker gray
shorter head
tail
chestnut
breast and anks
Weight 1844oz (5001,250g)
Social Flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
52
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Anas crecca
Green-winged Teal
dark green
ear patch
MALE
greenand-black
patch on
hindwing
IN FLIGHT
rufous
head
horizontal, lacks white

white line vertical bar
on sides
short
neck
small,,
narrow
w,
black bill
gray flanks
blackspotted
breast
A. c. crecca
(EURASIAN: RARE)
darker
face
steeper
forehead
white
vertical
bar
FEMALE
finely detailed
pattern shoulder feathers with weaker face
narrow pale edges
pattern
yellowish
buff
undertail
feathers
MALE
JUVENILE
he Green-winged Teal, the smallest North American dabbling

duck, is slightly smaller than the Blue-winged and Cinnamon
Teals, and lacks their blue wing patch. Its population is increasing,
apparently because it breeds in more pristine habitats, and farther
north, than the prairie ducks.The species has three subspecies,
A. c. crecca (Eurasia), A. c. carolinensis (North America), and A. c. nimia
(Aleutian Islands). Carolinensis males have a conspicuous vertical
white bar, whereas Eurasian crecca males do not.
VOICE Male call a high-pitched, slightly rolling crick crick, similar
to cricket; female a call quiet quack.
NESTING Shallow scrape on ground lined with nearby
vegetation, often placed in dense vegetation near water;
69 eggs; 1 brood; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Eats seeds, aquatic insects, crustaceans, and mollusks
year-round; also feeds in grain fields in winter.
FLIGHT: fast flight; often flying in twisting,
tight groups reminiscent of shorebird flocks.
SINGLE PARENT
The female duck is deserted by her partner during

incubation, so she must provide all parental care.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLUE-WINGED TEAL 1
CINNAMON TEAL 1
larger overall;
see p.50
larger overall; see p.471
different
wing pattern
whitish
spot at
base of bill
Breeds from the central US

northward to Canada and Alaska;
around ponds in forests and
deciduous woodlands. Prefers
shallow vegetated wetlands. In
winter and migration, inland
marshes, sloughs, agricultural
fields, and coastal marshes.
Winters south of the Caribbean
and in southern Mexico.
longer
bill
rich brown
overall
yellowish
legs
Weight 716oz (200 450g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
53
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Aythya valisineria
Canvasback
light gray
forewing
black
rump
and tail
dark with mottled

gray patches
distinct white
eye-ring
MALE
FEMALE
long neck, held

horizontally in
flight
belly appears
white
extended
tear drop
dingy brownish
gray upperparts
and sides
IN FLIGHT
dingy
IMMATURE
brown
underparts
brown
breast
high, peaked
black crown
rich chestnut
head and
neck
bright
red
eye
white to pale gray

back and flanks
black at
both ends
black
breast
MALE
large, elegant, long-billed diving duck, the Canvasback

is a bird of prairie pothole country. Its specialized diet
of aquatic plants has resulted in a smaller population than
other ducks. With legs set toward the rear, it is an accomplished
swimmer and diver, and is rarely seen on land. Weather
conditions and brood parasitism by Redheads determine
how successful the Canvasbacks nesting is from year to year.
VOICE Mostly silent except during courtship when males
make soft cooing noises; females emit a grating krrrrr krrrrrr
krrrrr; females give loud quack when taking off; during winter,
both sexes make soft wheezing series of rrrr rrrr rrrr sounds.
NESTING Platform over water built of woven vegetation;
occasionally on shore; 811 eggs; 1 brood; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Mainly eats aquatic tubers, buds, root stalks, and
shoots, particularly those of wild celery; also eats snails when
preferred plants are unavailable.
FLIGHT: direct strong flight; one of the fastest
ducks; forms V-shaped flocks.
DEEP WATER
Canvasbacks prefer deeper-bodied waters that

support the aquatic vegetation they eat.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
REDHEAD 2
see p.55
Found in potholes, marshes,

and ponds in prairie parkland,
tundra; northerly forests
preferred where their favorite
foods grow. Winters in large
numbers in large bays and
lakes, and deltas, with smaller
numbers scattered across
North America and Mexico.
LESSER SCAUP 2
shorter
gray, blacktipped bill
yellow eye
see p.58
darker
gray on smaller
overall
back
yellow
eye
Length 19 22in (48 56cm)
Wingspan 3135in (79 89cm)
Weight 134312lb (0.8 1.6kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
54
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Aythya americana
Redhead
yellow
eye
dark-gray forewing
dark crown
MALE
brick-red
head
MALE (ECLIPSE)
tawny brown
overall
black breast
white
band
yellow
eye
gray bill
with
black tip
IN FLIGHT
FEMALE
medium-gray
mantle and sides
brick-red upper
neck and head
long blue
bill with
black tip
black rump
black
lower neck
MALE
he Redhead, a medium-sized diving duck belonging to the

Pochard group, is native only to North America. Only
when seen up close is it apparent that the males seemingly
gray upperparts and flanks are actually white, with dense, black,
wavy markings. The Redhead often feeds at night and forages
mostly around dusk and dawn, drifting during the day. It
parasitizes other duck nests more than any other duck species,
particularly those of the Canvasback and even other Redheads.
VOICE Male courtship call a wheezy rising then falling whee
ough, also meow; female call a low, raspy kurr kurr kurr.
NESTING Weaves solid nest over water in dense vegetation such
as cattails, lined with down; 714
eggs; 1 brood; MaySeptember.
FEEDING Omniverous; feeds on
aquatic plants, seeds, tubers, algae,
insects, spiders, fish eggs, snails,
and insect larvae; diet is variable
depending on location.
FLIGHT: direct flight; runs on water prior
to takeoff.
MALE DISPLAY
This male is performing a spectacular courtship

display called a head throw, while remaining
otherwise completely still on the water.
EASY IDENTIFICATION
The long blue bill with a whitish band

and black tip is clearly visible in males.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CANVASBACK 1
see p.54
Breeds in shallow wetlands

across the Great Basin and
Prairie Pothole region, very
densely in certain marsh
habitats. The bulk of the
population winters in coastal
lagoons along the Atlantic
Coast and the Gulf of Mexico.
RING-NECKED DUCK 1
wedge-shaped
black bill
see p.56
peaked head
shape
dark-brown
back
grayish
back
Weight 138 314 lbs (0.61.5kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
55
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Aythya collaris
Ring-necked Duck
tall, peaked head
bold white
eye-ring
dark
forewing
gray bill
with
white and
black tip
dark brown back

white band
on bill
MALE
IN FLIGHT
yellow eye
bold white
underwing
FEMALE
thin chestnut
ring (hard to see)
rounded gray
sides
black
neck
and
breast
MALE
resident of freshwater ponds and lakes, the Ring-necked

Duck is a fairly common medium-sized diving duck. A more
descriptive and suitable name might have been Ring-billed Duck
as the bold white band on the bill tip is easy to see whereas
the thin chestnut ring around the neck can be very difficult
to observe.The tall, pointed head is quite distinctive, peaking
at the rear of the crown.When it sits on the water, this bird
typically holds its head high.
VOICE Male normally silent; female
makes low kerp kerp call.
NESTING Floating nest built in dense
aquatic vegetation, often in marshes;
FEEDING Feeds in water at all times,
either by diving, tipping up, or
UNIQUE BILL
dabbling for aquatic plant tubers and
A white outline around the base
seeds; also eats aquatic invertebrates
of the bill and the white band
such as clams and snails.
on the bill are unique markings.
FLIGHT: strong flier with deep, rapid wing
beats; flight somewhat erratic.
FLAPPING WINGS
Bold white wing linings are apparent when

the Ring-necked Duck flaps its wings.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LESSER SCAUP 2
see p.58
Breeds across Canada, south

of the Arctic zone, in shallow
freshwater marshes and bogs;
sporadically in the western US.
Winters in freshwater and
brackish habitats such as
swamps, lakes, estuaries,
reservoirs, and flooded fields.
Migrants are found in the
Midwest near stands of wild rice.
TUFTED DUCK 2
rounded
head
wavy-patterned
gray mantle
see p.471
crested
tufts
white
sides
Weight 118 2lbs (500900g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
56
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Aythya marila
Greater Scaup
medium to
dark brown
overall
gray forewing
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
broad,
white wing
stripe
IN FLIGHT
gray-brown
sides
JUVENILE
smooth, round,
black head with
purple-green gloss
FEMALE (NONBREEDING)
blue-gray bill,
wider at tip
gray-frosted
shoulder
feathers and
sides
wavy-patterned
gray back
FEMALE (BREEDING)
gray-andbrown back
MALE (BREEDING)
great swimmer and diver, the Greater Scaup is the only diving
duck (genus Aythya) that breeds both in North America and
Eurasia. Due to its more restricted coastal breeding and wintering
habitat preference, it is far less numerous in North America than its
close relative, the Lesser Scaup.The Greater Scaup forms large, often
sexually segregated flocks outside the breeding season. If both scaup
species are present together, they will also segregate within the
flocks according to species. Correct identification is difficult.
VOICE During courtship, male call a soft, fast, wheezy week week
wheew; female gives a series of growled monotone arrrr notes.
NESTING Simple depression lined with grasses and down, nest
sites need to have dense cover of vegetation from previous year;
FEEDING Dives for aquatic plants, seeds, insects, crustaceans,
snails, shrimp, and bivalves.
dark
brown
overall
blackish
brown head
MALE (ECLIPSE)
FLIGHT: strong, fast, and agile; flocks shift and
twist during prolonged flight.
FOND OF FLOCKING
Greater Scaups flock together on the water.

Males have distinct black-and-white markings.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CANVASBACK 2
LESSER SCAUP 2
see p.54
see p.58
chestnut
brown
head
grayer
anks
Majority breed in western coastal

Alaska on tundra wetlands; also
in lower densities in northwest
and eastern Canada. Almost all
birds winter offshore, along the
Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or on
the Great Lakes due to increased
food availability. Small groups
found inland and midcontinent,
on unfrozen water bodies.
slimmer
head
Social Flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
reduced
white
around
bill
bil
almost all
white sides
black
tail
bold
white
patches
at base
of bill
little or no white
around bill
WHERE
NOTES
57
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Aythya affinis
Lesser Scaup
brown
rear end
whitish
underwings
MALE
rich brown
head and
neck
black head
brown back
IN FLIGHT
pale brown
flanks
white patch
around base
of gray bill
whitish
belly
brown flank feathers
with gray fringes
FEMALE
MALE (1ST WINTER)

narrow head
with bump at
the rear
purple-green
gloss on head
narrow,
thin, bluegray bill
dark wavy pattern

on upperparts
black
rear end
black breast
and neck
MALE
pale flanks
he Lesser Scaup, far more numerous than its somewhat larger

relative (their size and weight ranges overlap), is also the most
abundant diving duck in North America.The two species are very
similar in appearance and are best identified by shape. Identification
must be done cautiously as head shape changes with position. For
example, the crown feathers are flattened just before diving in both
species; thus, scaups are best identified when they are not moving.
VOICE Males mostly silent except during courtship when they
make a wheezy wheeow wheeow wheeow sound; females give
repetitive series of grating garrrf garrrf garrrf notes.
NESTING Nest built in tall vegetation or under shrubs,
sometimes far from water, also on islands and mats of floating
vegetation; 811 eggs; 1 brood; MaySeptember.
FEEDING Feeds mainly on leeches, crustaceans, mollusks,
aquatic insects, and aquatic plants and seeds.
FLIGHT: rapid, direct flight; can jump off water
more easily than other diving ducks.
PREENING SCAUP
Ducks are meticulous preeners, and the Lesser

Scaup is no exception.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RING-NECKED DUCK 1
GREATER SCAUP 1
see p.56
see p.57
prominent
white eye-ring
solid dark
back
more tawny
brown
upperparts
Breeds inland from Alaska

to eastern Canada in open
northern forests and
forested tundra. Winters
in the Caribbean, southern US,
and south to northern South
America. Majority winter along
coasts; others winter inland
on lakes and reservoirs.
more white
around bill
Length 1512 1712in (3945cm)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
58
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Somateria spectabilis
King Eider
MALE
(BREEDING)
long-billed
profile
brown-black
upperparts
white
underwing
IN FLIGHT
white patch
on face
scalloped
breast
V-shaped
markings on
sides
short
neck
white
breast
MA E MOLT
MALE
MAL
OLTI
TING
ING
(2ND WINTER)
orange to
reddish
frontal shield,
outlined
in black
FEMALE
pale blue
crown
and nape
green
cheek
long feathers
form triangular
sails
reddish
orange bill
rose blush
on breast
MALE
(BREEDING)
white
flank
patch
black
underparts
he scientific name of the King Eider, spectabilis, means

worth seeing, and its gaudy marking and coloring around
the head and bill make it hard to mistake. Females resemble the
somewhat larger and paler Common Eider. The female King
Eider has a more rounded head, more compact body, and
a longer bill than the male. King Eiders may dive down to
180ft (55m) when foraging.
VOICE Courting males give a repeated series of low, rolled
dove-like arrrrooooo calls, each rising, then falling, followed by
softer cooos; females give grunts and croaks.
NESTING Slight depression in tundra lined with nearby
vegetation and down; 4 7 eggs; 1 brood; June September.
FEEDING Dives for mollusks; other food items include
crustaceans, starfish, and when breeding, insects and plants.
FLIGHT: direct and rapid flight; migrates in
long lines, abreast in a broad front, or in clusters.
GROUP FLIGHT
Migratory King Eiders move in large groups to

their northern breeding habitats.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON
EIDER 1
larger overall;
see p.60
atter
longer, more
wedgeshaped bill
smaller overall;
see p.64
longer,
cocked tail
head
Nests along coasts and farther

inland than Spectacled or
Stellers Eiders in the high
Arctic, in a variety of habitats;
around low marshes, lakes, and
islands; prefers well-drained
areas. During winter, found
mostly along the southern
edge of the ice pack, in coastal
waters up to 66ft (20m) deep.
BLACK SCOTER 1
pale cheek
and dark
cap
Length 1812 25in (47 64cm)
Weight 234 434lb (1.22.1kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
59
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Somateria mollissima
Common Eider
black cap
dark brown
overall
FEMALE
brown
overall
olive-green
wash on nape
MALE (SUMMER)
greenish
olive bill
MALE
(WINTER)
IN FLIGHT
whitish
underwing
black rump
and tail
white
flecking
MALE (2ND WINTER)

white breast,
with rose tinge
long,
sloping
forehead
mottled,
black-and-brown
upperparts
MALE
(WINTER)
FEMALE
he largest duck in
North America, the
Common Eider is also the most numerous, widespread, and
variable of the eiders. Four of its seven subspecies occur in North
America, and vary in the markings and color of their heads and bills.
Male Common Eiders also have considerable seasonal plumage
changes, and do not acquire their adult plumage until the third year.
VOICE Repeated hoarse, grating notes korr-korr-korr; males owllike ah-WOO-ooo; females low, gutteral notes krrrr-krrrr-krrrr.
NESTING Depression on ground lined with down and plant
matter, often near water; 27 eggs; 1 brood; JuneSeptember.
FEEDING Forages in open water and areas of shallow water;
dives in synchronized flocks for mollusks and crustaceans, but
consumes its larger prey above the surface.
FLIGHT: strong flight with relatively slow wing
beats; flies in undulating lines, low over the water.
BROODING FEMALE
Females line their nests with down and cover the

eggs with it when leaving the nest.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
KING EIDER 1
smaller overall;
see p.59
atter
crown
SURF SCOTER 1
see p.62
Arctic breeder, in both New and

Old Worlds, on coastal islands,
peninsulas, seldom along
freshwater lakes and deltas. One
population is sedentary in the
Hudson and James Bays region;
others winter in the Bering Sea,
Hudson Bay, northern British
Columbia, Gulf of St. Lawrence,
and along the Atlantic Coast.
shorter,
wedgeshaped bill
dark brown
overall
thicker
neck
shorter,
more
concave
bill
Length 1912 28in (50 71cm)
Weight 234534lb (1.22.6kg)
Social Flocks/Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
60
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Histrionicus histrionicus
Harlequin Duck
MALE
broad face
with whitish
patches
dark sooty
brown overall
dark wings
above and
below
scaly, pale
brown lower
breast and belly
short neck
FEMALE
pointed IN FLIGHT
tail
slate-blue
with bright
rusty sides
two white bands

perpendicular to
breast and neck
white bands down

either side of back
two white
facial spots
rust crown very round

stripes
head
steep
forehead
small
dark
bill
white
crescent
MALE
E
his small, hardy duck is a superbly skillful swimmer, diving

to forage on the bottom of turbulent streams for its favorite
insect prey. Despite the males unmistakable plumage at close
range, it looks very dark from a distance. With head and long
tail held high, in winter it can be found among crashing waves,
alongside larger and bigger-billed Surf and White-winged
Scoters, who feed in the same habitat.
VOICE Male a high-pitched squeak earning it the nickname
sea mice; females call a raspy ekekekekekek.
NESTING Nests near water under
vegetation or base of tree; also tree cavities;
FEEDING Dives for insects and their larvae,
and fish roe when breeding; in winter, eats
mollusks, crustaceans, crabs, snails, fish roe,
and barnacles.
FLIGHT: rapid and regular wing beats; usually
flies low over water, in pairs or small groups.
see p.62
large,
BUFFLEHEAD 1
triangular bill see p.66
atter
head
PAIR IN FLIGHT
Note the crisp white markings

on the slate-blue male in flight.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SURF SCOTER 1
MALE GROUPS
After the breeding season,

many males may gather and
forage together.
Breeds near rushing coastal

and mountain streams. During
winter, found in small groups or
mixed in with other sea ducks
close to the shore, particularly
along shallow rocky shorelines,
jetties, rocky beaches, and
headlands. Eastern populations
have a restricted range. Also
breeds in Iceland.
larger
head
oblong patch
on cheek
elongated
body
Weight 1826oz (500750g)
Social Small flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
61
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Melanitta perspicillata
Surf Scoter
MALE
whitish
facial
patches
black wings
overall
black
forehead
small white
patch on
nape
all-dark
bill
dark brown
overall
IMM
MATU
URE MALE
(2ND WINTER)
IN FLIGHT
white
eye
compact
body
white forehead
FEMALE
velvety black
feathers
large, black
spot on bill
white
nape
swollen,
orange bill
with white
base
long tail
feathers
MALE
MAL
urf Scoters, one of three species of scoters living in North

America, migrate up and down both coasts, often with the
other species. They take their name from the way they dive for
mollusks on the sea floor, in shallow coastal waters, through
heavy surf. Groups often dive and resurface in unison. Black and
Surf Scoters can be difficult to tell apart as both have all-black
wings. The underside of the Surf Scoters wings are uniform
black, wheras the Black Scoter has gray flight feathers, which
contrast with the black underwing feathers.
VOICE Normally silent; courting males variety of calls includes
liquid gurgled puk-puk, bubbled whistles, and low croaks; female
call a harsh crahh, reminiscent of a crow.
NESTING Ground nest lined with down and vegetation on
brushy tundra, often under low branches of a conifer tree;
FEEDING Dives for mollusks and other aquatic invertebrates.
FLIGHT: strong wing beats; flies in bunched up
groups; males wings hum or whistle in flight.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES
The white forehead and bright orange bill,

in addition to the red-orange legs and toes,
identify male Surf Scoters.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREATER SCAUP 1
see p.57
no white
patches
on cheek
Nests on lake islands in forested

regions of interior Alaska and
northern Canada. Nonbreeders
in summer and adults in
winter are strictly coastal, with
numbers decreasing from north
to south along the Pacific coast.
In the East, most overwinter in
the mid-Atlantic coast region.
WHITE-WINGED SCOTER 1
see p.63
thinner
bill
long, sloping
forehead
longer
bill
Length 19 231 2in (48 60cm)
Weight 134234lb (0.8 1.2kg)
Social Flocks/Pairs
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
62
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Melanitta fusca
White-winged Scoter
long, sloping
head
blackish
bill
white wing patch
ADULT
IMMATURE FEMALE
appears allblack in flight
dark brown
overall
two distinct
pale patches
on face
black
knob at
base of
bill
feathers extend
onto the bill
upturned white
comma around
white eye
IN FLIGHT
FEMALE
pinkish red
to yelloworange bill
all black with

brownish
sides
MALE
he White-winged Scoter is the largest of the three scoters.

When visible, the white wing patch makes identification
easy. Females are quite similar to immature male and female
Surf Scoters and can be identified by head shape, extent of bill
feathering, and shape of white areas on the face. When diving,
this scoter leaps forward and up, arching its neck, and opens its
wings when entering the water. Underwater, White-winged
Scoters open their wings to propel and stabilize themselves.
VOICE Mostly silent; courting males emit a whistling note;
female call a growly karr.
NESTING Depression lined with twigs and down in
dense thickets, often far from water; 89 eggs; 1 brood;
JuneSeptember.
FEEDING Dives for mollusks and crustaceans; sometimes eats
fish and aquatic plants.
FLIGHT: direct with rapid wing beats; flies low
over the water in small groups.
WHITE FLASH IN FLIGHT
Scoters often migrate or feed in mixed flocks.

The white wing patches are striking in flight.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SURF SCOTER 2
BLACK SCOTER 2
see p.62
see p.64
white
forehead
white
nape
Majority breed in dense

colonies in interior Alaska
and western Canada on large
freshwater or brackish lakes or
ponds, sometimes on saltwater
lakes. Winters along both
coasts, large bays, inlets, and
estuaries. Rarely winters inland,
except on the Great Lakes.
yelloworange
knob
black
overall
Weight 234 434lb (0.91.9kg)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
63
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Melanitta nigra
Black Scoter
dark cap
black bill with small
yellow patch
pale brownish
gray cheeks
pale, silvery gray

flight feathers
smaller
bill
black lining on
underwings
dark brown
overall
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
dark
brown
eye
FEMALE
entirely black,
heavily built body
conspicuous
yellow-orange
knob on black bill
MALE
lack Scoters, the most vocal of the scoters, are medium-sized

sea ducks that winter along both coasts of North America.
Riding high on the waves, they form dense flocks, often
segregated by gender. While swimming, the Black Scoter
sometimes flaps its wings and while doing so drops its neck low
down, unlike the other two scoters. This scoter breeds in two
widely separated sub-Arctic breeding areas and is one of the
least studied ducks in North America. The Eurasian subspecies,
known as the Common Scoter, has much less orange on its bill
with a smaller knob at the base.
VOICE Male call a high-whistled peeew; female a low raspy kraaa.
NESTING Depression lined with grass and down, often in tall
grass on tundra; 510 eggs; 1 brood; MaySeptember.
FEEDING Dives in saltwater for mollusks, crustaceans, and plant
matter; feeds on aquatic insects and freshwater mussels.
FLIGHT: strong wing beats; males wings make
whistling sound during takeoff.
YELLOW BILL
Male Black Scoters are distinctive with their black

plumage and yellow bill-knob.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SURF SCOTER 1
WHITE-WINGED SCOTER 1
see p.62
see p.63
atter
crown
two whitish
patches
larger
bill
more sloping
head
Breeding habitat is somewhat

varied, but is generally close
to fairly shallow, small lakes.
Winters along both coasts.
Populations wintering farther
north prefer water over cobbles,
gravel, or offshore ledges,
whereas in southern locations,
sandier habitats are chosen.
longer
bill
Weight 134234lb (0.8 1.2kg)
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
64
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Long-tailed Duck
MALE
(WINTER)
mostly dark brown back,

flanks, head, and breast
Species Clangula hyemalis

smudgy face pattern
small,
dark bill
JUVENILE (WINTER)
chunky
body
blackish head,
neck, and breast
IN FLIGHT
FEMALE (SUMMER)
MALE (SUMMER)
dark back
brown
breastband
FEMALE
(WINTER)
short tail
gray
face
whitish
underparts
FEMALE (WINTER)
all-dark
wings
white
eye-ring
white head
large, brown
spot on side
of head
white shoulder
feathers
pinkish
band
on bill
long
dark tail
black
breastband
MALE (WINTER)
he Long-tailed Duck, which used to be called the Oldsquaw,

is a small, compact sea duck. The male has two extremely
long tail feathers, which are often held up in the air like
a pennant. The males loud calls are quite musical, and, when
heard from a flock, have a chorus-like quality, hence the name
Clangula, which is Latin for loud. The Long-tailed Duck is
capable of diving for a prolonged period of time, and can reach
depths of 200ft (60m), making it one of the deepest diving ducks.
Its three-part molt is more complex than that of other ducks.
VOICE Male call a ang-ang-eeeooo with yodelling quality; female
barking urk or uk alarm call.
NESTING Shallow depression in ground lined with plant matter;
FEEDING Dives to bottom of freshwater or saltwater habitats
for mollusks, crustaceans, insects, fish, and roe.
FLIGHT: flies low over the water, somewhat
erratically, with fast, fluttering wing beats.
UNMISTAKABLE MALE
In winter, dark wings, a white body with black breastband, and a long tail make this male unmistakable.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BUFFLEHEAD 1
BLACK GUILLEMOT 7
see p.66
see p.221
white
wing
patch
white
cheek
patch
Breeds in Arctic and sub-Arctic,

nesting in small groups on
islands and peninsulas on lakes,
less commonly on tundra and
freshwater ponds on islands.
Winters mostly along rocky
coasts and headlands,
protected bays, or on
large freshwater lakes.
pale
rump
white wing patches
Weight 1839oz (500 1,100g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
65
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Bufflehead
Species Bucephala albeola
dark brown
head
oval, white
cheek patch
black-and-white
outer wings
dark, unmarked
back
MALE
gray underwings
with white patch
pinkish
orange
legs
all-dark
wings
grayish brown
sides
IN FLIGHT
front part of head

and neck has
iridescent greenand-purple gloss
FEMALE
angled
forehead
large, triangular,
white patch
on head
small,
narrow,
gray bill
black back
white breast
and flanks
MALE
he smallest diving duck in North America, the Bufflehead is

a close relative of the Common and Barrows Goldeneyes.
Males make a bold statement with their striking head pattern. In
flight, males resemble the larger Common Goldeneye, yet the
large white area on their head makes them easy to distinguish.
The Common Goldeneyes wings create a whirring sound in
flight whereas the Buffleheads do not. The northern limit of the
Buffleheads breeding range corresponds to that of the Northern
Flicker, as the ducks usually nest in abandoned Flicker cavities.
VOICE Male a low growl or squeal; chattering during breeding;
female mostly silent except during courtship or calling to chicks.
NESTING Cavity nester, no nesting material added, near water;
FEEDING Dives for aquatic invertebrates: usually insects in
freshwater, mollusks and crustaceans in saltwater; also eats seeds.
FLIGHT: very rapid wing beats; no flight
sound, unlike Goldeneyes.
IMMEDIATE TAKE OFF
Unlike other diving ducks, the small, compact

Bufflehead can take off almost vertically.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HOODED MERGANSER 2
RUDDY DUCK 27
see p.69
see p.72
smaller, with
white cheek
patch
dark cap
Breeds in forest from Alaska to

eastern Canada, in woodlands
near small lakes and permanent
ponds, where young are raised.
Winters largely along the
Pacific and Atlantic Coasts with
lower densities scattered across
the continent, south to northern
Mexico, and in Bermuda.
longer
bill
larger size
Length 1212 1512 in (3239cm)
Weight 1018oz (275500g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
66
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Bucephala clangula
Common Goldeneye
white patches on
flanks and wings
white wing patch

with two bars
FEMALE
mostly white
inner wing
warm brown
head
IMMATURE MALE
(1ST WINTER)
white
collar
MALE
(WINTER)
IN FLIGHT
bright
yellow eye
large,
round
white spot
FEMALE
iridescent
green
head
dusky
underwing
extensive white
shoulder feathers
MALE
(WINTER)
ommon Goldeneyes closely resemble Barrows Goldeneyes.

Found in North America and Eurasia, this is a mediumsized, compact diving duck. It is aggressive and very competitive
with members of its own species, as well as other cavity-nesting
ducks. It regularly lays eggs in the nests of other speciesa behavior
that is almost parasitic. Before diving, the Common Goldeneye
flattens its feathers in preparation for underwater foraging. The
females head shape changes according to her posture.
VOICE Courting males make a faint peent call; females a harsh
gack or repeated cuk calls.
NESTING Cavity nester in holes made by other birds, including
Pileated Woodpeckers, in broken branches or hollow trees; also
commonly uses nest boxes; 413 eggs; 1 brood; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Dives during breeding season for insects; in winter,
mollusks and crustaceans; sometimes eats fish and plant matter.
FLIGHT: rapid with fast wing beats; males
wings make a tinkling sound in flight.
MALE TAKING OFF
Quite a long takeoff, involving energetically

running on the water, leaves a trail of spray.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BUFFLEHEAD 1
BARROWS GOLDENEYE 2
see p.66
see p.68
white oval
patch
smaller behind eye
overall
Breeds along wetlands, lakes, and

rivers with clear water in northern
forests, where large trees provide
appropriate nest cavities. Winters
across continent, with highest
densities located from north New
England to the mid-Atlantic on
coastal bays and in the West
from coastal southeast Alaska
to British Columbia.
smaller bill
large crescent
on face
Length 1512 20in (40 51cm)
Weight 19 44oz (550 1,300g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
67
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Bucephala islandica
Barrows Goldeneye
darker brown
head
steep forehead
narrow, white
wing patch
white wing
patch
MALE
small, yellow
bill
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
dark
underwings
black head with

purple gloss
sloping
crown
grayish brown
wing feathers
IN FLIGHT
white
neck
white
piano key
markings
on sides
IMMATURE MALE
(1ST WINTER)
bold, white
facial
crescent
MALE
arrows Goldeneye is a slightly larger, darker version of the

Common Goldeneye. Although the female can be identified
by her different head structure, her bill color varies seasonally
and geographically. Eastern Barrows have blacker bills with less
yellow, and western populations have entirely yellow bills, which
darken in summer. During the breeding season, the majority of
Barrows Goldeneyes are found in mountainous regions of
northwestern North America.
VOICE Males normally silent; courting males grunt ka-KAA;
females cuc call, slightly higher pitched than Common Goldeneye.
NESTING Tree cavity in holes formed by Pileated Woodpeckers,
often broken limbs or hollow trees; also uses nest boxes;
FEEDING Dives in summer for insects, some fish, and roe; in
winter, mainly mollusks and crustaceans; some plant matter.
FLIGHT: rapid flight with fast, deep wing
beats; flies near water surface on short flights.
COURTING DISPLAY
A male thrusts his head back and gives a guttural

call. His feet then kick back, driving him forward.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREATER SCAUP 1
COMMON GOLDENEYE 1
browner overall;
see p.57
see p.67
longer
neck
white
patch
Winters along the Pacific Coast

between southeast Alaska
and Washington, with small
populations in eastern Canada.
Smaller numbers found inland
from the lower Colorado River
to Yellowstone National Park.
Eastern population is localized
in winter with the highest
count in St. Lawrence estuary.
more
triangular
warmer
head
brown head
Weight 17 46oz (475 1,300g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
68
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Lophodytes cucullatus
Hooded Merganser
triangular-shaped
wings
black-andwhite inner
wing patch
brownish
buff eye
reddish-tinged
crest (folded)
brownish
gray flanks
striking
yellow eye
yellowbased, thin,
black bill
MALE (BREEDING)
long IN FLIGHT
tail
MALE (ECLIPSE)
FEMALE
crested black-andwhite head (crest

not raised)
longish tail,
often raised
small, graybrown crest

(raised)
yellow eye
thin, black,
serrated bill
black back
white
breast
MALE
(BREEDING)
warm brown
flanks
bold vertical
bars
his dapper, miniature fish-eater is the smallest of the three

mergansers. Both male and female Hooded Mergansers
have crests that they can raise or flatten. When the male raises
his crest, the thin horizontal white stripe turns into a gorgeous
white fan, surrounded by black. Although easily identified when
swimming, the Hooded Merganser and the Wood Duck can be
confused when seen in flight since they both are fairly small
with bushy heads and long tails.
VOICE Normally silent; during courtship, males produce a low,
growly, descending pah-hwaaaaa, reminiscent of a frog; females
give a soft rrrep.
NESTING Cavity nester; nest lined with down feathers in a tree
or box close to or over water; 615 eggs; 1 brood; FebruaryJune.
FEEDING Dives for fish, aquatic insects, and crayfish, preferably
in clear and shallow fresh waters, but also in brackish waters.
FLIGHT: low, fast, and direct; shallow wing
beats; quiet whirring noise produced by wings.
FANHEAD SPECTACULAR
The males magnificent black-and-white fan of a

crest is like a beacon in the late afternoon light.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WOOD DUCK 1
see p.44
bold,
RED-BREASTED
white
MERGANSER 1
eye-ring see p.71
steel gray-andwhite plumage
Prefers forested small ponds,

marshes, or slow-moving
streams during the breeding
season. During winter, occurs
in shallow water in both
fresh- and saltwater bays,
estuaries, rivers, streams,
ponds, freshwater marshes,
and flooded sloughs.
rustier
head with
ragged
crest
blue
wing
patch
Length 1512 1912in (40 49cm)
Weight 1631oz (450 875g)
Social Small flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
69
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Mergus merganser
Common Merganser
dark outer
wing
gray-and-white
inner wing
bright, rusty
brown head
reddish
brown head
black-tipped
red bill
silver-gray
upperparts
small white
spot above eye
short, ragged
crest
FEMALE
thin, black bar

JUVENILE
FEMALE
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
gray
rump
and tail
iridescent blackish
green head
black head
all-white or
tinged pink
underparts
IN FLIGHT
black
center
black eye
reddish orange
hooked bill
long nape
feathers
serrated
sides on bill
MALE
(BREEDING)
white breast
and underparts
he largest of the three merganser species in North America,

the Common Merganser is called a Goosander in the UK.
This large fish-eater is common and widespread, particularly in
the northern portion of its range. It is often found in big flocks
on lakes or smaller groups along rivers. It spends most of its
time on the water, using its serrated bill to catch fish underwater.
VOICE Mostly silent, except when alarmed or during courtship;
females give a low-pitched harsh karr or gruk, the latter also given
in series; during courtship, males emit a high-pitched, bell-like
note and other twangy notes; alarm call a hoarse grrr or wak.
NESTING Cavity nester sometimes high in trees; uses nest boxes,
nests on ground; 617 eggs; 1 brood; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Eats mostly fish (especially fond of trout and salmon,
but also carp and catfish), aquatic invertebrates, frogs, small
mammals, birds, and plants.
FLIGHT: fast with shallow wing beats; often
flying low over the water.
FEEDING ON THE MOVE
This female Common Merganser is trying to

swallow, head-first, a rather large fish.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON GOLDENEYE 2
RED-BREASTED MERGANSER 1
see p.67
see p.71
white patch
black-andwhite
pattern
smaller, more
lightly built
Breeds in northern forests

from Alaska to Newfoundland;
winters south to north central
Mexico. It winters farther
north than most other
waterfowl as long as water
remains open. Prefers freshto saltwater locations.
thinner
bill
Length 2112 28in (54 71cm)
Weight 134 434lb (0.82.1kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
70
WHERE
NOTES
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Mergus serrator

bill more reddish
than females
Red-breasted Merganser
dull rufousbrown head
and neck
smaller
crest
two wing
bars
whiteinner
wing
patches
MALE
(WINTER)
single wing
bar
brownish gray
sides and flanks
gray sides
and flanks
white belly with

gray flanks
MALE (ECLIPSE)
FEMALE
FEMALE
wispy crest on
green-black head
IN FLIGHT
red eye
black-and-white
checkered pattern
on back
bold white line

between black back
and gray flanks
gray
underparts
with white
belly
long, thin,
ragged
double crest
slightly
upturned,
thin,reddish
orange bill
crisp, white
collar
MALE
(BREEDING)
he Red-breasted Merganser, like the other saw-billed

mergansers, is an elegant fish-eating duck. Both sexes are
easily recognized by their long, sparse, somewhat ragged-looking
double crest. Red-breasted Mergansers are smaller than Common
Mergansers, but much larger than the Hooded.The Red-breasted
Merganser, unlike the other two mergansers, nests on the ground,
in loose colonies, often among gulls and terns, and is protected
by its neighbors.
VOICE During courtship males make a raucous yeow-yeow call;
females emit a raspy krrr-krrr.
NESTING Shallow depression on ground lined with down and
plant material, near water; 511 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Dives for small fish such as herring and minnows;
also salmon eggs; at times flocks coordinate and drive
fish together.
FLIGHT: fast flying duck with very rapid,
regular, and shallow flapping.
KEEPING CLOSE
Red-breasted Mergansers are gregarious at all

times of year, often feeding in loose flocks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HOODED MERGANSER 1
COMMON MERGANSER 1
see p.69
see p.70
darker
back
fuller, cinnamontinged crest
full crest
smaller
larger and
bill
more robust
Most northern range of all

the mergansers, nests across
Arctic and sub-Arctic regions,
tundra and northerly forests,
along coasts, inland lakes, river
banks, marsh edges, and coastal
islands. Winters farther south
than other mergansers, mostly
in protected bays, estuaries,
or on the Great Lakes.
rusty-red
head
white
breast and chin
smaller overall
Weight 134 234lb (0.8 1.3kg)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
71
WATERFOWL
Order Anseriformes
Family Anatidae
Species Oxyura jamaicensis
Ruddy Duck
broad, short
wings with
whitish wing
linings
dull gray-brown
two-tone
body
arched dark
line on cheek
dark
bill
brownish
upperparts
duller head
blackish
bill
paler flanks
pale belly
FEMALE
MALE (BREEDING)
black cap
and nape
IN FLIGHT
bright blue
bill, slightly
knobby at
base
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
large head
rich cinnamon
body and neck
large, white
cheek
patches
long tail, often

erect
MALE
(BREEDING)
mall and stiff-tailed, the Ruddy Duck is comical in both

its appearance and behavior. Both sexes often hold their
tail in a cocked position, especially when sleeping. During
courtship displays, the male points its long tail skyward while
rapidly thumping its electric blue bill against its chest, ending
the performance with an odd, bubbling sound. In another
display, males make a popping sound by slapping their feet on
the waters surface. Large feet, on legs set far back on its body,
make the Ruddy Duck an excellent swimmer and diver;
however, on land it is perhaps one of the most awkward of
diving ducks. Females are known to push themselves along
instead of walking.
VOICE Females give a nasal raanh and high pitched eeek; males
vocally silent, but make popping noises with feet.
NESTING Platform, bowl-shaped nest built over water
in thick emergent
SIMILAR SPECIES
vegetation, rarely on
land; 610 eggs; 1 brood; MASKED DUCK 2
black
see p.445
MaySeptember.
tip to
black face
bill
FEEDING Dives for
ruddy-colored
aquatic insects, larvae,
back with black
crustaceans, and other
streaks
invertebrates, particularly
when breeding; during
winter, also eats plants.
FLIGHT: rapid and direct, with fast wing beats;
not very agile in flight, which seems labored.
HEAVY HEAD
A female sitting on the water streamlines her body

before she dives, making her look large-headed.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in the prairie pothole

region in wetland habitats;
marshes, ponds, reservoirs, and
other open shallow water with
emergent vegetation and open
areas. Majority winter on
freshwater habitats from ponds
to large lakes; smaller numbers
found on brackish coastal
marshes, bays, and estuaries.
Weight 1130oz (300850g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
72
WHERE
NOTES
Family Gaviidae
LOONS
five species
W
of loon, comprising a single genus (Gavia),
a single family (the Gaviidae), and a single order
ORLDWIDE THERE ARE ONLY
(the Gaviiformes). The five species are limited to

the Northern Hemisphere, where they are found
in both northern North America and northern
Eurasia. One feature of loons is that their legs are
positioned so far to the rear of their body that they
must shuffle on their bellies when they go from
water to land. Not surprisingly, therefore, loons are
almost entirely aquatic birds. In summer they are
found on rivers, lakes, and ponds, where they nest
close to the waters edge. After breeding, they
occur along coasts, often after flying hundreds of
miles away from their freshwater breeding grounds.
FLIGHT SHAPE
The humped back and

drooping neck of this
Red-throated Loon are
typical of loons in flight.
PROVIDING FOR
THE FUTURE
A Red-throated Loon gives

a fish to its chick to gulp
down headfirst and whole.
Excellent swimmers
and divers, loons are
unusual among birds
in that their bones
are less hollow than
those of other groups.
Consequently, loons
can expel air from their LOON RANGER
lungs and compress
The Common Loon has a wider
their body feathers
range than any other in North
until they slowly sink
America, as its name suggests.
beneath the surface.
They can remain submerged like this for several
minutes. A loons wings are relatively small in
proportion to its body weight. This means that
they have to run a long way across the surface of
the water, flapping energetically, before they can
become airborne. Once in the air they keep
flapping and can fly at 60mph (95kmh).
LOONS
Order Gaviiformes
Family Gaviidae
Species Gavia stellata
Red-throated Loon
white speckled
back
humped back
white
face
head lower
than body
white underparts
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
upturned
gray bill
upturned bill
pale dusky
face
IN FLIGHT
gray face
and neck
IMMATURE
all-brown
back
striped
gray nape
tapering dark
reddish brown
throat patch
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ven when seen from a distance, this elegant loon is almost

unmistakable, with a pale, slim body, upward tilted head,
and a thin, upturned bill. Unlike other Loons, the Red-throated
Loon can leap straight into the air from both land and water,
although most of the time it needs a runway. The Redthroated Loon has an elaborate breeding ritualside by side,
a pair of birds races upright across the surface of water. Downy
chicks climb onto the parents back only when very young.
VOICE High gull-like or even cat-like wail and low goose-like
growl; vocal on breeding grounds, otherwise silent.
NESTING Scrape with mud and vegetation added during
incubation, placed at waters edge in coastal and lake bays,
shallow ponds, often at high altitudes; 2 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Mainly eats fish; also spiders, crustaceans, and mollusks;
flies long distances from shallow ponds when food is scarce.
FLIGHT: very direct; fast, with constant wing
beats; head held lower than other loons.
TAKING OFF
While this bird is using the waters surface to take off,

it can leap directly into flight from water and land.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
YELLOW-BILLED LOON 7
RED-NECKED GREBE 7
see p.471
see p.86
massive,lightcolored bill
larger
overall
darker
back
Lives in open areas within

northern boreal forest,
muskeg, and tundra; in
Canadian Arctic Archipelago,
sometimes in areas almost
devoid of vegetation. Winters
on the Great Lakes, and both
coasts southwards to Florida
and northern Mexico.
yellow
in bill
smaller
overall
Social Solitary/Loose flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
74
WHERE
NOTES
LOONS
Order Gaviiformes
Family Gaviidae
Species Gavia immer
Common Loon
brownish
head
barely visible
eye
scalloped pattern
on back
checkered back
pattern
ADULT (BREEDING)
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
humped back
iridescent
green on
head and
neck
head held
low
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
light,
partial
collar
white necklace
on throat
white lines on
sides of neck
spotted wings
ADULT
(BREEDING)
he Common Loon has the largest range of all loons in North

America and is the only species to nest in a few of the
northern states. It is slightly smaller than the Yellow-billed Loon
but larger than the other three loons. It can remain underwater
for well over 10 minutes, although it usually stays submerged for
40 seconds to 2 minutes while fishing, or a few more minutes if it
is being pursued. Evidence shows that, occasionally, it interbreeds
with its closest relative, the Yellow-billed Loon, in addition to the
Arctic and Pacific Loons.
VOICE Most recognized call a 3 10 note falsetto yodel, rising,
then fading; other calls similar in quality.
NESTING Simple scrape in large mound of
vegetation, a few feet from open water; 2 eggs;
1 brood; AprilJune.
FEEDING Feeds primarily on fish underwater;
also eats crustaceans, mollusks, amphibians, leeches,
insects, and aquatic plants.
FLIGHT: fast, direct, with constant wing beats;
head and neck held just above belly.
YELLOW-BILLED LOON
RED-NECKED GREBE 7
see p.471
see p.86
larger,
checkered
back pattern
Downy Common Loon chicks

climb up the backs of male and
female adults for a safe ride.
BATHING RITUAL
Common Loons often shake

their wings after bathing.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
large, whitish
or yellow bill
COZY RIDE
much smaller
overall
Breeds across North America,

Canada, and south to northern
US. Winters on large ice-free
lakes in Canada and the US,
and along the Pacific and
Atlantic Coasts, south to
Baja California and Florida.
In the Old World breeds
only in Iceland.
yellowish
bill
brownish
gray
cheeks
Weight 41218lb (28kg)
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
75
Families Diomedeidae, Procellariidae, Hydrobatidae
TUBENOSES
T
HE NAME TUBENOSES IS GIVEN to
several
FLAP AND GLIDE
Shearwaters alternate
stiff-winged flapping with
gliding just over the oceans
surface or, in strong winds,
glide in wide arcs, high
above the waves.
families of seabirds with tubular

nostrils, which help get rid of excess salt
and may enhance their sense of smell.
Tubenoses are all members of the
order Procellariiformes.
ALBATROSSES
STORM-PETRELS
The long, narrow wings of albatrosses (family

Diomedeidae) are perfectly suited for tackling
the strong, constant winds that prevail on the
southern oceans that form their main habitat.
While they are expert gliders, albatrosses cannot
take off from the ground without sufficient
wing to give them lift.
The smallest tubenoses in North American waters,

the storm-petrels (family Hydrobatidae) are also
the most agile fliers. They often patter or dance
as they fly just above the surface of the ocean in
search of small fish, squid, and crustaceans. Stormpetrels spend most of
their lives flying over
the open sea, only
visiting land in the
breeding season, when
they form colonies. The
apparent fragility and
small size of stormHOOKED BILL
petrels is belied by their All tubenoses have hooked
ability to live as far
bills in addition to their
away from land as their tubular nostrils.
larger relatives, the
shearwaters and albatrosses. Storm-petrels are
nocturnal at their breeding colonies and nest under
the ground, in burrows, or under rocks, two traits
that reduce the effects of predation.
SHEARWATERS
Shearwaters and gadfly petrels (family
Procellariidae) are smaller than albatrosses. Like
their larger relatives they are excellent gliders,
but their lighter weight and proportionately
shorter wings mean that they use more powered
flight than albatrosses. They range over all the
worlds oceans. With its numerous islands, the
Pacific Ocean is home to a greater variety of these
seabirds than the Atlantic. During and after storms
are the best times to look for shearwaters from
the shore because this is when they drift away
from the deep sea due to wind and waves.
STRONG PAIR BOND
After elaborate courtship

displays, albatrosses generally
pair for life. The rituals are
simpler in later years.
TUBENOSES
Order Procellariiformes
Family Procellariidae
Species Fulmarus glacialis
Northern Fulmar
white patch
on wing
dark gray
overall
paddle-like
wings
ADULT
(ATLANTIC FORM)
ADULT (DARK
PACIFIC FORM)
IN FLIGHT
white
head
gray back
small dark patch
in front of eye
short,
rounded,
gray tail
thick, yellow
bill
white
underparts
ADULT
(ATLANTIC
FORM)
ADULT (LIGHT
PACIFIC FORM)
ossessing paddle-shaped wings and

distinctive color patterns ranging from
almost all-white to all-gray, the Northern
Fulmar is among the most common seabirds
in places like the Bering Sea. It breeds at high
latitudes, then disperses south to offshore
waters along both coasts of the continent.
The Northern Fulmar can sometimes be
seen in large mixed flocks containing
albatrosses, shearwaters, and small petrels.
VOICE Mostly silent at sea; occasionally utters
cackles and grunts.
NESTING Scrape in rock or soil on edge of cliff;
1 egg; 1 brood; MayOctober.
FEEDING Picks fish and offal from the surface of the ocean;
also dives underwater to catch fish.
FLIGHT: snappy wing beats and long glides
near the surface of the ocean.
FEEDING FRENZY
Large numbers of Northern Fulmars compete for

the offal discarded by fishing trawlers.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SOOTY SHEARWATER
see p.80
more
slender
wings
Breeds on remote, high,

coastal cliffs in Alaska
and Canada; winters at
sea in offshore Pacific and
Atlantic waters, generally
farther north than most
other seabirds. Breeds in
Europe, northward to
Greenland, Svalbard;
also parts of Russia.
GREATER
SHEARWATER
see p.81
dark
bill
more
slender
wings
dark
cap
white
collar
dark
overall
Length 1712 1912in (4550cm)
Weight 1635oz (0.451kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
77
TUBENOSES
Species Calonectris diomedea
Corys Shearwater
long, pointed
wings
dark wingtip
and trailing
edge
clean white
underwing
all white
belly
pale
rump
grayish head
and chin
ADULT
ADULT
yellow
bill with
dark tip
scalloped
pattern
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
white breast,
with sootygray sides
lose observation of flocks of Corys Shearwaters off the

Atlantic coast has suggested the presence of two subspecies.
The more common one, C. d. borealis, nests in the eastern
Atlantic and is chunkier, with less white on the underwing. The
other subspecies, C. d. diomedea, breeds in the Mediterranean, has
a more slender build and a thinner bill, and more white on the
underwing. Corys Shearwater (either subspecies) has a relatively
languid flight style that differs from that of other shearwaters
in North Atlantic waters.
VOICE Mostly silent at sea; descending, lamb-like bleating.
NESTING Nests in burrow or rocky crevice; 1 egg; 1 brood;
MaySeptember.
FEEDING Dives into water or picks at surface for small
schooling fish, and marine invertebrates such as squid.
FLIGHT: slow, deliberate wing beats interspersed
with long glides; often arcs strongly on bent wings.
LAZY FLIERS
In calm weather Corys Shearwaters look heavy

and fly low, swooping higher in strong winds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
AUDUBONS SHEARWATER
see p.445
dark brown
overall
This species breeds in the

Mediterranean and on islands
of the eastern Atlantic,
including the Azores, the
Salvages, Madeira, and the
Canaries. When nonbreeding,
Corys Shearwaters disperse
widely over the Atlantic Ocean
and the Gulf of Mexico.
GREATER
SHEARWATER
see p.81
dark head
brownish
overall
white
neck
Length 18in (46cm)
Weight 28oz (800g)
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
78
WHERE
NOTES
TUBENOSES
Species Puffinus puffinus
Manx Shearwater
long, pointed
wings
black edge
of wing
very dark brownish

black upperparts
head is black
above, white
below
crisp white
underwings
IN FLIGHT
long, thin,
hooked bill
white
undertail
feathers
snow white
underparts
dark
upperwings
small head
dark,
hooked
bill
short tail
white throat
ost shearwaters are little known because of their nocturnal

and oceanic habits, but the Manx is an exception. It is
common in the British Isles, and ornithologists have been studying
it there for decades. Long-term banding programs revealed that one
bird flew over 3,000 miles (4,800km) from Massachusetts to its
nesting burrow in Wales in just 12 days, and that another was
captured 56 years after it was first banded, making its accumulated
migration-only mileage around 600,000 miles (1,000,000km).
VOICE Usually silent at sea, but at breeding sites, produces
loud and raucous series of cries, kah-kah-kah-kah-kah-HOWW.
NESTING In burrow, in peaty soil, or rocky crevice; 1 egg;
1 brood; AprilOctober.
FEEDING Dives into water, often with open wings and stays
underwater, or picks at surface for small schooling fish and squid.
FLIGHT: rapid, stiff wing beats interspersed
with glides; arcs high in strong winds.
PITTER-PATTER
Unlike gulls, shearwaters have to patter along the

surface with their feet to achieve lift-off speed.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-VENTED
SHEARWATER
brownish
upperparts
Breeds on many islands in

eastern North Atlantic;
restricted to islands off
Newfoundland in North
America. Regularly occurs
off US east coast as far south
as Florida. Rare in Gulf of
Mexico and off the West
Coast. Rarely seen from
shore; cold-water shearwater.
AUDUBONS SHEARWATER
see p.445
paler
head
longer
tail
slightly smaller
overall
Weight 1420oz (400575g)
Social Migrant flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
79
TUBENOSES
Sooty Shearwater
Species Puffinus griseus
silvery white patch

along underwing
ADULT
all-dark
underparts
ADULT
long, slender
wings
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
all-dark
upperparts
sooty head
long, hooked bill
FLIGHT: rapid, stiff wing beats, interspersed
with glides; arcs up highly in strong winds.
ooty Shearwaters are extremely longdistance migrants, with both Atlantic and
Pacific populations undergoing lengthy circular
migrations. Pacific birds in particular travel as far
as 300 miles (480km) per day and an extraordinary
45,000 miles (72,500km) or more per year. Huge
flocks of this species are often seen off the coast of
California. It is fairly easy to identify off the East Coast
of the US, as it is the only all-dark shearwater found there.
VOICE Silent at sea; occasionally gives varied, agitated
vocalizations when feeding,very loud calls at breeding colonies.
NESTING In burrow or rocky crevice; 1 egg; 1 brood;
OctoberMay.
FEEDING Dives and picks at surface for small schooling fish and
mollusks such as squid.
HUGE FLOCKS
Sooty Shearwaters are often found inrafts

numbering many thousands of birds.
TUBENOSE
Shearwaters are tubenoses, so-called for the

salt-excreting tubes on their bills.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SHORT-TAILED SHEARWATER
dark
upperparts
dark
cap
Sooty Shearwaters breed

on islands in the southern
Ocean and nearby waters,
some colonies number
thousands of pairs.
Postbreeding movements
take them north into the
Pacific and Atlantic Ocean,
on 8-shaped migrations.
GREATER
SHEARWATER
see p.81
white tail
band
shorter
bill
white
collar
pale throat
Length 18in (46cm)
Wingspan 3ft 3in (1m)
Weight 27oz (775g)
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
80
WHERE
NOTES
TUBENOSES
Species Puffinus gravis
Greater Shearwater
darker outer
wing feathers
dark, half
necklace at
sides of neck
ADULT
dark smudge on
center of belly
brownish
upperwings
IN FLIGHT
white
collar
dark cap
thin, white
band on rump
thin, black
bill
ADULT
common species in North Atlantic waters,

from northern Canada to Florida, the
Greater Shearwater is similar in size to Corys
Shearwater and the birds scavenge together
for scraps around fishing boats. However, their
plumages and flight styles are quite different.
While Corys Shearwater has slow, labored
wing beats, and glides high on broad, bowed,
swept-back wings, Greater Shearwaters keep low,
flapping hurriedly between glides on straight,
narrow wings. The brown smudges on the belly
(not always visible) and paler underwings of the
Greater Shearwater also help distinguish the species.
VOICE Silent at sea; descending, lamb-like bleating
at breeding sites.
NESTING Digs deep burrow in peaty or boggy soil;
1 egg; 1 brood; SeptemberMarch.
FEEDING Feeds either from the surface, picking up items such
as fish and squid, or makes shallow dives with open wings.
FLIGHT: fast, stiff wing beats interspersed with
gliding; arcs high in windy conditions.
WHITE COLLAR
The Greater Shearwaters white collar is highly

visible between its black cap and sooty back.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-CAPPED PETREL
see p.445
large, white
rump
Nests on just a few islands

in the middle of the South
Atlantic. Total population
probably well over 200
million. Postbreeding birds
make a very long 8-shaped
migration around the Atantic,
spending late JulySeptember
in North Atlantic waters,
usually offshore.
MANX SHEARWATER
see p.79
white
forehead darker
plumage
smaller
overall
Length 18in (46cm)
Wingspan 312 ft (1.1m)
Weight 30oz (850g)
Social Flocks
Lifespan At least 25 years
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
81
TUBENOSES
Family Hydrobatidae
Species Oceanites oceanicus
Wilsons Storm-Petrel
broad, pointed
wings
white rump
and lower
flanks
ADULT
pale bar on
upperwing
ADULT
dark wings
and body
IN FLIGHT
small, black
tube nose
walking
on water
ADULT
short,
square tail
yellow webbing
between toes
amed after Alexander Wilson, often called the father of

North American ornithology, Wilsons Storm-Petrel is
the quintessential small oceanic petrel. It is an extremely abundant
species and breeds in the many millions on the Antarctic Peninsula
and islands in Antarctica. After breeding, many move north to spend
the summer off the Atlantic coast of North America. Here, they
are a familiar sight to fishermen and birders at sea. By August
they can be seen lingering, but by October they have flown south.
VOICE At sea, soft rasping notes; at breeding sites a variety of
coos, churrs, and twitters during the night.
NESTING Mostly in rock crevices; also burrows where there
is peaty soil; 1 egg; 1 brood; NovemberMarch.
FEEDING Patters on the waters surface, legs extended, picking
up tiny crustaceans; also carrion, droplets of oil.
FLIGHT: flutters, low to oceans surface, often
stalling to drop to the surface and glean food.
FEEDING FLOCK
While flying, this bird walks on water,

simultaneously picking food from the surface.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BAND-RUMPED
STORM-PETREL
see p.83
see p.445
square
tail
Breeds on the Antarctic

Peninsula, many sub-Antarctic
islands, and islands in the
Cape Horn Archipelago. April
September or October, moves
north, and is abundant off the
coasts of New England, New
York, and New Jersey July
September. With inshore winds,
can often be seen from land.
LEACHS STORM-PETREL
smaller
overall
white
rump
patch
forked
tail
Weight 11161716 oz (30 40 g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
82
WHERE
NOTES
TUBENOSES
Family Hydrobatidae
Species Oceanodroma leucorhoa
Leachs Storm-Petrel
long,
angled
wings
white rump
with thin,
dark line
down center
ADULT
brown bar
across blackish
wings
ADULT
dark
sooty black
underwings
IN FLIGHT
dark
smudge
beside eye
forked
tail
FLIGHT: buoyant, deep wing beats low over

oceans surface, interrupted by twists and turns.
ADULT
dark sooty brown

underparts
eachs Storm-Petrel is widespread in both the Atlantic

and Pacific Oceans, unlike most other storm-petrels.
It breeds in colonies on islands off the coasts, coming
to land at night and feeding offshore during the
day, often many miles from the colony.This wideranging storm-petrel has both geographical and
individual variation; most populations show a white
rump, but others have a dark rump that is the same color as
the rest of the body. Leachs Storm-Petrel can be distinguished
from the similar Band-rumped Storm-Petrel by its notched tail
and swooping flight.
VOICE At nesting sites, often from burrows, calls are long series
of soft purring and chattering sounds.
NESTING Underground burrow on island free of predators such
as rats; 1 egg; 1 brood; MayNovember.
FEEDING Gleans small crustaceans and small fish from the waters
surface while in flight.
BALANCING ACT
Leachs Storm-Petrels will occasionally balance

themselves with their toes while foraging.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BAND-RUMPED STORMPETREL
Breeds on islands in the Pacific

Ocean from Alaska and the
Aleutian Islands south to
California; in the Atlantic
Ocean, from Newfoundland
to Maine. After breeding,
it wanders widely on both
oceans, keeping well
out of sight of land.
BLACK STORM-PETREL
see p.445
white of
rump
extends
toward
belly
dark
rump
Weight 1916134 oz (45 50g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
83
Family Podicipedidae
GREBES
and share many of
G
their aquatic habits, but anatomical and
molecular features show that they are actually
REBES RESEMBLE LOONS
unrelated. They are placed in a different order: the

Podicipediformes. Grebes have streamlined bodies,
which offer little resistance when diving and
swimming. Underwater their primary means of
propulsion is the sideways motion of their lobed
toes. The legs are placed far back on a grebes body,
which greatly aids the bird when it swims above or
below the surface. Grebes have short tails, and their
trailing legs and toes serve as rudders when they
fly. The position of the

legs makes it impossible,
however, for grebes to
stand upright for long
or easily walk on land.
This means that grebes
are tied to water even
when breeding; and
their nests are usually
partially floating
PIED BILL
platforms, built on beds The black-and-white bill pattern
of water plants. Grebes clearly distinguishes this bird as
toes have broad lobes
the Pied-billed Grebe.
that splay when the bird
thrusts forward through the water with its feet.
They dive to catch fish with a short, forward
arching spring. Unusual among birds, grebes
swallow feathers, apparently to trap fish bones and
protect their stomachs, then periodically disgorge
them. Like loons, they can control their buoyancy
by exhaling air and compressing their plumage so
that they sink quietly below the surface. They are
strong fliers and migratory.
A FINE DISPLAY
This Horned Grebe reveals the colorful

plumes on its head as part of its elaborate
courtship display.
SIDE BY SIDE
This pair of Western

Grebes is displaying
their elaborate
courtship behavior.
GREBES
Order Podicipediformes
Species Podilymbus podiceps
Pied-billed Grebe
yellowish
bill
outstretched neck
whitish
throat
ADULT
(BREEDING)
brown eye
lighter flight
feathers
whitish,
hooked bill
with a black
ring
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
brownish
gray body
reddish
brown neck
and breast
black throat
patch
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white
undertail
he widest ranging of the North American grebes, the

Pied-billed Grebe is tolerant of highly populated areas and
is often seen breeding on lakes and ponds across North America.
It is a powerful swimmer and can remain submerged for 1630
seconds when it dives. In contrast to some of the elaborate
displays from other grebe species, its courtship ritual is more
vocal than visual and a pair usually duet-call in the mating
season. Migration, conducted at night, is delayed until its breeding
area ices up and food becomes scarce. The Pied-billed Grebe is
capable of sustained flights of over 2,000 miles (3,200km).
VOICE Various grunts and wails; in spring, call a cuckoo-like
repeated gobble kup-kup-Kaow-Kaow-kaow, gradually speeding up.
NESTING Floating nest of partially decayed plants and clipped
leaves, attached to emergent vegetation in marshes and
quiet waters; 47 eggs;
SIMILAR SPECIES
2 broods; AprilOctober.
FEEDING Dives to
LEAST GREBE 8
see p.446
catch a variety of
smaller bill
crustaceans, fish,
yellow eye
amphibians, insects,
and other invertebrates;
also picks prey from
emergent vegetation,
darker body
or catches them mid-air.
FLIGHT: strong, direct flight with rapid wing
beats, but rarely seen.
BACK OFF
When alarmed, a Pied-billed Grebe may flap its

wings in a defensive display.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds on a variety of water

bodies, including coastal
brackish ponds, seasonal
ponds, marshes, and even
sewage ponds. Winters
in the breeding area if food
and open water are available,
otherwise chooses still waters
resembling its breeding habitat.
Weight 1317oz (375 475g)
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
85
GREBES
Species Podiceps grisegena
Red-necked Grebe
head and neck
in line with body
pale, reddish
brown crescent
near ear
white-edged
inner wing
brownish
cap
JUVENILE
broad head
with crest
at rear
ADULT
(BREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
black cap
grayish white
cheeks and
throat
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
gray flanks
mostly
yellowish bill
broad stripes on
cheek and ear
chestnut brown
neck and chest
base of
the bill
yellow
ADULT
(BREEDING)
he Red-necked Grebe is smaller than Western and Clarks

Grebes, but larger than the other North American grebes.
It migrates over short to medium distances and spends the winter
along both coasts, where large flocks may be seen during the day. It
runs along the waters surface to become airborne, although it rarely
flies.This grebe doesnt come ashore often; it stands erect, but walks
awkwardly, and prefers to sink to its breast and shuffle along.
VOICE Nasal, gull-like call on breeding grounds, evolves into bray,
ends with whinny; also honks, rattles, hisses, purrs, and ticks.
NESTING Compact, buoyant mound of decayed and fresh
vegetation in sheltered, shallow marshes and lakes, or artificial
wetlands; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING An opportunistic hunter, eats fish, crustaceans, aquatic
insects, worms, mollusks, salamanders, and tadpoles.
FLIGHT: fast, direct, wing beats, with head and

outstretched neck mostly level with line of body.
COURTSHIP DISPLAY
This courting pair face each other, with

outstreched necks and raised neck feathers.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RED-THROATED LOON 7
see p.74
white spots
on back
white
neck
no yellow
on bill
Breeds from northern prairies

and forests, almost to the tree
line in the northwest; limited to
suitable interior bodies of water
such as large marshes and
small lakes. Winters primarily
in estuaries, inlets, bays, and
offshore shallows along Atlantic
and Pacific Coasts; can also be
found on the Great Lakes.
HORNED GREBE 7
see p.87
reddish eye
paler neck
Weight 134312lb (0.81.6kg)
Social Pairs/Loose flocks
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
86
WHERE
NOTES
GREBES
Horned Grebe
ADULT
(SUMMER)
Species Podiceps auritus
flattish top
of head
white cheek
black
crown
white sides
to neck
neck and head

in line with
body
red eye
ADULT
(WINTER)
gold streak
from eye to
nape
IN FLIGHT
short, dark
bill with
whitish tip
ADULT
(SPRING MOLT)
rufous neck
black
throat
ADULT
(SUMMER)
he timing of the Horned Grebes migration depends

largely on the weatherthis species may not leave until
its breeding grounds get iced over, nor does it arrive before the
ice melts. Its breeding behavior is well documented since it is
approachable on nesting grounds and has an elaborate breeding
ritual. This grebes so-called horns are in fact yellowish feather
patches located behind its eyes, which it can raise at will.
VOICE At least 10 calls, but descending aaanrrh call most
common in winter, ends in trill; muted conversational
calls when birds are in groups.
NESTING Floating, soggy nest, hidden in vegetation, in
small ponds and lake inlets; 39 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Dives in open water or forages among plants, mainly
for small crustaceans and insects, but also leeches, mollusks,
amphibians, fish, and some vegetation.
FLIGHT: strong, rapid wing beats; runs on water
to become airborne; rarely takes off from land.
HITCHING A RIDE
In common with other grebes, Horned Grebe chicks

often ride on the back of a swimming parent.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RED-NECKED GREBE 7
EARED GREBE 7
see p.86
see p.88
brownish
cap
Breeds in small freshwater,

even slightly brackish, ponds
and marshes, including
man-made ponds. Prefers areas
with open water and patches
of sedges, cattails, and other
wetland vegetation. Winters on
saltwater close to shore; also
on large bodies of freshwater.
Also breeds in Eurasia.
upturned
bill
dark
cheek
darker eye
Weight 1120oz (300 575g)
Social Pairs/Loose flocks/Colonies
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
87
GREBES
Eared Grebe
white patch
on wing
Species Podiceps nigricollis
darker
flanks
browner plumage
black
crest
ADULT
(SUMMER)
outstretched
neck
dusky white
flanks
red
eye
JUVENILE
dusky
cheek
upturned
bill
grayish
neck
IN FLIGHT
large, wispy gold

patch behind
red eye
dark
back
thin,
upturned
bill
black
neck
ADULT (WINTER)
rufous breast
and sides
ADULT
(SUMMER)
he most abundant grebe in North America, the Eared

Grebe is quite remarkable in terms of physiology. After
breeding, it undergoes a complex and drastic reorganization
of body-fat stores, along with changes in muscle, heart, and
digestive organ mass to prepare it for fall migration. All of this
increases the birds energy reserves and body mass, but renders
it flightless. It may have the longest periods of flightlessness of
any flying birdup to 10 months.
VOICE Various trills during courtship, including squeaky, rising
poo-eep; sharp chirp when alarmed; usually silent at other times.
NESTING Sodden nest of decayed bottom plants anchored in
thinly spaced reeds or submerged vegetation in shallow water of
marshes, ponds, and lakes; 1 brood; 18 eggs; MayJuly.
FEEDING Forages underwater for small crustaceans and aquatic
insects; also small fish and mollusks; consumes worms in winter.
FLIGHT: flies with neck outstretched, held at
a low angle; rarely flies except during migration.
SALTY WATER
The Eared Grebe prefers salty water at all times

except when breeding.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RED-NECKED GREBE 7
see p.86
browner
cap
HORNED GREBE 7
thicker see p.87

bill
more distinct
white cheek
Breeds in marshes, shallow lakes,

and ponds. After breeding, many
birds seek saline waters, such as
Mono Lake, or lakes in Utah where
their favorite foods thrivebrine
shrimp and alkali flies. Winters in
coastal bays of Pacific coast and is
a vagrant on Atlantic coast. Also
breeds in Eurasia.
white tip
on bill
Weight 726oz (200725g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
88
WHERE
NOTES
Families Ciconiidae, Threskiornithidae, Ardeidae
STORKS, IBISES, & HERONS

T
HESE ARE LARGE, WATER and
wetland
birds that have long legs and look
rather similar, but have different habits.
They eat fish and other aquatic prey as
well as plants. Most breed in colonies.
IBISES
Birds of the marshlands or of dry land, ibises
(Threskiornithidae) are characterized by rounded
bodies; medium-length legs and strong feet that
allow an easy, long-striding walk; short tails;
rounded wings; and
small, often bare, heads
on curved necks,
merging into long,
curved bills. Gregarious
birds, they fly in long
lines or a V
formation. Ibises feed
mostly on insects,
worms, small mollusks,
EYE-CATCHING IBIS
and crustaceans,
The White-faced Ibis has a
probing for them in the
distinctive white patch around
water and wet mud.
its eye in the breeding season.
BITTERNS, HERONS, AND EGRETS

These are mostly waterside birds (Ardeidae)
with long, slender toes, broad, rounded wings,
very short tails,
forward-facing eyes,
and dagger-shaped
bills. Bitterns and
night-herons have
smooth, dense feathers
on their nape, while
an egrets long, slender
neck is tightly
feathered, with an
EVER ALERT
obvious kink that
The Green Heron stalks fish by
allows a lightning-fast
watching and waiting patiently
until prey is near.
stab for prey. Bitterns,
herons, and egrets fly
with their legs trailing and their necks coiled
back into their shoulders. Some make obvious
bulky treetop nests and feed in the open, while
others, especially bitterns, nest and feed
secretively. In fact, often the only clue to a
bitterns presence in a dense reedbed is the
haunting, booming call it makes to keep in touch
with its mate.
DANCING ON AIR
The Great Egrets courtship

display often involves spreading
its wings and leaping in a kind
of aerial dance.

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ciconiidae
Wood Stork
blackish,
featherless
head and
upper neck
black-andwhite wings
white body
dark
head
ADULT
Species Mycteria americana
IN FLIGHT
long,
decurved
bill
ADULT
grayish, sparsely
feathered head
short, black
tail
pale
yellow
bill
blackish
gray legs
FLIGHT: flaps; using thermals, soars to great
heights and glides, saving considerable energy.

JUVENILE
he Wood Stork is the largest

wading bird and the only stork
that breeds in the US. It formerly bred
mostly in south Florida, but as foraging
conditions deteriorated, its population moved
north and now mainly breeds north to North Carolina.
During hot periods, the Wood Stork uses an extraordinary
cooling method that involves defecation on its own legs.
VOICE Young give braying begging calls; adults usually silent;
clatter bills during courting.
NESTING Large twig nest usually in swamps; colonial nesters,
usually in trees over water for protection against predators;
24 eggs; 1 brood; DecemberAugust.
FEEDING Feeds on aquatic prey including fish, crabs, and
insects; moves bill through water and detects prey movements.
FOOT STIRRING
Wood Storks often feed by stirring the bottom

with their feet and feeling for prey with their bills.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT EGRET
SNOWY EGRET
see p.102
see p.106
smaller
overall
straight
bill
yellow
feet
Forested freshwater and coastal

areas, swamps, and marshes;
feeds in shallow wetlands. In
the US, a southeastern species,
breeding in Florida to North
Carolina. Birds in Texas and
Louisiana are postbreeders
dispersing from Mexico.
A few birds have been
seen in southern California.
much
smaller
overall
black feet
Length 3ft 3in (100cm)
Wingspan 5ft (1.5m)
Social Flocks
Status Endangered
DATE SEEN
90
WHERE
NOTES

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Threskiornithidae
Species Eudocimus albus
White Ibis
red or pink
facial skin
pale bluish
eye
long, white
neck
trailing
legs
white
overall
curved,
red bill
with
dark tip
ADULT
(BREEDING)
black
wing tips
short
tail
IN FLIGHT
streaked
neck
red legs
and toes
mottled brownand-white
upperparts
curved,
yellowish
bill
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white
underparts
yellow legs
IMMATURE
(1ST SPRING)
t is the shape that hints at the close relationship between

the White Ibis and the darker Glossy and White-faced Ibises.
Depending on the season, the White Ibis has a pink or fleshcolored face, bill, and legs set against its white plumage and black
wing tips.When breeding, however, the legs, bill, and bare facial skin
turn a vivid red.The 20,00030,000 birds living in the southeastern
US breed from Florida north to South Carolina, and along the Gulf
Coast to Louisiana and Texas.The population moves around within
this area, as do other large waders, depending on the water level.
VOICE Hoarse, croaking kraah; high-pitched calls during courtship.
NESTING Platform of sticks placed in trees or shrubs, often
mangroves, over water; 24 eggs; 1 brood; MarchOctober.
FEEDING Eats small crustaceans such as crayfish, small fish, and
frogs; feeds in flocks in both estuarine and freshwater wetlands.
FLIGHT: rapid wing beats alternating with glides;
soars on thermals to save energy.
HIGHLY GREGARIOUS
White Ibises are extremely social birds, flying,

breeding, feeding, and roosting in large flocks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT EGRET
SNOWY EGRET
see p.102
see p.106
larger
overall
shorter,
straight
bill
black legs
black
legs
Found in estuaries along

the coast, also in freshwater
marshes, swamps, and rice
fields; breeds in colonies with
other wading birds. Also
occurs throughout Central
America and northern
South America from
Venezuela to Colombia.
black
bill
yellow
feet
Length 25in (64cm)
Wingspan 3ft 2in (96cm)
Weight 32oz (900g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
91

Order Ciconiiformes
Glossy Ibis
Species Plegadis falcinellus
finely streaked
head and neck
iridescent
crown
dark
brown eye
outstretched
neck
ADULT
(BREEDING)
trailing
legs
dark
maroon
neck
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
curved,
gray-brown
bill
iridescent bronzegreen feathers

on inner wing
IN FLIGHT
chestnut or
maroon underparts
ADULT (BREEDING)
gray-green
legs and feet
FLIGHT: alternate wing beats and glides; flies

with neck outstretched, legs extended beyond tail.
ith its long, curved bill,

the dark, long-legged
Glossy Ibis is similar to the
White-faced Ibis. It is well
known for its wandering
tendencies and can also be found in
southern Europe, Asia, Australia, and Africa. Despite being
found in the US in the mid-19th century, the Glossy Ibis
was not discovered nesting in Florida until 1886. Confined
to Florida until the mid-20th century, it then started spreading
northward, eventually as far as New England.
VOICE Crow-like croak; subdued nasal chatter in flocks;
mostly silent.
NESTING Platform of twigs and reeds in trees, shrubs, or
reeds, on ground or over water; 34 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Forages by feel, puts bill in soil and mud to catch prey,
including snails, insects, leeches, frogs, and crayfish.
MARSH FEEDER
The Glossy Ibis regularly feeds in shallow pools

and along the waterways of coastal marshes.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WHITE-FACED IBIS
Common from New England

south to Florida. Occurs in
brackish and freshwater
marshes and in flooded or
plowed fields; feeds with
other waders in inland
freshwater wetlands as
well as coastal lagoons
and estuaries.
BLACK-CROWNED
NIGHT-HERON 5
see p.93
see p.97
pink
legs
white
mask on
pink face
brown
body
thick,
straight
bill
Length 23in (59cm)
Weight 13oz (375g)
Lifespan 1520 years
Status Secure (p)
DATE SEEN
92
WHERE
NOTES

Order Ciconiiformes
White-faced Ibis
trailing
legs
dark legs
dark
face
greenish,
iridescent
wings
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
dark, bronzegreen overall
ADULT
(BREEDING)
Species Plegadis chihi
white
face
bronze
metallic
gloss
IN FLIGHT
dull, noniridescent
plumage
paler face
and neck
pink to
red, naked skin
between eye
and long,
curved bill
dark
chestnut
chest
and neck
ADULT
(BREEDING)
reddish legs
and feet
JUVENILE
he White-faced Ibis is not only the most widespread

member of its family in North America but also the only
ibis found commonly in its range.Very similar to the closely
related Glossy Ibis, it is separable in winter only by its reddish
eye and the absence of a thin blue line around the face, though
the two are only likely to be seen together in the Louisiana area.
VOICE Generally silent; soft calls at the nest, including feeding calls,
vocalizations after mating, and greeting calls to mates and chicks;
outside breeding, a raucous khah or krah.
NESTING Flat or columnar nest lined with plant matter, such
as cattail, or bulrush in low trees or shrubs over shallow water,
or on ground on small islands; 25 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Captures prey below soil by probing with bill; eats
aquatic prey such as crayfish, small fish, and frogs.
FLIGHT: strong and direct, with rapid wing
beats, alternating with glides; soars on thermals.
LARGE FLOCKS
The White-faced Ibis is social, feeding and

traveling in flocks, which can be large.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GLOSSY IBIS
Found in freshwater wetlands,

especially in flooded fields, but
also in marshes and lake edges
with cattails and bulrushes.
Although birds may disperse
farther east after breeding, they
are, for the most part, restricted
to the western part of the
United States, and in Central
and South America.
BLACK-CROWNED
NIGHT-HERON 5
see p.92
less
white
on face
see p.97
brown,
streaked
body
darker
legs
thick,
straight
bill
Length 23in (59cm)
Weight 22oz (625g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
93

Order Ciconiiformes
Species Ajaia ajaja
Roseate Spoonbill
yellowish green
naked skin
pink
wings
long, spoonshaped bill
long, white
neck
red
rump
pinkish
red patch
on wing
ADULT
pink
back
IN FLIGHT
light pinktinted body
mostly pink
underparts
ADULT
dark legs
JUVENILE
pink
tail
reddish
legs
FLIGHT: slow, deep wing beats, with
he only one of the worlds

six spoonbill species to
occur in North America, the
Roseate Spoonbill is the most
spectacular of all. Unlike its five
white-plumaged cousins, the North American
species is bright pinkone of the reasons it is
placed in a genus (Ajaia) by itself. Its color has given rise
to local names such as as the Pink Curlew, Flame Bird,
Banjo-bill, and simply Pink.
VOICE Generally silent; greeting and alarm calls at nesting
colony huh-huh-huh-huh.
NESTING Nest of large sticks in mangroves, small trees,
or on the ground; 34 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Eats small aquatic prey such as small fish,
shrimp, insects, and spiders; swings bill side-to-side.
occasional glides; head and neck fully extended.
PINK PLUMAGE
The well-named Roseate Spoonbill is the only one

of six species worldwide that is pink.
OCCURRENCE
Found in shallow wetlands:

estuarine, brackish, and
freshwater habitats, often
near the coast. There are
more or less separate breeding
populations around the coast
of Florida, and from Texas
to Lousiana. Birds may move
inland somewhat in summer
or early fall after breeding.
FOOD RESERVES
Roseate Spoonbills feed in estuaries and freshwater lagoons in flocks.
Length 32in (82cm)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
94
WHERE
NOTES

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Botaurus lentiginosus
American Bittern
rusty brown
crown
dark outer
wing feathers
long, straight
bill
black streak on
side of neck
ADULT
duller crown
trailing
legs
brown back
no large
black
patch
on neck
IN FLIGHT
brown streaks
on chest
short tail
JUVENILE
ADULT
greenish legs
he American Bitterns camouflaged plumage and secretive

behavior help it to blend into the thick vegetation of its
FLIGHT: steady, deep, slightly stiff wing beats;
freshwater wetland habitat. It is heard much more often than it is usually flies relatively low and direct.
seen; its call is unmistakable and has given rise to many evocative
colloquial names, such as thunder pumper.
VOICE Deep, resonant pump-er-unk, pump-er-unk; calls mainly at dawn,
dusk, and nighttime, but also during the day in the early mating season.
NESTING Platform or mound constructed of
available marsh vegetation, usually over shallow
water; 27 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Stands still or moves slowly, then strikes
downward with bill to catch prey; eats fish, insects,
crustaceans, snakes, amphibians, and small mammals.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LEAST BITTERN
BLACK-CROWNED
NIGHT-HERON 5
see p.96
see p.97
black back
white
spots
smaller
overall
yellowish legs
thicker
bill
LOOKING UP
Bitterns are secretive birds,

but can occasionally be found
walking slowly through reeds.
Breeds in heavily vegetated

freshwater wetlands across
the northern US and southern
Canada; also occasionally in
estuarine wetlands; winters
in southern and coastal
wetlands where temperatures
stay above freezing; can
appear in any wetland habitat
during migration.
Length 2312 31in (60 80cm)
Wingspan 312 414ft (1.11.3m)
Weight 1320oz (375575g)
Social Solitary
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
95

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Least Bittern
Species Ixobrychus exilis
dark-brown
back
brown
back
dark-brown cap
streaked
underparts
buff and black

pattern on wings
FEMALE
pale wing
feathers
MALE
JUVENILE
black back
black cap
IN FLIGHT
short
tail
long, yellow bill

brown streaks
on chest
MALE
yellowish
legs and
toes
he smallest heron in North America, the Least Bittern

is also one of the most colorful, but its secretive nature
FLIGHT: rapid wing beats; weak, direct flight;
makes it easy to overlook in its densely vegetated marsh
flies low, around top of vegetation.
habitat. A dark color form, which was originally described
in the 1800s as a separate species named Corys Bittern,
has rarely been reported in recent decades.
VOICE Soft ku, ku, ku, ku, ku display call; year-round, a loud kak, kak, kak.
NESTING Platform of marsh vegetation with sticks
and stems added, usually within 30ft (9m) of open
water; 27 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Feeds on small fish, insects including
dragonflies; also crustaceans; clings quietly to
vegetation before striking prey, or stalks slowly.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
AMERICAN
BITTERN
BLACK-CROWNED
NIGHT-HERON 5
see p.95
see p.97
brown
back
white
spots
thicker
bill
REED CREEPER
With its small, thin body, this

species easily creeps through
dense reeds in search of prey.
greenish legs
Breeds in summer in lowland

freshwater marshes; less
commonly in brackish and
rarely in saltwater marshes;
frequents similar habitat on
migration; winters in brackish
and saltwater marshes. Wide
distribution in the Americas,
south to Argentina.
Weight 258 338oz (7595g)
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
96
WHERE
NOTES

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Nycticorax nycticorax
Black-crowned Night-Heron
gray
wings
heavily speckled
back and wings
long, white
head plumes
pale
lower
bill
white spots
on brown
back
black
back
ADULT
JUVENILE
JUVENILE
broad,
rounded
wings
black
crown
IN FLIGHT
short
neck
short,
thick bill
ADULT
yellow legs;
red in spring
FLIGHT: strong steady flight; wing beats faster
than larger herons and egrets; glides into landing.
he Black-crowned NightHeron is chunky and

squat. It is also one of the most
common and widespread herons in
North America and in the world. But because, as its name
suggests, it is mainly active at twilight and at night, many people
have never seen one. However, its distinctive barking call can be
heard at nighteven at the center of large cities.
VOICE Loud, distinctive quark or wok, often given in flight
and around colonies.
NESTING Large stick nests built usually 2040ft (612m)
up in trees; 35 eggs; 1 brood; NovemberAugust.
FEEDING Feeds primarily on aquatic animals, such as fish,
crustaceans, insects, and mollusks; also eggs and chicks of
colonial birds, such as egrets, ibises, and terns.
LONG PLUMES
In breeding plumage, the plumes of the male

of this species are longer than the females.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
see p.98
Widespread; can be found

wherever there are
waterbodies, such as lakes,
ponds, streams; generally
absent from higher elevations.
Colonies often on islands or in
marshes; colony sites may be
used for decades. In winter,
found in areas where water
remains open.
GREEN HERON rufous
YELLOW-CROWNED
NIGHT-HERON
smaller overall; neck

see p.99
gray neck
black-andwhite
head
thinner
bill
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
97

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Nyctanassa violacea
Yellow-crowned Night-Heron
short
tail
yellowish
white crown
white cheek
patches
ADULT
long, white plumes

extending from crown
uniform gray
back and wings
IN FLIGHT
thick,
black
bill
slender
neck
no white
on face
ADULT
long,
yellow legs
fine speckling
on back and
wings
brown
streaks on
underparts
JUVENILE
ore slender and elegant than its more common cousin,

the Black-crowned Night-Heron, the Yellow-crowned
FLIGHT: strong and steady, with neck drawn
Night-Heron was unaffected by the plume hunting trade that
up close to body; legs trailing.
decimated many heron species in the 19th century. It then
expanded northward in the 20th century, but has retreated slightly from the
northern edge of its range in recent decades. It can be seen in wooded areas.
VOICE Call an abrupt quark or wok, higher-pitched than Black-crowned
Night-Heron; most vocal in mornings, evenings, and at night.
NESTING Platform of sticks in tree, tall shrubs, often 4060ft (1218m)
above ground, away from main trunk; 26 eggs; 1 brood; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Stands motionless or slowly stalks prey and then lunges;
mostly eats crabs and crayfish; also insects, small
mollusks, and fish.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT-HERON
GREEN HERON
see p.97
see p.99
black
back
thinner
bill
blue-green
upperparts
white
throat
DARKER JUVENILE
A juvenile Yellow-crowned has

darker plumage than its
Black-crowned counterpart.
Breeds near wetlands

along the East Coast,
across the Southeast and
the Midwest; often nests
and roosts near houses in
wooded neighborhoods.
Found in similar habitats
during migration; mainly
coastal in winter.
Wingspan 314 312f t (11.1m)
Weight 23 28oz (650 800g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure (p)
DATE SEEN
98
WHERE
NOTES

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Butorides virescens
Green Heron
white speckles
on wings
ADULT
(BREEDING)
greenish
black cap
greenish back
paler
bill
short,
rufous neck
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
white
chin
cream streak
extends from
throat to belly
yellowish
legs and
feet
thin,
straight,
black bill
long back
plumes
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
glossy
orange
legs
ADULT
(BREEDING)
small, solitary, and secretive bird of dense thicketed wetlands,

the Green Heron can be difficult to observe. This dark,
crested heron is most often seen flying away from a perceived
threat, emitting a loud squawk. While the Green Heron of
North and Central America has now been recognized as a
separate species, it was earlier grouped with the Green-backed
Heron (B. striatus), which is found in the tropics and subtropics
throughout the world.
VOICE Squawking keow when flying from disturbance.
NESTING Nest of twigs often in bushes or trees, often over
water but also on land; 12 broods; 35 eggs; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Stands quietly on the shore or in shallow water and
strikes quickly; mainly fish, but also frogs, insects, and spiders.
FLIGHT: direct, a bit plodding, and usually
over short distances.
READY TO STRIKE
Green Herons usually catch their prey by lunging

forward and downward with their whole body.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-CROWNED
NIGHT-HERON 5
see p.97
larger
overall
An inhabitant of swampy
thickets, but occasionally dry
land close to water across
much of North America, but
missing in the plains, the Rocky
Mountains, and the western
deserts that do not provide
appropriate wetlands. Winters
in coastal wetlands.
YELLOW-CROWNED
NIGHT-HERON 5
see p.98
thicker
bill
larger
overall
Length 1412 1512 in (3739cm)
Weight 7 9oz (200250g)
Social Solitary/Pairs/Small flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
99

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Bubulcus ibis
Cattle Egret
rich buff
on back
rich buff
crown
yellow
bill
all-white
body
yellow bill,
reddish
in spring
short neck
white body
and wings
ADULT
(BREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
rich buff
on breast
in spring
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
looks all-white
in flight at
long range
dark legs
and feet
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ADULT
(BREEDING)
yellow legs
and feet
FLIGHT: flies with regular wing beats;
neck crooked and legs extended.
nlike most other herons, the Cattle Egret is

a grassland species that rarely wades in water,
and is most likely to be seen in association with livestock,
feeding on the insects disturbed by their feet. It is thought
to have originated in the shortgrass prairies of Africa and
is now found worldwide. It was first seen in Florida in 1941,
but expanded rapidly and has now bred in over 40 US states.
VOICE Generally silent; vocal at the nest: rick-rack common.
NESTING Nest of branches or plants placed in trees over
ground; also in trees or shrubs over water; 25 eggs; 1 brood;
MarchOctober.
FEEDING Eats in groups, consumes insects, spiders as well as larger
animals such as frogs; insects stirred up in grasslands by cattle.
VOCAL BREEDERS
This bird almost never calls away from a breeding

colony, but is vocal near its nests.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT EGRET
SNOWY EGRET
see p.102
see p.106
long
bill
black
bill
much
larger
black legs
and toes
Since the 1940s, it has

expanded to many habitats
in much of North America,
primarily in grasslands and
prairies, but also wetland
areas. In tropical regions,
the Cattle Egrets flock
around the cattle feeding
in shallow wetlands.
yellow
toes
Length 20in (51cm)
Weight 13oz (375g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
100
WHERE
NOTES

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Ardea herodias
Great Blue Heron

dark wing
tips
white
face
dark
bill
brownish
body
dark
tail
gray neck
yellowish
bill
ADULT
crooked
neck
IN FLIGHT
lighter-colored
neck, almost
beige
JUVENILE
blue-gray
body
large,
white
bird
light
bill
overall similar
to Great Blue
shaggy
plumes
GREAT WHITE
HERON
(WHITE FORM)
MALE
WURDEMANNS HERON
(WHITE-HEADED FORM)
light
legs
dark
legs
FLIGHT: deep-flapping, regular wing beats.
his is one of the three largest herons

in the worldthe Great Blue in North
America, the Gray in Eurasia, and the Cocoi in
South Americaall of which are all interrelated, but
classified separately. The Great Blue Heron is a common
inhabitant of a variety of North American waterbodies,
from marshes to swamps, as well as along sea coasts. Its
majestic, deliberate flight is a highly wonderful sight to behold.
VOICE Mostly silent; gives a loud, barking squawk or crank
in breeding colonies or when disturbed.
NESTING Nest of twigs and branches; usually in colonies,
but also singly; in trees, often over water, but also over ground;
24 eggs; 12 broods; FebruaryAugust.
FEEDING Catches prey with quick jab of bill; primarily fish.
LOFTY ABODE
Great Blue Herons nest in small colonies in trees,

and often roost in them.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
TRICOLORED
HERON
Across southern Canada

and the US in wetlands, such
as marshes, lake edges, and
along rivers and swamps; also
in marine habitats, especially
tidal grass flats. The Great
White Heron is common in
mangroves in the Florida Keys;
also West Indies and Yucatn.
LITTLE BLUE HERON
dark
bill
see p.104
smaller overall;
see p.105
smaller
overall
white
underparts
greenish
legs
darker
overall
Length 234 414ft (0.9 1.3m)
Wingspan 514 612ft (1.6 2m)
Weight 434512lb (2.12.5kg)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
101

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Ardea alba
Great Egret
long,
yellow
bill
large size
long,
S-curved
neck
SUMMER
all-white
plumage
white
overall
IN FLIGHT
lime-green
patch between
eye and bill
long, black
plumes
black legs
and feet
ADULT (BREEDING)
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
FLIGHT: flies with regular, deep wing beats.
his large white heron is found on every continent except

Antarctica. When feeding, the Great Egret would apparently
rather forage alone than in flocksit maintains space around
itself, and will defend a territory of 10ft (3m) in diameter from
other wading birds. This territory moves with the bird as it
feeds. In years of scarce food supplies, a chick may kill a sibling,
permitting the survival of at least one bird.
VOICE Largely vocal during courtship and breeding; otherwise,
kraak or cuk-cuk-cuk when disturbed or in a combative encounter.
NESTING Nest of twigs in trees, over land or water; 24 eggs;
1 brood; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Catches prey with quick thrust of bill; feeds on
aquatic prey, primarily fish, also crustaceans.
TREE PERCHES
Great Egrets nest in trees and regularly perch in

them when not feeding.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LITTLE BLUE
HERON 5
see p.105
smaller
overall
Breeds in trees over water or

on islands; forages in almost
all types of freshwater and
marine wetlands from
marshes and ponds to
rivers. Migratory over much
of its North American range;
more southerly populations
resident. Distance migrated
depends on severity of winter.
SNOWY EGRET
black bill;
twosee p.106
toned
smaller
bill
overall
yellowgreen legs
yellow
feet
Length 314ft (1m)
Wingspan 6ft (1.8m)
Weight 114314ft (0.81.5kg)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
102
WHERE
NOTES

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Egretta rufescens
Reddish Egret
trailing
legs
shaggy,
rufous head
and neck
ADULT
(DARK FORM)
heavy,
pink bill
with
black tip
heavy, dark
bill
gray wings
gray body
IN FLIGHT
pink bill with
black tip
JUVENILE
(WHITE FORM)
rufescent
neck and
chest
shaggy neck
ADULT
(DARK FORM)
ADULT
(WHITE FORM)
gray legs
FLIGHT: strong, with steady, deep wing beats;
may extended neck on short flights.
ndemic to the Americas, the Reddish Egret

occurs in two color forms.The rufous
head and neck of the dark form gives the
species its name, while the all-white form
resembles other egrets.The bird can be identified in any
plumage by its highly active feeding habits. It runs back and forth
in the shallow waters of mudflats, halting occasionally to stretch out
its wings over its head, apparently to lure small fish into their
shadow; a method of hunting known as canopy feeding.
VOICE Occasional low, throaty grunt aww-unh or aww-unh-unh.
NESTING Stick nest lined with grass on ground, shrubs, or trees
up to 30ft (10m) above ground, in colonies with other herons;
34 eggs; 1 brood; MarchSeptember.
FEEDING Almost exclusively eats small fish.
FISHING WITH OPEN WINGS
The Reddish Egret pounces on small fish with

outspread wings when canopy feeding.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
TRICOLORED
HERON
see p.104
white line
on throat
white
belly
Found year-round in coastal

lagoons, mudflats, and keys
around Florida and the Gulf
Coast; mostly nonmigratory;
sometimes seen in southern
California in winter; vagrants
and post-breeders seen inland
and north along the Atlantic
coast. Breeds in Mexico, the
West Indies, south to Belize.
LITTLE BLUE
HERON
see p.105
greenish
legs
bluish
bill
Weight 2530oz (700850g)
Social Colonies
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
103

Order Ciconiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Egretta tricolor
Tricolored Heron
dark
wings
white
underwings
IN FLIGHT
dark
bill
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
yellowish
legs
blue bill
with
dark tip
yellowish
face and
base of bill
dark neck
and head
reddish neck
with light
throat
pale line
down
throat
and neck
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
gray back
golden
plumes on
lower back
greenish
yellow legs
ADULT
(BREEDING)
JUVENILE
white belly
FLIGHT: direct flight, usually over short
distances with neck crooked.
pinkish legs
he Tricolored Heron was once confined

to the southeastern US in North
America. Since the 1940s, it has spread along
the East Coast, has bred as far north as Maine,
and regularly wanders over much of the interior. For
this reason, its name was changed away from the former,
misleading name of Louisiana Heron. The species is also
widespread in Central America and South America.
VOICE Generally nonvocal; aaah call in aggressive encounters;
males make Unh call during courtship; both sexes call CulhCulh; also Scaah when approaching the nest with food.
NESTING Nest of twigs and branches, usually over water,
singly or in small colonies; 24 eggs; 1 brood; JanuaryAugust.
FEEDING Mainly eats small fish.
TRAILING LEGS
Herons and egrets fly with their legs trailing behind,

but swing them downward as they come in to land.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT BLUE
HERON
see p.101
bluish
overall
In the US breeds mainly in

estuaries on Atlantic and
Gulf coasts, but also in inland
freshwater marshes in Florida
and around Gulf; most birds
winter from coastal South
Carolina south through the
rest of their breeding range.
Northern populations of the
Tricolored Heron are migratory.
LITTLE BLUE
HERON
larger, see p.105

white
cheeks
all-dark
body
Length 26in (66cm)
Weight 1115oz (325425g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
104
WHERE
NOTES

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Egretta caerulea
Little Blue Heron

short
tail
white
plumage
coiled
neck
pale, blacktipped bill

purplish
maroon
neck
JUVENILE
ADULT
gray bill
with
black tip
slate-gray
back
pale greenish
legs
long,
slender
neck
IN FLIGHT
blotchy,
blue-andwhite
plumage
ADULT
yellowish to
greenish legs
IMMATURE
(1ST SPRING)
he shy and retreating Little Blue Heron is often

overlooked because of its blue-gray color and secretive eating
habits. First-year birds, which may be mistaken for Snowy Egrets,
are white, and gradually acquire blue-gray, mottled feathers before
eventually molting into their all-dark adult plumage. Immature
birds are seen feeding together in open wetlands while adults feed
alone in denser habitats, such as swamps and thick wetlands.
VOICE Vocal during courtship; generally silent.
NESTING Uses sticks and twigs, in trees or reeds, in wetlands
or terrestrial habitats nearby; 24 eggs; 1 brood; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Eats small fish, amphibians, crustaceans, and insects; stalks
its prey, wading slowly in shallow waters or along the waters edge.
FLIGHT: deep and continuous wing beats;
glides when descending and landing.
UNIQUE TRANSFORMATION
No other heron species undergoes such a complete

change from an all-white juvenile to all-dark adult.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT BLUE
HERON
see p.101
larger
body
TRICOLORED
HERON
see p.104
white
on face
and crown
Breeds across much of

southeast US in various
wetlands, such as swamps,
marshes, lakes, streams, rivers,
and flooded fields, as well as
estuarine and marine habitats,
such as lagoons and tidal flats.
Winters in similar habitat from
southern California to Mexico
and Central America.
paler
neck
white
belly
Length 24in (61cm)
Weight 1113oz (325375g)
Social Solitary
Lifespan 1020 years
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
105

Order Ciconiiformes
Family Ardeidae
Species Egretta thula
Snowy Egret
yellow
patch
between
eye and
bill
paler patch of
skin at base of bill
plumes
on head
long,
extended
legs
all-white
plumage
black bill
ADULT
greenish
yellow legs
red patch
between
eye and bill
wispy breast
plumes
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
ADULT
(HIGH
BREEDING)
ADULT
(BREEDING)
black
legs
orangish
legs
yellow feet
FLIGHT: flies with deep wing beats; gliding
descent before landing.
New World species, the Snowy Egret is similar to the

Little Egret. It is very adaptable in estuarine and freshwater
habitats. When foraging, it uses a wide variety of behaviors,
including wing-flicking, foot-stirring, and foot-probing to
get its prey moving, making it easier to capture.
VOICE High-pitched Aargaarg when flushed; low-pitched Arg
and Raah aggressive calls; Aarg call during attacks and pursuits.
NESTING Small sticks, branches, and rushes over water or
on land; also on ground, in shrubs, mangroves, and other trees;
35 eggs; 1 brood; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Feeds on aquatic prey, from invertebrates, such as
insects, shrimp, and prawns, to small fish, amphibians, and snakes.
WIDESPREAD SPECIES
Snowy Egrets feed in a wide variety of wetland

habitats, using different foraging techniques.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT EGRET
Found in a wide variety of

wetlands throughout North
America: from mangroves in
Florida to marshlands in New
England and the western US.
Highly adaptable and widely
found. Sites of breeding
colonies may change from
year to year within a set range.
LITTLE BLUE
HERON 5
see p.102
see p.105
yellow
bill
black legs
and feet
black legs
and feet
Length 24in (62cm)
Weight 12oz (350g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
106
WHERE
NOTES
Families Fregatidae, Pelecanidae, Sulidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Anhingidae
PELICANS & RELATIVES

P
ELICANS AND THEIR relatives
belong to
an order of large to huge fish-eating
birds, Pelecaniformes, with four toes
connected by leathery webs, and with
fleshy, elastic pouches beneath their bills.
PELICANS
The pelican family includes seven large species,
two of whichthe American White Pelican and
the Brown Pelicanbreed in North America. All
pelicans are buoyant swimmers and excellent fliers,
capable of great lift on their long, broad wings with
wing feathers spread. Flocks can be seen soaring to
great heights on migration and when flying to
feeding grounds. Pelicans feed by sweeping with
open bills for fish, often cooperatively, or by
plunging from a height to scoop up fish and water
in their large, flexible bill pouches.
CORMORANTS
With 36 species worldwide, these are medium
to large waterbirds, some marine, others
freshwater, with broad, long wings, rounded tails,
short, strong legs and hook-tipped bills often
tilted upward when swimming. In flight, the
WATER BIRD
Webbed feet help Brown

Pelicans negotiate water
with ease, while strong
wings allow easy takeoffs.
WING SPREADING
neck is extended
this Neotropic Cormorant
and noticeably kinked. For
grooming includes spreading
When hunting for
its wings to dry them in the
fish, cormorants dive
sun. Neotropic Cormorants
from the surface of the are rare in the East.
water, rolling smoothly
under or with a forward leap, and then swim
underwater with closed wings, using their
webbed toes for propulsion. Most are dark birds,
apart from distinctive facial patterns on areas of
bare skin which become more colorful in early
spring. Most cormorants nest on cliff ledges,
others use both cliffs and trees. There is one
flightless and highly endangered cormorant
species in the Galpagos Islands.

Order Pelecaniformes
Family Fregatidae
Species Fregata magnificens
Magnificent Frigatebird
long dark
wings
dark head
JUVENILE
very powerful,
long, hooked
bill
variable white
underparts
FEMALE
exceedingly
long wings
white
on
head
red throat
pouch
deeply
forked
tail
glossy black
plumage
MALE
IN FLIGHT
FLIGHT: powerful but effortless soaring,
alternating with fluid twists and turns.
MALE
ne of North Americas most skilled aerialists,

the Magnificent Frigatebird is not seen
perched except when nesting in mangroves or
roosting on buoys. It is usually seen flying gracefully above bays,
lagoons, or open ocean, but it never alights on the waters surface.
Identifying the different species of frigatebirds is exceedingly difficult, but
only the Magnificent Frigatebird occurs regularly in North American waters.
This species is well known for its in-flight piracy and aggressive behavior.
It will pursue birds of its own species and others, especially boobies in the
tropics, stealing food from their bills.
VOICE Male call consists of whirring,
rattling, and drumming sounds.
NESTING Flat or shallow depression
in platform of twigs; 1 egg; 1 brood;
NovemberMay.
FEEDING Plucks small fish from
waters surface, never wetting itself;
regularly steals food from other birds.
see p.114
much
longer
neck
Breeding males display their

gaudy, flapping throat pouches
by inflating them.
Breeds mainly in coastal
mangroves, but in North
America, frigatebirds are
usually seen away from nest
sites, flying high in the sky over
open water. Sometimes found
well north of its usual Florida
and Gulf Coast range,
especially after hurricanes, and
a few wander inland every year.
ANHINGA 1
square-tipped,
broader tail;
see p.114
INFLATED POUCH
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ANHINGA 2
long tail
silvery gray
markings
pale
front
shorter
wings
Length 3ft 3in (100cm)
Weight 39 60oz (1.11.7kg)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
108
WHERE
NOTES

Family Pelecanidae
Species Pelecanus erythrorhynchos
American White Pelican

black outer
wing feathers
yellowish
throat pouch
huge,
orange bill
white head
orange throat
pouch
orangeyellow
straight
bill
duller
yellow bill
ridge
on bill
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
ADULT (WINTER)
variable grayish
black on head
and nape
all-white
plumage
ADULT (POSTBREEDING)
ADULT
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: once in flight, alternates strong but

shallow beats with glides; soars in flocks.
bright orange
toes
his enormous, unmistakable

white bird, with its distinctive,
oversized bill, is a highly social
inhabitant of large lakes and marshes in
western North America. It is a colonial bird,
with most of the worlds population being
concentrated in a handful of large colonies in
isolated wetland complexes in deserts and prairies.
The American White Pelican forms foraging flocks,
which beat their wings in coordinated movements to drive
fish into shallow water, where they can be caught more easily.
VOICE Usually silent except around nesting colonies; around
the nest, young and adults exchange various grunts and hisses.
NESTING Depression in the ground, both sexes incubate;
FEEDING Mainly gulps down small fish, occasionally eats small
amphibians and crayfish.
LARGE COLONIES
The White Pelican is highly social and is usually

seen feeding or roosting in large groups.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WOOD STORK
see p.90
bare
head
BROWN
PELICAN
Breeds on islands in freshwater

lakes in south-central Canada,
intermontane areas of the
western US, and in coastal
northeastern Mexico; an early
spring migrant, often returning
to breeding grounds in early
March. Winters in coastal regions
from California and Texas to
Mexico and Central America.
gray bill
see p.110
curved bill
dark
underparts
long
thin
legs
Length 414512 ft (1.31.7m)
Social Colonies
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
109

Family Pelecanidae
Species Pelecanus occidentalis
Brown Pelican
head
mainly
white
ADULT
cream
forehead
and
crown
dark stripe
on nape
whitish
underparts
variable red
on throat
IN FLIGHT
bulky
and dark
unmarked
brownish
upperparts
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
JUVENILE
huge bill
long neck
extensive white
on wings
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ADULT
(POSTBREEDING)
ADULT
(BREEDING)
black feet
FLIGHT: flies low over surface of the water;
alternates glides with wing beats.
his huge and conspicuous inhabitant of warm

coastal regions is an ungainly species on land but is
amazingly graceful in flight. Sadly, numbers plummeted in the
1960s when DDT was used widely as a pesticide, but it rapidly
recovered in recent decades, and is now expanding its range
northward along both coasts. The color of its throat varies
according to geographic location and time of year.
VOICE Silent most of the time; vocal at nest colonies; adults
and juveniles communicate with grunts and hisses; courting
birds give a strange, deliberate heart-hark, repeated slowly.
NESTING Pile of debris, usually on ground; 23 eggs; 1 brood;
FebruaryAugust.
FEEDING Adults plunge headfirst into water to scoop up fish near
the surface; does not herd fish, like the American White Pelican.
RESTING TOGETHER
Brown Pelicans are social most of the year, and can

often be seen roosting in groups.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-FOOTED
ALBATROSS
AMERICAN WHITE
PELICAN
see p.109
short bill
Found in and around warm

coastal waters, flying above
the waters surface over the
cresting waves; small numbers
breed in the interior US;
individuals and small flocks
can be found around docks
and marinas.
orange
bill
white
plumage
long,
pointed
wings
Length 4414ft (1.21.3m)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
110
WHERE
NOTES

Family Sulidae
Northern Gannet
yellow tinge to
back of head
Species Morus bassanus
upper wings and

white back mottled
with black
dark brown
overall
black
wing
tip
IMMATURE
(1ST YEAR)
ADULT
black wing
tip
light blue
eye
IMMATURE
(3RD YEAR)
pointed
gray bill
white
upperparts
long,
pointed
wing
yellow-orange
nape
IN FLIGHT
black-and-white
mottled
upperparts
white
underparts
ADULT
pointed
tail
IMMATURE (2ND YEAR)
FLIGHT: strong, direct flight with deep,
powerful wing beats and short glides.
he Northern Gannet is known for its spectacular headfirst

dives during frantic, voracious foraging in flocks of hundreds
to thousands for surface-schooling fish. This bird nests in just six
locations in northeastern Canada. The Northern Gannet was the
first species to have its total world population estimated, at
83,000 birds in 1939. Numbers have since increased.
VOICE Loud landing call by both sexes arrrr, arrah, or urrah rah
rah; hollow groan oh-ah uttered during take-off; krok call at sea.
NESTING Large pile of mud, seaweed, and rubbish, glued with
guano, on bare rock or soil; 1 egg; 1 brood; AprilNovember.
FEEDING Plunge-dives headfirst into water and often swims
underwater to catch fish; eats mackerel, herring, capelin, and cod.
NESTING SITE
Northern Gannets prefer to nest in huge, noisy

colonies on isolated rocky slopes or cliffs.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LAYSAN
ALBATROSS
MASKED black
BOOBY
mask
see p.471
more
rounded
tail
white
underwing
with black
patches
pinkish
bill
long,
pointed
wings
Breeds on isolated rock stacks,

on small uninhabited islands
in the eastern North Atlantic,
or on steep, inaccessible
cliffs in marine areas of
northeastern North America;
during migration and in winter,
occurs in the waters of
the continental shelf of the
Gulf and Atlantic coast.
yellow
bill
black
inner
wing
feathers
Length 234 312ft (0.81.1m)
Social Flocks
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
111

Family Phalacrocoracidae
Species Phalacrocorax auritus
Double-crested Cormorant
no crest
ADULT
(BREEDING)
bluish eye
pale neck
and breast
long neck
orange
facial skin
white crest
JUVENILE
pale throat
and chest
bluish
eye
orange
facial
skin
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
P. a. cincinatus
(WESTERN; BREEDING)
black
underparts
FLIGHT: regular wing beats, occasional glides;
over water, flies close to the surface; often soars.
he most widespread of the North

American cormorants, this species
often flies high over land in V-shaped
flocks, but is mostly seen swimming
with its head and neck visible, or
resting on trees and rocks, sometimes with its wings spread. It dives
from the surface of the water and chases fish underwater, using its
webbed toes for propulsion.
VOICE Deep gruntlike calls while nesting, roosting, and fishing;
t-t-t-t call before taking off and urg-urg-urg before landing;
prolonged arr-r-r-r-r-t-t while mating, and eh-hr as threat.
NESTING Nests of twigs and sticks, seaweed, and trash, lined with
grass; on ground, cliffs, or in trees; 3-5 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Pursues slow-moving or schooling fish; feeds on
insects, crustaceans, amphibians, and, rarely, on voles and snakes.
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
DRYING OFF
Like all cormorants, the Double-crested usually

perches with wings spread, to dry its feathers.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BRANDTS
CORMORANT
Breeds in a wide range of

aquatic habitats, including
ponds, artificial and natural
lakes, slow-moving rivers,
estuaries, lagoons, and
seashores; winters on
coastlines and sandbars
in coastal inlets; roosts near
catfish farms in some areas.
NEOTROPIC
CORMORANT
throat
see p.447
pouch
paler and
less visible
shorter
body
longer
tail
Wingspan 312 4ft (1.1 1.2m)
Weight 234 512lb (1.22.5kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
112
WHERE
NOTES

Family Phalacrocoracidae
Great Cormorant
Species Phalacrocorax carbo
thick bill
with
hooked
tip
large head with

flat forehead
JUVENILE
orange-yellow
patch of skin
near bill
whitish
gray belly
ADULT
neck
kinked
in flight
white
throat
long,
black neck
brown
neck
mostly white
underparts
outstretched
head
glossy black
underparts
with greenish
scalloping
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
long body
with glossy
black
upperparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: regular, shallow wing beats; sometimes
short, black legs

and webbed feet
glides and soars; flocks often fly in V-shape.
s its name suggests, the Great Cormorant is

the largest of the North American cormorants
and is also the most widely distributed cormorant
species in the world. It sometimes breeds in mixed
colonies with Double-crested Cormorants. From
a distance, the two can be confused, especially
outside breeding areas. However, Great Cormorants
can be distinguished by their stouter bill, larger size,
long,
and their white throat when breeding. It is a coastal
broad tail
species in North America, but in Europe, it is more
likely to be found inland. Like other cormorants, its plumage retains water,
which effectively reduces buoyancy so that it is able to dive more easily.
The Great Cormorant can dive to depths of 115ft (35m) to catch prey.
VOICE Deep, guttural calls at nesting and roosting site; otherwise silent.
NESTING Mound of seaweed, sticks, and debris added to previous
years nest, built on cliff ledges and flat tops of rocks above high-water
mark on islands; 35
SIMILAR SPECIES
eggs; 1 brood;
AprilAugust.
DOUBLE-CRESTED
CORMORANT
FEEDING Dives to
see p.112
pursue fish and small
thinner
bill
crustaceans; smaller
prey swallowed
underwater, while
larger prey brought
to surface.
RARE EVENT
Great Cormorants usually nest

on sea cliffs; tree breeding is
rare in North America.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds on cliff ledges of

islands along rocky coasts in
northeastern US and Maritimes
of Canada; feeds in protected
inshore waters. Winters in
shallow coastal waters similar
to breeding habitat, but not
restricted to rocky shoreline;
winter habitat extends to
the Carolinas in the US.
Wingspan 414 514ft (1.3 1.6m)
Weight 534 814lb (2.6 3.7kg)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
113

Family Anhingidae
Anhinga
brown plumes
on small,
pointed head
long neck
dark
brown
overall
FEMALE
pale tan
neck and
head
JUVENILE
Species Anhinga anhinga

daggerlike bill
blotchy, silverwhite markings

on upperparts
dark
underwings
IN FLIGHT
MALE
long
tail
black
underparts
variable white
upperparts
long tail with

horizontal ridges
pale
tan
breast
and
neck
FEMALE
his resident of the Southeast coastal plain, locally called

Water Turkey, may be found swimming in murky swamps,
roosting on tall trees, or soaring high overhead.The Anhinga
is also known as the snake birda reference to its habit of
swimming with its body immersed so deeply that only its long,
thin, sinuous neck, pointed head, and sharp bill stick out above
the water. Although they superficially resemble cormorants, the
two species of Anhingas differ in many waysparticularly their
long tails with unusual horizontal ridges.
VOICE Silent most of the time, but pairs may give various calls
around nest; these vocalizations consist of soft rattles and trills,
but are sometimes quite noisy, repeated Krah-Krah.
NESTING Loose platform of sticks in trees above water;
35 eggs; 1 brood; FebruaryJune.
FEEDING Jabs suddenly with its dagger-like bill, mostly for fish
in calm freshwater habitats; also eats insects and shrimp.
FLIGHT: strong flier; neck and tail outstretched
and wings held flat; often soars.
HANGING OUT TO DRY
Anhingas do not have waterproof plumage and

so spend a lot of time drying off their wings.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
DOUBLE-CRESTED
CORMORANT
see p.112
An inhabitant of southeastern
wetlands south all the way
to Argentina. Greatest
concentrations in wooded
wetlands, calm waters in
swamps; often also seen in
habitats far from open water.
The second species occurs
in the Old World tropics.
DOUBLE-CRESTED
CORMORANT 5
hooked
bill
see p.112
dark
upperwings
shorter
tail
shorter
tail
Length 35in (89cm)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
114
WHERE
NOTES
Families Cathartidae, Falconidae, Accipitridae
BIRDS OF PREY
T
HE DEFINING FEATURES of
birds of prey,
or raptors, are strong feet with sharp
talons for catching and holding prey, and a
powerful, hooked bill for tearing the catch
to pieces.Vultures eat carrion not live prey.
VULTURES
Of the seven New World species of vulture, three
occur in North America: the Black Vulture, the
Turkey Vulture, which has an acute sense of smell
that enables it to detect carrion hidden from sight
beneath the forest
canopy, and the rare
California Condor,
the continents largest
soaring land bird. All
three can stay in the air
for hours on end, using
the lift provided by
WEAK TOOL
updrafts to minimize
In spite of its sharp beak, the
the energy spent on
Turkey Vulture cannot always
wing flapping.
break the skin of carcasses.
FALCONS
Ranging in size from the diminutive American
Merlin, with northern breeding habitats, to
the large, powerful Gyrfalcon, which nests
in the Arctic, this group also includes the Kestrel,
the Prairie Falcon, and perhaps the best-known
raptor of allthe fast-diving Peregrine Falcon.
Falcon prey ranges from insects to large
mammals and birds.
EAGLES AND HAWKS

This group covers a wide range of raptors
of varying sizes, from the the iconic Bald Eagle
and the majestic Golden Eagle to smaller birds,
such as the Northern Harrier, and various hawks
and kites. These birds use a wide range of hunting
methods. For example, forest-dwelling hawks
rely on speed and stealth to pounce on small
birds among the trees in a sudden, short dash.
By contrast, the Osprey hovers over water until
it sees a fish below, then dives steeply, pulling up
at the last moment to pluck its prey clean out
of the water with its talons.
DOUBLE SHOT
When there are lots of

fish running in a tight
school, the Osprey has
the strength and skill to
catch two with one dive.
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Cathartidae
Turkey Vulture
long
wings
blackish back
feathers, edged
brown
Species Cathartes aura
brownish
gray head
naked
skin
small, red
head
silvery gray
flight feathers
brownish
back
ADULT
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
SUB-ADULT
long tail
black underparts
pink legs
FLIGHT: seldom flaps; mostly soars with wings
held in a V-shape, gently tipping from side to side.
he most widely distributed vulture in North America, the

Turkey Vulture is found in most of the US and has expanded
its range into southern Canada. It possesses a better sense of
smell than the Black Vulture, which often follows it and displaces
it from carcasses. The Turkey Vultures habit of defecating down
its legs, which it shares with the Wood Stork, may serve to cool
it or to kill bacteria with its ammonia content.
VOICE Silent, but will hiss at intruders; also grunts.
NESTING Dark recesses, such as under large rocks or stumps,
on rocky ledges in caves, and crevices, in mammal burrows and
hollow logs, and abandoned buildings; 13 eggs; 1 brood;
MarchAugust.
SIMILAR SPECIES
FEEDING Feeds on
a wide range of wild
BLACK
VULTURE
and domestic carrion,
see p.117
mostly mammals,
also birds, reptiles,
allamphibians, and fish;
black
shorter
occasionally takes live
body
tail
prey such as nestlings
or trapped birds.
SOAKING UP THE SUN
Turkey Vultures often spread their wings to sun

themselves and increase their body temperature.
OCCURRENCE
Generally forages and migrates

over mixed farmland and forest;
prefers to nest in forested or
partly forested hillsides offering
hidden ground protected from
disturbance; roosts in large trees
such as cottonwoods, on rocky
outcrops, and on power line
transmission towers; some winter
in urban areas and near landfills.
Weight 412lb (2kg)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
116
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Cathartidae
Black Vulture
Species Coragyps atratus

naked, wrinkled,
gray skin
yellowish tip of bill
silvery white
patch on
wing
broad wings,
spread at roost
ADULT
short,
rounded
tail
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
black upperparts
black
underparts
ADULT
FLIGHT: rapid wing beats followed by glides
on flat wings; soars using rising air currents.

long, grayish
legs and feet
ommon in the southern and

eastern states, the Black Vulture is often
seen in large communal roosts in the evening.
Communal roosts act as meeting places
for adults and young, and possibly serve as
information centers, where food locations
are communicated. Maintaining long
pair-bonds, Black Vultures remain together year-round.
According to one study, parents will continue to feed their
young for as long as eight months after fledging. When not feeding
on roadkills along highways, Black Vultures spend time soaring
above the landscape, in search of carrion.
VOICE Usually silent; hisses and barks occasionally.
NESTING No nest; lays eggs on ground in thickets
or under stumps, in piles of rocks, seldom in old
buildings; 2 eggs; 1 brood; JanuaryAugust.
FEEDING Generally eats carrion (mostly large
mammals) on the ground; also consumes live prey.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
TURKEY VULTURE
red
head
see p.116
TURKEY
VULTURE 5
see p.116
brownish
head
brownish
body
long tail
DOMINANT SCAVENGER
The more aggressive Black

Vultures often displace the
Turkey Vultures at carcasses.
Breeds in dense woodlands,

caves, old buildings; forms
roosts in stands of tall trees;
forages in open habitats and
near roads and highways;
year-round resident
throughout its range in
southern and eastern states.
Range expanding in the
northeastern US.
Weight 312 5lb (1.6 2.2kg)
Social Loose colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
117
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Falconidae
Species Falco sparverius
American Kestrel
rufous
upperparts
dark barring or spots

on blue-gray wings
gray crown with

reddish cap
light
undertail with
partial barring
small head
FEMALE
MALE
bold
mustache
light
undertail
feathers
long wings
spotted
underparts
MALE
dark, outer
flight feathers
IN FLIGHT
tan to
cinnamon
breast
yellow to
yellowish orange
legs and toes
barred,
rufous
upperparts
heavy
checks
on belly
IMMATURE
MALE
FEMALE
dark, barred,
rufous tail
he smallest of the North American falcons, the American

Kestrel features long pointed wings, a tooth and notch
bill structure, and the dark brown eyes typical of falcons, though
kestrels have shorter toes than other falcons. This may be due to
the fact that kestrels often dive into long grass to capture insects
and small mammals, which would be more difficult with long,
thin toes. Male and female American Kestrels show differences
in plumage, and also in size.
VOICE Common call a high-pitched killy-killy-killy.
NESTING Natural cavities, crevices, holes in dead trees,
woodpeckers holes, crevices in barns, man-made nest boxes if
constructed and located properly; 45 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJune.
FEEDING Plunges for grasshoppers and crickets in spring and
summer; small birds and mice in fall and winter; lizards and snakes.
FLIGHT: delicate and almost moth-like; may
hover in one place for long, searching for prey.
HIGH FLIER
A male American Kestrel hovers over a field, its sharp

eyes scanning the ground for insects and rodents.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
From near the northern tree

line in Alaska and Canada
south, east, and west
throughout most of North
America. Occurs also in
Central and South America.
Habitat ranges from semiopen tree groves to grasslands,
cultivated and fallow farmland,
and open desert.
no distinct SHARP-SHINNED
stripes on HAWK 5
head
see p.129
MERLIN
see p.119
brownish
upperparts
darker
belly
longer
toes
Length 9in (23cm)
Weight 312 4oz (100125g)
Lifespan 1015 years
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
118
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Falconidae
Merlin
Species Falco columbarius

dark
brown
eye
blue-gray or
gray barring
on square tail
small, fairly
square head
dark head
blue-gray
or gray
upperparts
indistinct
mustache
MALE
white
band at
tail tip
FEMALE
brown
upperparts
short, pointed,
angular wings
IN FLIGHT
brown
streaking on
underparts
dark tail with

horizontal
barring
FEMALE
buff
undertail
feathers
dark brown tail with

less bold, buff barring
yellow legs
and feet
MALE
FLIGHT: powerful, strong, and fast; can
abruptly turn to the left or right in pursuit of prey.
erlins are small, fast-flying falcons that were formerly known

as pigeon hawks, because their shape and flight are similar
to those strong fliers. Merlins can overtake and capture a wide
variety of prey. They can turn on a dime, and use their long, thin
toes, typical of falcons, to pluck birds from the air after launching
a direct attack. Males are smaller than females, and different in
color. Both males and females show geographical color variations.
VOICE Male call a high-pitched ki-ki-ki-ki; female call
a low-pitched kek-ek-ek-ek-ek.
NESTING Small scrapes on ground in open country, or
abandoned nests of other species, such as crows, in forested areas;
46 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJune.
FEEDING Catches small birds in midair, and occasionally birds
as large as doves; also feeds on small mammals, including bats.
ABOUT TO ROUSE
An adult female Merlin sits on a moss-covered rock,

about to rouse, or fluff out and shake her feathers.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
AMERICAN KESTREL
Breeds from northern

California east to
Newfoundland, and south
to Louisiana, Texas, and
Mexico. Merlins can be seen
hunting along coastlines,
over marshlands and open
fields, and in desert areas.
Eastern birds migrate to
southern areas.
SHARP-SHINNED
HAWK
see p.118
see p.129
cinnamon
anks
tan
breast
rounder
wings
barred
underparts
longer tail
Length 10in (25cm)
Lifespan 10 15 years
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
119
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Falconidae
Species Falco rusticolus
Gyrfalcon
pointed tips
almost
completely
white
yellow patch of
skin near bill
JUVENILE
(GRAY FORM)
ADULT
(DARK
FORM)
dark
brown iris
paler
upperparts
with brown
barring
dark brown to
black all over
gray, barred
upperparts
darker
wing
linings
heavily
streaked
head
paler flight feathers

yellow
bill
blue bill
with
dark tip
ADULT
(WHITE
FORM)
IN FLIGHT
lighter
underparts
with spots
yellow toes
and legs
ADULT
(GRAY FORM)
ADULT
(GRAY FORM)
long,
barred
tail
rctic-bred, the Gyrfalcon is used to harsh

environments. It is the largest of all
the falcons and one of the most majestic
species of bird in the world. For
centuries, the Gyrfalcon has been
sought by both the nobility and
falconers for its power, beauty, and gentle nature; today, it is also
the mascot of the US Air Force Academy. It uses its speed to
pursue prey in a tail chase, sometimes striking its quarry on
the ground, but also in flight. Three forms are known, ranging
from almost pure white to gray and dark.
VOICE Loud, harsh KYHa-KYHa-KYHa.
NESTING Scrape on cliff, or old Common Ravens nests;
27 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Feeds mostly on large birds such as ptarmigan,
pigeons, grouse; may also hunt mammals, such as lemmings.
FLIGHT: powerful and direct; continuous,
rapid, stiff wing beats.
SNOWY PLUMAGE
A Gyrfalcon stands on an Arctic hillside. From a

distance, it might be mistaken for a patch of snow.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PRAIRIE FALCON
light, sandy
brown
upperparts;
see p.121
PEREGRINE
FALCON
see p.122
light,
brown-spotted
underparts
Found in Arctic North America.

Sometimes found in northern
regions of the US. A truly Arctic
species found in the most
barren regions of the tundra,
high mountains and foothills
of the tundra, and Arctic and
sub-Arctic evergreen forests
and woodlands. Not common
outside its breeding range.
dark
hood
on head
smaller
overall
light, barred
underparts
Length 22in (56cm)
Wingspan 4ft (1.2m)
Weight 234 4lb (1.2 1.8kg)
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
120
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Falconidae
Prairie Falcon
longish
tail
yellow patch
of skin
near bill
yellow eye-ring
light head and
mustache
long, pointed
wings
ADULT
Species Falco mexicanus
light, sandy brown

upperparts with
incomplete barring
white cheek
distinctive, triangleshaped patch on

wingpit feathers
light underparts
with brown spots
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
yellow legs
and toes
light undertail
feathers
rairie Falcons are light-colored, buoyant residents of the arid

regions of North America. They blend in well with their
surroundings (cliff faces and dry grass), where they are invisible
to their prey. Prairie Falcons chase their prey close to the ground
and do not often dive or stoop on prey from a great height.
Ground squirrels are important prey items in some areas, and
breeding is often linked with the squirrels emergence. The sexes
are very similar in coloration, though juveniles have a streaked
rather than spotted breast. The underwing pattern with almost
black feathers in the wingpits is distinctive; no other North
American falcon shows this mark.
VOICE Repeated shrill kik-kik-kik-kik-kik.
NESTING Slight, shallow scrapes, almost always located
on high cliff ledges or bluffs; 36 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Feeds on small to medium-sized birds and
small mammals, such as ground squirrels.
FLIGHT: fast flight; capable of soaring and
diving; usually chases prey low above the ground.
STRIKING MUSTACHE
An inquisitive Prairie Falcon stares at the camera.

The white cheek is obvious from this angle.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MERLIN
PEREGRINE
FALCON 5
see p.119
Interior North America, from

central British Columbia east
to western North Dakota and
south to southern California,
and Mexico, Arizona, northern
Texas. Found in open plains,
prairies, and grasslands, dotted
with buttes or cliffs. A partial
migrant, it moves east of its
breeding range in winter.
darker
head
see p.122
smaller
overall
streaked
underparts
heavily
streaked
underparts
yellow or
bluish gray
legs and toes
Length 16in (41cm)
Wingspan 314 (1m)
Weight 22 30oz (625 850g)
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
121
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Falconidae
Peregrine Falcon
long, pointed
wings
short
tail
streaked
underparts
Species Falco peregrinus

yellow
eye-ring
dark hood
on head
brown
upperparts
bluish gray
upperparts
ADULT
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
dark
spots on
light buff
breast
light yellow
or bluish gray
legs and toes
barred
underwings
barred
undertail
feathers
prominent
dark mustache light underparts
with horizontal
barring
ADULT
ADULT
yellow toes
and legs
FLIGHT: powerful and direct; faster, deeper
wing beats during pursuit; also soars.
eregrine Falcons are distributed worldwide and are longdistance travelersPeregrine means wanderer. It has
been shown to dive from great heights at speeds of up to 200mph
(320kmph)a technique known as stooping. Like all true falcons,
this species has a pointed tooth on its upper beak and a notch
on the lower one, and it instinctively bites the neck of captured prey
to kill it. From the 1950s1980s, its breeding ability was reduced
by the insecticide DDT, which resulted in thin eggshells that could
easily be crushed by the parent. Peregrines were then bred in
captivity, and later released into the wild.Their status is now secure.
VOICE Sharp hek-hek-hek when alarmed.
NESTING Shallow scrape on cliff or building (nest sites are used
year after year); 25 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJune.
FEEDING Dives on preybirds of various sizes in flight; now
feeds on pigeons in cities.
PARENTAL CARE
An adult Peregrine gently feeds a hatchling bits of

meat; the remaining egg is likely to hatch soon.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GYRFALCON
see p.120
larger
and
stockier
longer
tail
less
dened
hood
PRAIRIE FALCON
see p.121
A variety of habitats
across northern North America,
ranging from open valleys
to cities with tall buildings.
Peregrines prefer to inhabit cliffs
along sea coasts, in addition
to inland mountain ranges, but
also occur in open country such
as scrubland and salt marshes.
lighter
head
color
light sandy
brown
upperparts
Length 16in (41cm)
Weight 2235oz (620 1,000g)
Lifespan 1520 years
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
122
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Pandion haliaetus
Osprey
wing tips
at slight
backward
angle
crest on head
wings bowed
while soaring
dark band
running
across wing
black
bill
speckled
chest
barred
tail
ADULT
ADULT
black eye
stripe
black mask
on face
finely barred
underwings
IN FLIGHT
dark brown
upperparts
white
underparts
pale gray
legs and
feet
ADULT
FLIGHT: stiff wing beats interspersed with
glides; occasionally soars on migration.
ometimes referred to as the fish hawk or fish eagle, the

Osprey is the only bird of prey in North America that feeds
almost exclusively on live fish. Sharp spicules (tiny, spike-like
growths) on the pads of its feet, its reversible outer toes, and an
ability to lock its talons in place enable it to hold onto slippery fish.
Some populations declined between the 1950s and 1980s due to
the use of dangerous pesticides. However, the ban on use of these
chemicals, along with availability of artificial nest sites and a tolerance
of nearby human activity has allowed the Osprey to return to its
former numbers.The Osprey is Nova Scotias official bird.
VOICE Slow, whistled notes, falling in pitch: tiooop, tioooop, tiooop;
also screams by displaying male.
NESTING Twig nest on tree, cliff, rock pinnacles, boulders,
ground; 14 eggs; 1 brood; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Dives to catch fish up to top 3ft (90cm) of water.
IMPROVING AERODYNAMICS
Once caught, a fish is held with its head pointing

forward reducing drag as the bird flies.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BALD EAGLE (2ND YEAR)
GOLDEN EAGLE
see p.127
see p.137
Breeds in a wide variety of

habitats: northern forests,
near shallow reservoirs,
along freshwater rivers and
large lakes, estuaries and
salt marshes, coastal deserts
and desert saltflat lagoons.
Migrates through and
winters in similar habitats.
dark brown
head
no crook in wings
during ight
brown,
feathered
legs
paler tail
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
123
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Elanoides forficatus
Swallow-tailed Kite
thin,
black
sharply
hooked
bill
white head
and underparts
long, pointed
black-and-white
wings
ADULT
black
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
deeply
forked tail
he Swallow-tailed Kite is easy to

identify due to its black-and-white
plumage, deeply forked tail, and
amazingly graceful flight. Rarely
flapping its wings, it continuously
rotates its tail to maintain its
course or make sharp turns and
circles. Unlike most of the
soaring hawks, the Swallowtailed Kite can hang
motionless into the wind. This species lives in the southeastern
US and migrates to South America. In their loose colonies of
several pairs, nonbreeding birds associate with nesters.
VOICE Loud klee-klee-klee given by both sexes when excited or
alarmed; a drawn-out tew-whee given during courtship.
NESTING Lined cup of small sticks, mostly in tall pine but also
cypress and mangroves; 2 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJune.
FEEDING Feeds mainly on flying insects; also eats frogs, lizards,
snakes, nestlings, and occasionally bats, fruit, and small fish.
FLIGHT: graceful, buoyant flight when soaring
or hanging in the wind; often direct flapping.
AERIAL SNACK
Swallow-tailed Kites commonly eat smaller prey,

such as insects, while on the wing.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WHITE-TAILED
KITE
see p.125
red
eye
SWAINSONS HAWK
(LIGHT FORM)
In swamps, lowland forests,

freshwater and brackish
marshes of Florida and the
southeastern US; avoids arid
areas. Needs tall trees for
nesting, with open areas
for foraging for small prey
nearby. Tropical populations
are found from Central
America south to Argentina.
streaked
head
see p.134
gray
back
square
tail
Wingspan 4ft (1.2m)
Weight 1321oz (375600g)
Social Colonies
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
124
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Elanus leucurus

white head
and neck
White-tailed Kite
orange eye
pale eye
dark gray
wing tips
splashes of
sandy rufous
around neck
and breast
thin, shapely
black bill
ADULT
square or
notched tail
tip
dark wrist
mark
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
dusky wing
tips
FLIGHT: fast, shallow wing beats interspersed
gray upperparts,
black triangle
on shoulder
dusky gray
wing tips
whitish
underside
with glides; hovers with tail down.
ormerly known as the Blackshouldered Kite, the White-tailed

Kite almost disappeared from North
America due to hunting and eggcollecting, but its numbers have
rebounded in California. It is also
found in Oregon, Washington, Florida,
southern Texas, and from Mexico to Central
and South America. These birds can be easily identified by their
falcon-like shape, gray-and-white plumage, and hovering
behavior when hunting for rodents in open grasslands. When
not breeding, White-tailed Kites roost communally in groups
of about 100. The species is largely sedentary, but dispersal takes
place after breeding, especially of young birds.
VOICE Whistle-like kewt and an eee-grack call.
NESTING Twig nest lined with grass or hay; 4 eggs; 12 broods;
FebruaryAugust.
FEEDING Captures rodents such as voles and field mice; also
birds, lizards, and insects from a hovering position.
ADULT
white sided
tail
A HIGH PERCH IS BEST
The White-tailed Kite likes to perch as high up in

trees as possible.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MISSISSIPPI KITE
see p.126
darker
body
deep
red
eyes
dark
grayish
wings
Limited range in the US, breeds

and winters in a restricted
range; found in open grassland
areas, and over large
agricultural fields, as well as in
rough wetlands with low, reedy,
or rushy growth, open oak
woodland and light savanna
woods. Especially fond of
damp, riverside areas.
NORTHERN
HARRIER 2
see p.128
marked
underparts
Wingspan 3ft 3in312ft (11.1m)
Weight 1112oz (300350g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
125
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Ictinia mississippiensis
Mississippi Kite
white patch
on inner
wing feathers
brick-red eye
pale gray head

with conspicuous
dark eye patch
ADULT
unbarred,
black tail
dark gray
upperparts
flecked,
brownish
gray overall
brownish
upperparts
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
long wings
SUB-ADULT
FLIGHT: regular wing beats interspersed with
glides; often soars with flight feathers extended.
he Mississippi Kite is locally abundant and nests in colonies

in the central and southern Great Plains, but is less common
and less colonial in the southeastern US. Foraging flocks of 25
or more individuals are common, and groups of ten or more
roost near nests. In the West, the species nests in urban habitats,
including city parks and golf courses. These urban birds can
be aggressive, even attacking humans who venture too close
to their nest. This graceful bird pursues its insect prey in flight.
Mississippi Kites are long-distance migrants, wintering in
South America.
VOICE High-pitched phee-phew; also multisyllabled phee-ti-ti.
NESTING Circular to oval nest of dead twigs, built in dead
or well-foliaged tree; 13 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Eats medium to large insects; also frogs, toads, lizards,
box turtles, snakes, small birds, terrestrial mammals, and bats.
HIGH FLYING
Despite their falcon-like shape, these birds spend

much of their time soaring, rather than perched.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PEREGRINE
FALCON
see p.122
larger
overall
dark
head
In the East, mostly mature

bottomland forest or riverside
woodland with open habitat
nearby for foraging. Birds in
the central and southern
Great Plains prefer areas
with numerous shelterbelts
(windbreaks). Western birds
use both rural woodland and
suburban or urban habitat.
WHITE-TAILED KITE
see p.125
prominent
black
mustache
dark
shoulder
patch
white
underparts
Weight 8 14oz (225 400g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
126
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Bald Eagle
JUVENILE
ADULT
dark
head
white
head
brown
body
dark brown
eyes
white belly and

underwings
mottled brown
dark
brown
overall
pure white
head with
yellow eyes
yellow,
hooked
bill
IMMATURE
(2ND YEAR)
dark bill
starting to
turn yellow
at base
white
tail
IN FLIGHT
dark eyestripe
on whitish face
IMMATURE
(1ST YEAR)
dark chocolatebrown overall
IMMATURE
(3RD YEAR)
FLIGHT: slow, powerful wing beats; soars and
yellow legs
and toes
long, wedgeshaped,
white tail
glides on broad, wide wings held at a right angle.
he Bald Eagle was selected by an act of Congress

in 1782 as the national emblem of the US. With
its white head and tail, this large bird of prey, although
an opportunist, prefers to scavenge on carrion and steal
prey from other birds, including Ospreys. It was nearing
extinction because the use of DDT led to reproductive
failure. Declared endangered in 1967, the birds population
has since rebounded.
VOICE Suprisingly high-pitched voice, 34 notes followed
by a rapidly descending series.
NESTING Huge stick nest, usually in tallest tree;
13 eggs; 1 brood; MarchSeptember.
FEEDING Favors carrion, especially fish, also eats
birds, mammals, reptiles; steals fish from Osprey.
ADULT
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GOLDEN EAGLE 5
FERRUGINOUS HAWK
dark head;
see p.449
white in flight feathers;

whitish see p.137
underparts
SUBSTANTIAL ABODE
Bald eagles make the largest

stick nest of all raptors; it can
weigh up to two tons.
feathered
legs
Widespread across Canada

and much of the US. Breeds in
forested areas near water; also
shoreline areas ranging from
undeveloped to relatively welldeveloped with marked human
activity; winters along major
river systems and in coastal
areas and occasionally even in
arid regions of southwest US.
Wingspan 612ft (2m)
Weight 612 14lb (3 6.5kg)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
127
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Circus cyaneus
Northern Harrier
MALE
black
wing tips
FEMALE
bluish gray
head
dark barring on
silver-gray underwings
wings held
in V-shape
dark bill with

yellow shin at
base of bill
white rump
reddish
underparts
bluish gray
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
white ring
around
face
brown
upperparts
gray uppertail with

light undertail
feathers
white
underparts with
reddish brown
markings
ADULT
MALE
FEMALE
ound nearly all over

North America, the
Northern Harrier is most
often seen flying buoyantly low
in search of food. A white rump, V-shaped
wings, and tilting flight make this species easily identifiable. The
blue-gray males are quite different to the dark-brown females.
The birds most recognizable characteristic is its owl-like face,
which contains stiff feathers to help channel in sounds from prey.
Northern Harriers are highly migratory throughout their range.
VOICE Call given by both sexes in rapid succession at nest: kek
becomes more high-pitched when intruders are spotted.
NESTING Platform of sticks on ground in open, wet field;
FEEDING Mostly hunts rodents like mice and muskrats; also
birds, frogs, reptiles; occasionally takes larger prey such as rabbits.
FLIGHT: low and slow with lazy flaps,
alternating with buoyant, brusquely tilting glides.
WATERY DWELLING
To avoid predators, Northern Harriers prefer to raise

their young on wet sites in tall, dense vegetation.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Breeds in a variety of open

wetlands: marshes, meadows,
pastures, fallow fields across
most of North America;
winters in open habitats
like deserts, coastal sand
dunes, cropland, grasslands,
marshy, and riverine areas.
ROUGH-LEGGED HAWK
MISSISSIPPI KITE
dark eye
see p.136
patch
see p.126
whitish
head
broader
wings
gray
underparts
shorter
tail
Wingspan 312 4ft (1.1m1.2m)
Weight 1126oz (300750g)
Social Solitary/Pairs/Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
128
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Accipiter striatus
Sharp-shinned Hawk
short,
rounded
wings
squaretipped
tail
grayish blue
upperparts
reddish
yellow eye
slightly browner
upperparts
than male
head
appears
small
JUVENILE
grayish blue crown
yellow legs
and toes
wide, dark,
horizontal
bars on
gray tail
IN FLIGHT
MALE
light
yellowish
eye
dark brown
upperparts
reddish brown
bars on
underparts
wide, brown
streaks on
underparts
ADULT
white, fluffy
undertail
feathers
FEMALE
JUVENILE FEMALE
his small and swift hawk is quite adept at capturing birds,

occasionally even taking species larger than itself. The
Sharp-shinned Hawks short, rounded wings and long tail allow
it to make abrupt turns and lightning-fast dashes in thick woods
and dense shrubby terrain. With needle-like talons, long, spindlethin legs, and long toes, this hawk is well adapted to snatching
birds in flight. The prey is plucked before being consumed or
fed to the nestlings.
VOICE High-pitched, repeated kiu kiu kiu call; sometimes makes
squealing sound when disturbed at nest.
NESTING Sturdy nest of sticks lined with twigs or pieces
of bark; sometimes an old crow or squirrel nest; 34 eggs;
1 brood; MarchJune.
FEEDING Catches small birds, such as sparrows and woodwarblers, on the wing, or takes them unaware while perched.
FLIGHT: rapid, direct, and strong; nimble enough

to maneuver in dense forest; soars during migration.
HUNTING BIRDS
A Sharp-shinned Hawk pauses on the ground

with a freshly captured sparrow in its talons.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MERLIN
COOPERS HAWK
see p.119
see p.130
light
eye-stripe
Deep coniferous forests and

mixed hardwoodconifer
woodlands across North
America from the tree limit in
northern Canada to the Gulf
states. During fall migration
sometimes seen in flocks
of hundreds of individuals.
Winters in Central America
from Guatemala to Panama.
larger
overall
rounded
tip of tail
long, pointed
wings
Length 11in (28cm)
Weight 312 6oz (100175g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
129
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Accipiter cooperii
Coopers Hawk
dark crown
reddish eye
broad, rounded
wings
JUVENILE
long,
barred
tail with
rounded
tip
IN FLIGHT
grayish blue
upperparts
yellowish
eyes
mottled
dark brown
upperparts
light
underparts,
with brown
streaks
brown
tail
yellow legs
and toes
ADULT
grayish blue
overall
JUVENILE
ADULT
gray tail
with wide,
dark bands
FLIGHT: fast with rapid wing beats
interspersed with glides; sometimes soars.
secretive and inconspicuous bird, Coopers Hawk

was named by Charles Bonaparte, nephew of French
Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, for William C. Cooper,
a noted New York naturalist. It is a typical woodland hawk,
capable of quickly maneuvering through dense vegetation.
Although it prefers to stay close to cover, it will venture out in
search of food. Should a human approach the nest of a Coopers
white
band at
Hawk, the brooding adult will quietly glide down and away from
tip of tail
the nest tree rather than attack the intruder.
VOICE Most common call a staccato ca-ca-ca-ca; other vocalizations
include as many as 40 different calls.
NESTING Medium-sized, stick nest, usually in a large deciduous tree;
45 eggs; 1 brood; AprilMay.
FEEDING Catches birds, such as robins and blackbirds; larger females
can capture grouse; also eats chipmunks, small squirrels, and even bats.
larger
overall
Breeds in woodlands across

northern North America,
southern Canada, and the
northern US, south to Florida,
Texas, and northwestern
Mexico. Likes mature deciduous
forests with leaf cover, and also
roosts in conifers. Winters in
southwestern US and Mexico.
SHARP-SHINNED HAWK
see p.129
see p.128
whitish
underparts
squaretipped
tail
This hawk has characteristic fine,

reddish brown, horizontal barring
on its undersides.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
NORTHERN
HARRIER 1
DENSE BARRING
much
smaller
head
Length 15121712in (4045cm)
Weight 1319oz (375 525g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
130
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Northern Goshawk
fairly short,
rounded
wings
barred
underwings
ADULT
JUVENILE
light yellow
iris
speckled
back
buff underparts
with vertical streaks
JUVENILE
conspicuous
white stripe
above eye
slate-gray
upperparts
brown
bars
on tail
long
tail
Species Accipiter gentilis
yellow
to
orange
eye
IN FLIGHT
slate-gray
tail
ADULT
conspicuous
dark barring
on underparts
yellow legs
and feet
FLIGHT: fast, direct flight with swift wing
beats and alternating glides; occasionally soars.
he powerful and agile Northern Goshawk is secretive by nature and not

easily observed, even in regions where it is common. It has few natural
enemies, but will defend its territories, nests, and young fiercely, by repeatedly
diving and screaming at intruders that get too close. Spring hikers and turkeyhunters occasionally discover Northern Goshawks by wandering into their
territory and being driven off by the angry occupants.
VOICE Loud, high-pitched gek-gek-gek when agitated.
NESTING Large stick structures lined with bark and plant matter in the midto lower region of tree; 13 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Sits and waits on perch before diving rapidly; preys on birds as large
as grouse and pheasants; also mammals, including hares and squirrels.
COOPERS HAWK
see p.130
see p.120
longer,
pointed
wings
A juvenile Northern Goshawk

takes advantage of a thermal,
soaring over its territory.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GYRFALCON
(GRAY FORM)
OCCASIONAL SOARER
Breeds in deep deciduous,

coniferous, and mixed
woodlands in northern North
America, from the tundrataiga
border south to California,
northern Mexico, and
Pennsylvania in the eastern US,
absent from east central US.
The Northern Goshawk is
widespread in northern Eurasia.
brownish
upperparts
no streaks on
underparts
streaked
underparts
Length 21in (53cm)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
131
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Buteo lineatus
Red-shouldered Hawk
ADULT
reddish
leading
edge on
wings
gray head with

thin, dark
streaks
brownish
upperparts
mottled
appearance
translucent
patch near
wing tips
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
white spots on
streaked
dark brown
breast
plumage
brown,
barred
tail
dark wing
tips
red
shoulder
patch
IMMATURE
(1ST SPRING)
rufous
head
orangish
breast
black-and-white,
barred tail
reddish
and white
barred breast
whitish
undertail
feathers
ADULT
B. l. elegans
(WESTERN)
ADULT
yellow legs
and feet
FLIGHT: occasional rapid flapping; soars in lazy
circles over treetops with wings and tail spread.
he Red-shouldered Hawk has a remarkable

distribution, with widespread populations in
the East, Northeast, and Midwest then in the West,
from Oregon to Baja California, despite a geographical gap
of 1,000 miles (1,600km) between the two regions. Eastern birds are divided
into four subspecies; western populations belong to the subspecies B. l. elegans.
The red shoulder patches are not always evident, but the striped tail and
translucent windows in the wings are easily identifiable.
VOICE Call a whistled kee-aah, accented on first syllable, descending on second.
NESTING Platform of sticks, dried leaves, bark, moss, and lichens in trees not
far from water; 34 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Catches mice, chipmunks, and voles; also
snakes, toads, frogs, crayfish, and small birds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BROAD-WINGED HAWK 4
see p.133
RED-TAILED no red on
HAWK 5
shoulder
see p.135
chunkier
body
no white
shorter tail
bands
legs
slightly
larger
overall
CHESTNUT WING
When seen from below, the

reddish forewing of this adult
hawk is clearly visible.
Eastern populations breed

in woodlands and forest,
deciduous or mixed, whereas
those in the West occur
in oak woodlands and
eucalyptus groves. In Florida,
this species also lives in
mangroves. Northeastern
birds migrate to Mexico.
Wingspan 3312 ft (0.91.1m)
Weight 1727oz (475775g)
DATE SEEN
132
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Buteo platypterus
Broad-winged Hawk
indistinct mustache
dark border on
edges of wings
one to two
broad, white
bands visible
on tail
ADULT
upperparts
brown with
white flecking
ADULT
JUVENILE
pale tan
wings with
dark tips
IN FLIGHT
pale underparts
with conspicuous,
tear-shaped,
brown spots
pale outer
wing
feathers
finely
barred,
all-brown
tail
short, yellow feet
JUVENILE
IMMATURE
ne of the most numerous of all

North American birds of prey,
the Broad-winged Hawk migrates
in huge flocks or kettles, with
thousands of birds gliding on rising thermals. Some birds winter in
Florida, but the majority average about 70 miles (110km) a day to FLIGHT: circles above forest canopy with wings
log more than 4,000 miles (6,500km) before ending up in Brazil,
and tail spread; short flights from branch to branch.
Bolivia, and even some of the Caribbean islands. Compared to its
two cousins, the Red-shouldered and Red-tailed Hawks, the Broad-winged
Hawk is slightly smaller, but stockier. Adults are easily identified by a broad,
white-and-black band on their tails. Broad-winged Hawks have two color
forms, the light one being more common than the dark, sooty brown one.
VOICE High-pitched peeoweee call, first note shorter and higher-pitched.
NESTING Platform of fresh twigs or dead sticks, often on old squirrel, hawk,
or crow nest in tree; 23 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Eats small mammals, toads, frogs, snakes,
grouse chicks, insects, and spiders; crabs in winter.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RED-SHOULDERED HAWK
RED-TAILED HAWK 5
see p.132
see p.135
larger
overall
thin,
white
bands
on tail
larger
overall
red
patch on
shoulder
more
slender
dark
band on
belly
WATCHING FOR PREY
From an elevated perch, this

hawk scans for vertebrate prey
such as rodents.
Breeds across Canada (but not

the Rockies) and in the eastern
US (not west of the 100th
meridien), in forested areas
with deciduous, conifers, and
mixed trees, with clearings and
water nearby. Concentrations
of migrants can be seen at
bottlenecks such as the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec and Panama.
Weight 1019oz (275550g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
133
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Buteo swainsoni
Swainsons Hawk
long
pointed
wings
dark
wing tips
ADULT
(LIGHT FORM)
JUVENILE
(LIGHT FORM)
whitish
head
white face
and chin
spotted
underparts
JUVENILE
(LIGHT FORM)
dark
chest
slender shape
reddish
overall
breast
and belly
IN FLIGHT
dark brown
head and
breast
ADULT
(INTERMEDIATE
FORM)
pale
reddish
upper
chest
spotted
underparts
white
underbelly
ADULT
(DARK
FORM)
longish tail
wing tips reach
end of tail
when perched
FLIGHT: soaring, buoyant flight with deep
ADULT
(LIGHT FORM)
wing beats; will often hover and hang motionless.
wainsons Hawk is perhaps most famous for its spectacular 6,000-mile

(9,650km) fall migration from the Canadian prairies to the lower regions
of South America, when thousands can be observed soaring in the air at any
one time.While migrating, this hawk averages 125 miles (200km) a day.There
are three color forms: light, dark, and an intermediate form between the two.
VOICE Alarm call a shrill, plaintive scream kreeeee given by both sexes;
high-pitched keeeoooo fading at the end.
NESTING Bulky, flimsy pile of sticks or various
debris, in solitary tree or on utility poles; 14 eggs;
1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Eats ground squirrels, pocket gophers,
mice, voles, bats, rabbits; also snakes, lizards, songbirds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HARRISS HAWK
RED-TAILED
HAWK
see p.448
see p.135
bulkier
overall
long
legs
chestnut
thighs and
wing patches
white
on tail
red tail
shorter
wings
ON THE LOOKOUT
This slim, elegant species will

perch before diving for its prey.
Breeds in scattered trees

along streams; found in
areas of open woodland,
sparse shrubland, grasslands,
and agricultural land;
winters in native Argentinian
grassland, and in harvested
fields where grasshoppers
are found abundantly.
Social Solitary/Pairs/Flocks
DATE SEEN
134
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Red-tailed Hawk
pale outer
wing feathers
light
brown
tail
pale
belly
very dark
plumage with
white spots
Species Buteo jamaicensis

brownish eye
reddish brown
streaking
on head
IMMATURE
ADULT
dark leading
edge to
wings
IN FLIGHT
HARLANS
HAWK
brown
overall
white spots
on back
streaked
belly band
brown
tail
ADULT
(LIGHT FORM)
IMMATURE
yellowish legs
and toes
FLIGHT: soaring flight punctuated with lazy,
distinctive
rufous tail
slow wing flaps; hangs motionless in the wind.
f all North American hawks,

the Red-tailed Hawk is the most
widely distributed and commonly seen.
As many as 15 subspecies have been
described to date, varying in coloration,
tail markings, and size. The Red-tailed Hawk breeds
in New York City. Harlans Hawk breeds in Alaska and
northwestern Canada and is now considered a distinct species.
VOICE Call kee-eee-arrr that rises then descends over a period
of 23 seconds.
NESTING Large platform of sticks, twigs on top of tall tree, cliff,
building, ledge, or billboard; 2 eggs; 1 brood; FebruarySeptember.
FEEDING Captures small mammals, such as voles, mice, rats; birds
including pheasant, quail; small reptiles; carrion also eaten.
see p.449
larger
bill
Breeds, forages in open areas

in wide range of habitats and
altitudes: scrub desert,
grasslands, agricultural fields
and pastures, coniferous and
deciduous woodland, and
tropical rainforest. Prefers areas
with tall perch sites; can be
found in suburban woodlots.
ROUGH-LEGGED
HAWK (DARK FORM)
see p.136
larger
overall
A Red-tailed Hawk soaring

over an open field is a common
sight; this bird is an immature.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
FERRUGINOUS HAWK
(LIGHT FORM)
FLYING HIGH
dark
band on
white tail
mostly
white
underparts
Wingspan 312 414ft (1.11.3m)
Weight 112 314lb (0.71.5kg)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
135
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Species Buteo lagopus
Rough-legged Hawk
dark wing
tips
FEMALE
bold black patch
black
trailing
edge
ADULT
one line
before tail
tip
pale
forehead
dark
tail
band
IN FLIGHT
short, broad
head
MALE
JUVENILE
black belly
barred
underparts
thin bands near
tail tip
FLIGHT: strong wing beats; usually soars on
thermals; frequently hovers in one spot.
white tail
with faint
black band
at tip
plain gray
brown or frosty
feather edges
he Rough-legged Hawk is known for its extensive variation

in plumagesome individuals are almost completely black,
whereas others are much paler, very nearly cream or white.The
year to year fluctuation in numbers of breeding pairs in a given
region strongly suggest that this species is nomadic, moving about
as a response to the availability of its rodent prey.
VOICE Wintering birds silent; breeding birds utter loud, cat-like
mewing or thin whistles, slurred downward when alarmed.
NESTING Bulky mass of sticks, lined with grasses, sedges,
feathers and fur from prey, constructed on cliff ledge; 26 eggs;
FEEDING Hovers in one spot over fields in search of prey;
lemmings and voles in spring and summer; mice and shrews in
winters; variety of birds, ground squirrels, and rabbits year-round.
MALE
ABUNDANT FOOD SUPPLY
When small mammals are abundant, these hawks

produce large broods on cliff ledges in the tundra.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
NORTHERN HARRIER 5
Breeds in rough, open country

with low crags and cliffs, in
high sub-Arctic and Arctic
regions; found on the edge
of extensive forest or forest
clearings, and in treeless
tundra, uplands, and alpine
habitats. Winters in open
areas with fields, marshes,
and rough grasslands.
FERRUGINOUS HAWK
see p.449
see p.128
reddish
upperparts
reddish
underparts
white
underparts
longer
wings
Wingspan 414 412 ft (1.31.4 m)
Weight 112 3 lb (0.71.4 kg)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
136
WHERE
NOTES
BIRDS OF PREY
Order Falconiformes
Family Accipitridae
Golden Eagle
flat, broad head

merges into
heavy bill
holds wings in
distinctive V
long, narrow
white wing
patches
IMMATURE
Species Aquila chrysaetos
golden
feathers on
long neck
ADULT
brown
overall
dark brown
underparts
black
tail
band
large,
powerful
bill
IN FLIGHT
pale
head
dark plumage
with variable
white
ADULT
heavy
feathering
on legs
white
tail
feathers
FLIGHT: slow, steady wing beats; most often
seen gliding or soaring.

JUVENILE
erhaps the most formidable of all

North American birds of prey, the
Golden Eagle is found mostly in the western part of the continent.
It defends large territories ranging from 812 square miles (2030
square kilometers), containing up to 14 nests. Although its appears
sluggish, it is amazingly swift and agile, and employs a variety of
hunting techniques to catch specific prey. Shot and poisoned by
ranchers and trappers, it is unfortunately also faced with dwindling
habitat and food sources due to human development.
VOICE Mostly silent, but breeding adults yelp and mew.
NESTING Large pile of sticks and vegetation on cliffs, in trees,
and on man-made structures; 13 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Eats mammals, such as hares, rabbits, ground squirrels,
prairie dogs, marmots, foxes, and coyotes; also birds.
POWER AND STRENGTH
The Golden Eagle symbolizes all birds of prey,

with its sharp talons, hooked bill, and large size.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BALD EAGLE 4
FERRUGINOUS
HAWK 5
(DARK FORM)
see p.127
white head
and neck
In North America occurs mostly

in grasslands, wetlands, and
rocky areas; breeds south to
Mexico, in open and semi-open
habitats from sea level to
12,000ft (3,500m) including
tundra, shrublands, grasslands,
coniferous forests, farmland,
areas close to streams or
rivers; winters in open habitat.
no
golden
tinge
see p.449
some pale
wing feathers
smaller
overall
Weight 612 13lb (3 6kg)
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
137
Family Rallidae
RAILS & RELATIVES

family, is a diverse
T
group of small to medium-sized marsh birds.
In the US and Canada, rallids, as they are known
HE RALLIDAE, OR RAIL
collectively, are represented by three rails, three

crakes, two gallinules, and a coot. Rails and crakes
inhabit dense marshland and are secretive, solitary,
and inconspicuous, whereas coots and gallinules
are seen on open water. Rallids are chicken-like
birds with stubby tails and short, rounded wings.
Rails have drab, camouflage coloring, and are
long-legged, long-billed, and narrow-bodied.
Crakes are smaller but similar, with shorter
necks and stout, stubby bills. Both rails and
crakes walk and run on the ground in marsh
FLAT LANDING
Purple Gallinules can

land safely on lily pads
because their large toes
spread their weight.
Family Gruidae
CRANES
,
C
superficially similar to storks and to
the larger herons and egrets. However,
RANES ARE LARGE WADING BIRDS
several anatomical differences place them in

a different family (Gruidae), within a different
order (Gruiformes). The two North American
crane species have much lighter bills than storks.
Typically, too, long inner wing feathers form
a bustle on a standing crane, giving it a
different profile than a heron. Additionally,
cranes fly with their necks straight out, rather
than in the tight S-curve regularly seen in
similar-sized herons. The
CRANE RALLY
Whooping Crane is
Large numbers of Sandhill
the tallest bird in North
Cranes gather on feeding
America, standing nearly
grounds in winter, groups
arriving in V-formation.
5ft (1.5m) high.
vegetation, but can swim well. Colorful

gallinules include the Common Moorhen
and the Purple Gallinule. Rallids look like
weak flyers, but many
migrate great distances
at night. None has a
specialized diet; their
food includes insects,
small crabs, slugs, snails,
and plant matter.
Rallids nest in pairs, the THIN AS A RAIL
birds keep in close
This marsh-dwelling Clapper Rail
contact by calling
has a narrow body that enables
it to slip easily through reedbeds.
loudly and clearly.
RAILS AND RELATIVES

Order Gruiformes
Family Rallidae
Yellow Rail
Species Coturnicops noveboracensis

dark brown
crown
stubby
yellow
to olivegray bill
dangling
legs
dark stripe
runs from
cheek to bill
ADULT
white
patch on
inner wing
feathers
long tan stripes

on blackish
background
IN FLIGHT
buff or
yellow
breast
ADULT
short tail
FLIGHT: low, weak, short, and direct with stiff
wing beats; dangling legs.
lthough widespread, the diminutive, secretive, nocturnal Yellow Rail

is extremely difficult to observe in its dense, damp, grassy habitat, and
is detected mainly by its voice. The Yellow Rail, whose Latin name of
noveboracensis means New Yorker, has a small head, almost no neck, a stubby
bill, a plump, almost tail-less body, and short legs. The bill of the male turns
yellow in the breeding season; for the rest of the year, it is olive-gray like the
females. Although the Yellow Rail tends to dart for cover when disturbed,
when it does fly, it reveals a distinctive white patch on its inner wing.
VOICE Two clicking calls followed by three more given by males, usually
at night, reminiscent of two pebbles being struck together; also descending
cackles, quiet croaking, and soft clucking.
NESTING Small cup of grasses and sedges, on the ground or in a plant tuft above
water, concealed by overhanging vegetation; 810 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Plucks seeds,
SIMILAR SPECIES
aquatic insects, various
small crustaceans, and
black streaks
SORA
on brown
see p.144
mollusks (primarily
upperparts
small freshwater snails)
from vegetation or
ground; forages on
the marsh surface or
gray
underparts
in shallow water,
hidden by grass.
CURIOUS LISTENER
Imitating the tick calls of the

Yellow Rail is often an effective
way to lure it out into the open.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in brackish and

freshwater marshes and wet
sedge meadows in Canada
and the north central US;
there is an isolated breeding
population in Oregon.
Winters predominantly in
coastal marshes along the
eastern seaboard.
Length 714in (18.5cm)
Weight 134oz (50g)
Social Pairs
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
139
RAILS AND RELATIVES

Order Gruiformes
Family Rallidae
Black Rail
ADULT
white
spotted back
Species Laterallus jamaicensis

slate-gray
head
blackish upperparts,
flecked with white
red eye
chestnut-brown nape
and upper mantle
small,
straight
bill
reddish
brown nape
IN FLIGHT
dark
overall
dark gray
breast and
upper belly
darker gray
underparts
ADULT (SUMMER)
greenish
gray legs
his tiny, mouse-sized rail is so elusive that few people have

ever seen it; consequently, much remains unknown about its
life history and it is of great interest to birdwatchers. It is usually
detected by its territorial call that is given during the breeding
season from the cover of marsh grass. The best chance to see a
Black Rail is when high tides force it to move to higher ground.
Unfortunately, this is when it can fall prey to herons.
VOICE Distinctive, 3-note kik-kee-do given by male, mostly at
night, during breeding season; makes low growl when agitated.
NESTING Small, deep cup of grasses and sedges placed on the
ground, with an overhanging canopy of woven plants; 59 eggs;
2 broods; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Forages on the wet marsh surface beneath the cover
of grass for snails, insects, spiders, and seeds of marsh plants.
FLIGHT: reluctant flier, short flights with
dangling legs; longer flights; fast and direct.
ELUSIVE BIRD
The highly secretive Black Rail is almost never

seen by birdwatchers, and is a prize find.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
VIRGINIA RAIL
SORA 4
see p.143
see p.144
The Black Rail has a disjointed

distribution across the US. It
is found among reeds in
freshwater, salt, and brackish
marshes or wet meadows.
It also occurs patchily in the
West Indies (its scientific name
is jamaicensis, after the island
Jamaica), Central America,
and South America.
downy
back
longer
bill
larger
overall
yellow
bill
Length 6in (15cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Weight 1116 oz (30g)
Social Solitary
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
140
WHERE
NOTES
RAILS AND RELATIVES

Order Gruiformes
Family Rallidae
Species Rallus longirostris
Clapper Rail
gray
cheeks
drab gray
overall
long, downcurved bill
ADULT
(GULF
COAST)
IN FLIGHT
brownish
cheeks
R. l. saturatus
(GULF COAST)
cinnamon
breast
long,
slender bill
long,
thick legs
pale underparts
R. I. obsoletus
(CALIFORNIA)
R. l. crepitans
(ATLANTIC)
losely related to the King Rail, the Clapper Rail is

a common and widespread species on the Atlantic and
Gulf coasts. The Clapper Rail can be found in a variety of
habitats but it is closely tied to brackish and saltwater marshes
dominated by Spartina cord grass. However, in southern Florida,
this rail is found close to mangrove swamps. The Yuma
subspecies (yumanensis) occupies freshwater marshes in
the interior. The Clapper Rails distinctive, insistent calls
are the best way to recognize its presence, as it is rarely seen.
VOICE Grunting calls; repeated loud kek notes.
NESTING Bulky cup of grasses and plant stems lined with finer
material; bends growing plants to form a canopy; 4 14 eggs;
1 brood; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Forages by crouching low and stalking through marsh,
eating snails, insects, spiders, clams, fish, bird eggs, and seeds.
FLIGHT: low and weak; flies with outstretched
neck and dangling legs.
LOUD AND CLEAR
The repeated, insistent kek call may be heard

more than a mile away.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
KING RAIL
VIRGINIA RAIL
see p.142
see p.143
smaller
overall
gray
face
blackand-white
streaking
on anks
black-andwhite barred
anks
Found mostly in saltwater and

brackish marshes along the
Atlantic Seaboard. Isolated
populations are found in coastal
California and inland in west
and southwest North America,
along the lower Colorado River.
The Clapper Rail winters south
of its breeding range.
Weight 10oz (275g)
Social Solitary
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
141
RAILS AND RELATIVES

Order Gruiformes
Family Rallidae
Species Rallus elegans
King Rail
ADULT
reddish eye
rufous
upperwing
brown stripe
running
down neck
boldly streaked
upperparts
heavy
downcurved bill
long, curved,
yellow-orange
bill
IN FLIGHT
short tail
orangish
breast
ADULT
boldly barred,
black-andwhite flanks
his chicken-like marsh

bird is the freshwater version of the Clapper Rail. These
two species are known to interbreed where their ranges overlap.
A scattered and localized breeder across eastern North America,
the King Rail depends on extensive freshwater marsh habitats
with tall, emergent reeds and cattails. Concealed by this
vegetation, the King Rail is rarely seen and is most often
detected by its distinctive calls.
VOICE Male call similar to Clapper Rail but lower; emits
a loud kik kik kik during breeding season.
NESTING Cup of vegetation, often hidden by bent stems that
form a canopy; 6 12 eggs; 2 broods; FebruaryAugust.
FEEDING Forages in concealed locations for insects, snails,
spiders, and crustaceans such as shrimps, crabs, and barnacles;
also fish, frogs, and seeds.
FLIGHT: somewhat clumsy and labored; legs
dangling; prefers to run.
LARGEST RAIL
Easily confused with the closely related Clapper

Rail, this is the largest North American rail.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CLAPPER RAIL
VIRGINIA RAIL
see p.141
see p.143
ank
barring
diffused
grayer
overall
Mostly breeds in freshwater

marshes in the eastern US and
in extreme southern Ontario.
Also found throughout the year
along the southern coast of the
US, including Florida, and in
central Mexico and Cuba.
gray
face
red
bill
smaller
overall
Length 15in (38cm)
Weight 13oz (375g)
Social Pairs
Lifespan Unknown
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
142
WHERE
NOTES
RAILS AND RELATIVES

Order Gruiformes
Family Rallidae
Virginia Rail
Species Rallus limicola
gray cheeks
streaked black
and brown
upperparts
rufous
upperwing
ADULT
(BREEDING)
curved
red bill
dark
outer
wing
feathers
IN FLIGHT
reddish
brown
breast
white
undertail
diffused
streaking
reddish
legs and
toes
dark bill
dark, blotchy
breast
black-and-white
barring on flanks
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
smaller version of the King Rail, this freshwater marsh

dweller is similar to its other relatives, more often heard
than seen. Distributed in a wide range, the Virginia Rail spends
most of its time in thick, reedy vegetation, which it pushes
using its rail thin body and flexible vertebrae. Although it
spends most of its life walking, it can swim and even dive
to escape danger. The Virginia Rail is a partial migrant that
leaves its northern breeding grounds in winter.
VOICE Series of pig-like grunting oinks that start loud
and sharp, becoming steadily softer; also emits a series
of double notes ka-dik ka-dik.
NESTING Substantial cup of plant material, concealed by
bent-over stems; 512 eggs; 12 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Actively stalks prey or may wait and dive into water;
primarily eats snails, insects, and spiders, but may also eat seeds.
FLIGHT: weak and struggling with
outstretched neck and legs trailing behind.
HARD TO SPOT
The secretive Virginia Rail is difficult to spot

in its reedy habitat.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CLAPPER RAIL
Breeds in freshwater habitats

across North America,
though is found throughout
the year along the West Coast
of the US. In winter, eastern
populations move to saltwater
and freshwater marshes in
the southern US, including
Florida, and in northern
and central Mexico.
KING RAIL less gray
see p.141
see p.142
face
larger overall
orange
face
weak
ank
barring
dark
undertail
yelloworange
bill
Length 912in (24cm)
Weight 3oz (85g)
Social Pairs
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
143
RAILS AND RELATIVES

Order Gruiformes
Family Rallidae
Sora
Species Porzana carolina
reduced black
on face
no black
mask
white
markings
on back
buffy
breast
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
long,
trailing
legs
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white
barring on
flanks
short tail
JUVENILE
yellow bill
brown cheek
patch
IN FLIGHT
black
mask
yellowish
green legs
gray breast
ADULT
(BREEDING)
espite being the most widely distributed rail in North

America, the Sora is rarely seen. It breeds in freshwater
marshes and migrates hundreds of miles south in winter
regardless of its weak and hesitant flight. It swims well, with
a characteristic head-bobbing action. The Sora can be spotted
walking at the edge of emergent vegetationits yellow bill
and black mask distinguish it from other rails.
VOICE Call a long, high, and loud, descending, horse-like
whinny ko-wee-hee-hee-hee-hee; has an upslurred whistle.
NESTING Loosely woven basket of marsh vegetation suspended
above water or positioned in clumps of vegetation on the waters
surface; 811 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Rakes vegetation with feet or pulls with bill in search
of seeds of wetland plants, insects, spiders, and snails.
FLIGHT: appears weak, yet strenuous;
wing beats hurried and constant.
CHICKEN-LIKE WALK
A rare sight, the Sora walks chicken-like through

a marsh, its body in a low crouch.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
YELLOW RAIL
VIRGINIA RAIL
see p.139
see p.143
buffy
streaks
buffy
breast
reddish
legs
Breeds in freshwater marshes

with emergent vegetation
across most of temperate
North America; rarely in salt
marshes along the Atlantic
Coast. Winters in freshwater,
saltwater, and brackish marshes
with spartina grass from
the southern US to northern
South America.
longer
bill
Length 812in (22cm)
Weight 258oz (75g)
Social Solitary
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
144
WHERE
NOTES
RAILS AND RELATIVES

Order Gruiformes
Family Rallidae
Species Porphyrula martinica
Purple Gallinule
pale blue
frontal shield
yellow-tipped
red bill
iridescent
green back
and rump
blue
wings
ADULT
(BREEDING)
long,
trailing
legs
greenish
frontal
shield
dark blue
breast and
belly
IN FLIGHT
grayish
breast
brownish
upperparts
IMMATURE
ADULT
(BREEDING)
yellow legs
and feet with
very large toes
his vibrantly colored rail

inhabits freshwater marshes in the southeastern US. The
Purple Gallinule is extremely conspicuous due to its purple
head and neck, bright red bill, and yellow legs. This species is
well known for long distance vagrancy far outside its normal
breeding range; it has been found as far away as Labrador,
South Georgia, Switzerland, and South Africa.
VOICE Call a chicken-like clucking; also grunts and
higher-pitched single notes.
NESTING Bulky cup of plant material built up slightly above
the waters surface, usually placed in marsh vegetation;
FEEDING Omnivorous diet; seeds, leaves, insects, spiders, and
worms; will sometimes turn over lily pads to find aquatic insects.
FLIGHT: weak and slow with its heavy legs
trailing behind.
EXTREMELY LONG TOES
The Purple Gallinules long toes enable it

to walk across floating vegetation.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON MOORHEN
AMERICAN COOT
see p.146
see p.147
red
frontal
shield
greenish
yellow
legs
Breeds in lush wetlands

containing emergent vegetation
of the southeastern US; mostly
freshwater marshes. Winter
habitat similar to breeding;
non-Florida populations
withdraw southward in winter;
Florida population nonmigratory.
black
head
white
bill
blackand-gray
plumage
Length 13in (33cm)
Weight 8oz (225g)
Social Pairs
Lifespan Unknown
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
145
RAILS AND RELATIVES

Order Gruiformes
Family Rallidae
Species Gallinula chloropus
Common Moorhen
duller frontal shield
less bright
bill
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white undertail
feathers divided
with black stripe
red frontal
shield
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
red
bill
with
yellow
tip
greenish
yellow legs
IN FLIGHT
white
flank
stripe
brownish
gray head
conspicuous
white stripe
JUVENILE
ADULT
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: rather weak and labored with legs
trailing, seldom flies.
he Common Moorhen is fairly widespread

in the eastern US, although its distribution is
more patchy in the western states. It has similarities in behavior and habitat to
both the true rails and coots. Equally at home on land and water, its long toes
allow it to walk easily over floating vegetation and soft mud. When walking
or swimming, the Common Moorhen nervously jerks its short tail, revealing
its white undertail feathers, and bobs its head.
VOICE A variety of hen-like clucks and cackles, including an explosive krrooo.
NESTING Bulky platform of aquatic vegetation with growing plants pulled
over to conceal it, or close to water; 511 eggs, 13 broods; MayAugust,
maybe year round in Florida.
FEEDING Forages mainly on aquatic and terrestrial plants and aquatic
vegetation; also eats snails, spiders, and insects.
blue
frontal
shield
see p.145
AMERICAN COOT
see p.147
A walker and a swimmer, the

Moorhen is equally at home on
land and in water.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PURPLE GALLINULE
DUAL HABITAT
Breeds in freshwater habitats

in the eastern US and Canada;
more localized in the West.
Winters in warmer areas with
open water, such as southern
California and Mexico. Also
found in Central and
South America.
white
bill
bright
yellow legs darker
plumage
Length 14in (36cm)
Weight 11oz (325g)
Social Pairs
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
146
WHERE
NOTES
RAILS AND RELATIVES

Order Gruiformes
Family Rallidae
Species Fulica americana
American Coot
ADULT
(BREEDING)
black head
red eye
dark gray
body
black
ring on
bill
white
bill
whiteedged
feathers
IN FLIGHT
dull grayish
plumage
ADULT
(BREEDING)
long, greenish
yellow legs
lobed toes
JUVENILE
his duck-like species is the most

abundant and widely distributed
of North American rails. Its lobed toes make it well adapted
to swimming and diving, but are somewhat of an impediment
on land. Its flight is clumsy; it becomes airborne with difficulty,
running along the water surface before taking off. American
Coots form large flocks on open water in winter, often
associating with ducksan unusual trait for a member
of the rail family.
VOICE Various raucous clucks, grunts, and croaks and an
explosive keek.
NESTING Bulky cup of plant material placed in aquatic
vegetation on or near water; 515 eggs; 12 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Forages on or by diving under shallow water and on
land; primarily herbivorous, but also eats snails, insects, spiders,
tadpoles, fish, and even carrion.
FLIGHT: low and labored; runs for quite a long
distance to take off.
SWIMMING AWAY
The red-headed, baldish looking American Coot

chicks leave the nest a day after hatching.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PURPLE GALLINULE
COMMON MOORHEN 5
see p.145
see p.146
Breeds in open water habitats

west of the Appalachians and
in Florida. Moves from the
northern parts of its range
in winter to the southeastern
US, where open water persists;
also migrates to western
and southern Mexico.
gray head
red bill
with
yellow tip
bright
yellow
legs
white
ank
stripe
Weight 16oz (450g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
147
CRANES
Order Gruiformes
Family Gruidae
Sandhill Crane
black wing
tips
Species Grus canadensis

red
crown
brownish
head
long, black
bill
pale cheek
head held
straight
long neck
ADULT
trailing
legs
body with
pale brown
smudges
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
ADULT
rusty
body
FLIGHT: alternates slow, steady flapping with
periods of gliding; flocks in single-file.
hese large, slender, and longnecked birds are famous for

their elaborate courtship dances,
far-carrying vocalizations, and
remarkable migrations. Their
bodies are sometimes stained
with a rusty color, supposedly
because they probe into mud
which contains iron; when a bird
preens, this is transferred from its bill
to its plumage. Sandhill Cranes are
broadly grouped into Lesser and
Greater populations that differ
in the geographical location of their
breeding grounds and migration routes.
VOICE Call loud, wooden, hollow bugling, audible
at great distances; noisy in flight and courtship.
NESTING Mound of sticks and grasses placed on ground;
1 egg; 1 brood; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Eats shoots, grain; also aquatic mollusks and insects.
shaggy
feathers
long,
black legs
MEMORABLE IMAGE
Its long neck, large wings, and distinctive

red crown make it unmistakable.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT BLUE HERON 5
see p.101
dark
crown
IRON-STAINED PLUMAGE
WHOOPING
CRANE
see p.449
all-white
plumage
Breeds in muskeg, tundra,

and forest clearings across
northwestern North America,
east to Qubec and the Great
Lakes; large wintering and
migratory flocks often densely
packed, roosting in or near
marshes. Winters south
to northern Mexico.
red on
face
larger
overall
paler legs
Length 234 4ft (0.81.2m)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
148
WHERE
NOTES
CRANES
Order Gruiformes
Family Aramidae
Limpkin
long,
curvaceous
neck
dark
wings
ADULT
Species Aramus guarauna
sparse white
spotting on back
curved bill
white
speckles
on neck
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(SUMMER)
chocolate
brown overall
FLIGHT: direct and heavy flight; legs are either
drawn up into the body or left dangling behind.
long,
gray
legs
SNAILS FOR DINNER
imilar to both herons and ibises, the Limpkin is

Limpkins forage mainly for apple snails in quiet
actually related to the cranes, coots, and rails.
waterways in wooded southeastern swamps.
It is at home in the swamps and marshes of
southeastern North America, eating during the
daylight, but remaining active at night. Individuals
and small flocks tend to move slowly and
deliberately, occasionally erupting into animated
motions and wild wailing. This speciess preferred
food resource is threatened by habitat conversion
and by competition from introduced species.
VOICE Call short whistles, abrupt barks, and
medium length wails; often have an eerie quality.
DEEP WADING
NESTING Vegetation placed on ground or in tree; 56 eggs;
Although Limpkins often hide
13 broods; FebruaryJuly.
in vegetation, they sometimes
FEEDING Feeds in shallow water, on apple snails; also insects and spiders.
wander into open water.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WOOD STOCK 5
Range limited to areas

inhabited by apple snails.
Breeds and forages in
extensive marshes, wooded
swamps, and swamp forests,
but also ranges into disturbed
habitats, including ditches,
canals, and parks.
WHITE-FACED IBIS 4
lacks extensive white

spotting; see p.90
gray see p.93

facial
skin
pale
face
dull
plumage
more
sharply
curved bill
Length 26in (66cm)
Weight 2234lbs (0.91.2kg)
Social Solitary
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
149
Families Haematopodidae, Recurvirostridae, Charadriidae, Scolopacidae, Laridae, Sternidae, Alcidae
SHOREBIRDS, GULLS, & AUKS

T
HE DIVERSE SHOREBIRD, gull, and
auk
families together form the order
Charadriiformes. They are small to
medium-sized, mostly migratory
birds, associated with aquatic
habitats. Over 100 species are
found in North America.
SHOREBIRDS
The various species popularly known as

shorebirds belong to several different families.
In North America there are the oystercatchers
(Haematopodidae), the avocets and stilts
(Recurvirostridae), the plovers (Charadriidae),
the sandpipers (Scolopacidae); and the phalaropes
(the subfamily Phalaropodinae, of Scolopacidae).
They have long legs in proportion to their bodies,
and a variety of bills, ranging from short to long,
thin, thick, straight, down-curved and up-curved.
GULLS
The over 20 species of North American gulls
in the family Laridae all share similar stout body
shapes, sturdy bills, and webbed toes. Nearly all are
scavengers. Closely associated with coastal areas,
few gulls venture far out to sea. Some species are
seen around fishing ports and harbors, or inland,
especially in urban areas and garbage dumps.
ON THE MOVE
Dunlins and other

sandpipers gather in
large, highly coordinated
flocks on migration.
TYPICAL GULL
Most large gulls, such

as this Ring-billed Gull,
have white heads and
underparts with long dark
wings and a bright sturdy bill.
TERNS
Terns are specialized long-billed predators that
dive for fish. More slender and elegant than gulls,
nearly all are immediately recognizable when
breeding, due to their black caps and long, pointed
bills. The related Black Skimmer also catches fish,
but has a different bill.
AUKS, MURRES, & PUFFINS

Denizens of the northern oceans, these birds
only come to land to breed. Most nest in colonies
on sheer cliffs overlooking the ocean, but puffins
excavate burrows in the ground, and some
murrelets nest away from predators high up
in treetops far inland.
COLOR-CHANGE BILL
The bright colors of a breeding

Atlantic Puffins bill fade to
more muted tones in winter,
after the breeding season.
SHOREBIRDS, GULLS, AND AUKS

Order Charadriiformes
Family Haematopodidae
Species Haematopus palliatus
American Oystercatcher
prominent
white wing
bar
white
rump
yellow eye
orangered
eye-ring
black head
large, bulky
body
dark brown
upperparts
ADULT
long, orangered bill

powerful
wings
IN FLIGHT
dull orange
eye-ring
pale fringes
on upperpart
feathers
white
underparts
ADULT
dark eye
black tip to
orange bill
thick, pinkish
legs
JUVENILE
his large and noisy shorebird is conspicuous on beachfront

habitats along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coastlines. It
is the heaviest of all North American shorebirds, and often runs
on its thick, powerful legs to escape danger.This species is found
in flocks of a few to several hundred birds in winter at its
preferred feeding and roosting locations. Up to eight birds
can be seen together in synchronized courtship flights, with
their heads and necks bowed and wings arched upward.
VOICE Whistled, loud, clear descending wheeu call; alarm call
sharp wheep; flight display call several sharp whistles accelerating
into a series of descending piping notes.
NESTING Simple scrape with shell debris on coastal sandy
beaches, dunes, and salt marshes; 23 eggs; 1 brood; AprilMay.
FEEDING Forages on slightly submerged shellfish beds; feeds by
probing in subsoil; also by stabbing or hammering open bivalve
shells with powerful bill.
FLIGHT: powerful, fast, direct flight with rapid
shallow wing beats.
OPENING UP
This species uses its long, powerful bill to pry

open or smash bivalve mollusks on rocks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Exclusive to saltwater coastal

habitats; locally common from
Massachusetts southward to
Gulf Coast; also Caribbean south
to Argentina, north from Chile to
Baja California, Mexico. Occurs
in southern California; recent
nesting has been documented in
Nova Scotia. Expanding
northward on Atlantic Coast.
BLACK OYSTERCATCHER
all dark
plumage
STRONG FLIER
Strong fliers, these birds use

their long, powerful wings for
swift, short-distance forays.
Length 15121712in (4044cm)
Weight 1425oz (400 700g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
151

Family Recurvirostridae
Species Himantopus himantopus
Black-necked Stilt
long, angular,
black wings
no white spot
above red eye
ADULT
less contrasting head

pattern than adult
scaly
appearance
shorter,
stubbier bill
JUVENILE
white spot
above red eye
long, slender
neck
black mask
encircles eye
black
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
long, needle-like
black bill
slender,
tapered
body
white
underparts
MALE
brownish
wash to back
long, bright
pink legs
duller legs
than male
FEMALE
his tall, slender, elegant, and black-and-white shorebird

is a familiar sight at ponds and lagoons in the western
and southern US. Even among the shorebirds, it is remarkably
long-legged, at times almost grotesquely so: in flight, it often
crosses its trailing feet as if for extra control and support.
Breeding takes place in small colonies, with several pairs sharing
the same site. In winter, these tall birds are often seen in small
flocks of about 25 individuals.These groups feed quietly in
sheltered areas, but they aggressively drive visitors away with
their raucous calls, dog-like yips, and noisy communal protests.
The increased use of pesticides and loss of wetland habitat
could cause a decline in its numbers in the future. US
populations belong to subspecies mexicanus.
VOICE Flight and alarm call a loud, continuous
poodle-like yip-yip-yip, given in a long series
when alarmed.
NESTING Simple scrape lined with grass in soft soil;
4 eggs; 1 brood; AprilMay.
FEEDING Walks slowly in shallow water, picking
food off surface; diet includes tadpoles, shrimp,
snails, flies, worms, clams, small fish, and frogs.
FLIGHT: direct, but somewhat awkward due to
long, trailing legs; deep wing beats.
FRIENDLY BUNCH
Black-necked Stilts are gregarious by nature, and

often roost together in shallow water.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds around marshes, shallow

grassy ponds, lake margins, and
man-made waterbodies, such
as reservoirs; uses similar
habitats during migration and
winter, as well as shallow
lagoons, flooded fields, and
mangrove swamps. Southern
birds migrate locally only.
Social Small flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
152
WHERE
NOTES

Family Recurvirostridae
Species Recurvirostra americana
American Avocet
striking black-andwhite pattern
white
eye-ring
dark eye
cinnamon-colored
head
ADULT
(BREEDING)
long, thin,
upturned
bill
bold shoulder
feathers
cinnamoncolored neck
IN FLIGHT
no cinnamon color
on head and neck
white underparts
FEMALE
less
upturned
bill
MALE
long,
bluish legs
white
plumage
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
FLIGHT: fast, direct, and graceful; very long
legs extend beyond tail.
ith its long, thin, and upturned bill, this graceful, long-legged
shorebird is unmistakable when foraging.When it takes off,
its striking plumage pattern is clearly visible. It is the only one of
the four avocet species in the world that changes plumage when
breeding. Breeding birds have a cinnamon head and neck, and bold,
patterns on their black-and-white wings and upperparts.The
American Avocet forms large flocks during migration and in winter.
VOICE Flight call a variable melodic kleet, loud and repetitive,
given when alarmed and by foraging birds.
NESTING Simple scrape
in shallow depression;
4 eggs; 1 brood;
MayJune.
FEEDING Uses
specialized bill to probe,
scythe, or jab a variety
of aquatic invertebrates,
small fish, and seeds;
TRICKY BALANCE
walks steadily in
During mating, the male supports
belly-deep water to
himself with raised wings as the
chase its prey.
female extends her neck forward.
FORAGING FLOCK
These birds walk through shallow water in flocks

searching mainly for insects and crustaceans.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in temporary wetlands,

in dry to arid regions. During
migration and in winter, found
in shallow water habitats,
including ponds, reservoirs,
fresh- and saltwater marshes,
tidal mudflats, and lagoons. Each
year, a flock of about 10,000
birds winters at Bolivar Flats,
Texas. Regular East Coast visitor.
Weight 1012oz (275350g)
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
153

Family Charadriidae
Species Pluvialis dominica
American Golden Plover

ADULT
(BREEDING)
brownish
upperparts
dark cap
dark tail
white stripe
from forehead
to nape
small,
thin bill
uniformly dusky
underparts
blackandwhite
face
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
gray
underwing
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
tan-and-black
spangled
upperparts
crisply
checkered
upperparts
diffused
streaks
on breast
neatly
mottled
breast
slim,
tapered
body
black
underparts
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
ADULT
(BREEDING)
black legs
FLIGHT: strong, fast, powerful flight on deep
wing beats.
his long-distance migrant is seen in North America only

during its lengthy spring and fall journeys to and from
its high Arctic breeding grounds and wintering locations in
southern South America. An elegant, slender, yet large plover,
it prefers inland grassy habitats and plowed fields to coastal
mudflats. The American Golden Plovers annual migration route
includes a feeding stop at Labrador, then a 1,5501,860 miles
(2,5003,000km) flight over the Atlantic Ocean to South America.
VOICE Flight call a whistled 2-note queE-dle, or klee-u, with
second note shorter and lower pitched; male flight song a strong,
melodious whistled kid-eek, or kid-EEp.
NESTING Shallow depression lined with lichens in dry, open
tundra; 4 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Forages in run, pause, and pluck sequence on insects,
mollusks, crustaceans, and worms; also berries and seeds.
DISTRACTION TECHNIQUE
This breeding American Golden Plover is feigning

an injury to its wing to draw predators away from
its eggs or chicks in its nest.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Breeds in Arctic tundra habitats.

In migration, it occurs in
prairies, tilled farmlands, golf
courses, pastures, airports;
also mudflats, shorelines,
and beaches. In spring, seen
in Texas and Great Plains; in
fall, uncommon in northeast
Maritimes and New England;
scarce along the Pacific Coast.
PACIFIC GOLDEN PLOVER 5
PACIFIC GOLDEN
PLOVER 7
see p.471
see p.471
larger
bill
checkered
gold-and-black
upperparts
longer
legs
pale
golden
wash
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
154
WHERE
NOTES

Family Charadriidae
Species Pluvialis squatarola
Black-bellied Plover
white-edged,
dark-centered
feathers
white
rump
diffused streaks
to upper breast
upperparts
whitish
underparts
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
black
outer
wing
feathers
MALE
(BREEDING)
whitish
crown
markedly checkered,
streaked black-andbreast
white upperparts
white
wing
stripe
black
cheeks
JUVENILE
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
darker
crown
black
underwing
patch
IN FLIGHT
black
belly
duller plumage
than male
FLIGHT: straight and fast; powerful wing beats.

MALE
(BREEDING)
he Black-bellied Plover is the largest
and most common of the three North
American Pluvialis plovers. Its preference for
open feeding habitats, its bulky structure, and
very upright stance make it a fairly conspicuous
species. The Black-bellied Plovers black underwing
patches, visible in flight, are present in both its breeding
and nonbreeding plumages and distinguish it from the
other Pluvialis plovers.
VOICE Typical call a three-syllabled, clear, plaintive, whistled
whEE-er-eee, with middle note lower; flight song of male during
breeding softer, with accent on second syllable.
NESTING Shallow depression lined with mosses and lichens
in moist to dry lowland tundra; 15 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Forages mainly along coasts in typical plover style: run,
pause, and pluck; eats insects, worms, bivalves, and crustaceans.
FEMALE (MOLTING TO
BREEDING PLUMAGE)
CASUAL WADING
The Black-bellied Plover wades in shallow water

but does most of its foraging in mudflats.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
AMERICAN GOLDEN
PLOVER 7
dark
cap
see p.154
Breeds in High Arctic habitats

from western Russia across
the Bering Sea to Alaska, and
east to Baffin Island; winters
primarily in coastal areas from
southern Canada and US, south
to southern South America.
Found inland during migration.
Migrates south all the way
to South America.
MOUNTAIN
PLOVER 7
see p.449
sandy brown
upperparts
dingy,
brownish
upperparts
white
underparts
Weight 5 9oz (150 250g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
155

Family Charadriidae
Species Charadrius semipalmatus
Semipalmated Plover
pointed
wings
scalloped
feather edges
white
eyestripe
pale base
of bill
brownish
crown
brownish
upperparts
brownish
breastband
ADULT
(BREEDING)
black
tail
band
black
b
bill with
orange
base
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
yellow
eye-ring
black
forecrown
black
breastband
ADULT
(BREEDING)
orange
legs
diffused
brownish
collar
white
underparts
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
yellowish
legs
imilar in appearance to the Eurasian Common

Ringed Plover, the Semipalmated Plover is a small
shorebird with a tapered shape. It is a familiar sight in a wide
variety of habitats during migration and in winter, when these
birds gather in loose flocks. A casual walk down a sandy beach
between fall and spring might awaken up to 100 Semipalmated
Plovers, sleeping in slight depressions in the sand, though flocks
of up to 1,000 birds may also be encountered.
VOICE Flight call a whistled, abrupt double note, chu-WEEp, with
soft emphasis on second syllable; courtship display song is a version
of flight call followed by rough r-r-r-r-r-r-r, ending with a slurred,
descending yelp.
NESTING Simple scrape on bare or slightly vegetated ground
in Arctic tundra; 34 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Forages in typical plover style: run, pause, and pluck;
eats aquatic mollusks, crustaceans, flies, beetles, and spiders.
FLIGHT: straight, fast; with fluttering wing beats.
BY SIGHT AND FEEL
Semipalmated Plovers locate prey by sight

or through the sensitive soles of their toes.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WILSONS
PLOVER
see p.157
Breeding habitat is Arctic or

sub-Arctic tundra, well-drained
gravel, shale, or other sparsely
vegetated ground. During
migration, mudflats, saltwater
marshes, lake edges, tidal
areas, and flooded fields.
During winter, coastal or
near coastal habitats.
RINGED PLOVER
heavier,
dark bill
wider
breastband
pinkish legs
Weight 1116 212 oz (3070g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
156
WHERE
NOTES

Family Charadriidae
Species Charadrius wilsonia
Wilsons Plover
white
forehead
white eyebrow
narrows
behind eye
prominent
white wing bar
heavy,
black bill
ADULT
dusky
tail
band
brownish
upperparts
less contrast in
head pattern
IN FLIGHT
black
breastband
brownish
upperparts
often
incomplete
brownish
breastband
with little or
no black color
MALE
white
underparts
FEMALE
pinkish legs
FLIGHT: fast and direct, often low to the
ground when being pursued.
amed after ornithologist Alexander

Wilson, this plover is the largest of the
North American Charadrius species.The heavy belly
of the Wilsons Plover gives it a very upright posture when
it pauses, and its distinctive habit of running horizontally, low
to the ground, is a familiar sight on beaches.The subspecies
C. w. beldingi (Gulf of California and Mexicos Pacific coast)
is smaller and darker, with a darker face.Wilsons Plover
was listed as a species of high concern in 2000.
VOICE Flight call a short pip, or pi-dit; alarm calls include
slurred whistle tweet, and short whistled peet; common
distraction call a descending buzzy rattle, given in series.
NESTING Simple scrape in sand, dunes, and other coastal
habitats; 34 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJune.
FEEDING Forages in typical plover style: run, pause, and pluck;
mainly eats crustaceans, including fiddler crabs; also insects.
STRICTLY COASTAL
Wilsons Plover is strongly associated with coastal

areas, where it forages at low tide.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SEMIPALMATED
PLOVER 7
see p.156
Found primarily in coastal

habitats, including open
beaches, vegetated sand
dunes, coastal lagoons,
saltwater flats, and overwash
areas. Located only in North
American coastal regions
of the southeast Atlantic
and Gulf Coasts.
smaller PIPING PLOVER

bill
orange bill
see p.159
paler plumage
smaller
overall
orange
legs
orange
legs
black tip
to bill
Wingspan 1512 1912 in (3949cm)
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
157

Family Charadriidae
Species Charadrius vociferus
Killdeer
long
wings
white
wing bar
red
eye-ring
black collar
encircling
neck
brownish
upperparts
ADULT
reddish
orange
tail and
rump
brownish
crown
small, thin,
black
bill
rufous wash to
back and wings
IN FLIGHT
MALE
long tail
second neck
band crosses
upper breast
white underparts
pinkish legs,
sometimes with
yellowish tinge
FLIGHT: fast, twisting flight with fluid
wing beats.
his loud and vocal shorebird is the

most widespread plover in North
America, nesting in all southern Canadian
provinces and across the US.The Killdeers
piercing call carries for long distances, sometimes
causing other birds to fly away in fear of imminent danger.
These birds often nest near human habitation, allowing a close
observation of their vigilant parental nature with young chicks.
VOICE Flight call a rising, drawn out deeee; alarm call a loud,
penetrating dee-ee, given repetitively; agitated birds also give
series of dee notes, followed by rising trill.
NESTING Scrape on ground, sometimes in slight depression;
4 eggs; 1 brood (north), 23 broods (south); MarchJuly.
FEEDING Forages in typical plover style: run, pause, and pick;
eats a variety of invertebrates such as worms, snails, grasshoppers,
and beetles; also small vertebrates and seeds.
CLEVER MANEUVER
The Killdeer lures intruders away from its nest

with a broken wing display.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SEMIPALMATED
PLOVER 7
WILSONS
PLOVER
see p.156
see p.157
single dark
neckband
orangeyellow legs
smaller
overall
Widespread across Canada and

the US, the Killdeer occurs in a
wide variety of habitats. These
include shorelines, mudflats,
lake and river edges, sparsely
grassy fields and pastures, golf
courses, roadsides, parking lots,
flat rooftops, driveways, and
other terrestrial habitats.
single,
black
collar
pinkish
legs
short tail
Weight 214 318 oz (6590g)
Social Small flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
158
WHERE
NOTES

Family Charadriidae
Species Charadrius melodus
Piping Plover
less pronounced
black markings
than male
prominent white
wing stripe
breastband
sometimes
incomplete
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
black
forecrown
stubby
bill
dusky
tail
band
pale gray
upperparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
indistinct, partial
breastband
blacktipped,
orange
bill
mostly black
bill, with slight
orange base
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
dark
breastband
MALE
(BREEDING)
thin, white collar

throughout year
orange legs
FLIGHT: fast, twisting flight; rapid wing beats.
mall and pale, the Piping Plover is at risk due

to eroding coastlines, human disturbance, and
predation by foxes, raccoons, and cats.With its pale gray back, it is well
camouflaged along beaches or in dunes, but conservation measures,
such as fencing off nesting beaches and control of predators, are
necessary to restore populations.Two subspecies of the Piping Plover
are recognized; one nests on the Atlantic Coast, and the other inland.
VOICE Clear, whistled peep call in flight; quiet peep-lo during courtship
and contact; high-pitched pipe-pipe-pipe song.
NESTING Shallow scrape in sand, gravel, dunes, or salt flats; 4 eggs;
1 brood; AprilMay.
FEEDING Typical run, pause, and pluck plover feeding style;
diet includes marine worms, insects, and mollusks.
SNOWY PLOVER 7
see p.160
see p.156
Found along beaches, in

saline sandflats, and adjacent
mudflats; during winter, found
exclusively along the Atlantic
and Gulf Coasts, sandflats, and
mudflats. Inland subspecies
nests on sand or gravel beaches
adjacent to large lakes, rivers,
and saline lakes.
black
bill
narrow, white
collar
dark,
brown
upperparts
The fragile nature of their preferred nesting sites

has led to this species becoming endangered.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SEMIPALMATED
PLOVER 7
VULNERABLE NESTS
darker
legs
Weight 158238 oz (45 65g)
Social Small flocks
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
159

Family Charadriidae
Snowy Plover
Species Charadrius alexandrinus
pale cinnamon
crown
white wing stripe
very pale head

markings
very pale
upperparts
black
forecrown
MALE
(BREEDING)
pale brown
back
dusky cheek
patch
short, GULF COAST FEMALE
stubby (BREEDING)
bill
pale sandy
gray back
IN FLIGHT
short
tail
grayish to
pinkish legs
MALE
(BREEDING)
incomplete,
narrow, black
breastband at
sides of neck and
upper breast
GULF COAST MALE
(BREEDING)
narrow,
white collar
blocky
head
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
FLIGHT: individuals fly straight and fast, but

flocks wheel and bank in synchrony when alarmed.
he smallest and palest of all North American plovers, the Snowy Plovers
cryptic coloration blends in so well with its beach and dune habitat that it
often remains unnoticed. This bird often runs faster and covers longer distances
than other beach plovers, sprinting along the sand for extended spurts, like
sanderlings. Nests are frequently destroyed by weather, disturbance, or predators,
but the birds readily construct new nests, even up to six times in the face
of regular losses. Nevertheless, habitat destruction has resulted in shrinking
populations, and the species is designated as threatened along the Pacific Coast.
VOICE Repeated tow-heet; purrt and single churr; typically silent when not
breeding, tinkling ti at roosts or before flight.
NESTING Shallow scrape in sand; 23 eggs; 23 broods; MarchJune.
FEEDING Feeds in run, pause, and pluck style on terrestrial and aquatic
invertebrates, such as snails and clams.
Breeds on open beach and

dune habitats on the Pacific
and Gulf Coasts, and inland
on brackish lakes in the Great
Basin and southern Great
Plains region. Coastal birds
are only partially migratory,
but most inland birds winter
at the coast.
PIPING PLOVER 2
see p.159
see p.156
brown
breastband
plumper
overall
The Snowy Plover breeds in

sandy areas that are as pale
as snow.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SEMIPALMATED
PLOVER 5
TRULY SNOWY
orange
legs
Weight 114 218 oz (35 60g)
Social Large flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
160
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Species Scolopax minor
American Woodcock
two pale bands
along back
large black
eye near
top of head
long
bill
plump
body
short,
rusty
tail
long bill, wide

at base with
slightly
drooping tip
black, gray,
and buff
upperparts
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
rich orange-buff
underparts
ADULT
round, plump
body
short,
rusty tail
FLIGHT: twisting, slow and clumsy; wings
pinkish legs
and feet
twitter when flushed.
his forest-dwelling member of the

sandpiper and snipe family bears
little resemblance in behavior to its waterfavoring relatives, but resembles Wilsons Snipe and the
dowitchers. Although widespread, the American Woodcock
is very secretive and seldom seen, except during its twilight
courtship displays. It is largely nocturnal, and feeds in mature
fields or woodlands. Its noisy, repetitive display flights are
a welcome sign of spring in northern breeding areas.
VOICE Low, nasal peen call by male during dawn and dusk display;
variety of chirping and twittering sounds given by male in display
flight, made by air passing through narrow outer wing feathers.
NESTING Shallow depression in existing leaf and twig litter
in young, mixed growth woodlands; 4 eggs; 1 brood; January
(southern populations) and April (northern populations).
FEEDING Probes deep in damp soil or mud; mostly for
earthworms, but also insects, snails, and some plants.
STAYING PUT
A foraging American Woodcock caught in an

open field will freeze before it flies off.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WILSONS SNIPE
LONG-BILLED DOWITCHER
see p.162 smaller
see p.164
smaller
more slender head
shape
head
longer
legs
Breeds from southern Canada

to southeastern US states, in
damp, second-growth forest,
overgrown fields and bogs. In
winter, found in similar habitat;
also found along marsh edges,
swamps, and damp, grassy
roadsides in Texas and Florida
in the southern US.
streaked
breast and
anks
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
161

Family Scolopacidae
Wilsons Snipe
Species Gallinago gallinago

streaked
face
high-set large,
dark eye
long, pointed,
angled wings
long, tapered
bill, slightly
drooping at tip
white, vertical
streaks
long bill
ADULT
short
tail
mostly brown
upperparts
brown spots
on breast
and neck
IN FLIGHT
white underparts with
barring on flanks
short russet
tail
MALE
FLIGHT: extremely fast and zig-zagging, rapid
wing beats; erratic-looking changes of direction.
lso known as the Common Snipe, this secretive and well camouflaged
member of the sandpiper family has an unsettled taxonomic history. On
its breeding grounds Wilsons Snipe produces rather eerie sounds during its aerial,
mainly nocturnal, display flights.The birds fly up silently from the ground, then,
from about 330ft (100m) up, they descend quickly, with their tail feathers spread,
producing a unique, loud and vibrating sound through modified feathers.The
North American populations belong to subspecies delicata.
VOICE Alarm and overhead flight call raspy kraitsch; perched and low flying
breeding birds give repetitive, monotonous kup-kup-kup-kup in alarm or
aggression; distinctive whistling sound during territorial displays.
NESTING Elaborate woven nest lined with fine grass on ground, sedge, or moss;
4 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Forages in mud or shallow water; probes deep into subsoil; diet
includes mostly insect larvae, but also crustaceans, earthworms, and mollusks.
SHORT-BILLED DOWITCHER
see p.163
see p.161
no white streaks
on back
plump
body
buffy
orange
underparts
see p.164
smaller eye
orange
tint to
breast
Wilsons Snipes russet-colored

tail is usually hard to see, but it
is evident on this preening bird.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
AMERICAN
WOODCOCK
RUSSET TAIL
longer
legs
Widespread from Alaska to

Qubec and Labrador south
of the tundra zone; breeds in
a variety of wetlands, including
marshes, bogs, and open areas
with rich soil. Winters further
south, where it prefers damp
areas with vegetative cover,
such as marshes, wet fields,
and other bodies of water.
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
162
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Species Limnodromus griseus
Short-billed Dowitcher
white slash
from rump
to mid-back
orange wash to face,

neck, breast, and
underparts
flanks less heavily

streaked
orange-fringed
feathers
long, stout
bill
ADULT
(BREEDING)
long, pointed
wings
dark-centered
upperpart
IN FLIGHT
feathers
JUVENILE
variable spotting
on upper breast
ADULT
L. g. griseus
greenish yellow
legs
streaked
flanks
plain gray
upperparts
FLIGHT: swift, powerful with quick wing beats.
white belly
he Short-billed Dowitcher is a common visitor along the

Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts. Its remote and buginfested breeding areas in northern bogs have hindered the
study of its breeding behavior until recent years. There are three
subspecies (L. g. griseus, L. g. hendersoni, and L. g. caurinus,) which
differ in plumage, size, and respective breeding areas. Recent
knowledge about shape and structure has helped ornithologists
distinguish the Short-billed from the Long-billed Dowitcher.
VOICE Flight call low, plaintive tu-tu-tu, 34 notes; flight
song tu-tu, tu-tu, toodle-ee, tu-tu, ending with low anh-anh-anh.
NESTING Simple depression, typically in sedge hummock;
FEEDING Probes in sewing machine feeding style with water up
to belly for aquatic mollusks, crustaceans, and insects.
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
ORANGE UNDERPARTS
In complete breeding plumage, the Short-billed

Dowitcher is orange, even in late afternoon light.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WILSONS
SNIPE 2
shorter
legs
Breeds mostly in sedge

meadows or bogs with
interspersed spruce and
tamaracks between sub-Arctic
tundra and boreal forest.
Migrates south to Central and
South America, preferring
coastal mudflats, salt marshes,
or adjacent freshwater pools.
see p.164
see p.162
ADULT
L. g. hendersoni
slightly thicker
neck
slightly longer
legs
Weight 212512oz (70 155g)
Social Pairs/Flocks
Status Secure (p)
DATE SEEN
WHERE
slightly
larger
bill
NOTES
163

Family Scolopacidae
Species Limnodromus scolopaceus
Long-billed Dowitcher
bands
on
tail
white
rump
patch
ADULT
(BREEDING)
lightly streaked
head
dark upperparts with

reddish markings
blackcentered
feathers
ADULT
(BREEDING)
long,
pointed
wings
white
belly
JUVENILE
brick-red
underparts
short but
distinct
white
eyebrow
mostly dusky gray

upperparts
IN FLIGHT
long,
stout
bill
dark patch
between eye
and bill
variable dark
barring on flanks
white belly
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
t was not until 1950 that, after museum and field studies,
scientists recognized two separate species of dowitcher in
North America. The Long-billed Dowitcher is usually slightly
larger, longer-legged, and heavier in the chest and neck than
the Short-billed Dowitcher. The breeding ranges of the two
species are separate, but their migration and en route stop-over
areas overlap. The Long-billed Dowitcher is usually found in
freshwater wetlands, and in the fall most of its population
occurs west of the Mississippi River.
VOICE Flight and alarm call sharp, whistled keek, given singly
or in series when agitated; song buzzy pipipipipipi-chi-drrr.
NESTING Deep sedge or grass-lined depression in sedge
or grass; 4 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Probes wet ground with sewing-machine motion
for spiders, snails, worms, insects, and seeds.
FLIGHT: swift, direct flier with fast, powerful
wing beats.
TOUCHY FEELY
Sensitive touch-receptors at the tip of the birds

bill enable it to feel in the mud for food.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Breeds in wet, grassy meadows

or coastal sedge tundra near
freshwater pools. Migrates
to Mexico and Central America,
south to Panama, when
found in freshwater habitats,
including ponds, flooded
fields, lake shores, also
sheltered lagoons, salt marsh
pools, and tidal mudflats.
pale, central SHORT-BILLED DOWITCHER

crown stripe see p.163
WILSONS
SNIPE
see p.162
slightly smaller
overall
shorter
legs
orangish
underparts
Social Pairs/Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
164
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Species Limosa haemastica
Hudsonian Godwit
white wing
stripe
brownish gray
upperparts
long,
orangebased bill
pale eyebrow
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
off-white
underparts
white
rump
pale, buffy
feather
fringes
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
brownish
streaked head
and neck
black-and-white
upperparts
unpatterned brownish
wing feathers
black tail
whitefeathered
chestnut
breast
rich chestnut
underparts with
black barring
FLIGHT: swift and straight, with fast and
powerful wing beats.
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
MALE
(BREEDING)
his large, graceful sandpiper, with a long

and slightly upturned bill, undertakes a
remarkable annual migration from its tundra
breeding grounds in Alaska and Canada all the way to
extreme southern South America, a distance probably close
to 10,000 miles (16,000km) in one direction, with very few
stopovers. The number of breeding birds is unknown, but
counts in Tierra del Fuego indicate totals of perhaps 30,000 to
40,000 birds, all found in two areas of tidal mudflats. Between
the far North and the far South, North American stops are few,
and only in the spring, along a central route mid-continent.
Hudsonian Godwits spend six months wintering, two months
breeding, and four flying between the two locations.
VOICE Flight call emphatic peed-wid; also high peet or kwee;
display song to-wida to-wida to-wida, or to-wit, to-wit, to-wit.
NESTING Saucer-shaped
SIMILAR SPECIES
depression on dry
hummock or tussocks
BAR-TAILED GODWIT 5
see p.472 more streaks
under cover; 4 eggs;
1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Probes in mud
for insects, insect grubs,
longer
shorter
worms, crustaceans and
bill
legs
mollusks; also eats plant
tubers in fall.
LONG-HAUL BIRD
Hudsonian Godwits only make a few stops on

their long flights to and from South America.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in the high Arctic,

in sedge meadows and bogs in
scattered tundra; scarce along
the Atlantic Coast in fall near
coastal freshwater reservoirs;
but locally common in flooded
rice fields, pastures, and
reservoirs in spring. Winters
in extreme southern Chile
and Argentina.
Social Flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
165

Family Scolopacidae
Species Limosa fedoa
Marbled Godwit
pink-andblack bill
cinnamon
underwing
finely streaked
head and neck
ADULT
pale, slightly buffy

underparts
grayish
brown
upperp
part
rtts
barred IN FLIGHT
tail
ADULT
(NO
((N
NONBR
NO
N EEDING)
long, slightly
upturned bill
dark brown and

V-shaped patterns
on upperpartss
lightly barred
cinnamon
underparts
dark barring
on flanks
long, dark
legs
ADULT
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: strong, direct, with rapid wing beats.
he largest godwit in
North America, this beautiful
shorebird is a familiar sight at its coastal
wintering areas. Its distinctive brown-andcinnamon plumage and the fact that it
chooses open habitats, such as mudflats and floodplains,
to feed and roost, make the Marbled Godwit a conspicuous
species. A monogamous bird, the Marbled Godwit is also
long-livedthe oldest bird recorded was 29 years old.
VOICE Call a nasal ah-ahk, and single ahk; breeding call,
goddWhit, wik-wik; other calls include rack-a, karatica, ratica, ratica.
NESTING Depression in short grass in Alaska; also nests on
vegetation in water; 4 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Probes mudflats, beaches, short grass for insects,
especially grasshoppers; also crustaceans, mollusks, and small fish.
EASILY RECOGNIZED
Its large size and buffy to cinnamon color make

this godwit a very distinctive shorebird.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HUDSONIAN GODWIT
white rump;
see p.165
BLACK-TAILED
GODWIT
see p.471
black
barring
overall
smaller
overall
Breeds in the grassy marshes

of the Great Plains. During
migration and in winter,
prefers sandy beaches
and coastal mudflats with
adjoining meadows or
savannas in California and
the Gulf of Mexico. Also
seen on inland wetlands
and along lake shores.
deep
orange
neck
and
breast
Length 1612 19in (42 48cm)
Weight 1016oz (275 450g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
166
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Whimbrel
Species Numenius phaeopus
striped crown
long, pointed
wings
long, decurved,
mostly black bill;
orange base in
winter
ADULT
brownish
patterned
upperparts
coarsely streaked
face, neck, and
breast
alldark
rump
finely streaked
neck, breast, and
underparts
large, heavy
body
light brown
spotting to
upper breast
IN FLIGHT
brownish tail
and rump
ADULT
long, grayish
legs
LARGE MOUTHFUL
FLIGHT: steady and moderate wing beats;
The Whimbrel often rinses muddy crabs in

water before swallowing them whole.
often glides.
his large, conspicuous

shorebird is the most
widespread of the curlew
species, with four subspecies
across North America and
Eurasia. Its bold head stripes and clearly streaked face, neck, and breast make the
species distinctive.The Whimbrels fairly long, decurved bill allows it to probe
into fiddler crab burrows, a favorite food item.
VOICE Characteristic call is a loud, staccato pi-pi-pi-pi-pi; flight song a series
of haunting melodious whistles, followed by long trill.
NESTING Depression in hummock, mound, grass, sedge, or gravel; 4 eggs;
1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Probes for crabs, in addition to worms, mollusks, and fish; also eats
insects and berries.
pale
rump
Several populations breed

in northern, sub-Arctic, and
low-Arctic regions of North
America; during migration
and in winter, found mostly in
coastal marshes, tidal creeks,
flats, and mangroves; also at
inland Salton Sea, California.
Winters along rocky coasts
in South America.
LONG-BILLED
CURLEW
longer, see p.450

slightly
curved
bill
more
spotted larger
overall
A close look at the Whimbrel

shows this birds beautiful,
fine patterning.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BRISTLE-THIGHED
CURLEW
UP CLOSE
long,
decurved
bill
Length 1512 1612in (39 42cm)
Weight 1118oz (300500g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
167

Family Scolopacidae
Species Bartramia longicauda
Upland Sandpiper
small, pigeonlike head
large,
dark eye
pale head
short, straight
mostly yellow
bill
ADULT
speckled
breast
long
tail
mostly
brownish
upperparts
JUVENILE
long,
narrow
wings
IN FLIGHT
buff feather
fringes
long tail extends

beyond
folded wing
ADULT
(BREEDING)
yellow legs
nlike other sandpipers, this graceful bird spends most of its life
away from water in grassy habitats.The Upland Sandpipers
coloration helps it camouflage itself in the grasslands, especially
while nesting on the ground. It is well known for landing on fence
posts and raising its wings while giving its tremulous, whistling call.
The bird is currently listed as endangered in many of its breeding
states due to the disappearance of its grassland habitat.
VOICE Flight call a low qui-pi-pi-pi; song consists of gurgling
notes followed by long, descending wolf whistle whooooleeeeee,
wheeelooooo-ooooo.
NESTING Simple depression in ground among grass clumps;
4 eggs; 1 brood; May.
FEEDING Feeds with head-bobbing motion on adult and larval
insects, spiders, worms, centipedes; occasionally seeds.
FLIGHT: strong and swift; rapid, fluttering
flight in breeding display.
DRY GROUND WADER
A true grassland species, the Upland Sandpiper is

rarely found away from this habitat.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WHIMBREL
see p.167
long,
curved
bill
see p.450
much
larger
overall
dull bluish
gray legs
Breeds in native tallgrass or

mixed-grass prairies. Airports
make up large portion of its
breeding habitat in the
northeast US. During
migration and in winter it
prefers shortgrass habitats
such as grazed pastures, turf
farms, cultivated fields.
LONG-BILLED
CURLEW 2
very
long,
curved
bill
Lifespan Unknown
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
168
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Species Tringa melanoleuca
Greater Yellowlegs
bold white
eye-ring
long, pointed
dark wings
heavily streaked
head, neck,
and breast
black-and-white
checkered
upperparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
slightly
upturned
bill
IN FLIGHT
variable pale
gray base of bill
plain gray
upperparts
diffused brown
streaks on head
and neck
long, yellow legs

diffused gray
streaks on neck
and breast
ADULT
(BREEDING)
brownish
upperparts
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
FLIGHT: direct, strong, and swift; legs trail
JUVENILE
behind tail.
his fairly large shorebird often runs frantically in many

directions while pursuing small prey. It is one of the first
northbound spring shorebird migrants, and one of the first to
return south in late June or early July. Its plumage, a mixture
of brown, black, and white checkered upperparts, and streaked
underparts, is more streaked during the breeding season.
VOICE Call a loud, penetrating tew-tew-tew; agitated birds make
repetitive keu notes; song a continuous too-whee.
NESTING Simple scrape in moss or peat, usually close to water;
FEEDING Picks water surface and mud for small aquatic and
terrestrial crustaceans and worms; also eats small fish, frogs,
seeds, and berries.
EFFECTIVE METHOD
The Greater Yellowlegs often catches its prey

by sweeping its bill sideways through water.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LESSER YELLOWLEGS
WILLET
see p.170
see p.173
Breeds in openings in northerly

forests with bogs and wet
meadows, a habitat called
muskegs. In migration and
winter, uses a wide variety
of shallow water habitats,
including freshwater and
saltwater marshes, reservoirs,
and tidal mudflats.
heavier,
thicker bill
lacks checkered
upperparts
thinner,
more
pointed
bill
less
angular
body
contours
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
169

Family Scolopacidae
Species Tringa flavipes
Lesser Yellowlegs
dark
slender
bill
gray back
with delicate
scalloping pattern
small
head
diffused,
pale
streaks
on breast
ADULT
(BREEDING)
long, pointed,
dark wings
diffused
spots on
neck
IN FLIGHT
black-and-brown
upperparts with
white spotting
white
underparts
streaked
head, neck,
and breast
ADULT
(BREEDING)
brownish
upperparts
crisp whitish
spotting on
wings
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
long, yelloworange legs
JUVENILE
yellow
legs
FLIGHT: straight and fast; with gliding and
sideways banking; legs trail behind body.
ith its smaller head, thinner bill, and smoother body

shape, the Lesser Yellowlegs has a more elegant profile
than the Greater Yellowlegs. It prefers smaller, freshwater, or
brackish pools to open saltwater habitats, and it walks quickly
and methodically while feeding. Although this species is a
solitary feeder, it is often seen in small to large loose flocks
in migration and winter.
VOICE Low, whistled tu, or tu-tu call; series of tu or cuw notes
when agitated; display song a pill-e-wee, pill-e-wee, pill-e-wee.
NESTING Depression in ground or moss, lined with grass and
leaves; 4 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Eats a wide variety of aquatic and terrestrial insects,
mollusks, and crustaceans, especially flies and beetles; also seeds.
READY TO FLY
This Lesser Yellowlegs raises its wings

before takeoff.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREATER YELLOWLEGS
SOLITARY SANDPIPER
see p.169
see p.171
larger
and
heavier
Breeds in northerly forest with

clearings, and where forest
meets tundra. In migration
and in winter, uses wide variety
of shallow wetlands, including
flooded pastures and agricultural
fields, swamps, lake and river
shores, tidal creeks, and
brackish mudflats. Winters
from Mexico to Argentina.
longer,
thicker bill
shorter, greenish
yellow legs
more
dened
breast
streaks
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
170
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Species Tringa solitaria
Solitary Sandpiper
brown-and-white
checkered
upperparts
long, pointed
wings
brownish streaked
crown and head
ADULT
(BREEDING)
conspicuous
white eye-ring
dark flight
feathers
dark-and-white
checkered
upperparts
roundish
forehead
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
straight
dark,
tapered bill
ADULT
(BREEDING)
finely streaked
breast
greenish
olive legs
FLIGHT: graceful and strong, with deep, stiff
wing beats.
lexander Wilson described this

species in 1813, naming it, quite
appropriately, Solitary. This sandpiper seldom associates
with other shorebirds as it moves nervously along margins
of wetlands. When feeding, the Solitary Sandpiper constantly
bobs its head like the Spotted Sandpiper. When disturbed, the
Solitary Sandpiper often flies directly upward, and when landing,
it keeps its wings upright briefly, flashing the white underneath,
before carefully folding them to its body.
VOICE Flight and alarm call a high-pitched weet-weet-weet or pit;
display song a pit-pit-pit-pit; kik-kik-kik.
NESTING Abandoned nests in trees (a unique behavior for
a North American shorebird); 4 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Eats insects, small crustaceans, snails, and small frogs.
LONE RANGER
This sandpiper is indeed solitary and is found in

quiet, sheltered habitats and along river shores.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LESSER YELLOWLEGS 5
SPOTTED SANDPIPER
see p.170
see p.172
slimmer
body
bulkier body
yelloworange
legs
Breeds primarily in bogs in

northern forests; in winter
and during migration, occurs
in sheltered pools or muddy
areas near forests. Winters
from Mexico down to South
America, sometimes in tiny
pools at high altitude in the
Andes; also riverbanks, streams,
rain pools, and ditches.
shorter
bill
shorter
legs
Weight 1116 214oz (3065g)
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
171

Family Scolopacidae
Species Actitis macularia
Spotted Sandpiper
darker flight
feathers
thin, white
eyestripe
straight,
orange bill
with dark tip
brownish gray
upperparts
dark barring
on back
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white
wing
stripe
bold, white
eye-ring
brownish gray
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(BREEDING)
plain brownish
gray upperparts
buff barring
on wings
and back
white underparts
with bold, dark
spots
straight,
dark bill
orangeyellow legs
JUVENILE
white wedge
on breast
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
ne of only two species of the genus Actitis, from the Latin

meaning a coastal inhabitant, this small, short-legged
sandpiper is the most widespread shorebird in North America.
It is characterized by its quick walking pace, its habit of constantly
teetering and bobbing its tail, and its unique style of flying low over
water with stiff wing beats.These birds have an unusual mating
behavior, in which the females take on an aggressive role, defending
territories and mating with three or more males per season.
VOICE Call a clear, ringing note tee-tee-tee-tee; flight song
a monotonous cree-cree-cree.
NESTING Nest cup shaded by or scrape built under herbaceous
vegetation; 3 eggs; 13 broods; MayJune.
FEEDING Eats many items, including adult and larval insects,
mollusks, small crabs, and worms.
FLIGHT: mostly shallow, rapidly, stiffly
fluttering wing beats, usually low above water.
BEHAVIORAL QUIRKS
This sandpiper teeters, raising and lowering its

tail while walking along the waters edge.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SOLITARY SANDPIPER 5
see p.171
more slender
body
longer
legs
Breeds across North America

in a wide variety of grassy,
brushy, forested habitats
near water, but not high Arctic
tundra. During migration and
in winter found in habitats
near freshwater, including lake
shores, rivers, streams, beaches,
sewage ponds, ditches,
seawalls, sometimes estuaries.
COMMON SANDPIPER
longer
tail
streaked more grayish

breast
green legs
Length 714 8in (18.520cm)
Weight 1916134oz (4550g)
Social Small flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
172
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Willet
crisp, thin,
buff fringes
bold black-andwhite wing pattern

ADULT
(WESTERN WINTER)
IN FLIGHT
Species Catoptrophorus semipalmatus

white stripe
above eye
grayish
upperparts
dark patch
between
eye and bill
JUVENILE
C. s. inornatus
(WESTERN)
unpatterned,
pale underparts
heavily streaked,
brownish head
and neck
straight,
thick bill
with pinkish
base
brownish upperparts
with dense, dark
feathers
long, grayish,
straight bill
plain gray
upperparts
ADULT
C. s. semipalmatus
(EASTERN BREEDING)
strong, dark
barring on
underside
grayish
legs
pale
underparts
ADULT
C. s. inornatus
(WESTERN WINTER)
FLIGHT: strong, fast, and direct on powerful
wing beats.
he two distinct subspecies of the Willet, Eastern (C. s. semipalmatus)

and Western (C. s. inornatus), differ in breeding habit, plumage coloration,
vocalizations, and migratory habits. The Eastern Willet leaves North America
from September to March; whereas the Western Willet winters along southern
North American shorelines south to South America.
VOICE Flight call a loud kyah-yah; alarm call a sharp, repeated kleep; song an
urgent, rapid pill-will-willet.
NESTING Depression in vegetated dunes, wetlands, prairies, or salt marshes;
FEEDING Picks, probes, or swishes for crustaceans such as fiddler and mole
crabs, aquatic insects, marine worms, small mollusks, and fish.
Eastern subspecies breeds

in coastal saltwater habitats:
salt marshes, barrier islands,
beaches, mangroves; winters
in similar habitats. Western
subspecies breeds near sparsely
vegetated prairie wetlands or
adjacent semi-arid grasslands;
winters in coastal regions.
WANDERING TATTLER 41ST6
see p.169
longer
neck
yellowish
orange
legs
yellowish
legs
Willets display on exposed

perches at breeding grounds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREATER YELLOWLEGS
EXPOSED PERCH
stockier
body
Length 12121612in (32 42cm)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
173

Family Scolopacidae
Species Arenaria interpres
Ruddy Turnstone
bold red patches
on back and
wings
brownish
head
markings
short, dark,
chisel-like bill
black-andwhite head
and breast
pattern
brownish
upperparts
variably
streaked,
whitish face
ADULT
(BREEDING)
dark flight
feathers
IN FLIGHT
black
breast
bright white
underparts,
at all ages
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
white-edged,
dark feathers
short,
orange legs
orange
legs
JUVENILE
(FALL)
his tame, medium-sized, and stocky sandpiper with a

chisel-shaped bill is a common visitor along the shorelines
of North and South America. On its high-Arctic breeding
grounds, it is bold and aggressive and is able to drive off
predators as large as the Glaucous Gull and Parasitic Jaeger.
The Ruddy Turnstone was given its name because of its
reddish back color and because of its habit of flipping and
overturning items like mollusk shells and pebbles, or digging
in the sand and looking for small crustaceans and other marine
invertebrates. Two subspecies live in Arctic North America:
A. i. interpres in northeastern Canada and A. i. morinellas
elsewhere in Canada and Alaska.
VOICE Rapid chatter on breeding ground: TIT-wooo
TIT-woooRITitititititit; flight call a low, rapid kut-a-kut.
NESTING Simple
SIMILAR SPECIES
scrape lined with lichens
and grasses in dry,
BLACK TURNSTONE
open areas; 4 eggs;
darker
1 brood; June.
overall
FEEDING Forages
along shoreline for
duller
legs
no rust
crustaceans, insects,
color in
including beetles,
plumage
spiders; also eats plants.
FLIGHT: swift and strong flight, with quick
wing beats.
WINTER GATHERINGS
Ruddy Turnstones often congregate in large

winter flocks on rocky shorelines.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in high Arctic:

wide-open, barren, and
grassy habitats and rocky
coasts, usually near water.
In winter, on sandy or gravel
beaches and rocky shorelines,
from northern California to
South America, and from
northern Massachusetts south
along Atlantic and Gulf Coasts.
Weight 312 7oz (100 200g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
174
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Red Knot
Species Calidris canutus

mostly pale gray
upperparts
grayish
upperparts
white wing
stripe
white eyebrow
JUVENILE
pale fringes
to wing
feathers
gray spots
on upper
breast
pale
underparts
yellowish
green legs
ADULT
(WINTER)
ADULT (WINTER)
dark,
straight,
and
stocky
bill
boldly marked black, rust,

and white upperparts
IN FLIGHT
salmon-colored
face and breast
white lower
belly with dark
V-shaped marks
ADULT
(SUMMER)
short, dark
legs
substantial, plump sandpiper, the

Red Knot is the largest North American shorebird in the
genus Calidris.There are two North American subspeciesC. c. rufa
and C. c. roselaari. Noted for its extraordinary long-distance
migration, C. c. rufa flies about 9,300 miles (15,000km) between its
high-Arctic breeding grounds and wintering area in South America,
especially in Tierra del Fuego, at the tip of South America. Recent
declines have occurred in this population, attributed to overharvesting of horseshoe crab eggsits critical food source.With the
population of C. c. rufa having declined from over 100,000 birds in
the mid-1980s to below 15,000 today, the Red Knot is now listed
as endangered in New Jersey, and faces possible extinction.
VOICE Flight call a soft kuEEt or kuup; display song eerie pormeeee por-meeee, followed by por-por por-por.
NESTING Simple scrape
SIMILAR SPECIES
in grassy or barren
tundra, often lined;
BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER
see p.155 large,
4 eggs; 1 brood; June.
dark eye
FEEDING Probes mud
or sand for insects, plant
material, small mollusks,
longer,
crustaceans, especially
dark legs
small snails, worms,
and other invertebrates.
FLIGHT: powerful, swift, direct flight with
rapid wing beats.
STAGING AREAS
Red Knots form dense flocks during migration

and on their wintering grounds.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in flat, barren tundra

in high-Arctic islands and
peninsulas. Mostly coastal
during migration and winter,
preferring sandbars, beaches,
and tidal flats, where it
congregates in huge flocks.
Weight 338 8oz (95 225g)
Social Large flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
175

Family Scolopacidae
Species Calidris alba
Sanderling
black-centered back
feathers with buff edges
rust and black
streaked crown
strong white wing stripe

mostly grayish upperparts
black, rust, and
white upperparts
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
JUVENILE
(FALL)
IN FLIGHT
dark
stocky
bill
white face
and neck
pearl-gray
upperparts
rust wash on
breast with
black markings
ADULT
(BREEDING)
short
black legs
clean white
underparts
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
he Sanderling is probably the best-known shorebird

in the world. It breeds in some of the most remote,
high-Arctic habitats, from Greenland to Siberia, but occupies
just about every temperate and tropical shoreline in the
Americas when not breeding. Indeed, its wintering range spans
both American coasts, from Canada to Argentina. Feeding in
flocks, it is a common sight in winter on sandy beaches. In many
places, though, the bird is declining rapidly, with pollution of
the sea and shore, and the disturbance caused by people using
beaches for various recreational purposes, the main causes.
VOICE Flight call squeaky pweet, threat call sew-sew-sew; display
song harsh, buzzy notes and chattering cher-cher-cher.
NESTING Small, shallow depression on dry, stony ground;
4 eggs; 13 broods; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Probes along the surf-line in sand for insects, small
crustaceans, small mollusks, and worms.
FLIGHT: rapid, free-form; birds in flocks
twisting and turning as if they were one.
CHASING THE WAVES
The sanderling scampers after retreating waves to

pick up any small creatures stranded by the sea.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER 8
see p.177
WESTERN
SANDPIPER
see p.178
Breeds in barren high-Arctic

coastal tundra of northernmost
Canada, including the islands,
north to Ellesmere Island.
During winter months and
on migration, found along
all North American coastlines,
but especially sandy beaches;
inland migrants found along
lake and river edges.
prominent
eyebrow
less contrasting
upperparts
paler
throat and
breast
tapering
bill
Weight 1716 312oz (40100g)
Social Small flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
176
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Species Calidris pusilla
Semipalmated Sandpiper
crisp, pale fringed
feathers
white
eyebrow
short bill with

blunt tip
pale
grayish
black legs
SUMMER
dark-centered
back feathers
with buff fringes
pale wing
stripe along
flight feathers
streaked black
and rust crown
slightly paler
grayish nape
JUVENILE
short,
dark
bill
IN FLIGHT
wing tips
extend to
tail tip
lightly streaked
breast
ADULT
(SUMMER)
his is the most abundant of the so-called

peep Calidiris sandpipers, especially in the eastern US.
Flocks of up to 300,000 birds gather on migration staging areas. FLIGHT: fast and direct on narrow, pointed,
As a species, though, it can be hard to identify, due to plumage
wings; flies in large flocks in winter.
variation between juveniles and breeding adults,
and a bill that varies markedly in size and shape
from west to east. Semipalmated sandpipers from
northeasterly breeding grounds may fly nonstop to
their South American wintering grounds in the fall.
VOICE Flight call chrrk or higher, sharper chit;
display song monotonous, droning trill, often
repeated for minutes at a time.
NESTING Shallow, lined scrape in short grass
SLEEPING TOGETHER
habitat; 4 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
Semipalmated Sandpipers form
FEEDING Probes mud for aquatic and terrestrial
large feeding or resting flocks
invertebrates such as mollusks, worms, and spiders. on migration and in winter.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WESTERN SANDPIPER 7
SANDERLING
see p.176
see p.178
more contrasting
upperparts
darker
breast
usually
longer
legs
LEAST SANDPIPER 7
pufer
see p.179
head
usually
more
pointed
bill
yellowish
legs
smaller
overall
Breeds in Arctic and sub-Arctic

tundra habitats near water; in
Alaska, on outer coastal plain.
Migrants occur in shallow
fresh- or saltwater and
open muddy areas with little
vegetation, such as intertidal
flats or lake shores. Winters
in Central and South America,
south to Brazil and Peru.
Weight 12 1716oz (1440g)
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
177

Family Scolopacidae
Western Sandpiper
mostly uniform brown
or grayish upperparts
Species Calidris mauri

reddish-edged upper
shoulder feathers
grayish, streaked
crown, nape,
and face
JUVENILE
white
tail
dusky
tail
band
ADULT
dark patch
between
eyes and bill
narrow, white
wing stripe
partial
grayish,
streaked
collar
white
belly
long, narrow,
pointed wing
bright,
rusty cap
grayish,
and cheek
streaked nape patch
and neck
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
mediumlength
black legs
ADULT (BREEDING)
espite its restricted breeding range in western Alaska, the

Western Sandpiper is one of the most common shorebirds in
the Western Hemisphere. During its spring migration spectacularly
large flocks are seen at several Pacific coast locations. At the Copper
River Delta in Alaska, for instance, over four million Western
Sandpipers stop on their way to their tundra breeding grounds
to fatten up and refuel for the last hop northward. Many of these
migrate over relatively short distances to winter along US coastlines.
In spite of its name, the Western Sandpiper is common in the East
along the Atlantic coast.
VOICE Flight call loud chir-eep; flushed birds make sirp call, or
chir-ir-ip; song tweer, tweer, tweer, followed by descending trill.
NESTING Shallow depression on drained Arctic and sub-Arctic
tundra; 4 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Probes mud for insect larvae, crustaceans, and worms.
FLIGHT: direct, rapid flight on narrow,
pointed wings; in large flocks.
FORAGING FOR FOOD
The Western Sandpiper feels for hidden prey with

the touch-sensitive tip of its bill.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SEMIPALMATED SANDPIPER 8
see p.177
see p.184 downcurved bill
smaller,
more
rounded
head
slightly
shorter
legs
Breeds in wet sedge, grassy

habitats with well-drained
microhabitats; in migration
and in winter, prefers shallow
freshwater or saltwater habitats
with open muddy or sandy
areas and little vegetation,
such as intertidal mudflats
and lake shores. Winters
along both coasts.
DUNLIN 7 longer,
dusky head
and neck
smaller,
more blunttipped bill
Weight
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
178
WHERE
NOTES
16114oz (1935g)
11

Family Scolopacidae
Least Sandpiper
Species Calidris minutilla

short tail
and wings
dark patch
between
eye and
bill
ADULT
ADULT
(BREEDING)
buff to
rust fringed
inner wing
faint
tail
band
small, rounded head
short,
yellowish
legs
JUVENILE
pale, whitish
eyebrow
uniform
brownish gray
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
white
chin and
belly
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
streaked, brownish
breast and head
yellow to yellowish
green legs
FLIGHT: level flight; fast and direct
on quick wing beats; in mixed flocks.
he little Least Sandpiper is often

overlooked because of its muted
plumage and preference for feeding
unobtrusively near vegetative cover.With its brown or brownish
gray plumage, the Least Sandpiper virtually disappears in the
landscape when feeding crouched down on wet margins of water
bodies.The bird is often found in small to medium flocks,
members of which typically are nervous when foraging, and
frequently burst into flight, only to alight a short way off.
VOICE Its flight call, kreeeep, rises in pitch, often repeated
2-syllable kree-eep; display call trilled b-reeee, b-reeee, b-reeee.
NESTING Depression in open, sub-Arctic habitat near water;
FEEDING Forages for variety of small terrestrial and aquatic
prey, especially sand fleas, mollusks, and flies.
FLOCK IN FLIGHT
The narrow pointed wings of the Least Sandpiper

allow it to fly fast and level.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SEMIPALMATED
SANDPIPER 8
see p.182
see p.177
grayer
overall
Breeds in wet low-Arctic areas

from Alaska and the Yukon to
Qubec and Newfoundland.
During migration and in winter,
uses muddy areas such as lake
shores, riverbanks, flooded
fields, and tidal flats. Winters
from southern North America
south to Peru and Brazil.
PECTORAL SANDPIPER
larger
overall
whiter
throat
larger
overall
heavier
bill
Length 434in (12cm)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
179

Family Scolopacidae
Species Calidris fuscicollis
White-rumped Sandpiper
easily
visible
white
rump
long, tapered
wings
dark feathers with

rust edges
IMMATURE
(1ST SUMMER)
ADULT
dark bill with

curved tip
rust-colored
cap and
cheek
streaked
head
heavily streaked
breast
grayish brown
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
fine streaks
on breast
crisp, pale
fringed
feathers
JUVENILE
he White-rumped Sandpiper
undertakes one of the longest
migrations of any bird in the Western
Hemisphere. From its high-Arctic breeding grounds in Alaska
and Canada, it migrates in several long jumps to extreme southern
South Americaabout 9,000 12,000 miles (14,500 19,300km),
twice a year. Almost the entire population migrates through the
central US in spring, with several stopovers, which are critical to
the success of its journey.While associating with other shorebird
species during migration and winter, it can be overlooked in the
crowd. Its insect-like call and white rump aid identification.
VOICE Call a very high-pitched, insect-like tzeet; flight song an
insect-like, high-pitched, rattling buzz, interspersed with grunts.
NESTING Shallow depression in usually wet but well-vegetated
tundra; 4 eggs; 1 brood; June.
FEEDING Picks and probes for insects, spiders, earthworms, and
marine worms; also some plant matter.
FLIGHT: fast, strong, and direct flight with
deep wing beats.
WING POWER
Long narrow wings enable this species to migrate

to and from the Arctic and Tierra del Fuego.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SEMIPALMATED
SANDPIPER
see p.177
slightly
rufous
crown
Breeds in wet but wellvegetated tundra, usually near

ponds, lakes, or streams. In
migration and winter, grassy
areas: flooded fields, grassy lake
margins, rivers, ponds, grassy
margins of tidal mudflats, and
roadside ditches. On wintering
grounds, often associates with
Bairds Sandpiper.
BAIRDS SANDPIPER
see p.181
no
white
rump
more distinct
streaks on breast
Length 6 6 34in (1517cm)
Weight 78 134oz (2550 g)
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
180
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Species Calidris bairdii
Bairds Sandpiper
long, pointed
wings
dark patch
between eye
and bill
blackish upperparts with

silver-edged feathers
straight, fine-tipped
dark bill
finely streaked
head
clean, white
underparts
ADULT
ADULT
indistinct, pale
eye-line
streaked back
scalloped look
to upperparts
IN FLIGHT
wings extend
beyond tail
buff, finely
streaked
upper breast
JUVENILE
blackish legs
FLIGHT: strong and direct, with deep, quick
wing beats.
airds Sandpiper is less well

known than the other North
American Calidris sandpipers. It was described in 1861, later
than its relatives, by the famous North American ornithologist
Elliott Cowes, a former surgeon in the US Army, in honor of
Spencer Fullerton Baird. Both men were founding members
of the AOU (the American Ornithologists Union). From its
high Arctic, tundra habitat, Bairds Sandpiper moves across
North America and the western US, into South America,
and all the way to Tierra del Fuego, a remarkable biannual
journey of 6,000 9,000 miles (9,700 14,500km).
VOICE Flight call a low, dry preep; song on Arctic breeding
ground: brraay, brray, brray, followed by hee-aaw, hee-aaw, hee-aaw.
NESTING Shallow depression in coastal or upland tundra;
FEEDING Picks and probes for insects and larvae; also spiders
and pond crustaceans.
FEEDING IN FLOCKS
Flocks of this sandpiper rush about in search

of food in shallow water and muddy areas.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WHITE-RUMPED SANDPIPER
PECTORAL SANDPIPER
see p.180
larger; see p.182
Breeds in tundra habitats of

high Arctic Alaska and Canada.
During migration and winter,
inland freshwater habitats: lake
and river margins, wet pastures,
rice fields; also tidal flats at
coastal locations. In winter,
common in the high Andes of
South America, and sometimes
all the way to Tierra del Fuego.
prominent, white
eyebrow
slightly
bulkier yellowish
body
legs
streaked
breastband
Length 534714in (14.518.5cm)
Weight 1116 2oz (30 55g)
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
181

Family Scolopacidae
Species Calidris melanotos
Pectoral Sandpiper
long, graceful,
pointed wings
rust crown and cheeks

with black streaks
rust-edged,
dark centered
feathers
streaked crown
and face
curved
bill with
orange
base
JUVENILE
ADULT
darker
flight
feathers
brownish upperparts,
with buff fringes
IN FLIGHT
medium
length,
stocky
bill
heavily
streaked
breast
ADULT
white belly
yellowish
legs
his medium-sized
sandpiper is a true
champion of long-distance
migration. From their
breeding grounds in the
high Arctic to their wintering grounds on the pampas of southern
South America, some birds travel up to 30,000 miles (48,000km)
each year.The Pectoral Sandpiper is a promiscuous breeder, with
FLIGHT: fast and direct, with rapid, powerful
males keeping harems of females in guarded territories. Males
wing beats; flocks zig-zag when flushed.
mate with as many females as they can attract with a display that
includes a deep, booming call, and flights, but take no part in nest duties.
Males migrate earlier than females, with both sexes prefer wet, grassy
habitats during migration and in winter.
VOICE Flight call low, trilled chrrk; display song deep, hollow, hooting:
whoop, whoop, whoop.
NESTING Shallow depression on ridges in moist
to wet sedge tundra; 4 eggs; 1 brood; June.
FEEDING Probes or jabs mud for larvae, and
forages for insects and spiders on tundra.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
UPLAND
SANDPIPER
see p.168
BUFF BREASTED
plain
SANDPIPER
small
head
longer, see p.186

thinner
neck
larger
overall
face
dark
bill
long
tail
LONG JOURNEYS
This species migrates long

distances to arrive in southern
South American for the winter.
In North America, breeds in

northern Alaska, northern
Yukon, Northern Territories,
and some islands of the
Canadian Arctic Archipelago,
in wet, grassy tundra, especially
near coasts. On migration and
in winter favors wet pastures,
the grassy margins of ponds
and lakes, and salt marshes.
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
182
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Species Calidris maritima
Purple Sandpiper
long bill with

drooping tip
heavily streaked
head
buff-fringed
brownish gray feathers
upperparts
short, thick
neck
dark brownish
wash to breast
thin
white
wing
stripe
grayish wash
to head and neck
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(BREEDING)
JUVENILE
compact body
shape overall
bill yellow at
base, dark at
drooping tip
gray inner
wing feathers
white belly and

flanks, with thin
streaking
FLIGHT: reluctant; rapid, low,
yellow legs
and toes
and direct with full wing beats.
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
medium-sized, stocky
bird, the Purple Sandpiper
shares the most northerly
wintering distribution of all
North American shorebirds with
its close relative, the Rock Sandpiper.
The dark plumage and low, squat body of the Purple Sandpiper often
disguise its presence on dark tidal rocks, until a crashing wave causes
a previously invisible flock to explode into flight.
VOICE Flight call low kweesh; when disturbed, eh-eh-eh; breeding kwi-ti-ti-tibli-bli-bli followed by dooree-dooree-dooree.
NESTING Simple lined scrape in high-alpine-like or barren low-lying Arctic
tundra; 4 eggs; 1 brood; June.
FEEDING Feeds on various invertebrates, including
crustaceans, snails, insects, spiders, and worms.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ROCK SANDPIPER slightly
smaller bill
darker, plainer
upperparts
DUNLIN
see p.184
longer
black bill
plain, pale
gray-brown
upperparts
less
orange color
to base of bill
WINTER EXPOSURE
The Purple Sandpiper winters

mainly on exposed rocky shores
along the eastern seaboard.
On breeding grounds, found

on barren Arctic and alpine
tundra habitats in the
Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
On migration and in winter,
predominantly found on
rocky, wave-pounded shores
on the eastern seaboard.
Weight 134312oz (50 100g)
Social Small flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
183

Family Scolopacidae
Dunlin
black-andcream stripes
on back
dull graybrown head

and back
black streaks
on buff
underside
JUVENILE
white
sided
rump
Species Calidris alpina
thin white
wing bar
JUVENILE
long,
tapered,
black bill
IN FLIGHT
dull, graystreaked
breast
rich chestnut-andblack back
fine dark streaks

on whitish breast
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
large, squarish,
black belly patch
ADULT
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: swift and direct flight, with rapid
wing beats.
he Dunlin is one of the most abundant and widespread

of North Americas shorebirds, but of the ten recognized
subspecies, only three breed in North America: C. a. arcticola,
C. a. pacifica, and C. a. hudsonia. The Dunlin is unmistakable
in its striking, red-backed, black-bellied breeding plumage. In
winter it sports much drabber colors, but more than makes up
for this by gathering in spectacular flocks of many thousands
of birds on its favorite coastal mudflats.
VOICE Call accented trill, drurr-drurr, that rises slightly, then
descends; flight call jeeezp; song wrraah-wrraah.
NESTING Simple cup lined with grasses, leaves, and lichens in
moist to wet tundra; 4 eggs; 1 brood; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Probes for marine, freshwater, terrestrial invertebrates:
clams, worms, insect larvae, crustaceans; also plants and small fish.
OLD RED BACK
The Dunlin was once known as the Red-backed

Sandpiper because of its distinct breeding plumage.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Breeds in Arctic and sub-Arctic

moist, wet tundra, often near
ponds, with drier islands for
nest sites. In migration and
winter, prefers coastal areas
with extensive mudflats and
sandy beaches; also feeds in
flooded fields and seasonal
inland wetlands.
CURLEW SANDPIPER 7
STILT SANDPIPER 7
see p.185
see p.450
longer,
thinner neck
yellowish
green
legs
longer
legs
less
streaking
on chest
Length 612 812in (16 22cm)
Weight 1916214oz (45 65g)
Social Large flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
184
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Species Calidris himantopus
Stilt Sandpiper
white
rump
plain grayish
brown upperparts
long,
pointed
wing
whitish eyebrow
extends behind eye
scaly look to
upperparts
crisp, white-andrust-fringed
upperparts
dusky
tail
band
whitish
belly
greenish
leg
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
long, dark,
straight bill
IN FLIGHT
slightly diffused
gray streaks to
breast and neck
rusty cap
rusty cheek
patch
JUVENILE
(FALL)
long,
yellowish
legs
long wings
and tail
ADULT
(BREEDING)
chocolate-brown barring
on white underparts
he slender Stilt Sandpiper is uncommon and unique to

North America, where it breeds in several small areas of
northern tundra. It favors shallow, freshwater habitats, where
FLIGHT: fast and direct, with rapid beats of
it feeds in a distinctive style, walking slowly through belly-deep
its long wings.
water with its neck outstretched and bill pointed downward.
It either picks at the surface, or submerges itself, keeping its tail raised
up all the while. During migration it forms dense, rapidly moving flocks
that sometimes include other sandpiper species.
VOICE Flight or alarm call low, muffled chuf; also krrit and sharp kew-it;
display call xxree-xxree-xxree-xxree-ee-haw, ee-haw.
NESTING Shallow depression on raised knolls or ridges in tundra; 4 eggs;
1 brood; June.
FEEDING Eats mostly adult and larval insects; also
some snails, mollusks, and seeds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
DUNLIN 7
see p.184
CURLEW SANDPIPER 7
shorter
neck
see p.450
shorter,
black legs
black
legs
curved
bill
PALE BELOW
Wading through shallow water,

this Stilt Sandpiper displays its
whitish underparts.
Breeds in moist to wet coastal

tundra on well-drained, raised
knolls or ridges in Alaska,
Yukon, and northwestern
territories and Hudson Bay.
During migration and in winter,
prefers freshwater habitats,
such as flooded fields, marsh
pools, reservoirs, and sheltered
lagoons to tidal mudflats.
Weight 134218oz (5060g)
Social Pairs/Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
185

Family Scolopacidae
Species Tryngites subruficollis
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
pale central
band
buff-edged
brown
upperparts
dark
rump
streaked and
spotted brown
hind neck
buff head and face with

spotted brown crown
short,
dark bill
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
scaly
upperparts
bright yellowish
orange legs
ADULT
(BREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
more white-fringed
upperpart feathers
than adult
rich buff
wash to
breast
JUVENILE
dull, yellow
legs
FLIGHT: fast, straight, and low, with rapid
wing beats.
leek and elegant, this sandpiper

is unique among North
American shorebirds in terms of its
mating system. On the ground in the Arctic, each
male flashes his white underwings to attract females for mating. After mating,
the female leaves to perform all nest duties alone, while the male continues to
display and mate with other females. Once nesting is over, the Buff-breasted
Sandpiper migrates an astonishing 16,000 miles (26,000km) from its breeding
grounds to winter in temperate South America.
VOICE Flight call soft, short gert, or longer, rising grriit.
NESTING Simple depression on well-drained moss or grass hummock;
FEEDING Forages on land for insects, insect larvae, and spiders;
occasionally eats seeds.
larger
overall
Breeds in moist to wet, grassy

or sedge coastal tundra; during
migration, favors short grass
areas such as pastures, sod
farms, meadows, rice fields,
or agricultural areas. Winters
in the pampas region of
South America in short,
wet grass habitats.
PECTORAL SANDPIPER
see p.168
The Buff-breasted Sandpiper is

very much a shorebird of dry
land, it doesnt swim or dive.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
UPLAND SANDPIPER
LANDLUBBER
see p.182
darker cap with
longer, pale eyebrow
streaked
neck
longer bill
longer
wings
and tail
Weight 1716338oz (4095g)
Social Large flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
186
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Species Phalaropus tricolor
Wilsons Phalarope
plain gray
upperparts
reddish brown
markings on
sides of back
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
paler head
markings
largely
white
face
MALE
white
cheek
yellowish
legs
grayish
brown wings
plain gray-andblack upperparts
white eyebrow
white
underparts
fairly long,
straight bill
JUVENILE (MOLTING
TO 1ST WINTER)
black stripe
from bill
gray and reddish
to nape
brown back
IN FLIGHT
rust neck
and throat
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
truly American phalarope, Wilsons is the largest of the

three phalarope species. Unlike its two relatives, it does
not breed in the Arctic, but in the shallow wetlands of western
North America, and winters mainly in continental habitats of
Bolivia and Argentina instead of in the ocean. This species can
be found employing the feeding technique of spinning in
shallow water to churn up adult and larval insects, or running
in various directions on muddy wetland edges with its head
held low to the ground while chasing and picking up insects.
This bird is quite tolerant of humans on its breeding grounds,
but this attitude changes immediately before migration, as it
has gained weight and its movement is sluggish.
VOICE Flight call a low, nasal werpf; also higher, repetitive emf,
emf, emf, emf, or luk, luk, luk.
NESTING Simple scrape lined with grass; 4 eggs; 1 brood;
MayJune.
FEEDING Eats brine shrimp, various insects, and insect larvae.
FLIGHT: fast and direct with quick wing beats.
ODD ONE OUT
Unlike its two essentially oceanic relatives, Wilsons

Phalarope is also found in freshwater habitats.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LESSER YELLOWLEGS
RED-NECKED PHALAROPE 4
see p.170
see p.188
darker,
spotted
back
streaked
head and
neck
black cheek
patch
Breeds in shallow, grassy

wetlands of interior North
America; during migration
and winter, occurs in salty
lakes and saline ponds as
well as inland waterbodies.
In winter, tens of thousands
can be seen in the middle
of Titicaca Lake in Bolivia.
shorter
bill
Weight 114 3oz (35 85g)
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
187

Family Scolopacidae
Species Phalaropus lobatus
Red-necked Phalarope
pointed wings
dark gray
crown and
face
dark upperparts
with buff stripes
dark cap and
cheek patch
narrow, white
wing stripe
black back with

dull, white lines
JUVENILE
white
throat
dark upperparts
with buff or rust
feather edges
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
needle-like
dark bill
JUVENILE (WORN PLUMAGE)
IN FLIGHT
rust neck
and upper
breast
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
white underparts
with dusky
streaked flanks
his aquatic sandpiper spends much of its life in deep ocean

waters feeding on tiny plankton; each year, after nine months
at sea, it comes to nest in the Arctic. Its Latin name lobatus reflects
the morphology of its feet, which are webbed (lobed). Both the
Red-necked Phalarope and the Red Phalarope are oceanic birds
that are found in large flocks or rafts far from shore. However,
both species are occasionally found swimming inland, in
freshwater habitats. Like the other two phalaropes, the
Red-necked has a fascinating and unusual reversal of typical
sex roles. The female is more brightly colored and slightly
larger than the male; she will also pursue the male, compete
savagely for him, and will migrate shortly after laying her eggs.
VOICE Flight call a hard, squeaky pwit or kit; on breeding
grounds, vocalizations include variations of flight call notes.
NESTING Depression in wet sedge or grass; 34 eggs;
12 broods; MayJune.
FEEDING Eats plankton; also insects, brine shrimp, and mollusks.
FLIGHT: fast and direct, with rapid wing beats.
SINGLE FATHER
Male phalaropes perform all nesting and rearing

duties after the female lays the eggs.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WILSONS PHALAROPE 5
see p.187
RED PHALAROPE 5 slightly
see p.189
paler
face
Breeds in wet tundra, on

raised ridges, or hummocks,
but during migration and
in winter, occurs far out
at sea and away from
shores, although sometimes
found in freshwater habitats.
thicker bill
larger head
and thicker
neck
larger
overall
Weight 1116 1916oz (30 45g)
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
188
WHERE
NOTES

Family Scolopacidae
Red Phalarope
bold white
wing bar
buff
feather
fringes
scalloped
upperparts
Species Phalaropus fulicarius
dull rust crown

with black
streak
akss
black cheek
patch and nape
mostly gray
upperparts
white
neck
and
head
whi
hiite
te
underp
rpart
arts
art
rtts
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
brick-red
underparttss;;
paler than
n
female
bold white
cheek patch
broad, pointed
white
wings
rump
MALE (BREEDING)
with
IN FLIGHT
black
tan-fringed feathers
line in center,
on upperparts
and white edges
black
crown
stout, yellow
bill with
black tip
deep brick-red
neck, throat, and
underparts
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
he Red Phalarope spends over ten months each year over deep
ocean waters. It also migrates across the ocean, which explains
why few birds of this species are ever seen inland. Many Red
Phalaropes winter in tropical waters, with concentrations in
the Humboldt Current off Peru and Chile, and in the Benguela
Current off southwestern Africa. During migration over Alaskan
waters, flocks of Red Phalaropes feed on crustaceans in the mud
plumes that are created by the foraging of gray and bowhead
whales on the ocean floor.
VOICE Flight call a sharp psip or pseet, often in rapid succession;
alarm call a drawn-out, 2-syllabled sweet.
NESTING Depression on ridge or
hummock in coastal sedge; 34 eggs;
1 brood; June.
FEEDING Plucks prey from sea;
marine crustaceans, fish eggs, larval
fish; adult or larval insects.
FLIGHT: direct with rapid wing beats, birds in
flocks often synchronize.
see p.188
no black
mask
larger
overall
After breeding, female Red

Phalaropes leave the male and
play no role in raising young.
Breeds in coastal Arctic
tundra; during migration
and in winter, occurs in
deep ocean waters;
small numbers are seen
near the shore in coastal
California in fall and winter.
The Red Phalarope is
rare inland.
RED-NECKED PHALAROPE
more terrestrial; see p.187
NO TIES
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WILSONS PHALAROPE
DIFFERENT COLOR
In nonbreeding plumage,
phalaropes are gray and white.
smaller head
more slender
body
Weight 114258oz (3575g)
Social Large flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
189

Family Laridae
Species Larus delawarensis
Ring-billed Gull
white wing
spots
dark eye
mottled
gray back
ADULT
(BREEDING)
heavily
mottled
back
black-tipped,
pink bill
white
neck
mottled
underparts
pink
legs
fine
streaks
on head
IMMATURE (1ST WINTER)
black
band on
yellow bill
JUVENILE
pale
gray back
pale eye,
with red
eye-ring
IN FLIGHT
pale gray
back
gray
back
IMMATURE (2ND WINTER)
white markings
on outer wing
feathers
olive-yellow
legs
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
white
underparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
yellowish or
greenish legs
FLIGHT: quick, deep wing beats; strong, direct
flight, soaring on thermals.
ne of the most common birds in North America, the

medium-sized Ring-billed Gull is distinguished by the
black band on its yellow bill. From the mid-19th to the early
20th century, population numbers crashed due to hunting and
habitat loss. Protection allowed the species to make a spectacular
comeback, and in the 1990s, there were an estimated 34 million
birds. It can often be seen scavenging in parking lots at malls.
VOICE Call a slightly nasal and whiny kee-ow or meee-ow; series
of 4 6 kyaw notes, higher pitched than Herring Gull.
NESTING Shallow cup of plant matter on ground in open areas,
usually near low vegetation; 15 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Picks food while walking; also dips and plunges in
water; eats small fish, insects, grain, small rodents; also scavenges.
BLACK WING MARKING
The sharply demarcated black wing tips are

prominent from both above and below.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MEW GULL
see p.472
darker
mantle
round
head
small
bill
MEW GULL 41ST 7
see p.472
less distinct
streaks
Breeds in freshwater habitats in

the interior of the continent.
In winter, switches to mostly
saltwater areas and along both
the East and West Coasts; also
along major river systems and
reservoirs. Found year-round
near the southern Great Lakes.
round
head
small
bill
Weight 1125oz (300 700g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
190
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Species Larus marinus
Great Black-backed Gull

large white spot
on wing tips
ADULT
(BREEDING)
red
eye-ring
white underwings
white head
and neck
white head
with faint
streaks
yellow
bill with
red spot
ADULT
(BREEDING)
black
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
white
underparts
white tips to
outer feathers
whitish
head
black bill
ADULT
(BREEDING)
pale pink legs

and feet
speckled
back
IMMATURE
(1ST WINTER)
he largest gull in North America, the Great Black-backed Gull

is known for its bullying dispostion. In breeding colonies,
it is especially aggressive in the morning and early evening, and after
chicks hatch; adults dive at ground predators and strike them with
their wings and feet. Other birds benefit from this forceful behavior,
for example eiders nesting in Great Black-backed Gull colonies
suffer a low rate of nest predation.
VOICE Low, growling flight call, often repeated, low-pitched
heyaaheyaaheyaaheyaa, similar to the Herring Gull.
NESTING Shallow bowl on ground, lined with vegetation,
feathers, and trash; 23 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Scavenges and hunts fish, marine invertebrates,
small mammals, eggs, chicks, adult seabirds, and waterfowl.
FLIGHT: heavy lumbering with deep wing beats.
SOLITARY BIRDS
While all gulls are social animals, the Great

Black-backed Gull is the most solitary.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LESSER BLACKBACKED GULL 7
Breeds on natural and artificial

islands, barrier beaches, salt
marshes, sand dunes; during
winter, found along the
coast, near shore water, major
rivers, landfills, and harbors;
in all seasons, often found
together with Herring Gulls
and Ring-billed Gulls. Also
occurs also in Europe.
SLATY-BACKED GULL
see p.472
see p.195
gray back
smaller
body
slate-gray
back
yellow legs
bright
pink legs
Social Pairs/Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
191
ShorebirdS, gullS, and aukS

Family Laridae
Glaucous Gull
Species Larus hyperboreus
mottled, pale
brown back
white
head
adULt
(winter)
streaking
on head
mottled white
plumage
yellow bill
with distinct
red spot
pale brown
underparts
IMMatUre
(1st WInter)
pale gray
upperparts
IMMatUre
(1st WInter,
FaDeD)
In FLIGht
white
wing tips
white
underparts
light brownish
plumage
immatUre
(1St winter)
pink legs
aDULt
(sUMMer)
FLIGhT: heavy, slow, and powerful; often
glides and soars.
he Glaucous Gull is the largest of the white-winged

gulls. Its large, pale shape is immediately apparent in a
group of gulls as it appears like a large white spectre among
its smaller, darker cousins. In the southern part of its US winter
range, pale immatures are encountered more frequently than
adults. In the Arctic, successful pairs of Glaucous Gulls maintain
the bonds with their mates for years, often returning to the same
nest site year after year.
VOICE Similar to that of the Herring Gull, but slightly harsher
and deeper; hoarse, nasal ku-ku-ku.
NESTING Shallow cup lined with vegetation on ground, at
edge of tundra pools, on cliffs and ledges and islands; 13 eggs;
1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats fish, crustaceans, mollusks; also eggs and chicks
of waterfowl, small seabirds, and small mammals.
NOrThErN VISITOr
This large gull is an uncommon visitor over most

of North America during the winter months.
OCCurrENCE
sIMILar sPeCIes
GLaUCoUS-winGed GULL
iCeLand GULL
see p.193
Breeds along the high-Arctic

coast, rarely inland; winters
along northern Atlantic and
Pacific coasts and the Great
Lakes; frequently seen at
Niagara Falls. Strays, usually
immatures, can occur inland
anywhere where concentrations
of gulls are found, such as
trash sites dumps.
much
smaller bill
much smaller
overall
dusky
wing tips
Social Colonies
Status Secure
Date seen
192
Where
nOtes

Family Laridae
Species Larus glaucoides
Iceland Gull
gray wing
tips
short, pale yellow

bill with red spot
markedly
streaked
head
pale brown
plumage
gray back
ADULT
(WINTER)
IMMATURE
(1ST WINTER)
pale or gray
wing tip
IN FLIGHT
brown barred
plumage
blackish
bill
white
belly
head mostly
white
pink legs
pale, barred
underparts
ADULT (WINTER)
IMMATURE
(1ST WINTER)
IMMATURE
(2ND WINTER)
he Iceland Gull is the smallest white-winged gull.

Similar to the larger Glaucous Gull, it is a common sight
in winter, and immatures are seen more often than adults.
North American breeding birds have gray wing tips, and have
been considered a separate species called the Kumliens Gull.
The subspecies L. g. glaucoides is distinguishable as it possesses
white wing tips; it breeds in Greenland, and winters in Greenland
and Iceland, but a few birds travel to the western North Atlantic.
VOICE Call a clew, clew, clew or kak-kak-kak; vocal around
breeding colonies; virtually silent on wintering grounds.
NESTING Loose nest of moss, vegetation, and feathers, usually
on narrow rock ledge; 23 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Grabs small fish from surface while in flight;
also eats crustaceans, mollusks, carrion, and garbage.
FLIGHT: light and graceful; wings long in
proportion to body.
WING TIP COLOR VARIATION
Some adult Iceland Gulls found in North America

have wing tips that are almost pure white.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GLAUCOUS GULL
THAYERS GULL
see p.192
see p.450
much larger
body
Uncommon far from sea

coast; usually nests on ledges
on vertical cliffs overlooking
the sea; winters where it finds
regions of open water in frozen
seas and along coast. A few
wander to open water areas
in the interior, such as the
Great Lakes and major rivers;
Niagara Falls.
dark eye
larger
bill
slightly larger
and darker
overall
white wing
tips
Length 2012 2312in (52 60cm)
Weight 2139oz (600 1,100g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
193

Family Laridae
Herring Gull
Species Larus argentatus
mottled brown
back
large, yellow bill

with red spot
barred
brown
body
white spots
light head
near wing
barred
tips
gray-brown
ADULT
overall
white head
and neck
(BREEDING)
IMMATURE
(1ST WINTER)
gray
wings
gray back
IMMATURE
(2ND WINTER)
streaked
head
black
outer wing
feathers
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
white
underparts
pink legs
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(BREEDING)
streaked head
and neck
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
he Herring Gull is the archetypal, large white-headed gull

to which nearly all other gulls are compared. When people
mention seagulls they usually refer to the Herring Gull.The term,
however, is misleading because the Herring Gull, like most other
gulls, does not commonly go far out to seait is a bird of
near-shore waters, coasts, lakes, rivers, and inland waterways. Now
very common, the Herring Gull was nearly wiped out in the late
19th and early 20th century by plumage hunters and egg collectors.
VOICE Typical call a high-pitched, shrill, repeated heyaa
heyaaheyaaheyaa; vocal throughout the year.
NESTING Shallow bowl on ground lined with feathers,
vegetation, detritus; 24 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Eats fish, crustaceans, mollusks, worms; eggs and chicks
of other seabirds; scavenges carrion, garbage; steals from other birds.
FLIGHT: steady, regular, slow wing beats;
also commonly soars and glides.
MASTER SCAVENGER
A common sight near any water body, the Herring

Gull is an expert scavenger of carrion and trash.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RING-BILLED GULL
CALIFORNIA GULL
see p.190
see p.472
smaller
overall
black ring
on bill
yellowgreen legs
Found throughout North

America along coasts and
inland on lakes, rivers,
and reservoirs; also frequents
garbage dumps. Breeds in
northeastern US and across
Canada. Migrates southward
across much of the continent
to winter in coastal areas and
along lakes and major rivers.
black-andred spot
on bill
greenish
legs
Weight 2842oz (8001,200g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
194
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Species Larus fuscus
Lesser Black-backed Gull

black wing tips
with white spot
mottled, dark
brown body
black
bill
streaked
head and
neck
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
yellow
eye
slate-gray
back
back turns
dark gray
IMMATURE
(1ST WINTER)
IMMATURE
(2ND WINTER)
white
head
white
underparts
yellow bill
with red spot
dull yellow
legs
ADULT
(NONBREEDNG)
bright
yellow legs
ADULT (BREEDING)
his European visitor was first discovered in North America

on the New Jersey coast on September 9, 1934 and in New
York City a few months later. In recent decades, it has become an
FLIGHT: powerful and direct; regular wing
annual winter visitor. Nearly all the Lesser Black-backed Gulls
beats; long wings make it appear graceful.
found in North America are of the Icelandic and western European
subspecies L. f. graellsii, with a slate-gray back. Another European subspecies,
with a much darker back, has rarely been reported in North America, but it
is probably only a matter of time before it nests here.
VOICE A kyowyowyowyow call, similar to that of Herring Gull;
also a deeper and throaty, repeated gah-gah-gah-gah.
NESTING Scrape on ground lined with dry lichens, dry grass, and
feathers; 3 eggs; 1 brood; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Eats mollusks, crustaceans, and various
insects; also scavenges carrion and garbage.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT BLACKBACKED GULL
SLATY-BACKED
GULL
see p.191
see p.472
darker
back
larger
overall
pink legs
and feet
pink legs
larger
overall
EXCITING FIND
In recent years, gull enthusiasts

and birdwatchers have found
these birds visiting from Europe.
Regular and increasingly

common winter visitor to
eastern North America, usually
along the coast, but also in
the interior; wherever gulls
commonly concentrate such
as harbors, lakeshores, landfills,
and around fishing boats.
Weight 2235oz (6251,000g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
195

Family Laridae
Species Larus ridibundus
Black-headed Gull
brownish
crown-collar
reddish
bill
dark ear spot
white flash on
outer wings
gray back
black trailing edge

of wing
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
black-tipped,
red bill
brown spots
on feathers
black-tipped
orange
bill
very pale
white
nape
white
underparts
chocolate
brown
hood
bright
red legs
gray back
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
dark
red bill
black tail
tip
dark red
legs
IMMATURE
(1ST WINTER)
ADULT
(BREEDING)
n abundant breeder in Eurasia, the Black-headed Gull

colonized North America in the 20th century. It was first
seen in the 1920s, not long after nests were discovered in Iceland
in 1911. It has become common in Newfoundland after being
found nesting there in 1977, and has nested as far south as
Cape Cod. However, it has not spread far to the West and remains
an infrequent visitor or stray over most of the continent.
VOICE Loud laughing (its French name is Laughing Gull)
or a chattering kek kek keeaar; very vocal at breeding sites.
NESTING Loose mass of vegetation, on ground or on top
of other vegetation; may be a large mound in wet areas;
FEEDING Picks insects, small crustaceans, and mollusks off
waters surface while flying or hovering; eats some vegetation;
also forages in plowed farm fields; raids garbage dumps.
FLIGHT: graceful, light, and buoyant; agile.
BEAUTIFUL BREEDING PLUMAGE
Most American birders never see the elegant

summer plumage of the Black-headed Gull.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BONAPARTES GULL
see p.197
smaller
and more
delicate
Rare breeder in northeastern

North America; singles or
a few individuals may be found
along the coast, often with
Bonapartes Gulls, at harbors,
inlets, bays, rivers, lakes,
sewage outlets, or garbage
dumps; strays may occur
anywhere. One of the most
common European gulls.
LITTLE GULL
see p.200
black
bill
much smaller
overall
all gray
upperwing
white
underwing
Length 13121412 in (34 37cm)
Wingspan 3ft 3in312 ft (11.1m)
Weight 714oz (200 400g)
Social Colonies
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
196
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Species Larus philadelphia
Bonapartes Gull
blackish ear
spot
black wing
tips
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
gray
neck
short
bill
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
white flash on
outer wings
IN FLIGHT
black
hood
white
head
gray back
and wings
gray
back
brown
patches
on wing
white wedge
on wing
IMMATURE
(1ST WINTER)
white
underparts
with rosy glow
orangered legs
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ighter and more delicate than the other North American
gulls, Bonapartes Gull is commonly distinguished in
winter by the blackish smudge behind each eye and the
large, white wing patch. It is one of Americas most abundant
gulls. In 1989, for example, more than 120,000 were estimated to
have occured in one harbor near Cleveland, Ohio. This species was
named after the French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte
FLIGHT: graceful, light, and agile; rapid wing
(nephew of Napoleon), who lived in New Jersey in the 1820s.
beats; can be mistaken for a tern in flight.
VOICE Harsh keek, keek; can be vocal
in feeding flocks, kew, kew, kew.
NESTING Stick nest of twigs, branches,
tree bark, lined with mosses or lichens;
usually in conifers 520ft (1.56m)
above ground; also in rushes over water;
14 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Catches insects in flight on
WHITE UNDERWINGS
breeding grounds; picks crustaceans,
TERN-LIKE GULL
In all plumages, Bonapartes
mollusks, and small fish from waters
Bonapartes Gulls are very social and, flying in flocks,
Gulls have white underwings,
surface; also plunge-dives.
these pale, delicate birds look like terns.
unlike other similar small gulls.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-HEADED GULL
see p.196
dark outer wing
feathers
During breeding season,

found in northern forest zone,
in lakes, ponds, or bogs; on
migration, may be found
anywhere where there is
water: ponds, lakes, sewage
pools, or rivers. Winters on
Great Lakes and along the
coast; often found in large
numbers at coastal inlets.
LITTLE GULL
see p.200
red bill
smaller
overall
uniform gray
upperwing
larger
overall
Wingspan 35in3ft 3in (90 100cm)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
197

Family Laridae
Laughing Gull
dark gray
wings
Species Larus atricilla

broken white
eye-ring
black head
white
forehead
long, slightly
drooped bill
brown wing
feathers
white neck
ADULT
(WINTER)
IN FLIGHT
IMMATURE
(1ST WINTER)
dark gray back

gray nape
black wing tips

white
underparts
long, dark
legs
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ADULT (WINTER)
he distinctive call of the

Laughing Gull is a familiar
sound in spring and summer
along the East Coast. Already abundant
when the Europeans arrived in North America, it was greatly
reduced in the 19th century by egg collectors and the millinery
trade. Its numbers increased in the 1920s, following protection,
but declined again due to competition with larger gulls from the
North. With the closing of landfills however, the Laughing Gull
population has recovered.
VOICE Typical call strident laugh, ha...ha...hahaha; very
vocal in breeding season; quiet in winter.
NESTING Mass of grass on dry land with heavy vegetation, sand,
rocks, and salt marshes; 24 eggs, 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Picks from surface while walking and swimming;
feeds on various invertebrates: insects, earthworms, squid, crabs,
crab eggs, and larvae; also eats small fish, garbage, and berries.
FLIGHT: strong and direct; graceful for a gull;
agile enough to catch flying insects.
DARK WING TIPS
Unlike many gulls, the Laughing Gull usually

shows little or no white in the wing tips.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
see p.199
white band in
wing tips
During breeding season

usually found near saltwater.
Post-breeders and juveniles
wander widely; strays can turn
up anywhere. Rare in winter in
the Northeast. Small numbers
once nested at the Salton Sea
but only a visitor there for the
last 50 years.
FRANKLINS GULL 4 8
FRANKLINS GULL
short,
straight
bill
see p.199
short,
straight bill
darker
head
pink blush on
underparts
Weight 713oz (200 375g)
Social Colonial
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
198
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Franklins Gull
Species Larus pipixcan

dark back
of head
partial
hood
black wing tips setoff by white band

gray back
short,
straight bill
dark gray
wings
ADULT
(WINTER)
IMMATURE
(1ST SUMMER)
broken white
eye crescent
black head
ADULT (WINTER)
IN FLIGHT
dark gray back
red bill
white in
outer wing
feathers
pink blush
underneath
ADULT
(SUMMER)
FLIGHT: stiff and direct; relatively fast wing
beats; agile flier.
ince its discovery, Franklins Gull has

carried a number of names: Prairie
Dove, Rosy Dove, and Franklins Rosy
GullDove alluding to its dainty appearance and
rosy to the pink blush of its undersides. Its official name
honors British Arctic explorer, John Franklin, on whose first
expedition, the bird was discovered in 1823. Unlike other gulls,
this species has two complete molts each year. As a result, its
plumage usually looks fresh and it rarely has the scruffy look
of some other gulls.
VOICE Nasal weeh-a, weeh-a; shrill kuk kuk kuk kuk; extremely
vocal around breeding colonies.
NESTING Floating mass of bulrushes or other plants; material
added as nest sinks; 24 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Feeds mainly on earthworms and insects during
breeding and some seeds, taken while walking or flying;
opportunistic feeder during migration and winter.
PROMINENT EYES
In all plumages, Franklins Gull has much more

prominent white eye-crescents than similar species.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LAUGHING GULL
see p.198
LAUGHING
GULL 4 7
In summer, a bird of the high

prairies; always nests over
water. On migration often
found in agricultural areas;
large numbers frequent plowed
fields or follows plows. Winters
mainly along the Pacific Coast
of South America.
smaller eyecrescents
see p.198
longer,
drooped
bill
longer
legs
longer
legs
longer,
drooped
bill
Wingspan 33in 3ft 1in (8595cm)
Weight 8 11oz (225 325g)
Social Colonial
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
199

Family Laridae
Species Larus minutus
Little Gull
blackish zigzag
on upperwings
underwings
less black
than adults
pale head,
with dark
markings
black
underwings
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
thin,
dark
bill
dark
ear-spot
IMMATURE
(1ST WINTER)
IN FLIGHT
pale
wing tips
IMMATURE
(2ND SUMMER)
pale gray
back
black hood
and bill
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
ADULT
(BREEDING)
red legs
FLIGHT: quick wing beats; light, nimble,
Eurasian species distributed from the Baltic to China, the

Little Gull is the smallest gull in the world. Whether it is
a recent immigrant to North America or has actually been here,
unnoticed, in small numbers for many years remains a mystery.
It was first recorded in North America in the early 1800s, but
a nest was not found until 1962, in Ontario, Canada. Known
nesting areas are still few, but winter numbers have been
increasing steadily in recent decades.
VOICE Nasal kek, kek, kek, kek, reminiscent of a small tern.
NESTING Thick, floating mass of dry cattails, reeds, or other
vegetation, in marshes and ponds; 3 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Seizes prey from waters surface, while swimming
or plunge-diving; typical prey includes flying insects, aquatic
invertebrates such as shrimps, and small fish.
and agile.
SIMPLE ELEGANCE
Its long, pale gray wings with a thin white border

make this bird one of the most elegant gulls.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-HEADED GULL
BONAPARTES GULL
see p.196
see p.197
red
bill
white ash
in wing
Breeds in extensive freshwater

marshes in Hudson Bay and
Great Lakes region, but the full
extent of its breeding range in
North America is unknown;
can appear almost anywhere
while migrating. Winters
primarily along sea coasts, at
sewage outfalls; often with
groups of Bonapartes Gulls.
larger
overall
white ash
in wing
Weight 312 5oz (100 150g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
200
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Species Xema sabini
Sabines Gull
white
triangle
on wing
black outer
wing feathers
black border
JUVENILE
ADULT
red
eye-ring
gray
hood
black
band
on tail
yellowtipped
black bill
gray back
IN FLIGHT
white
underparts
barring on
gray-brown
back
ADULT
(BREEDING)
black legs
black
bill
JUVENILE
his strikingly patterned gull was discovered in Greenland

by the English scientist Edward Sabine during John Rosss
search for the Northwest Passage in 1818 (it was described in
1819). The distinctive wing pattern and notched tail make
it unmistakable in all plumagesonly juvenile kittiwakes
are superficially similar. Previously thought to be related
to the larger, but similarly patterned, Swallow-tailed Gull
of the Galapgos, recent research indicates that Sabines
Gull is more closely related to the Ivory Gull.This species
breeds in the Arctic and winters at sea, off the coasts of the
Americas (south to Peru) and Africa (south to the Cape region).
VOICE Raucous, harsh kyeer, kyeer, kyeer; tern-like.
NESTING Shallow depression in marsh or tundra vegetation
usually near water, lined with grass or unlined; 34 eggs;
1 brood; MayAugust.
SIMILAR SPECIES
FEEDING Catches
aquatic insects from
BLACK-LEGGED KITTIWAKE 5
see p.202 partial black
the water surface while
collar
black
swimming, wading, or
wing bar
flying during breeding
season; winter diet
mainly includes
crustaceans, small fish,
and plankton.
FLIGHT: wing beats shallow and stiff;
tern-like, buoyant.
STRIKING WING PATTERN
Juvenile Sabines Gulls have a muted version of the

distinctive triangular wing pattern seen in the adults.
OCCURRENCE
In the summer, breeds near

the Arctic coast and on wet
tundra in freshwater
and brackish habitats,
but also occurs near
saltwater. Winters far
offshore in tropical
and subtropical waters;
widespread in Pacific and
Atlantic oceans on migration.
Length 1314in (3336 cm)
Wingspan 35in3ft 3in (90100cm)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
201

Family Laridae
Species Rissa tridactyla

greenish
yellow
bill
Black-legged Kittiwake
pale outer
wing feathers
white head
black M
pattern in wings
pale gray
upperparts
ADULT
pale gray back

feathers
black bill
black
tip to
tail
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
black wing
tip
ADULT
dark neck
collar
black legs
and feet
dark wing
bar
JUVENILE
kittiwake nesting colony is an impressive sight, with

sometimes thousands of birds lined up along steep cliff
ledges overlooking the sea. The ledges are often so narrow that
the birds tails stick out over the edge. Kittiwakes have sharper
claws than other gulls, probably to give them a better grip on
their ledges. In the late 20th century, the Black-legged Kittiwake
population expanded greatly in the Canadian maritime
provinces, with numbers doubling in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
VOICE Repeated, nasal kit-ti-wake, kit-ti-wake call; vocal near
nesting cliffs; usually silent in winter.
NESTING Mound of mud and vegetation on narrow cliff ledge;
FEEDING Snatches small marine fish and invertebrates from the
surface, or dives just below the waters surface; feeds in flocks.
FLIGHT: very stiff-winged; rapid, shallow wing
beats; overall more buoyant than most gulls.
LIVING ON THE EDGE
Young and adult kittiwakes pack together tightly

on their precariously narrow cliff ledges.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RING-BILLED GULL
Rarely seen far from the ocean;

common in summer around sea
cliffs, with ledges suitable for
nesting, and nearby offshore
waters; winters at sea; most
likely to be seen from land
during and after storms; strays
have appeared throughout
the interior.
RED-LEGGED KITTIWAKE
see p.190
white spots
in outer
wing feathers
heavier,
darkmarked
bill
darker
shoulder
feathers
red
legs
gray
underwings
Wingspan 3ft 1in 4ft (0.95m1.2m)
Weight 1118oz (300500g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
202
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Gull-billed Tern
Species Sterna nilotica
white crown
small black
mask
dark trailing
edges on
outer wing
feathers
ADULT
(BREEDING)
black cap
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
thick
black bill
pale gray
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white
underparts
black legs
and toes
ith its relatively heavy build, thick bill,

and broad wings, the Gull-billed
Tern is more gull-like than any other
North American tern. Also, unlike most other
terns, it does not feed only on fish, and has a notably varied
diet that requires foraging in a variety of different habitats,
ranging from mudflats to desert scrub. It often nests in colonies
with other ternsparticularly Common and Caspian terns
and skimmers, and will occasionally hunt their chicks and steal
their prey. During the 19th century, Gull-billed Terns were
hunted ruthlessly for their eggs and feathers. Their numbers have
at least partially recovered, but increasing human disturbance at
nesting sites is a long-term conservation concern.
VOICE Short, two-noted, nasal yapping, kay-wek, kay-wek.
NESTING Simple, camouflaged scrape on ground, usually on
sand, shell bank, or bare rock; shells and other debris used to
build up nest; 23 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Eats insects, lizards, small fish, and chicks. Catches
insects in flight; plucks prey from ground or waters surface.
FLIGHT: buoyant and graceful; stiff-winged
with shallow wing beats.
LONG WINGS
The Gull-billed Tern has very long, pointed wings

with a dusky edge on the outer feathers.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SANDWICH
TERN 8
Rarely found away from

saltwater. Historically
considered a species of salt
marshes, but now breeds
primarily on sandy beaches
and barrier islands; most
birds leave the US to winter
in Central America, where they
favor mudflats or flooded fields.
ROSEATE TERN 9
crest
see p.207
see p.205
yellow-tipped,
thin, black bill
long,
forked tail
thin bill
smaller
overall
Weight 57oz (150 200g)
Social Colonies
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
203

Family Laridae
Caspian Tern
Species Sterna caspia

dark markings
on upperparts
streaked
dark crown
JUVENILE
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
short
tail
slightly
crested
black cap
dark-tipped outer
wing feathers
light gray
back
IN FLIGHT
thick, red
bill with
dark tip
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white
underparts
FLIGHT: strong, swift flier; heavy, powerful wing
black legs and feet
beats; the most gull-like of North American terns.
ivaling some of the gulls in size, the

Caspian Tern is the worlds largest tern.
Unlike other black-capped terns, it never has
a completely white forehead, even in winter. In
nonbreeding plumage, when the cap is very heavily streaked.
The Caspian Tern is known for its predatory habits, stealing prey
from other seabirds, as well as snatching eggs from, and hunting
the chicks of, other gulls and terns. It is aggressive in defending
its nesting territory, giving hoarse alarm calls and rhythmically
opening and closing its beak in a threatening display to intruders.
VOICE Hoarse, deep kraaa, kraaa; also barks at intruders; males
wings vibrate loudly in courtship flight.
NESTING Shallow scrape on ground; 23 eggs; 1 brood;
MayAugust.
FEEDING Plunges into water to snatch fish, barnacles, and snails.
AGGRESSIVE BIRDS
The Caspian Tern is one of the most aggressive

terns, though actual physical contact is rare.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ELEGANT TERN
ROYAL TERN
see p.206
Found in a variety of aquatic

habitats, freshwater and
marine; rare offshore; breeds
on interior lakes, salt marsh,
and on coastal barrier islands;
winters on and near the coast.
May be seen on marshes and
wetlands during migration.
thinner,
orange bill
thin,
orangeyellow bill
smaller
overall
slender
build
Length 18122112in (4754cm)
Weight 19 27oz (525775g)
Social Colonies/Pairs
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
204
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Species Sterna sandvicensis
Sandwich Tern
indistinct barring
above
darkedged
tail
white
forehead
no shaggy
crest
JUVENILE
pale
forehead
dark spots
on wings
IMMATURE
(1ST WINTER)
long,
slender
wings
black cap
shaggy
crest
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
dark wedge in
outer feathers
long,
yellowtipped
black bill
very pale
gray back
IN FLIGHT
white
underparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: shallow, relatively rapid wing beats;
strong and agile.
black legs
and toes
he Sandwich Tern is the only North American

tern to possess both a crest and a mostly black
bill. Up-close it is possible to spot the yellow tip on
its black bill, which is also a unique feature among
North American terns. This species nests in dense breeding colonies along
with Royal Terns and Laughing Gulls. It is not an aggressive species and,
like the Elegant Tern, is thought to benefit from the protection the other, more
aggressive species offer it from potential predators. Worldwide, there are three
subspecies of Sandwich Tern, but only one of these inhabits North America.
VOICE Loud, harsh two-syllabled kirr-ick; vocal when breeding, less elsewhere.
NESTING Shallow scrape on bare ground in open area, often alongside other
tern species; debris added during incubation, but sometimes unlined; 12 eggs;
FEEDING Plunge-dives from medium height to
catch fish, squid, and crustaceans; also snatches prey
from surface and catches insects in flight.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GULL-BILLED TERN
see p.203
stout, all
black bill
ROSEATE TERN
see p.207
no yellow
tip on bill
more compact
body
CLOSE NESTING
smaller
overall
Sandwich Terns often nest in

extremely dense colonies with
nests packed closely together.
An East Coast and Caribbean

species, it is rarely far from
saltwater; breeds on barrier
beaches, barrier islands, and
man-made dredge islands.
Winters in similar areas; roosts
on sandbars. May occur north
of normal range after tropical
storms and hurricanes.
Length 1312 1712in (3445cm)
Wingspan 3ft 1in 3ft 4in (95105cm)
Weight 6 11oz (175300g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
205

Family Laridae
Species Sterna maxima
Royal Tern
white
underwings
white flanks
darker gray
tips on outer
flight feathers
ADULT
(BREEDING)
shaggy
crest
black forehead
and crown
darker
pattern
on wings
ADULT (BREEDING)
JUVENILE
pale gray
wings
strong,
orange bill
light gray
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(BREEDING)
forked
tail
white
underparts
shaggy
coat
black legs
white
forehead
FLIGHT: wing beats shallow, but powerful;
less rapid and buoyant than other large terns.
oyal Terns have a full black cap for only a very short time at the
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
beginning of the breeding season; for most of the year, they have
white foreheads. The color of a Royal Terns bill is quite variable,
ranging from yellowish orange to red. Some possess a reddish bill
similar to that of the Caspian Tern, but the latter does not have
a pure white forehead and its bill is thicker. Perhaps it was these
red-billed Royal Terns that caused the renowned ornithologist,
John James Audubon, to confuse the two species.
VOICE Call keer-reet, usually during courtship; higher pitched
and less raspy than Caspian Tern; more vocal around colonies.
NESTING Shallow scrape on bare ground, usually unlined, rim
of guano reinforces nest; 1 egg; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Mostly plunge-dives, but also plucks prey from
BREEDING HABITS
surface while flying; sometimes skims surface; almost exclusively Royal Terns appear monogamous, but it is unclear
eats fish and crustaceans, such as crabs and barnacles.
whether the pair bond is kept between seasons.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CASPIAN TERN 8
see p.204
stout
red bill
Normally restricted to warm

saltwater habitats. Breeds
in dense colonies, often
on barrier islands; postbreeders wander north
of regular breeding range;
some are carried north
by tropical storms and
hurricanes, and may be found
in the interior of the US.
ELEGANT TERN
smaller
overall
larger
overall
thinner,
curved
bill
Length 1712 1912in (4550cm)
Weight 1216oz (350 450g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
206
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Species Sterna dougallii
Roseate Tern
long tail
feathers
scalloped appearance
to upperparts
red base to
black bill
dark legs
pale gray
underwings
ADULT
(LATE SUMMER)
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
black
cap
ADULT
(SPRING)
pale gray
upperparts
long,
forked tail
black
bill
FLIGHT: strong and fairly swift; stiffer-winged
than terns of similar size.
ADULT
(SPRING)
white
underparts
ostly found nesting with Common Tern, the Roseate Tern

is paler and more slender. Its slim bill is black only for a
short time in the spring before turning at least half red during
the nesting season. At breeding colonies, these terns engage in
distinctive courtship flights, with pairs gliding down from
hundreds of feet in the air, swaying side to side with each other.
Some birds nest as triostwo females and a maleall taking
part in incubating the eggs and raising the young.
VOICE Most common calls keek or ki-rik given in flight and
around nesting colony.
NESTING Simple scrape, often under vegetation or large rocks;
adds twigs and dry grass during incubation; 13 eggs; 1 brood;
MayAugust.
FEEDING Catches small fish with its bill by diving from a height
of 320ft (16m); carries whole fish to young.
GRACEFUL COURTSHIP
Roseate Tern pairs engage in elegant, graceful

courtship displays before mating.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SANDWICH TERN 8
COMMON TERN 8
yellow-tipped bill;
see p.205
shorter tail; see p.208
larger
overall
Breeds almost exclusively in

coastal areas in the Northeast
from Long Island, New York, to
Nova Scotia, with another small
population in the outer Florida
Keys. Typically nests on beaches
and offshore islands. Not often
seen far from breeding sites.
darker
gray
overall
Social Colonies
Status Endangered
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
207

Family Laridae
Species Sterna hirundo
Common Tern
dark wedge on
outer feathers
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white
forehead
whitish forehead
brown bars on
upperparts
JUVENILE
bill
mostly
dark
dark bill with

red-orange base
black wing
bar
blackish
leg
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
black cap
gray
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
forked tail
blacktipped
red bill
pale gray-white
underparts
red leg
FLIGHT: graceful, steady and strong; wing
beats relatively deep.
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ne of North Americas most widespread

terns, the Common Tern was nearly wiped
out in the late 19th century by hunters seeking
its feathers. The 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty helped
protect it, and numbers increased, but populations
have declined again in recent decades due to
human disturbance, habitat loss, and pollution.
VOICE Common call loud keee-aarr descending
at end; emits kek-kek-kek-kek call when attacking
intruders; vocal in colonies; also calls elsewhere.
NESTING Shallow scrape on bare sand, often gravel
or similar surface, dry vegetation and debris used
during incubation; 23 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Plunges for prey, snatches from waters
surface, catches insects in flight; mainly eats fish but
also crustaceans, squid, and insects.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ARCTIC TERN 8
see p.209
shorter
red bill
shorter neck
FORSTERS TERN
see p.210
paler wings
shorter
legs
longer
tail
FEEDING FLOCK
A flock of Common Terns focus

on a school of fish, diving to
catch them. Fishermen watch
for such flocks to locate fish.
Found almost anywhere with

water during migration. Winters
in Central and South America.
One population breeds along
the barrier beaches and coasts
northwards from the Carolinas;
a second population occurs
around lakes and wetland
areas in the northern interior.
Social Colonies
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
208
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Arctic Tern
Species Sterna paradisaea
white
forehead
barring on
upperparts
short,
dark bill
ADULT
(BREEDING)
dark tips to
translucent outer
wing feathers
long,
forked
tail
short, bloodred bill
black cap
extends
to nape
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
short neck
short,
red bill
white
cheek
gray
upperparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
long
wings
pale gray
underparts
short, red legs

and feet
he majority of these remarkable birds

breed in the Arctic, then migrate to the
Antarctic seas for the Southern Hemisphere summer
before returning north. On this round-trip, the Arctic Tern
travels at least 25,000 miles (40,000km). Apart from during
migration, it spends its life in areas of near continuous daylight
and rarely comes to land, except to nest. It looks fairly similar to
the Common Tern, but the former has a comparatively smaller
bill, shorter legs, and a shorter neck.
VOICE Descending keeyaar call;
nearly all calls similar to Common
Tern, but higher-pitched and harsher.
NESTING Shallow scrape on bare
ground or low vegetation in open
areas; 2 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Mostly plunge-dives for
small fish and crustaceans, including
FEEDING THE YOUNG
crabs and shrimps; will also take prey Both parents feed chicksmales
from surface, sometimes catches
bring more food than females,
insects in flight.
especially right after hatching.
FLIGHT: downstroke slower than upstroke;
buoyant and elegant with regular wing beats.
TRANSLUCENT FEATHERS
The translucent outer wing feathers of the Arctic

Tern are evident on these two flying birds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON TERN 8
see p.208
longer
neck
Breeds in far North, mostly in

open, unforested areas near
water and along
the coast; generally
migrates far offshore.
Spends more time
away from land than
other northern terns.
Winters on edge of
pack ice in Antarctica.
FORSTERS TERN
longer
bill
longer
legs
see p.210
longer,
orange bill
longer
legs
Social Colonies
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
209

Family Laridae
Species Sterna forsteri
Forsters Tern
gray wings with
slightly darker
wing tips
deeply
forked
tail
large, black
ear patch
dark
bill
plain gray
wings
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
shorter tail
black cap
and nape
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
JUVENILE
pale gray
upperparts
orangered bill
with
dark tip
long, gray tail with

white outer margins
snowy white
underparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: graceful and agile, with shallow
wing beats.
his medium-sized tern is very similar

in appearance to the Common Tern. The
features that differentiate it from the Common Tern are its lighter
outer wing feathers and longer tail. Early naturalists could not tell
the two species apart until 1834 when English botanist Thomas
Nuttall made the distinction. He named this tern after Johann
Reinhold Forster, a naturalist who accompanied the English
explorer Captain Cook on his epic second voyage (1772-75).
VOICE Harsh, descending kyerr ; more nasal than Common Tern.
NESTING Shallow scrape in mud or sand, but occasionally nests
on top of muskrat lodge or on old grebe nest; sometimes constructs
raft of floating vegetation; 23 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Catches fish and crustaceans with shallow plungediving, often only head submerges; also catches insects in flight.
BLACK EARS
With its black ear patch, Fosters Tern is more

distinctive in nonbreeding than breeding plumage.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON TERN
ARCTIC TERN
see p.208
see p.209
redder bill
shorter
tail
Breeds in northeastern Mexico,

in freshwater and saltwater
marshes with large stretches
of open water. Winters on both
coasts and across southern US
states, unlike the Common
Tern, which primarily winters
in South America.
shorter
red bill
shorter
neck
shorter
legs
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
210
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Species Sterna antillarum
Least Tern
streaked
crown
patterned
back
dark outer
wing feathers
mostly dark
bill
JUVENILE
forked
tail
black cap with

white forehead
ADULT
(BREEDING)
yellow
bill
pale gray
back
IN FLIGHT
two dark
outer wing
feathers
white
underparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
yellow legs
FLIGHT: extremely agile with stiff-winged,
deep, rapid wing beats; frequently hovers.
he Least Tern is the smallest of the North

American terns and, in summer, its distinctive
black cap and white forehead distinguish it from other members
of its family. In the 19th century the population of Least Terns
declined rapidly as its feathers were prized fashion accessories.
Protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty of 1916, its numbers
grew again, but it is still threatened by ongoing habitat loss.
VOICE Extremely vocal during breeding; a high-pitched ki-deek,
ki-deek; also a rapid, almost non-stop chatter.
NESTING Shallow scrape on ground lined with dry vegetation,
broken shells, and pebbles; 23 eggs; 1 brood; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Plunge-dives, often after hovering, for fish and aquatic
invertebrates, does not submerge completely; also skims surface
for food; catches insects in flight.
COURTSHIP FEEDING
As with many other species of tern, Least Tern

males offer fish to females during courtship.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Breeds along both coasts,

major rivers, lakes, reservoirs,
and in Great Plains wetlands;
favors sandy areas such as
barrier islands, beaches,
sandbars, and nearby waters.
Winters from Mexico to South
America. Also breeds in the
West Indies and Mexico.
COMMON TERN
black-tipped FORSTERS TERN

see p.208
larger overall; blackred bill
see p.210
tipped
all-black
orange bill
cap
larger
overall
longer
tail
Social Colonies
Status Endangered
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
211

Family Laridae
Species Chlidonias niger
Black Tern
dark gray
wings
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
dark
gray
tail
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white
forehead
whitish
underparts
black head
black
bill
gray
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
dark smudge
on sides
black
breast
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white
rump
black legs
and toes
FLIGHT: very agile, but somewhat erratic-
looking, bouncy flight; strong, deep wing beats.
he Black Tern is a small, elegant, marshdwelling tern that undergoes a remarkable

change in appearance from summer to wintermore so
than any other regularly occurring North American tern.
The Black Terns breeding plumage can cause the bird to be
confused with the closely related White-winged Tern, which
is an accidental visitor to North America. The Black Terns
nonbreeding plumage is much paler than its breeding
plumagethe head turns white with irregular black streaks,
and the neck, breast, and belly become whitish gray.
VOICE Call nasal and harsh krik, kip, or kik; most vocal during
breeding, but calls throughout the year.
NESTING Shallow cup on top of floating mass of vegetation,
sometimes on top of muskrat lodges; usually 3 eggs; 1 brood;
MayAugust.
SIMILAR SPECIES
FEEDING Picks prey
off waters surface or
SOOTY TERN 5
see p.451
vegetation; rarely plunge
white spots
dives; in summer, feeds
on back
on mainly insects,
caught from the air or
ground, also freshwater
much larger
fish; in winter, eats
overall
mainly small sea fish.
FLOATING NEST
A floating nest is a dry place to lay eggs and raise

chicks in a watery environment.
OCCURRENCE
Freshwater marshes in summer,

but nonbreeding plumaged
birdsprobably young
occasionally seen along the
coast. During migration, can
be found almost anywhere
near water. Winters in the
marine coastal waters of
Weight 134 212 oz (50 70g)
Social Colonies
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
212
WHERE
NOTES

Family Laridae
Black Skimmer
mottled brown
upperparts
long
wing
Species Rynchops niger

orange-red
and black
bill
white forehead
bill duller
than adult
lower half
of bill
longer than
upper
ADULT
(BREEDING)
JUVENILE
short,
forked
tail
long, thick neck

IN FLIGHT
black upperparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white underparts
orange-red legs
ith its long, orange-red

and black bill, the Black
Skimmer is quite unmistakable.
Compressed laterally into a knife-like
shape, the bills lower mandible is about 1in (2.5cm) longer
than the upper part. The unique bill and feeding behavior of
the worlds three skimmer species have led some to place them
in their own family, although they are usually grouped with
gulls and terns. When disturbed, Black Skimmer chicks kick
up sand with their feet, forming a depression and throwing
sand over their backs, which helps to camouflage them.
VOICE Calls given by both sexes, more often at night; distinctive
sound like the yapping of a small dog.
NESTING Shallow scrape or depression on sandy beach or dead
saltmarsh vegetation, also on gravel rooftops; 15 eggs; 1 brood;
MayAugust.
FEEDING Skims surface with the lower part of its bill in water;
bill snaps shut when prey is within reach; catches small fish in
relatively calm waters.
FLIGHT: mostly low and buoyant with slow
wing beats; often glides when feeding.
GREGARIOUS BIRDS
The Black Skimmer is often seen in flocks on

sandy beaches and mudflats.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds on East Coast from

Massachusetts south to
Mexico; West Coast only in
southern California, including
Salton Sea; rarely found far
from saltwater. Found on
beaches; feeds in bays,
estuaries, lagoons, and areas
with relatively calm waters.
Winters in Central America.
SLICING THE SURFACE
The unique way in which skimmers such as the Black Skimmer feed
gave rise to the old common name for these birdsCutwaters.
Length 1512 1912in (4050cm)
Wingspan 312 414ft (1.11.3m)
Weight 8 14oz (225 400g)
Social Colonies
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
213

Family Stercorariidae
Pomarine Jaeger
all-dark
body
prominent
white flash
in feathers
ADULT
(BREEDING;
PALE FORM)
Species Stercorarius pomarinus
deep,
barrel
breast
blackish
cap
pale
based,
thick bill
cream
cheeks
JUVENILE
(FALL;
DARK FORM)
white
wing flash
barred
flanks
ADULT
(NONBREEDING;
PALE FORM)
ADULT
(DARK
FORM)
dusky
breastband
gray-brown
back
dark overall
blunt
tail
spike
dusky
breastband
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(BREEDING;
PALE FORM)
twisted, spoon-like
central tail feathers
he intimidating Pomarine Jaeger uses

its size and strength to overpower larger
seabirds, such as gulls and shearwaters, in order
to steal their food. Thought to be nomadic during
the breeding season, it only nests opportunistically, when
populations of lemmings are at their peak to provide food for
its young. Although larger and more powerful than the Parasitic
FLIGHT: powerful, deep, quick wing beats, with
Jaeger, the Pomarine Jaeger is not as acrobatic in the air and is
glides; rapid twists and turns in pursuit of prey.
readily driven away from breeding territories by the more
dynamic Parasitic Jaeger. Interestingly, research suggests that the
Pomerine Jaeger is actually more closely related to the large skuas
such as the Great and South Polar Skuasthan to other jaegers.
VOICE Nasal cow-cow-cow and various sharp, low whistles.
NESTING Shallow unlined depression on a rise or hummock in open
tundra; 2 eggs; 1 brood; JuneAugust.
FEEDING Hunts lemmings and other rodents; eats fish or scavenges refuse
from fishing boats during nonbreeding season; often
steals fish from other seabirds, such as gulls.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PARASITIC JAEGER
LONG-TAILED JAEGER 8
see p.215
see p.216
white
necklace
extremely
long tail
gray
breastband
pale
breast
OBVIOUS FEATURE
The twisted, spoon-like central

tail feathers are clearly visible
when the Pomarine Jaeger flies.
Breeds on open tundra in the

Canadian Arctic. Migrates north
in spring and south in fall, along
coasts and also far offshore.
Most often seen when brought
close to land by gales. Stormdriven birds very occasionally
found inland. More commonly
seen on West Coast than East
Coast; winters far out at sea.
Wingspan 4ft (1.2m)
Weight 2326oz (650750g)
Social Solitary
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
214
WHERE
NOTES
ShorebirdS, gullS, and aukS

Species Stercorarius parasiticus
Parasitic Jaeger
pale cheek
patch
adult
(daRK FORM)
barring
on wings
white
wing
patch
dark
cap
pale
cheek
mostly dark
brown overall
in flight
adUlt(darkform)
adUlt(paleform)
long, pointed,
central feathers
dark
upperparts
adult
(intermediate form)
wide
gray
breastband
dark legs
and toes
FLiGHt: swift wing beats interspersed with
fast glides,interrupted by twisting and climbing.
true avian pirate of the high seas, the

Parasitic Jaeger routinely seeks food by chasing,
bullying, and forcing other seabirds to drop or regurgitate
fish or other food they have caught. Unlike most jaegers,
the Parasitic Jaeger is adaptable in its feeding habits so that
it can forage and raise its young under a wide range of
environmental conditions. Breeding on the Arctic tundra,
it migrates to offshore areas during the nonbreeding season.
VOice Variety of terrier-like yelps and soft squeals, often during
interactions with other jaegers or predators, usually around
nesting territories.
NestiNG Shallow unlined depression on a rise or hummock
in open tundra; 2 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FeeDiNG Steals fish and other aquatic prey from gulls and
terns; catches small birds, eats eggs, or hunts small rodents
on breeding grounds.
parasitic pirate
This Parasitic Jaeger is harrying a gull by pecking

at it, to make it disgorge its hard-won meal.
OccurreNce
similar species
pomarinejaeger
Breeds on tundra in northern

Canada and Alaska (breeds
farther south than other
jaegers); during migration
and in winter, uses both
nearshore and offshore
waters; rarely found inland
in the US outside the
breeding season.
long-tailedjaeger
see p.214
see p.216
two long,
central, twisted
tail feathers
heavy
hooked bill
black
cap
longer
pointed tail
Length 161812in(4147cm)
Wingspan 3ft3in312ft(11.1m)
Weight 1318oz(375500g)
Social Solitary/Smallflocks
Lifespan Upto18years
Status Secure
Date seen
Where
nOtes
215

Species Stercorarius longicaudus
Long-tailed Jaeger
gray-and-black
upperwing
yellowish
cream
cheeks
thin
wings
dark
cap
slim, long
body
ADULT
(BREEDING)
dark,
grayish back
IMMATURE
(2ND SUMMER)
grayish brown
JUVENILE
(DARK
FORM)
extremely long
tail streamers
with no
breastband
ADULT
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: direct, swift glides with rapid wing
beats; more buoyant and light than other jaegers.
his elegant and striking species is a surprisingly

fierce Arctic and marine predator. Though the
Long-tailed Jaeger occasionally steals food from small
gulls and terns, it is much less proficient at such piracy than
its larger relatives, and usually hunts for its own food. Indeed, the
Long-tailed Jaeger is so dependent on there being an abundance
of lemmings in the Arctic that in years when lemming numbers
dip low, the bird may not even attempt to nest, because there
would not be enough lemmings with which to feed its chicks.
VOICE Calls include a chorus of kreek, a loud kreer warning call,
whistles, and high-pitched, sharp clicks.
NESTING Shallow, unlined depression on a rise or hummock in
open tundra; 2 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Hunts lemmings on tundra breeding grounds; takes
fish, beetles, and mayflies from water surface; occasionally steals
small fish from terns.
DEFENSIVE MOVES
This species protects its territory with angry calls,

aggressive swoops, and distraction displays.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
POMARINE JAEGER
PARASITIC JAEGER
see p.214
see p.215
Breeds on tundra in northern

Canada and Alaskagenerally
the most northern
breeding jaeger; on
migration and in winter
uses mostly offshore
waters; very rarely seen
inland in winter.
thin bill
hooked bill
long twisted
feathers
shorter
tail
Weight 1011oz (275300g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
216
WHERE
NOTES

Family Alcidae
Species Alle alle
Dovekie
short,
dark
tail
dark head
and upper
breast
white triangle on
side of breast
dark
wings
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white collar at
back of head
ADULT
(BREEDING)
dark
crown
dark back
small bill
IN FLIGHT
white
throat
white
undertail
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
lso known widely as the Little Auk, the stocky and

diminutive black-and-white Dovekie is a bird of the
High Arctic. Most Dovekies breed in Greenland in large,
noisy, crowded colonies (the largest one containing
1520 million birds), but some breed in northeastern Canada,
and others on a few islands in the Bering Sea off Alaska. On
their breeding grounds, both adult and immature Dovekies
are hunted ruthlessly by Glaucous Gulls, as well as mammalian
predators, such as the Arctic Fox.Vast numbers of Dovekies
winter on the Low Arctic waters off the northeastern
North American seaboard, in immense flocks. Occasionally,
severe onshore gales cause entire flocks to become stranded
along the East Coast of North America.
VOICE Variety of calls at breeding colony, including
high-pitched trilling that
SIMILAR SPECIES
rises and falls; silent at sea.
NESTING Pebble nest in
BLACK GUILLEMOT 5
see p.221
crack or crevice in
black-andboulder field or rocky
longer
white
bill
whitish
outcrop; 1 egg; 1 brood;
barring
head
on wing
AprilAugust.
FEEDING Mostly picks
tiny crustaceans from just
below the seas surface.
FLIGHT: rapid, whirring wing beats;
flies in flocks low over the waters surface.
SOCIABLE LITTLE AUK
After initial squabbles over nest sites, Dovekies in

breeding colonies become highly sociable.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds on islands inside the

Arctic Circle; in Greenland,
mostly, but also in northeastern
Canada and the Bering Sea.
Many birds remain just south
of the Arctic pack ice
throughout the winter;
others fly south to winter off
the northeastern seaboard
of North America.
Length 812in (21cm)
Weight 6oz (175g)
Social Colonies
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
217

Family Alcidae
Species Uria lomvia
Thick-billed Murre
brownish black
sides of head
ADULT
(BREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
short,
black tail
hunched
in flight
white line
along bill
white breast
and underparts
all-blackish
upperparts
reduced or absent
white line on bill
ADULT
(BREEDING)
more extensive
white on throat
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
FLIGHT: near the water surface with strong,
rapid wing beats.
arge and robust, the Thick-billed Murre is one

of the most abundant seabirds in the whole of
the Northern Hemisphere. Its dense, coastal cliff
breeding colonies can be made up of around a million
birds each. Chicks leave the colony when they are only about
25 percent of the adults weight. Their growth is completed at
sea, while being fed by the male parent alone. The Thick-billed Murre
can dive to a remarkable 600ft (180m) to catch fish and squid.
VOICE Roaring, groaning, insistent sounding aoorrr; lower-pitched
than the Common Murre.
NESTING Rocky coast or narrow sea cliff ledge in
dense colony; 1 egg; 1 brood; MarchSeptember.
FEEDING Cod, herring, capelin, and sand lance in
summer; also crustaceans, worms, and squid.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON MURRE
see p.219
more
upright
posture
RAZORBILL
longer,
thinner
bill
see p.220
Breeds on rocky shorelines,

using the same nest each year.
Winters at sea, spending
extended periods of time on
very cold, deep, and often
remote ocean waters and
pack ice edges or openings.
at,
dark
bill
thick
neck
CLIFF HANGER
Thick-billed Murres breed in

dense colonies on steep cliffs,
often in very remote areas.
Length 18in (46cm)
Weight 34oz (975g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
218
WHERE
NOTES

Family Alcidae
Species Uria aalge
Common Murre
black
head
white eye-ring
black wing
white line
extending
backwards
from eye
ADULT
(BREEDING)
long,
straight,
black
bill
dark brown
upperparts and
breast
slender head
and bill
ADULT (WHITE BRIDLED FORM)

curved, black
line droops
behind eye
IN FLIGHT
white
underparts
white face
and throat
black back
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
ADULT
(BREEDING)
grayish legs
and toes
FLIGHT: fairly quick with rapid wing beats;
close to waters surface.
bundant, penguin-like birds of the cooler northern

oceans, Common Murres are often seen standing
upright on cliffs. They are strong fliers and adept
divers, to a depth of 500ft (150m). Their large nesting
colonies, on rocky sea cliff ledges, are so densely
packed that incubating adults may touch each other
on both sides. Common Murre eggs are pointed at one
endwhen pushed, they roll around in a circle, reducing the
risk of rolling off the nesting ledge. It has been suggested that
unique egg markings may help adults recognize their own eggs.
VOICE Low-pitched, descending call given from cliffs or water,
reminiscent of trumpeting elephant.
NESTING Directly on bare rock near shore, on wide cliff ledge,
or large crevice; 1 egg; 1 brood; May-July.
FEEDING Pursues small schooling fish, such as herring, sand
lance, and haddock; also crustaceans, marine worms, and squid.
BREEDING COLONY
Crowded together, Common Murres are not

territorial but will defend a personal space.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Breeds close to rocky

shorelines, nesting on coastal
cliff ledges or flat rocks on
top of sea stacks on both
East and West coasts.
Found farther offshore
during nonbreeding season,
spending extended periods
on the open ocean and in
large bays. Winters at sea.
RAZORBILL 8
THICK-BILLED
MURRE
see p.220
see p.218
thick, pale
line between
eye and bill
bill
with
white
bar
near
tip
Weight 35oz (1,000g)
Social Colonies
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
219

Family Alcidae
Species Alca torda

thin white line
extends from bill to eye
Razorbill
large, round head
bill smaller
than in
breeding birds
thick, black bill
long,
black,
pointed
tail
short
neck
black
upperparts
brownish head
ADULT
(BREEDING)
white
underparts
up to chin
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
ADULT
(BREEDING)
snowy white
underparts
FLIGHT: agile with rapid wing beats; long,
pointed, black tail streamlines shape in flight.
blackish legs
and toes
his stocky, heavy-billed bird is

the closest living relative of the
extinct Great Auk. One of the rarest
breeding seabirds in North America, the
Razorbill is a strong flier and more agile in flight
than many related species. Razorbills typically feed at
depths of about 20ft (6m), but are sometimes known to dive
to depths of more than 450ft (140m). On shore, Razorbills walk
upright like penguins.They carry small fish at once to their chick,
later male razorbills escort their flightless young to the sea to feed.
VOICE Deep, guttural, resonant croak, hey al.
NESTING Enclosed sites often built in crevices, among boulders,
or in abandoned burrows; 1 egg; 1 brood; May-July.
FEEDING Dives for schooling fish, including capelin, herring,
and sand lance; also consumes marine worms and crustaceans;
sometimes steals fish from other auks.
IN FLIGHT
The razorbill flaps its wings constantly in flight as

they are too small for the bird to glide.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
THICK-BILLED
MURRE
COMMON
MURRE 8
see p.218
see p.219
more
slender
body
thick, pale
line between
eye and bill
Breeds on rocky islands and

shorelines, or steep mainland
cliffs in northeast North
America, most of the worlds
population breeds in Iceland.
Winters south of breeding
range on ice-free coastal
waters reaching New Jersey
and Virginia. Forages in cool,
shallower water, near shore.
slimmer
bill
more
slender
body
Length 17in (43cm)
Weight 26oz (725g)
Social Colonies
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
220
WHERE
NOTES

Family Alcidae
Species Cepphus grylle
Black Guillemot
ADULT
(BREEDING)
gray bars in white

wing patch
broad, rounded
wings
gray cap
gray neck
oval, snowy white

upperwing patch
thin,
straight
bill
JUVENILE
large white
patch
IN FLIGHT
dark
belly
scarlet
legs and
toes
ADULT
(BREEDING)
round,
black
body
lack Guillemots, also known as sea pigeons, are mediumsized auks with distinctive black plumage and white wing
patches. Their striking scarlet legs and mouth lining help attract
a mate during the breeding season. Like the other two species
of the Cepphus genus, Black Guillemots prefer shallow, inshore
waters to the open ocean. They winter near the shore,
sometimes moving into the mouths of rivers.
VOICE Very high-pitched whistles and squeaks given on land
and water near nesting habitat that resonate like an echo.
NESTING Shallow scrape in soil or pebbles within cave or
crevice, site may be reused; 12 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Dives under water near shore to hunt small, bottomdwelling fish, such as rock eels, sand lance, and sculpin; propels
down to depths of 59ft (18m) using partly opened wings,
webbed feet as a rudder; feeds close to nesting islands.
FLIGHT: flies low over the water with very
rapid wing beats.
FOOD FOR CHICKS
The birds carry food for the chicks in their bills and
often pause near the nest before dashing home.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
DOVEKIE 7
smaller; see
p.217
dark back
Primarily an Atlantic species.

Breeds in crevices on remote
rocky islands and cliffs that
provide protection from
predators. At sea prefers
shallow waters, close to
rocky coasts. At end of
breeding season, adults
and young move closer to
shore to avoid pack ice.
PIGEON GUILLEMOT 8
dusky underwings
white patch in flight
behind
black bar on
eye
white wing
patch
Length 13in (33cm)
Weight 15oz (425g)
Social Colonies
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
221

Family Alcidae
Species Fratercula arctica
Atlantic Puffin
dusky gray
face
black back,
collar, and
underwings
short
tail
dull
bill
blue-gray,
orange, and
red stripes
on bill
gray
face
ADULT
(BREEDING)
orange legs
and toes
red
eye-ring
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
thick
black
line
ADULT (BREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
stocky, rounded
body
large, colorful,
triangular bill
white
breast
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ith its black-and-white tuxedo, ungainly upright

posture, and enormous, colorful bill, the Atlantic Puffin
is often known as the clown of the sea. Certainly it looks
comical, whether strutting about or simply bobbing on the
sea. It is seen in summer, when large breeding colonies gather
on remote, rocky islands. To feed itself and its young, it can
dive down to 200ft (60m) with partly folded wings, essentially
flying underwater in pursuit of small schooling fish.
VOICE Rising and falling buzzy growl, resembling a chainsaw.
NESTING Underground burrow or deep rock crevice lined
with grass and feathers; 1 egg; 1 brood; JuneAugust.
FEEDING Dives deep for capelin, herring, hake, sand lance,
and other small fish, which it swallows underwater, or stores
crossways in its bill to take back to its chicks.
FLIGHT: swift and direct, with rapid wing
beats; often circles breeding islands.
CATCH AND CARRY
When returning to breeding colonies to feed chicks,

most birds carry more than one fish in their bill.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LONG-TAILED DUCK 28
see p.65
long
tail
white
eye-ring
This northern North Atlantic

seabird (found on both sides of
the ocean) breeds in colonies
on small, rocky, offshore
islands, where it excavates
nesting burrows or nests under
boulders. Between breeding
seasons, it heads for the high
seas and remains far offshore,
favoring cold, open waters.
HORNED PUFFIN
eshy horn
above eye
yellow
base
to bill
stubby
bill
dark anks
Weight 12oz (350g)
Social Colonies
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
222
WHERE
NOTES
Family Columbidae
PIGEONS & DOVES

the family
T
Columbidae are known as pigeons, and the
smaller ones as doves, although there is no actual
HE LARGER SPECIES WITHIN
scientific basis for this distinction. They are all

fairly heavy, plump
birds with relatively
small heads and
short necks. They
have slender bills
with the nostrils
positioned in a
fleshy mound
at the base. Among
other things,
members of this
TINY DOVE
family
have strong wing
Slightly larger than a sparrow,
muscles,
making them
the Common Ground-Dove has
powerful and agile
well-marked black wing-spots.
fliers. When alarmed, they burst into flight,

with their wings emitting a distinctive clapping
or swishing sound. Pigeons and doves secrete
a nutritious crop-milk to feed their young.
Despite human activity having severely affected
members of this family in the past (the leading
cause of the Passenger Pigeons extinction in the
19th century is thought to be overhunting),
the introduced Rock Pigeon has adapted and
proliferated worldwide, as has the recently
introduced Eurasian Collared-Dove, albeit on
a smaller scale. The introduced Spotted Dove
has not shown a similar tendency for explosive
expansion, however, and remains limited to
southern California and the islands of Hawaii.
Among the species native to North America,
only the elegant Mourning Dove is as widespread
as the various species of introduced birds.
DOVE IN THE SUN
The Mourning Dove

sunbathes each side of
its body in turn, its wings
and tail outspread.
PIGEONS AND DOVES

Order Columbiformes
Family Columbidae
Species Columba livia
Rock Pigeon
iridescence
on neck
black wing bars
white underwings
white
rump
short
bill
gray back
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
no wing
bars
two black
wing bars
variably colored
body
ADULT
(ANCESTRAL
FORM)
ADULT (FERAL)
dark-tipped
tail
he Rock Pigeon was introduced to the Atlantic coast of

North America by 17th century colonists. Now feral, this
species is found all over the continent, especially around farms,
cities, and towns. This medium-sized pigeon comes in a wide
variety of plumage colors and patterns, including bluish gray,
checkered, rusty red, and nearly all-white. Its wings usually
have two dark bars on themunique among North American
pigeons. The variability of the Rock Pigeon influenced
Charles Darwin as he developed his theory of natural selection.
VOICE Soft, gurgling coo, roo-ctoo-coo, for courtship and threat.
NESTING Twig nest on flat, sheltered surface, such as caves,
rocky outcrops, and buildings; 2 eggs; several broods; year-round.
FEEDING Eats seeds, fruit, and rarely insects; human foods such
as popcorn, bread, peanuts; various farm crops in rural areas.
FLIGHT: strong, direct; can reach speeds up to
around 60mph (95kph).
CITY PIGEONS
Most Rock Pigeons in North America descend

from domesticated forms and exhibit many colors.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
white
crown
WHITE-CROWNED
PIGEON
mangroves;
see p.452
BAND-TAILED
PIGEON
western
dark gray
overall
Across southern Canada

and North America; nests in
human structures of all sorts;
resident. Original habitat in
the Old World was (and still is)
sea cliffs and inland canyons;
found wild in some places, such
as dry regions of North Africa,
but feral in much of the world.
yellow
bill with
dark tip
white band
on nape
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
224
WHERE
NOTES
PIGEONS AND DOVES

Order Columbiformes
Family Columbidae
Species Streptopelia decaocto
Eurasian Collared-Dove
dark outer
wing feathers
dark
bill
gray wing
feathers
ADULT
black collar
on hind neck
pale gray
body
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
square
tail
gray undertail
wing feathers
stocky bird, the Eurasian Collared-Dove is easily

recognized by the black collar on the back of its neck and
its square tail. First released at New Providence, Bahamas, in the
mid-1970s, this species is spreading rapidly across the continental
mainland, thanks to multiple local releases, the planting of trees
in urban and suburban habitats, the popularity of bird feeders
making food readily available, and the birds extraordinarily high
reproductive rate. This species soon becomes very confiding and
tolerant of humans, regularly nesting and feeding in urban areas.
One consequence of this is that it often falls prey to domestic
cats, but this has little effect on the expanding population. Based
on sightings from locations all over North Americaand on the
evidence from Europe, throughout which it has spread since only
the 1940sit is highly likely that the Eurasian Collared-Dove
will soon become a common species in North America.
VOICE Repeated four-note coo-hoo-HOO-cook that is quick and
low-pitched; also harsh, nasal krreeew in flight.
NESTING Platform of twigs, stems, and grasses in trees or on
buildings; 2 eggs;
SIMILAR SPECIES
multiple broods;
MarchNovember.
MOURNING DOVE
see p.226
FEEDING Eats seed and
black
grain, plant stems
dot on
black
face
and leaves, berries, and
spots on
wings
some invertebrates;
feeds on the ground
pointed
for seed, but also visits
tail
elevated feeders.
FLIGHT: strong, stiff flight reminiscent of
hawks; occasional swoops and dives.
COLLARED COLONIZER
The Eurasian Collared-Dove has spread

throughout Europe in just a few decades, and
now looks set to do the same in North America.
OCCURRENCE
Can be seen almost anywhere

in North America south of the
northern forest zone, but occurs
mainly in suburban and urban
areas (though not large cities)
and agricultural areas with
seeds and grain for food and
deciduous trees for nesting and
roosting. May roost in man-made
structures such as barns.
Social Large flocks
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
225
PIGEONS AND DOVES

Order Columbiformes
Family Columbidae
Species Zenaida macroura
Mourning Dove
blue eye-ring
mostly uniform
gray wings
thin, dark
bill
black dot
on side
of face
faint mottling
on neck and
underparts
pointed
tail
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
dark spots
on wings
plump, gray
body
long, pointed
tail
pink legs
and toes
ADULT
ne of the most familiar, abundant, and widespread of

North American birds, the Mourning Dove is a long-tailed,
plump, medium-sized dove with a small head. It has a grayish tan
body with a pale, rosy breast and black spots on folded wings.
FLIGHT: swift, direct flight, with fairly quick
While coveted by huntersas many as 70 million are shot
wing beats; twists and turns sometimes.
annuallythe Mourning Dove is also well known to those who
live on farms and in suburbia.The species is divided into four subspecies, two
of which occur in North Americathe larger grayish brown Z. m. carolinensis,
east of the Mississippi River, and the smaller, paler Z. m. marginella in the west.
VOICE Mellow, owl-like call: hoO-Oo-oo, hoo-hoo-hoo.
NESTING Flat, flimsy twig platform, mostly in
trees, sometimes on the ground; 2 eggs; 2 broods;
FebruaryOctober.
FEEDING Forages mainly for seeds on the ground;
obtains food quickly and digests it later at roost.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
EURASIAN
COLLARED-DOVE
WHITE-WINGED
DOVE 2
see p.225
see p.227
black collar
on hindneck
square
tail
square
tail
white in
wings
FAMILIAR SIGHT
The Mourning Dove is North

Americas most widespread
member of this family.

habitats but shuns extensive
forests; human-altered
vegetation favored for feeding,
including farmland and
suburbia. Winters in small to
medium sheltered woodland
while feeding in grain fields;
winters in southern Mexico
Social Pairs/Winter flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
226
WHERE
NOTES
PIGEONS AND DOVES

Order Columbiformes
Family Columbidae
Species Zenaida asiatica
White-winged Dove
bare blue skin
around
orange-red eyes
reddish purple
crown and
nape
white band in wing

ADULT
longish
blue-black bill
iridescent
greenish gold on
sides of neck
whiteedged
tail
dark flight
feathers
black mark below

ear feathers
brownish
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
large white
wing patches
dark gray flight

feathers
red legs
and toes
ADULT
rounded
gray tail
FLIGHT: swift, direct flight with quick, regular
wing beats; maximum height about 200ft (60m).
s one of the larger gray-colored dove species in

North America, the White-winged Dove is best identified
in flight by the conspicuous white bands on its wings. When
perched, the bright blue skin around its orange eyes and its
longish, square tail with a white tip can be seen. This species
has been expanding its population northwards in recent
decades, though not as quickly as the Eurasian Collared-Dove.
Increased farmland habitat and ornamental trees, both favorite
roosting places, are the most likely cause. In common with
many other doves, the nest is a somewhat flimsy structure,
and eggs or nestlings frequently fall to their end if the nest
is disturbed, or when there are high winds.
VOICE Distinctive, drawn-out cooing: who-cooks-for-you; also
makes five-note variation from the nest: la-coo-kla-coo-kla.
NESTING Frail platform of twigs, moss, and grasses, on
a sturdy branch in
SIMILAR SPECIES
dense-canopied trees;
2 eggs; 2 broods;
MOURNING smaller,
DOVE
MarchSeptember.
rounder
see p.226
head
FEEDING Forages for
no white
seeds, wild nuts, and
wing
fruit on the ground and
patch
in elevated locations;
prefers corn, sorghum,
longer tail
wheat, and sunflower.
DESERT DWELLER
The White-winged Dove is much more at home in

semi-arid and desert areas than the Mourning Dove.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds and winters in dense,

thorny woodlands dominated
by mesquite and Texas Ebony;
deserts with cactus, palo verde,
and other scrub plants; riverine
woodlands, orchards, and
residential areas. Formerly only
abundant in the US in the Rio
Grande Valley, it has now
expanded north to Oklahoma.
Weight 5oz (150g)
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
227
PIGEONS AND DOVES

Order Columbiformes
Family Columbidae
Species Columbina inca
Inca Dove
rufous outer wing
feathers, conspicuous
in flight
scaly back
white
outer
feathers
on tail
dark
feather tips
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
scaly, paler
underparts
long tail
squarish
tail tip
FLIGHT: fast, direct flights of short duration,
with a noisy takeoff.
his small, brownish gray dove has expanded its range from Central
America and Mexico into the southern US in the last 100 years or so,
and now breeds in all of the southwestern states from California east to the
Mississippi River. Resembling a baby Mourning Dove because of its slender
shape and long tail, the Inca Dove can
be distinguished by its scaly pattern.
Although it is a secretive species,
hiding in low, dense vegetation, it
is tame and frequently occurs in
human settlements. When
encountered, the Inca Dove often
flushes almost from underfoot, flashing
the reddish coloration of its wings.
VOICE Repeated 2-note chant,
WING-UP DISPLAY
pol-pah, which can sound like the words The wing-up posture is used by territorial male
Inca Doves in aggressive displays.
no hope; sometimes low, trilling coo.
NESTING Compact
SIMILAR SPECIES
platform of twigs and
leaves in a variety of
RUDDY GROUND-DOVE
see p.472
trees and shrubs; 2 eggs;
smaller
several broods;
overall
shorter
MarchNovember.
tail
FEEDING Pecks at
grains, seeds, and weeds
on the ground, among
vegetation; also fruit.
A TALL TAIL
An Inca Doves tail makes up a

third of the birds total length.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds and winters all year

in areas of human habitation:
cities, towns, farms containing
shrubs and small trees for
nesting. Forages on lawns
and barnyards and occasionally
near rivers and streams but
appears to favor drier areas
in the south of its range.
Weight 11162oz (30 60g)
Social Solitary/Large flocks
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
228
WHERE
NOTES
PIGEONS AND DOVES

Order Columbiformes
Family Columbidae
Species Columbina passerina
Common Ground-Dove
rufous
outer wing
feathers
pinkish or red
base to bill
scaly, gray
breast
scaly
looking
head
MALE
short
tail
black spots
on wings
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
scaly
breast with
pink tinge
square
tail
MALE
he Common Ground-Dove, the smallest of all

North American doves, is only slightly larger than
a sparrow. Both of these qualities are reflected in its scientific
nameColumbinameaning little dove, and passerina being
the Latin for sparrow. It is also different from other doves in
that it retains its pair-bond throughout the year and tends not
to form flocks. Birds in a pair usually remain within a few
yards of each other. Besides its diminutive size, the Common
Ground-Dove is recognizable by prominent black spots on
its wings, scaly underparts (seen while perched), the reddish
appearance of its wings, and its square, blackish tail while in
flight. It is found coast to coast along the most southerly regions
of the continent, but vagrants can appear almost anywhere.
VOICE Simple, repeated, ascending double-note wah-up
given every 23 seconds.
NESTING Depression on ground lined with grasses and palm
fibers, or frail nest in
SIMILAR SPECIES
trees; 2 eggs; several
broods; AprilAugust.
RUDDY GROUND-DOVE
dark
see p.472
FEEDING Pecks on
bill
plain gray
the ground at grass and
head
weed seeds, grains, small
berries, insects, and
snails; also takes seeds
from feeders; prefers
drier, scrubby ground.
FLIGHT: direct, quick, sometimes jerky flight
with stiff, rapid wing beats; usually short duration.
EASILY OVERLOOKED
Ground-Doves blend in with the ground and

can be overlooked as they quietly feed.
OCCURRENCE
Mostly prefers dry, sandy areas

with short, open vegetation,
although it can be found in
a variety of habitats, such
as open pine woodlands,
woodland edges, citrus
groves, mesquite and riverine
thickets, farm fields, suburban
areas, and cultivated land,
including orchards.
Weight 11161716oz (3040g)
Social Pairs
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
229
Family Psittacidae
PARAKEETS & PARROTS

LTHOUGH THEY VARY in size, shape, plumage,
and behavior, all psittacidsparakeets and
parrotshave certain features in common: a large,
powerful, sharply hooked bill; a large, stocky head,
with no noticeable
neck; and short legs
with what are called
zygodactyl feet, in
which two toes point
forward and two back.
Most species are
brightly colored and
have red, orange, or
yellow patches on the
SECONDHAND HOME
wings or tail. Some
The Red-crowned Parrot will
birds are entirely white,
readily nest in an existing tree
black, yellow, red, or
cavity, such as an abandoned
blue, but most are
woodpecker hole.
various shades of green. Psittacids live primarily in

forests, where their green plumage enables the
birds to disappear from view against a background
of thick foliage. Even brightly colored parrots and
parakeets are surprisingly well camouflaged in
trees. Some species frequently forage on the
ground, and many readily visit birdfeeders in
suburban and urban areas. Psittacids are mainly
vegetarian, feeding on a variety of fruits, nuts,
flowers, and grains. They are very social and vocal,
with loud calls that help to keep members of a
flock together. In addition to feeding and roosting
together, many species nest close together; a few
even nest colonially. Except for the Monk
Parakeet, which builds an elaborate stick nest,
parrots and parakeets are secondary cavity nesters,
breeding in rock crevices, existing tree cavities,
and birdhouses.
POPULAR PET
The Monk Parakeet is

native to South America,
but escaped pets breed
locally in North America.
PARAKEETS AND PARROTS

Order Psittaciformes
Family Psittacidae
Species Myiopsitta monachus
Monk Parakeet
green inner
wing feathers
long,
pointed
tail
green
upperparts
hooked,
orangish
bill
gray face
gray face
and forehead
dark blue-black
outer wing
feathers
gray breast
IN FLIGHT
yellowish belly
two forwardand two

backward-pointing toes
long, green tail
onk Parakeets, native to Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, and

Brazil, have been introduced to a number of places in the
United States.They are the most abundant and widespread species
of introduced parrot in North America, locally breeding in huge
colonies.Their large communal nests of sticks are unique among
parrots and parakeets.These nests are used both for breeding and for
roosting. If food is abundant, Monk Parakeets are perfectly capable
of surviving cold winters in places such as Chicago or New York
City, although supplementary food from feeders is welcome.
VOICE Wide variety of calls, mostly loud and grating squawks,
can mimic human voice and other sounds.
NESTING Large, bulky stick nests placed in trees, palms, or
on man-made structures; 58 eggs; 2 broods; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Eats seeds, buds, flowers, fruits, nuts; occasionally eats
insects; visits birdfeeders.
FLIGHT: swift and direct; short glides on bowed

wings; often changes direction, usually in flocks.
PLANT FEEDER
Monk Parakeets feed on a wide variety of plant

material, including bottlebrush flowers.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
In North America mainly

restricted to urban or suburban
habitats, where nests can be
built in palms, deciduous trees,
telephone poles, or electrical
substations. Common in
southern Florida; found in
several other areas, north
to New York City, Chicago,
and Portland, Oregon.
GREEN PARAKEET
see p.453
green breast
and face
ACROBATIC FLIGHT
green upperparts
and ight feathers
Flocks of vividly colored Monk

Parakeets twist and turn in
flight, and are notoriously vocal.
Weight 312oz (100g)
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
231
Family Cuculidae
CUCKOOS & RELATIVES

C
UCKOOS ARE NOTORIOUS for
laying eggs
in other birds nests, but of the three
species in North America, one never does
this, and two seldom do so. Their close
relatives on the continent are the Greater
Roadrunner, and two species of anis.
CUCKOOS
Generally shy and reclusive, the Black-billed
Cuckoo,Yellow-billed Cuckoo, and Mangrove
Cuckoo all favor dense, forested habitats. All
three species usually build a nest and raise
their own offspring. The Black-billed Cuckoo
and the Yellow-billed Cuckoo occasionally lay
their eggs in other birds nests, including each
others, and even the nests of their own species.
In flight, cuckoos are often mistaken for small
birds of prey. They sometimes pounce on lizards,
frogs, and other small animalseven small
birdsbut mostly they glean insects from the
foliage of trees. Much
remains to be learned
about these birds.
WEATHER BIRD
Folklore has it that the Yellowbilled Cuckoo, or Raincrow,

calls mostly on cloudy days.
PERCHED TO KILL
After catching a lizard, the

Greater Roadrunner bashes
it repeatedly against a rock
before gulping it down.
GREATER ROADRUNNER
The Greater Roadrunner is a ground-based
member of the Cuckoo family and an inhabitant
of the arid Southwest. It is capable of running at
over 15mph (25kph),
and is one of the few
species of birds that
actively hunts
rattlesnakes, doing so in
pairs. The Greater
Roadrunner has been
seen pulling small birds
out of mist nets set by
scientists for research
STRONG STOMACH
purposes. It does not fly The Black-billed Cuckoo can
often, and rarely above
safely eat caterpillars that are
a few yards.
poisonous to other birds.
ANIS
In North America both the Groove-billed Ani and
the Smooth-billed Ani are at the northern edge of
their known range, being much more widespread
in open country in tropical and subtropical regions
farther south. Anis are typically weak, shortdistance fliers, but, like the Greater Roadrunner,
they are sturdy on their feet and often run and hop
after their insect prey. They breed communally,
several pairs of birds laying their eggs in one nest,
then all help to raise the young.

Order Cuculiformes
Family Cuculidae
Species Coccyzus erythropthalmus

long, black,
decurved bill
Black-billed Cuckoo
bare red skin

around eye
long
tail
grayish brown
back
ADULT
small white
spots on
tips of tail
feathers
long
wings
pale
grayish
white
underparts
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
grayish feet
lthough common, the Black-billed

Cuckoo is usually difficult to spot
because of its secretive nature and
dense, leafy habitat. This species
feeds mainly on spiny caterpillars,
but the spines of these insects
long tail
can become lodged in
the cuckoos stomach,
obstructing digestion,
so the bird periodically
empties its stomach to clear any such blockage. The decline of
this species is probably an indirect result of the chemical control
of caterpillar outbreaks in forests throughout their range. During
the breeding season, the birds call throughout the night, which
leads some to believe erroneously that the cuckoo is nocturnal.
VOICE Series of 25 repeatedly whistled notes, coo-coo-coo-coo,
with short breaks between series.
NESTING Shallow cup of sticks lined with moss, leaves, grass,
and feathers; 24 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Almost exclusively eats caterpillars, especially tent
caterpillars and gypsy moths.
FLIGHT: flight is swift, direct, and graceful,
with long, smooth wing beats.
SEARCHING FOR FOOD
These cuckoos spend a lot of their time in trees

as they search for their favorite hairy caterpillars.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
YELLOW-BILLED
CUCKOO
see p.234
yellow
bill
rufous
outer wing
feathers
Widespread northern and

eastern North American
species, lives in thickly wooded
areas close to water, but can
also be found in brushy forest
edges and evergreen woods.
Winters in South America in
evergreen woodlands, scrub,
and humid forests.
MANGROVE
CUCKOO
black
mask
around
eyes
specialized
habitat;
see p.453
buffy undertail
and belly
Weight 1916 2oz (4555g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure (p)
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
233

Order Cuculiformes
Family Cuculidae
Species Coccyzus americanus
Yellow-billed Cuckoo
more black
on bill
ADULT
bare yellow
skin around
eye
grayish
brown back
mostly
yellow
bill
bright rufous
on wings
large
white
spots on
tips of
tail
feathers
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
slightly
shorter
tail
ADULT
rufous outer
wing feathers
FLIGHT: flight is swift using long strokes to
maintain level pattern.
he Yellow-billed Cuckoo is a shy, slow-moving bird,

with a reputation for fairly odd behaviors, including
its habit of calling more often on cloudy days. This
tendency has earned it the nickname rain crow in some
areas. In addition to raising young in its own nest, females often
lay eggs in the nests of more than a dozen other species, especially
during years with abundant food. The host species may be chosen
on the basis of how closely the color of its eggs matches those of
the cuckoos. This brood parasitism is the rule in the Yellow-billed
Cuckoo, which is an Old World species, and occurs in
North America as a widespread vagrant.
VOICE Call a series of 1012 low notes that slow down as it
progresses, ca ca ca ca coo coo coo cowl cowl cowl.
NESTING Flimsy oval-shaped platform of small sticks and branches, often
lined with leaves and strips of plants; 24 eggs; 12 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Mostly consumes insects such as grasshoppers, crickets,
katydids, and caterpillars of several moth species; also eats seeds.
MANGROVE
CUCKOO
see p.233
allblack
bill
no rufous
on wings
see p.453
RARE SIGHT
Given the habitat they prefer and

their skittish nature, a clear view
of a Yellow-billed Cuckoo is rare.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-BILLED
CUCKOO
long tail
Has a wide range in the US.

Found primarily in open forests
with a mix of openings and
thick understory cover,
especially those near water.
Winters in similar habitats in
black
mask
around
eyes
buffy
undertail
and belly
Social Small winter flocks
Status Secure (p)
DATE SEEN
234
WHERE
NOTES

Order Cuculiformes
Family Cuculidae
Species Geococcyx californianus
Greater Roadrunner
long, thick,
powerful bill
large crest
large, whitish
crescent on wings
ADULT
ADULT
heavily streaked
upperparts
light brown
body
dark brown,
glossy green,
and black streaks
IN FLIGHT
heavily
streaked
head,
neck,
and
chest
long, dark tail with
white-edged tip
unstreaked,
lower belly
FLIGHT: weak flutter to high perches; open
wing glide from elevated perch; prefers to run.
nlike the other species of North American cuckoo, the

Greater Roadrunner is a ground bird, but it can fly,
despite preferring to run. Its speed enables it to overcome
and chase prey on foot, especially lizards and small birds. Its
generalized feeding habits allow this bird to take advantage of
whatever food resources it comes across. This may be one
of the main reasons roadrunners are
expanding their range.
VOICE Cooing coo-coo-coo-cooo-cooooo
series of 45 descending notes.
NESTING Shallow, loosely organized
cup of twigs and branches, lined with
grass, animal hair, and feathers;
35 eggs; 2 broods; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Eats a wide variety of insects,
small reptiles such as lizards, birds, and
mammals; also eggs and carrion.
DRINKING
Roadrunners obtain much of their moisture from

the food they eat, but will take full advantage of
water whenever its available.
LOFTY ABODE
This species nests off the ground, and can

occasionally be seen occupying elevated perches.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PLAIN
CHACHALACA
RING-NECKED
PHEASANT 1
see p.444
darker,
solid
color
see p.33
Widespread across
southeastern US, from
California to Louisiana, and
north to Utah, Colorado,
Kansas, and Arkansas; lives
at low elevations in open
brushy areas mixed with thorn
scrub such as mesquite; also
pinyon-juniper shrubbery, and
deserts and chaparral. Resident.
no
crest
lighter brown
overall
unstreaked
upperparts
plump
body
larger overall
Length 21in (53cm)
Weight 11oz (300g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
235
Families Tytonidae, Strigidae
OWLS
humans throughout
O
history, partly because of their nocturnal
habits and eerie cries. They are placed in the order
WLS HAVE FASCINATED
Strigiformes, and two families are represented in

North America: the Barn Owl is classified in
Tytonidae, other North American owl species are
in the Strigidae. Most owls are active primarily at
night and have developed adaptations for living in
low-light environments. Their large eyes are
sensitive enough to see
in the dark, and face
forward to maximize
binocular vision. Since
the eyes are fixed in
their sockets, a flexible
OWL AT TWILIGHT
The best time to see the

nocturnal Barn Owl is
often at dawn or dusk.
SNOW SWOOP
The Great Gray Owl can hunt by

sound alone, allowing it to locate
and capture prey hidden even
beneath a thick snow cover.
neck helps owls turn

their heads almost 180
toward a direction of
interest. Ears are offset
on each side of the
head to help identify
the source of a sound;
ear tufts on some
species are for visual
effect and unrelated to
hearing. Many owls
BIG HORNS
have serrations on the
The ear tufts of the Great
forward edges of their
Horned Owl are taller than
flight feathers to
those of other tufted owls.
cushion airflow, so their
flight is silent while stalking prey. All North
American owls are predatory to some degree and
they inhabit most areas of the continent. The
Burrowing Owl is unique in that it hunts during
the day and nests underground.
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Tytonidae
Barn Owl
barring on
wings and tail
Species Tyto alba

relatively
small eyes
rounded, heartshaped facial disk
head lacks
ear tufts
long wings
ADULT
ADULT
pale buff
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
white
underparts
gray and
black spots
dark eyes
ruff surrounds
facial disk
feathered
legs
ADULT
FLIGHT: irregular bursts of flapping, interspersed
with short glides, banking, doubling back, fluttering.
ptly named, the Barn Owl inhabits old sheds, sheltered

rafters, and empty buildings in rural fields.With its affinity
for human settlement, and 32 subspecies, this owl has an
extensive range covering every continent except Antarctica. Although
widespread, the Barn Owl is secretive. Primarily nocturnal, it can fly
undetected until its screeching call pierces the air.The Barn Owl is endangered
in several Midwestern states as a result of modern farming practices, which have
decimated prey populations and reduced the number of barns for nesting.
VOICE Typical call loud, raspy, screeching shriek, shkreee, often given in flight;
also clicking sounds associated with courtship.
NESTING Unlined cavity in tree, cave, building, hay bale, or nest box;
57 eggs; 12 broods; MarchSeptember.
FEEDING Hunts on the wing for small rodents such as mice; research reveals
it can detect the slightest rustle made by prey even in total darkness.
The Barn Owl hunts at night for

small rodents, but may be seen
before sunset feeding its young.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SNOWY OWL
SHORT-EARED OWL
see p.239
see p.248
black markings
on female and
juvenile
NOCTURNAL HUNTER
In North America breeds from

northwestern and northeastern
US south to Mexico. Resident in
all except very north of range.
Prefers open habitats, such as
desert, grassland, and fields,
wherever prey and suitable nest
sites are available. Generally
not found in mountainous or
heavily forested areas.
dark
patches
on outer
wing
dark
barring on
underparts
Length 12121512in (3240cm)
Weight 1425oz (400700g)
Social Solitary
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
237
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Species Otus asio
Eastern Screech-Owl
ear
tufts
yellow eyes
dark gray bars on short,

rounded wings
ADULT
short
tail
white spots on
inner wing
feathers
streaked
underparts
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(GRAY FORM)
feathered legs
FLIGHT: direct, purposeful flight; straight with
steady wing beats, typically below tree cover.
his widespread little owl has

adapted to suburban areas, and
its distinctive call is a familiar sound
across the eastern US at almost any
time of the year. An entirely nocturnal
species, it may be found roosting (and hidden) during the day
in a birdhouse or tree cavity.With gray and red color forms, this
species shows more plumage variation than the Western ScreechOwl.The relatively high mortality rate of Eastern Screech-Owls,
especially juveniles, is caused in part by predation by Great
Horned Owls and collisions with motor vehicles.
VOICE Most familiar call a descending whinny and often used
in movie soundtracks; also an even trill; occasional barks and
screeches; female higher-pitched than male.
NESTING No nest; lays eggs in cavity in tree, woodpecker hole,
rotted snag, nest box; 26 eggs; 1 brood; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Captures prey with toes; eats insects, earthworms,
rodents, songbirds, crayfish, small fish, tadpoles, snakes, and lizards.
STANDING OUT
The striking red color form of the Eastern

Screech-Owl is less common than the gray.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BOREAL OWL
see p.245
no
ear
tufts
brown
back
In the US and southern

Canada, breeds in a variety
of lowland wooded areas
east of the Rockies. Also
breeds south to northeastern
Mexico. Can be found in
suburban and urban parks
and gardens; avoids mountain
forests above 1,000ft (300m).
NORTHERN
SAW-WHET
OWL
see p.246
white
spots
long
brown
streaks
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
238
WHERE
NOTES
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Snowy Owl
IMMATURE
white
face
flecked
graybrown
large
round
head
yellow
eyes
dusky
barring
IN FLIGHT
variably
barred
underparts
Species Nyctea scandiaca
JUVENILE
variable barring
on wings
nearly
all-white
breast
feathered legs
and toes
ADULT
(FEMALE)
FLIGHT: slow, steady flight with strong,
deep wing beats; flaps interspersed with glides.
n icon of the far north and Qubecs

Provincial Bird, the Snowy Owl has gained
celebrity status for its occasional winter forays into northern
US states. This is a bird of the open tundra, where it hunts from
headlands or hummocks and nests on the ground. In such a harsh
environment, the Snowy Owl largely depends on lemmings for
prey. It is fiercely territorial, and will valiantly defend its young in
the nest even against larger animals, such as the Arctic Fox.
VOICE Deep hoots, doubled or given in a short series, usually
by male; also rattles, whistles, and hisses.
NESTING Scrape in ground vegetation or dirt, with no lining;
FEEDING Mostly hunts lemmings, but takes whatever other
small mammals, birds, and occasionally fish it can find.
SNOWY MALE
Some adult males show no barring at all and

have pure white plumage.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BARN OWL
see p.237
black
eyes
golden
brown
Breeds in the tundra of Eurasia

and northern North America,
north to Ellesmere Island; North
American birds winter south to
the Great Plains. In some years,
many North American birds
winter south of their normal
range, including in dunes,
marshes, and airfields, as far
south as Idaho and New Jersey.
SHORT-EARED
OWL
see p.248
mottled
brown
markings
larger
overall
Weight 312612lb (1.62.9kg)
Social Solitary
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
239
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Species Bubo virginianus
Great Horned Owl

ADULT
long, broad
wing
large
ears
rusty
facial
disk
yellow eye
dark arc
on wing
white throat
and chin
IN FLIGHT
mottled, barred,
brownish
and gray
upperparts
barred
underparts
ADULT
ADULT
FLIGHT: fairly slow with heavy wing beats alternating
with short glides; swoops when hunting.
heavy
barring of
underparts
he Great Horned Owl is perhaps the archetypal

owl. Large and adaptable, it is resident from Alaska
to Tierra del Fuego. With such a big range, geographical
variation occurs; at least 13 subspecies have been described.
The southernmost populationsB. v. magellanicus, from Peru
to Patagoniaare often considered a distinct species. The Great
Horned Owls deep hoots are easily recognized, and can often
be heard in movie soundtracks. The bird is the top predator in
its food chain, often killing and eating other owls, and even
skunks. An early breeder, it starts hooting in the middle of
winter, and often lays its eggs in January.
VOICE Series of hoots whoo-hoo-oo-o; also screams, barks,
and hisses; female higher-pitched.
NESTING Old stick nest, in tree, exposed cavity,
cliff, human structure, or on the ground; 15 eggs;
1 brood; JanuaryApril.
FEEDING Hunts mammals, reptiles, amphibians,
birds, and insects; mostly nocturnal.
barring on
undertail
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RED-TAILED
HAWK
smaller
head
diurnal;
see p.135
GREAT
GRAY OWL
no
tufts
see p.242
large,
round
head
long, red
tail
RECYCLING
The Great Horned Owl breeds in

old stick nests constructed by
other large birds, like crows.
In North America, found in

nearly every type of habitat
except Arctic tundra. Prefers
fragmented landscapes: desert,
swamp, prairie, woodland,
and urban areas. Rare only in
the Appalachian Mountains
in the East and in the
Sonoran and Mohave Deserts
in the West.
Weight 178 512 lb (0.9 2.5kg)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
240
WHERE
NOTES
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Barred Owl
Species Strix varia
large round
head
rounded
wings
dark eyes
conspicuously
yellowish bill
ADULT
brown
upperparts
heavy
white
spotting
IN FLIGHT
barring on
breast
streaking
on belly
barred tail
FLIGHT: glides silently among trees,
interspersed with flaps; rarely hovers.
he Barred Owl is more

adaptable and aggressive
than its close relative the
Spotted Owl. Recent range
expansions have brought the two
ADULT
species into closer contact, which
has resulted in the Barred Owl
displacing the Spotted Owl, as well as
occasional interbreeding. The Barred Owl is mostly
nocturnal, but may also call or hunt during the day.
VOICE Series of hoots in rhythm: who-cooks-for-you, who-cooks-for-you-all;
also pair duetting (at different pitches), cawing, cackling, and guttural sounds.
NESTING No nest; lays eggs in broken-off branches, cavities, old stick nests;
15 eggs; 1 brood; JanuarySeptember.
FEEDING Perches quietly and waits to spot prey below, then pounces; eats
small mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, insects, and spiders.
see p.240
larger
overall
ear
tufts
Widespread, though not

evenly so, in North America
from British Columbia across
to the Maritimes and much of
the eastern US. Found in a
variety of wooded habitats
from cypress swamps in the
south to conifer rain forest
in the Northwestand in
mixed hardwoods.
SPOTTED
OWL
yellow
eyes
horizontal
barring on
underparts
longer
tail
The Barred Owl is very much

at home in dense woodlands,
including conifer forests.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT
HORNED
OWL
WOODED HABITATS
pale
oval
bars
Weight 17 37oz (4751,050g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
241
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Great Gray Owl
Species Strix nebulosa

gray-andwhite
facial
disks
white crescents
between small
yellow eyes
long wings
round facial
pattern
black-andwhite chin
long tail
heavily
streaked
underparts
ADULT
long
wings
mottled gray
upperparts
ADULT
thickset
body
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
ith a thick layer of feathers

that insulate it against cold
northern winters, the Great Gray Owl
is North Americas tallest owl, although
FLIGHT: deep, methodical wing beats,
it weighs less than the Great Horned Owl
interspersed with glides; hovers while hunting.
or Snowy Owl. Its excellent hearing makes
it an efficient rodent hunter. Often able to
detect prey by sound alone, it will often plunge through deep snow,
or into a burrow, to snatch unseen prey. This bird is primarily nocturnal,
but may also hunt by daylight, usually at dawn or dusk.
VOICE Slow series of deep hoots, evenly spaced; also variety of hisses
and chattering noises around nest site.
NESTING Reuses old eagle or hawk nests,
broken-off trees; 25 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Eats rodents and other small mammals;
waits to pounce from perch or hunts in flight.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT
HORNED
OWL
BARRED
OWL
ear
tufts
see p.240
see p.241
dark
eyes
barring
on breast
barring
on belly
MAKESHIFT NEST
The Great Gray Owl often utilizes

hollow snags as nesting sites,
besides reusing deserted nests.
In North America, resident

across northern forests from
Alaska to Qubec, south
to Montana and Wyoming.
Also resident in Eurasia from
Scandinavia to the Russian
Far East. Found in taiga, and
muskeg (peat bogs), in fir,
spruce, and pine forests.
Weight 112 334lb (0.7 1.7kg)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
242
WHERE
NOTES
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Species Surnia ulula
Northern Hawk Owl
fine spotting
on forehead
and crown
yellowish eyes
long wings
ADULT
black line around white face

brownish black upperparts
heavy white marking
patterned
face
long
tail
whitish
facial disks
heavy
barring
below
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
hether swooping low

ADULT
through a bog or
regularly barred
perching at the tip of a
underparts
branch, the Northern Hawk
Owl is as falcon-like as it is owl-like, being streamlined,
a powerful flier, and an active daytime hunter. It is patchily
distributed across the northern North American forests, far
FLIGHT: powerful, deep wing beats; glides;
from most human settlements, so is seldom seenand is not well highly maneuverable, occasionally soars.
studiedon its breeding grounds. In winter, the bird is somewhat
nomadic and is occasionally seen south of its breeding range for a few days
or weeks in southern Canada and the northern US.
VOICE Ascending, whistled, drawn-out trill; also chirps, screeches, and yelps.
NESTING Cavities, hollows, broken-off branches, old stick nests, nest boxes;
FEEDING Swoops like a falcon, from an elevated
perch, to pounce on prey; preys mainly on rodents
in summer, and on grouse, ptarmigan, and other
birds in summer.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
small
head
MERLIN
see p.119
smaller
overall
buffy
orange
underneath
GREAT
HORNED
OWL
ear
tufts
see p.240
chunky
shape
much
larger
overall
KEEN-EYED OWL
This owl hunts mainly by sight,

swooping down on prey spotted
from a high perch.
Breeds across the forests of

northern Canada, from Alaska
to Qubec and Newfoundland,
in sparse woodland or mixed
conifer forest with swamps,
bogs, burnt areas, or storm
damage. In winter occasionally
moves south to southern
Canada, Great Lakes region
and New England.
Weight 1112oz (300350g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
243
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Species Athene cunicularia
Burrowing Owl
short,
rounded
wings
IN FLIGHT
white streaking
on forehead
white contrasting
and crown
with dark brown
band below
chest
spotted
with
white
ADULT
brown ear
feathers
short
tail
ADULT
yellow
eyes
brown
upperparts
with white
spotting
white
spots
short
tail
brown streaks on
lower belly
ADULT
FLIGHT: buoyant, often undulating; close to
ground; sometimes hovers while hunting.

short tail
long, feathered legs
he Burrowing Owl is unique

among North American owls in
nesting underground. Usually it uses
the abandoned burrows of prairie dogs,
ground squirrels, armadillos, badgers, and
other mammals. Where such burrows are scarce,
howeverin built-up areas of Florida, notablyit
excavates its own burrow, digging out the soil with its bill
and scraping it away with its feet. Usually it nests in loose
colonies, too. Active by day or night, the Burrowing Owl hunts
prey on foot or on the wing. Populations of the bird in southern
areas of North America tend to stay there year-round, but those
farther north move south to Mexico for the winter.
VOICE Coo-cooo, or ha-haaa, with accent on second syllable; also
clucks, chatters, warbles, and screams.
NESTING Cavity lined with grass, feathers, sometimes animal
dung, at end of burrow;
SIMILAR SPECIES
810 eggs; 1 brood;
MarchAugust.
SHORT-EARED
OWL
FEEDING Walks, hops,
see p.248
runs, hovers, or flies
larger
overall
from perch to capture
mainly insects, and
streaked
occasionally small
below
mammals, birds, reptiles,
and amphibians.
ON THE ALERT
A Burrowing Owl keeps watch from the entrance

of its burrow, which can be 10ft (3m) long.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in Florida, the western

US, and southwestern Canada,
in a wide range of open,
well-drained habitats not
prone to flooding, including
pastures, plains, deserts,
grasslands, and steppes, but
also developed area, up
to about 6,500ft (2,000m).
Partial migrant.
Weight 5oz (150g)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
244
WHERE
NOTES
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Species Aegolius funereus

usually flat-topped head,
with fine white spots
Boreal Owl
ADULT
finely
spotted
crown
rounded
wings
yellow
eyes
pale
bill
IN FLIGHT
black
border
around
face
white and
brown
streaked
underparts
ADULT
short tail
FLIGHT: quick, strong wing beats; adept
at maneuvering; glides down to attack prey.

ADULT
nusually for owls, the female

Boreal Owl is bigger than the male. Males
will mate with two or three females in years when voles and
other small rodents are abundant. The Boreal Owl roosts on
an inconspicuous perch by day and hunts at night, detecting its
prey by sound. In the US it is elusive and rarely seen, as it breeds
at high elevations in isolated western mountain ranges. White
spotting on the crown, a grayish bill, and a black facial disk
distinguish the Boreal Owl from the Northern Saw-whet Owl.
VOICE Prolonged series of whistles, usually increasing in
volume and intensity toward the end; also screeches and hisses;
can be heard from afar.
NESTING Natural and woodpecker-built tree cavities, also
nest boxes; 36 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Mainly eats small mammals, occasionally birds and
insects; pounces from elevated perch; sometimes stores prey.
DAYTIME ROOSTING
The Boreal Owl roosts in dense vegetation by day,

even when the branches are laden with snow.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
NORTHERN
PYGMYOWL
Breeds in northern forests from

Alaska to Newfoundland and
Qubec, south into the Rockies
to Colorado and New Mexico.
Largely sedentary, but irregular
movements take place south of
the breeding range, southward
to New England and New York.
In the Old World it is called
Tengmalms Owl.
NORTHERN
SAW-WHET OWL
see p.246
lacks dark
frame to
facial disk
black
streaks
on belly
dark
bill
longer tail
Weight 338 8oz (90 225g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
245
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Species Aegolius acadicus
Northern Saw-whet Owl

ADULT
whitish
eyebrows
thin white streaks on

forehead and crown
rounded
wings
white patch
between eyes
yellow eyes
dark
bill
short
tail
IN FLIGHT
brown
streaks
chestnutbrown
upperparts
with white
spots
ADULT
ADULT
FLIGHT: swift and direct; low to ground

unmarked white
undertail feathers
with quick wing beats; swoops up to perch.
ne of the most secretive yet common and widespread owls

in North America, the Northern Saw-whet Owl is much
more often heard than seen. Strictly nocturnal, it is concealed as
it sleeps by day in thick vegetation, usually in conifers. Although
the same site may be used for months if it remains undisturbed,
it is never an easy bird to locate and, like most owls, it is elusive,
even though it sometimes roosts in large garden trees. When it is
discovered, the Northern Saw-whet Owl freezes, and relies on
its camouflage rather than flying off. At night it watches intently
from a perch, before swooping down to snatch its prey.
VOICE Series of rapid whistled notes, on constant pitch; can
continue for minutes on end; also whines and squeaks.
NESTING Unlined cavity in tree, usually old woodpecker hole
or nest box; 47 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Hunts from elevated perch; eats small mammals,
including mice and voles; also eats insects and small birds.
RARE SIGHT
Despite being abundant in its range, this shy

species is rarely seen.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ELF OWL
BOREAL OWL
see p.454
see p.245
gray
back
Breeds from Alaska and British

Columbia to Maritimes; in
the West, south to Mexico;
in the East, south to
Appalachians; coniferous and
mixed deciduous forests, swampy
forests, wooded wetlands, bogs.
Winters in southern to central
states, in open woodlands, pine
plantations, and shrubby areas.
spotted
crown
darker
face
smaller
overall
black
facial
border
Weight 312oz (100g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
246
WHERE
NOTES
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Species Asio otus
Long-eared Owl
tan patch on
outer wing
conspicuous
ear tufts
white
eyebrows
dark
eye-ring
long ear
tufts
black
bill
yellow eye
rusty face
disks
slender
body
dark wrist
patch
mottled
upperwings
gray
tips
finely streaked
underparts
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
ADULT
FLIGHT: quick, deep wing beats and long
glides; often hovers while hunting.
lthough widely distributed across

Eurasia and North America, the
Long-eared Owl is seldom seen, being secretive
and nocturnal. By day it roosts high up and out
of sight in thick cover. Only at nightfall does it fly
out to hunt on the wing over open areas, patrolling
for small mammals. Its wing feathers, like those
of many other owls, have sound-suppressing
structures that allow it to fly almost silently.
VOICE Evenly spaced hooo notes, continuously
repeated, about 3 seconds apart, typically 1050
per series, sometimes more; barks when alarmed.
NESTING Old stick nests of ravens, crows,
magpies, and hawks; 27 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Preys mainly on mice and other small
rodents, occasionally small birds.
OWL ON THE WING
In flight this birds ear tufts are flattened back and not visible,
but the face and underwing markings are clearly revealed.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT
HORNED
OWL
see p.240
much
larger
overall
Breeds in old nests, especially

in dense stands of cottonwood,
willow, juniper, and conifers near
open areas suitable for hunting.
Occasionally uses old nests in
tree holes, cliffs, or on ground in
dense vegetation; in winter, up
to 100 birds in roosts. Northern
birds move south for winter;
some western birds resident.
SHORT-EARED
OWL
tufts
farther
see p.248
apart
patterned
buffy above
horizontal
barring on
underparts
larger overall
pale
below
Weight 815oz (225 425g)
Social Solitary/Winter flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
247
OWLS
Order Strigiformes
Family Strigidae
Species Asio flammeus
Short-eared Owl
black wing tips
large, round
head
whitish
underwing
row of pale spots

along sides of back
very short
ear tufts
blackish
eye-ring
pale
face
disks
yellow
eyes
narrow, dark
bar
complex, buff
marbling on
upperparts
dark wrist
patch
orange-buff
to yellowish
outer wings
white
belly
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
black wing tips
fine dark
streaks
whitish buff
underparts
ADULT
FLIGHT: light, slow, buoyant, harrier-like,

maneuverable; often hovers, sometimes soars.
his owl is often seen on cloudy days or toward dusk, floating

above and patrolling low, back and forth, over open fields,
looking and listening for prey, sometimes with Northern
Harriers. Although territorial in the breeding season, it may winter in
communal roosts of up to 200 birds, occasionally alongside Long-eared Owls.
About 10 subspecies are widely distributed across five continents and numerous
islands, including the Greater Antilles, Galpagos, the Falklands, and Hawaii.
Unlike other North American owls, the Short-eared Owl builds its own nest.
VOICE Usually silent; male courtship call a rapid hoo hoo hoo, often given
during display flights; about 16 notes in 3 seconds; also barking, chee-oww.
NESTING Scrape lined with grass and feathers
on ground; 47 eggs; 12 broods; MarchJune.
FEEDING Eats small mammals and some birds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
NORTHERN HARRIER
LONG-EARED OWL
see p.128
see p.247
ear tufts
gray
upperparts
rusty face
disks
whitish
underparts
long tail
LOOKOUT POST
Perched on a branch, a Shorteared Owl keeps a wary eye on

any intruder on its territory.
Breeds in open areas, including

prairie, grasslands, tundra,
fields, and marshes across
northern North America, from
Alaska, the Yukon, and British
Columbia to Qubec, and
Newfoundland, south to the
western and central prairies,
and east to New England.
Partial migrant.
Length 1312 16in (34 41cm)
Wingspan 234 312ft (0.91.1m)
Weight 1113oz (325375g)
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
248
WHERE
NOTES
Family Caprimulgidae
NIGHTJARS & NIGHTHAWKS

and common
A
throughout North America, species of the
family Caprimulgidae are heard more often than
LTHOUGH WIDESPREAD
they are seen. The exceptions to this rule are the

two species of Common Nighthawks that
regularly forage for insects at dawn and dusk.
Nighthawks are medium-sized birds that use their
long wings and wide tails to make rapid and
graceful turns to capture their insect prey in the
air. They feed predominantly on large flying
insects such as moths. Their wide, gaping mouths
are surrounded by bristles that aid foraging
efforts, and they have very small legs and toes.
Both nightjars and nighthawks are similar in
coloration and pattern, with a mottled mixture
of various browns, grays, and blacks that provides
impeccable camouflage when they hide during
daylight hours. This ability to hide in plain sight
is useful during the nesting season, when all
nightjars lay their patterned eggs directly on the
ground, without any

nest material. The
nature of the
camouflage pattern of
their feathers makes it
difficult to distinguish
between species when
they rest in trees or on
PART OF THE LITTER
the ground. The most
Not many bird species match
reliable means of telling the leaf litter of the forest floor
species apart is their
as well as nightjars, as this
Chuck-wills-widow shows.
voice. If seen, the
placement and nature
of white markings, combined with the style of
flight, are the best means of identification. Most
members of the family migrate and move
southward as insects become dormant in the
North. Nightjars are also known as Goatsuckers
because in ancient Greece it was believed that
they sucked blood from goats.
SITTING PRETTY
Unusually for birds, members

of the nightjar family, such as
this Common Nighthawk, often
perch lengthwise on branches.
ELEGANT HUNTER
This Lesser Nighthawk

male soars through the air,
hunting for insects, which
it catches on the wing.
NIGHTJARS AND NIGHTHAWKS

Order Caprimulgiformes
Species Chordeiles minor
Common Nighthawk
white
throat
pointed wings
MALE
white bars on
outer wing
feathers
white wing
patch
MALE
very
small
bill
large, dark
eye
narrow wings
delicate, gray-black
pattern overall
long wings
IN FLIGHT
barring
on gray
underparts
FEMALE
FLIGHT: erratic flight with deep wing beats
interrupted by banking glides.
ommon Nighthawks are easy to spot as they swoop

over parking lots, city streets, and athletics fields during
the warm summer months. They are more active at dawn and
dusk than at night, pursuing insect prey up to 250ft (80m) in
the air. The species once took the name Booming Nighthawk,
a reference to the remarkable flight display of the male birds,
during which they dive rapidly towards the ground, causing their
feathers to vibrate and produce a characteristic booming sound.
VOICE Nasal peeent; also soft clucking noises from both sexes.
NESTING Nests on ground on rocks, wood, leaves, or sand,
also on gravel-covered rooftops in urban areas; 2 eggs;
1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Catches airborne insects, especially moths, mayflies,
and beetles, also ants; predominantly active at dusk and dawn.
A RARE SIGHT
Common Nighthawks are seen in flight more

often than other caprimulgids, but it is a rare
treat to see one resting on a perch.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LESSER NIGHTHAWK
COMMON PAURAQUE
more buffy barring on

underside of wings;
see p.454
longer, rounded tail with

white patches; see p.455
Wide variety of open habitats

such as cleared forests, fields,
grassland, beaches, and sand
dunes; also common in urban
areas, including cities. The
most common and widespread
North American nighthawk,
this species also occurs in
browner
plumage
larger
overall
Weight 278oz (80g)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
250
WHERE
NOTES

Species Caprimulgus carolinensis
Chuck-wills-widow
ADULT
pale cinnamon
underparts
long, grayish
eyebrow
very small
bill
IN FLIGHT
tawny buff-brown
upperparts
some
white
on tail
reddish
brown
throat
whitish
collar
long, rounded
tail
ADULT
tan feathers on
wings
he larger of the two species of North American

nightjar, the Chuck-wills-widow is also one of the least
known. This species is very tolerant of human development and
nests in suburban and urban areas. Unlike other nightjars it often
feeds by hawkingflying continuously and capturing its prey in
the air. It is also known to forage on the ground under streetlights
and has occasionally been observed chasing down and swallowing
bats and small birds, such as warblers, whole. Chuck-wills-widow
is crepuscular, meaning that it hunts mostly at dawn and dusk. It is
also active whenever there is a full moon, possibly because levels
of light are similar to its preferred foraging times.
VOICE Whistled chuck-wills-wid-ow; begins softly, then increases
in volume with emphasis on the two middle syllables.
NESTING Eggs laid directly on ground litter, including
evergreen needles and fallen leaves; 2 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Primarily catches flying insects, especially moths and
beetles; usually hunts at dusk and dawn.
FLIGHT: alternation of slow flapping flight
with erratic glides.
DAYTIME SLEEPER
Well-camouflaged on the forest floor, this species of

nightjar sleeps during the day.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON POORWILL
WHIP-POOR-WILL
see p.455
see p.252
Breeds in forests composed

of a mixture of deciduous
and evergreen trees, and in
open fields. A truly North
American species, it is found
mainly in the eastern US.
Winters in Mexico and in
northern Central America.
darker with
more gray
than
brown
grayer
overall
more white on tail
Weight 312oz (100g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
251

Species Caprimulgus vociferus
Whip-poor-will
huge eyes
buffy
throat
stripe
rounded
wings
flat, wide bill

with long
bristles
tawny patch
on cheeks
MALE
whitish
throat
stripe
FEMALE
black-andgray bands
across
back
IN FLIGHT
buffy corners
to tail
MALE
cinnamon
barring on
dark wings
white corners
to tail
s with many of the nightjars, the Whip-poor-will is heard

more often than seen. Its camouflage makes it extremely
difficult to spot on the forest floor and it usually flies away only
when an intruder is very closesometimes only a few feet.
This species apparently has an unusual breeding patternwhile
the male feeds the first brood until fledging, the female lays eggs
for a second brood.The two eggs from each brood may hatch
simultaneously during full moon, when there is most light at
night, allowing the parents more time to forage for their young.
VOICE Loud, 3-syllable whistle WHIP-perrr-WIIL.
NESTING Lays eggs on leaf litter on forest floor, often near
overhead plant cover; 2 eggs; 2 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Flies upward quickly from perch to capture passing
moths and other insects, such as mosquitoes.
FLIGHT: slow, erratic flight, with alternating
bouts of flapping and gliding.
WAITING IN AMBUSH
This species waits in ambush for its prey from

a perch on the forest floor, or on a rock.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON POORWILL
CHUCK-WILLS-WIDOW
see p.455
see p.251
Mixed mature forests with

open understory, especially
oak and pine forests on dry
upland sites. Breeds north to
southern and south-central
Canada and south to
El Salvador. Eastern and
southwestern populations
are widely separated.
cinnamonbrown chin
smaller, grayer
overall
larger overall
square tail
Weight 1916 214oz (45 65g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
252
WHERE
NOTES
Family Apodidae
SWIFTS
their daylight
Sskies.hours
as well as many night hours plying the
The most aerial birds in North Americaif
WIFTS SPEND VIRTUALLY ALL
not the worldswifts eat, drink, court, mate, and

even sleep on the wing. Swifts are some of the
fastest and most acrobatic flyers of the bird world.
Several species have been clocked at over 100mph
(160kph). They feed on insects caught in aerial
pursuits. The family name, based on the Greek
apous, which means without feet, originates
from the ancient belief that swifts had no feet
and lived their entire lives in the air.
CHIMNEY SWIFT
Widespread in the East,

the Chimney Swift has
readily adapted to
human structures.
Family Trochilidae
HUMMINGBIRDS
Americas, hummingbirds
Fof theare bird
sometimes referred to as the crown jewels
world. The first sight of a glittering
OUND ONLY IN THE
AGGRESSIVE MALES
This male Ruby-throated

Hummingbird defends his
territory from a perch.
hummingbird can be
a life-changing
experience. The
amount of iridescence
in their plumage varies
from almost none to
what seems like every
feather. Most North
American male
hummingbirds have
a colorful throat patch
called a gorget, but females tend to lack this

gorgeous attribute. Because iridescent colors are
structural and not pigment-based, a gorget can
often appear blackish until seen at the correct
angle toward the light. Hummingbirds are the only
birds that can fly backward, an adaptation that
allows them to move easily between flowers. Flying
sideways, up, down, and hovering are also within
hummingbirds abilities, and all are achieved by
their unique figure-eight, rapid wing strokes and
reduced wing bone structure. Their long, thin bills
allow them access to nectar in tubular flowers. The
only common hummingbird in the East is the
Ruby-throated Hummingbird.
NECTAR FEEDERS
All North American

hummingbirds, such as
this Black-chinned,
subsist on nectar
from wildflowers.
This species is
rare in the East.
SWIFTS
Order Apodiformes
Family Apodidae
Species Chaetura pelagica

large eyes
Chimney Swift
long, sickleshaped wings
short
bill
dark brown
upperparts
ADULT
pale brown
throat
throat slightly
paler than body
short,
square
tail
IN FLIGHT
very long, black

wings
stiff spined tail
icknamed spine-tailed, the Chimney Swift is a familiar

summer sight and sound, racing through the skies east of
the Rockies, its rolling twitters often heard.These birds do
almost everything on the wingfeeding, drinking, and even
bathing. Chimney Swifts have adapted to nest in human
structures, including chimneys, although they once nested in
tree holes. It remains a common bird, although local populations
have declined; and it has expanded its range west and south.
VOICE High, rapid chips and twittering; notes from individuals
in a flock run together into a rapid, descending chatter.
NESTING Shallow cup of twigs and saliva attached to inside
of chimney or other artificial structure, rarely hollow tree;
4 5 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Pursues a large variety of small aerial insects.
FLIGHT: fast, acrobatic, and erratic; very rapid,
vibrating wing beats; soars with tail fanned.
HIGH FLYER
Swifts feed at heights on sunny days, and only

feed near the ground when it is cold and cloudy.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK SWIFT
VAUXS SWIFT
larger
overall
paler
rump
broader
wings
shorter
wings
and tail
Widespread in eastern North

America, over many habitats:
urban and suburban areas,
small towns; in sparsely
populated areas nests in hollow
trees and caves; regular in
summer in southern California,
present late March to early
November. Winters in
Amazonian South America.
paler
throat
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight 58 1116 oz (17 30g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
254
WHERE
NOTES
HUMMINGBIRDS
Order Apodiformes
Family Trochilidae
Species Archilochus colubris
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
bronzy-green
upperparts
green crown
pale-tipped
crown feathers
straight,
black
bill
black face
MALE
greenish
speckling
on throat
(MALE)
orangered throat
dark,
forked tail
white chest
IMMATURE
MALE
white chin
and throat
FEMALE
greenish
sides and
flanks
glittering
green
upperparts
white underparts
with buff wash on
sides and flanks
grayish white
underparts
MALE
rounded
tail
he only hummingbird to breed

east of the Mississippi River, the
Ruby-throated Hummingbird is a welcome addition to gardens
throughout its range. It is easily identified in most of its range,
though more difficult to distinguish in areas where other species
are found, particularly during migration. Males perform a deep
diving display for females. Before migration, these birds add
about 116oz (2g) of fat to their weight to provide enough fuel for
their nonstop 800-mile (1,300km) flight across the Gulf of Mexico.
VOICE Call a soft, thick chic, sometimes doubled; twittered notes
in interactions; chase call a fast, slightly buzzy tsi-tsi-tsi-tsi-tsi-tsitsi-tsi; soft, rattling song very rarely heard.
NESTING Tiny cup of plant down, with bud scales and lichen
on the exterior, bound with spiders silk, usually in deciduous
trees; 2 eggs; 12 broods; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Drinks nectar from many species of flowers; feeds on
small insects and spiders, caught aerially or gleaned from foliage.
FLIGHT: swift, forward flight with very fast wing
beats; hovers at flowers and darts after insects.
CATCHING THE LIGHT
Although the throat patch often appears all

black, the right lighting sets it afire with color.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
harder, sharper
call notes
see p.455
broader
outer
feathers
Favors a variety of woodlands

and gardens; earliest migrants
appear in the South as early as
late February; most leave by
November; regular in winter in
southern Florida; small numbers
winter elsewhere on the Gulf
Coast; rare in the West. The bulk
of the population migrates to
Central America for the winter.
ANNAS HUMMINGBIRD 1
BLACK-CHINNED
HUMMINGBIRD 1
longer
bill
thicker
neck
grayer
underparts
Length 312in (9cm)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
255
HUMMINGBIRDS
Order Apodiformes
Family Trochilidae
Species Selasphorus rufus
Rufous Hummingbird
white spot
near eye
green to
bronze-green
crown
straight,
smooth bill
MALE
rufous tail base

with dark tips
IN FLIGHT
rufous
upperparts
white patch
on breast
wrinkled
top bill
mostly
green
back
rich, rufous
underparts
buff face
coloration
rufous
uppertail
feathers
whitish
underparts
IMMATURE
MALE
FEMALE
ne of the most aggressive

hummingbirds, the
Rufous Hummingbird packs quite a punch, despite its small size;
it often chases other hummingbirds away from nectar sources.
FLIGHT: fast flight with extremely rapid wing
This bird also breeds farther north than any other North American beats; hovers at flowers; darts after insects.
species of hummingbird and undertakes a lengthy migration. Males
are recognizable by their overall fiery orange-rufous color, but
females and immature birds are difficult to distinguish from Allens Hummingbirds.
VOICE Call a hard chuk, sometimes in steady series or doubled; also short,
buzzy warning call, tssrr ; chase call a fast, raspy twitter, tzzerr tichupy tichupy.
NESTING Tiny cup of plant down, lichen, and other plant matter on exterior,
bound with spiders silk, in shrubs or trees; 2 eggs; 12 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Drinks nectar from flowers and sap from
trees; catches small insects and other arthropods in the
air or gleans them off foliage.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BROAD-TAILED HUMMINGBIRD 1
ALLENS HUMMINGBIRD 2
higher-pitched call
entirely
green
back
dull pinkish
anks
FIERY MALE
With temperaments matching

their bold, flame-like color, males
aggressively defend territories.
broad
tail
This Western species has

become a regular fall visitor in
the East. Breeds in old-growth
forest clearings, bushy country,
and urban gardens; early
migrants appear in March;
most leave by August; it has
become a regular winter
inhabitant along the Gulf Coast
and southern California.
Length 312in (9cm)
Wingspan 5in (13cm)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
256
WHERE
NOTES
Family Alcedinidae
KINGFISHERS
a tropical family
K
(Alcedinidae) that apparently originated in the
Australasian region. Three species are found in the
INGFISHERS ARE PRIMARILY
US and Canada, but only one, the Belted

Kingfisher, is widespread. Like most species of
kingfishers, these birds are large-headed and largebilled but have comparatively short legs and toes.
Although North American kingfishers lack the
array of bright blues, greens, and reds associated
FISH DINNER
A female Belted Kingfisher

uses its large bill to catch
and hold slippery prey.
with their tropical and European counterparts,

they are striking birds, distinguished by chestnutcolored chest bands and white underparts. While
they also eat frogs and crayfish, North American
species are primarily fish-eaters. After catching a
fish, they routinely stun their prey by beating it
against a perch before turning the fish around so
that it can be eaten head first. Smaller species such
as the Green Kingfisher are shy and not often seen.
KINGFISHERS
Order Coraciiformes
Family Alcedinidae
Species Megaceryle alcyon
Belted Kingfisher
prominent
crest
bluish gray head

with shaggy crest
long, thick,
powerful bill
large
head
MALE
single blue
breastband
chestnut
band
across
breast
white
collar
chestnut
flanks
barred
tail
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
bluish slate
upperparts
double crest
white
belly
white collar
single dark
breastband
MALE
IMMATURE
MALE
ts stocky body, double-pointed crest, large head, and

FLIGHT: strongly flaps its wings and then
contrasting white collar distinguish the Belted Kingfisher from glides after two or three beats; frequently hovers.
other species in its range. This kingfishers loud and far-carrying
rattles are heard more often than the bird is seen. Interestingly, it is one of
the few birds in North America in which the female is more colorful than the
male. The Belted Kingfisher can be found in a large variety of aquatic habitats,
both coastal and inland, vigorously defending its territory, all year round.
VOICE Harsh mechanical rattle given in flight or from a perch; sometimes
emits screams or trill-like warble during breeding.
NESTING Unlined chamber in subterranean burrow
36ft (12m) deep, excavated in earthen bank usually
over water, but sometimes in ditches, sand, or gravel
pits; 67 eggs; 1 brood;
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MarchJuly.
Breeds and winters around
FEEDING Plunge-dives
clear, open waters of streams,
RINGED KINGFISHER 2
see p.456
rivers, lakes, estuaries, and
from branches or wires
protected marine shorelines,
to catch a wide variety
larger
where perches are available
overall
of fish near the surface,
and prey is visible. Avoids water
including sticklebacks
CATCH OF THE DAY
with emergent vegetation.
chestnut
and trout; also takes
The females chestnut belly band
Northern populations migrate
belly
crustaceans, such
and flanks are clearly visible here south to Mexico, Central
as crayfish.
as she perches with her catch.
America, and the West Indies.
Social Solitary
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
258
WHERE
NOTES
Family Picidae
WOODPECKERS
T
HE THREE GROUPS of
closely related
species that constitute the family
Picidae are found throughout North
America. They are a physically striking
group adapted to living on tree trunks.
WOODPECKERS
The typical North American woodpecker species

share a distinct set of physical characteristics and
behaviors. They use pecking and drumming to
construct nests and communicate. This is made
possible by a very thick skull, adapted to withstand
the shock of continually pecking wood.
Woodpeckers nest in cavities in dead trees, and are
vulnerable to the loss of their specialized habitats
due to forest clearing.
SAPSUCKERS
Sapsuckers feed on tree sap as a primary source
of nourishment for both adults and their
young. They have tongues tipped with stiff
hairs to allow sap to
stick to them. The
holes sapsuckers create
in order to extract the
sap from trees also
attract insects, which
make up the main
protein source in the
sapsucker diet. Because
sapsuckers damage
living trees, some
BALANCING ACT
orchard growers
The Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
consider them to
rests its stiff tail against a tree
be pests.
to maintain its balance.
FLICKERS
Flickers are relatively large members of the
family Picidae and spend more time feeding on
the ground than other woodpeckers, consuming
ants and other insects. They often forage in open
areas around human habitation. Flickers are
notable for their colorful underwing feathers
and their distinctive white rumps.
COMMON FLICKER
RED ALERT
With its crimson head, the

Red-headed Woodpecker
is an instantly recognizable
North American bird.
The Northern Flicker can be found

across the entire North American
continent. This is the Red-shafted
form of Northern Flicker, which is
only found in the West.
WOODPECKERS
Order Piciformes
Family Picidae
Species Melanerpes erythrocephalus
bluish
gray bill
bright red
head
white
rump
red head
ADULT
brownish
head
upperparts
black with
bluish sheen
narrow black
necklace
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
wing feathers
white with
black barring
JUVENILE
white
secondary
wing
feathers
he Red-headed Woodpecker is the only member of this

family that has a completely red head, and is therefore easy
to identify. Unlike most other woodpecker species, it forages for
foodboth insects and nutsand stores it for eating at a later
time. It is one of the most skilled flycatchers in the woodpecker
family. Its numbers have declined, largely because of the
destruction of its habitat, especially the removal of dead trees
in urban and rural areas, and clearing and cutting of trees for
firewood in rural areas. The Red-headed Woodpecker is a truly
North American bird, not extending south of the Rio Grande.
VOICE Primary call an extremely harsh and loud churr, also
produces breeding call
and alarm; no song;
active drummer.
NESTING Excavates
cavity in dead wood;
35 eggs; 12 broods;
MayAugust.
FEEDING Forages in
flight, on ground, and
in trees; feeds on a
variety of insects,
spiders, nuts seeds,
WORK IN PROGRESS
berries, and fruit, and,
The Red-headed Woodpecker
in rare cases, small
excavates its breeding cavities
mammals such as mice. in tree trunks and stumps.
FLIGHT: strong flapping; undulation not as
marked as in other woodpecker species.

OCCURRENCE
Breeds in a variety of habitats,

especially open deciduous
woodlands, including riverine
areas, orchards, municipal
parks, agricultural areas, forest
edges, and forests affected
by fire. Uses the same habitats
during the winter and in the
breeding season.
Length 812 912 in (2224cm)
Weight 23oz (5585g)
Social Solitary
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
260
WHERE
NOTES
WOODPECKERS
Order Piciformes
Family Picidae
Species Melanerpes carolinus
Red-bellied Woodpecker
white patches
at base of
outer wing
gray crown red crown

pale grayish
tan face
MALE
pale grayish
tan underparts
red
nape
IN FLIGHT
FEMALE
regular blackand-white barring
FLIGHT: undulating flight, as with other
woodpecker species.
MALE
his attractive, abundant woodpecker is found throughout the eastern

half of the US, and has expanded its range both northward and
westward in the last decade or two. Despite its common name, it does not
actually possess a red belly.The male is distinguished by its red forehead,
crown, and nape, while the female only has a red nape; both have pale-colored
underparts and evenly barred upperparts. Male Red-bellied Woodpeckers
excavate several holes in trees, one of which the female chooses for nesting.
They also use previously available cavities, but often lose them to aggressive
European Starlings. Unlike many woodpecker species, although the
Red-bellied eats insects, it does not excavate trees to find them.
VOICE Rather soft, clearly rolling, slightly
quivering krrurrr call.
NESTING Cavity nester; 45 eggs; 13 broods;
MayAugust.
FEEDING Eats insects, fruit, seeds, acorns, and other
nuts; in winter, eats mainly vegetable matter.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GILA WOODPECKER
red crown
GOLDEN-FRONTED
WOODPECKER 2 red
crown
see p.456
brown
head
orangeyellow nape
SUBURBAN SPECIES
rump
bars
white
rump
These birds can be seen

and heard on tree trunks in
suburban and urban woods.
Resident in the eastern and

southeastern US, where
it breeds in a wide range
of habitats; found in forests,
swamps, suburban wooded
areas, open woodlands,
and parks. Winter habitats
resemble the breeding areas.
Weight 212 oz (70g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
261
WOODPECKERS
Order Piciformes
Family Picidae
Species Sphyrapicus varius
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
white patch
on inner
wing
MALE
red forehead
red
throat
blackand-white
patterned
face
white
rump
pale yellow
to breast
and belly
IN FLIGHT
dark
brown
forehead
white
throat
no red
on throat
black-andwhite barring
on back
JUVENILE
FEMALE
MALE
he Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, with its red, black, and white

coloring and soft yellow wash on its underparts, is a striking bird.
Like its relatives, the Red-breasted Sapsucker and the Red-naped
Sapsucker, it drills holes in trees to drink sap. It was not until 1983 that
the sapsuckers were allocated to four separate species.This is one of
only two North American woodpeckers that are completely
migratory, with females moving farther
south than males.The other is the
Red-naped Sapsucker, in the West.
VOICE Primary call a mewing wheerwheer-wheer.
NESTING Cavities in dead trees;
FLIGHT: typical woodpecker, undulating flight
pattern with intermittent flapping and gliding.
FEEDING Drinks sap; eats ants and
STRIKING SPECIES
other small insects; feeds on the inner
The Yellow-bellied Sapsuckers white rump and
bark of trees, also a variety of fruit.
black-and-white forked tail are clearly evident here.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WILLAMSONS
SAPSUCKER 1
brown head
Breeds in eastern Alaska,

Canada, and south to the
Appalachians. Prefers either
deciduous forests or mixed
deciduous-coniferous forests;
preferably young forests. In
winter, it is found in open
wooded areas in southeastern
states, Caribbean islands,
RED-NAPED
SAPSUCKER
red patch
on forehead
more
extensive
barring on
back
two rows
of white bars
on back
Weight 134 oz (50g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
262
WHERE
NOTES
WOODPECKERS
Order Piciformes
Family Picidae
Species Picoides pubescens
Downy Woodpecker
short,
pointed
black bill
red nape
patch
barred wings
white
underparts
white
back
MALE
MALE
black wings
with white
spots
IN FLIGHT
black
shoulders
black crown
patch
MALE
FEMALE
white
back
FLIGHT: glides and short bursts of wing beats,
giving an undulating flight pattern.
spotted
he smallest North American woodpecker, the
outermost
Downy Woodpecker is seen all year round
tail feathers
from coast to coast in Canada, north to Alaska, and
southward, in the US, from California to the Eastern Seaboard. It is distinguishable
from the similar Hairy Woodpecker by its shorter bill and much smaller size.
After breeding, Downy Woodpeckers remain in the same area, but wander
around in search of food in a variety of habitats, including suburbs, gardens;
also reedbeds, a winter habitat that no other North American woodpecker uses.
VOICE Two main callsa high-pitched pik, and an even higher-pitched
whinny; also rattles and chirps.
NESTING Excavates cavity in dead wood; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Forages for insects and spiders from the
surfaces and bark crevices of live and dead trees,
but also eats fruits, seeds, and other vegetable
matter, depending on the season.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HAIRY WOODPECKER 2
HAIRY WOODPECKER 1
see p.264
see p.264
long bill
long bill
no red
crown
patch
red
crown
patch
SUET LOVERS
Downy Woodpeckers will

feed on suet provided in
feeders during the winter.

habitats, including deciduous
and mixed deciduous-coniferous
woodlands, parks, wooded
suburban areas, and areas near
rivers. Although it uses natures
bounty of dead trees, it will
also breed in man-made objects
such as fenceposts. Resident, but
local movements occur.
Weight 1116oz (30g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
263
WOODPECKERS
Order Piciformes
Family Picidae
Species Picoides villosus
Hairy Woodpecker
long,
black bill
red patch on
back of head
white
back
no red patch
on back of
head
MALE
black-and-white
cheek stripes
white
underparts
black
nape
MALE
IN FLIGHT
black
upperparts
FEMALE
black wing
feathers with
white barring
ike its smaller relative the Downy Woodpecker, the

Hairy Woodpecker is widespread in North America,
breeding and wintering from coast to coast in the US and
Canada. While in many respects the two species look quite
similar, the Hairy Woodpecker has a larger and thicker bill
and is about twice as large as the Downy Woodpecker. The
Hairy Woodpecker is a bird of forests,
where it uses live tree trunks both as
nesting sites and as places to forage.
VOICE Call a bold, grating, sharp
Peek, similar to that of the Downy
Woodpecker, but lower in pitch,
and louder. Drumming a rather
loud, even series of taps.
NESTING Excavates cavity in live
trees; 4 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats mainly insects and
their larvae; also nuts and seeds.
black tail,
with white
outer
feathers
FLIGHT: undulating; short glides alternating
with wing beats.

HOME SWEET HOME
The Hairy Woodpecker is generally found in

forests and prefers mature woodland areas,
using both deciduous and coniferous trees.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
DOWNY WOODPECKER 2
DOWNY WOODPECKER 1
see p.263
see p.263
shorter bill
Breeds primarily in forests, both

deciduous and coniferous, but
also in more open woodlands,
swamps, suburban parks, and
wooded areas. Resident in
North America all year-round,
though in the far north of
its range it may move south
for the winter.
shorter
bill
black
markings
on outer
wing
feathers
black
markings
on outer
wing
feathers
Weight 212oz (70g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
264
WHERE
NOTES
WOODPECKERS
Order Piciformes
Family Picidae
Species Picoides borealis
Red-cockaded Woodpecker
black
rump
and
upper
tail
small red spot

behind eye
(cockade)
no red
spot
MALE
white
eyebrow
white
cheek
white
outer tail
feathers
black-andwhite barred
back
black wings
with fine
white barring
IN FLIGHT
black
cheek
stripe
FEMALE
finely
streaked
underparts
white spots and
bars on black wings
MALE
FLIGHT: typical undulating flight
pattern of woodpeckers.
whitish
undertail
feathers
he Red-cockaded
Woodpeckers population has
been severely affected by the fragmentation of its southeastern US old-growth
pine forest habitat, as trees have been cut down for timber and cleared for
farmland. The bird breeds in small family groups, or clans, and takes up to
three years to drill its nest cavity in a live tree. During incubation, parent birds
are often helped by other clan members, usually males born in previous years.
VOICE Primary calls include a rolled shrit or shiff; also a rattle resembling
a kingfisher; very vocal, chattering much of the day.
NESTING Excavates cavity in live, mature longleaf and Loblolly pines;
FEEDING Forages and drills for insects, especially ants, and insect larvae
on trunks of pine trees; eats some seeds and fruits occasionally, including
pine seeds, grapes, and blueberries.
white
cheek
see p.456
Widespread in pine forests of

southeastern US, but localized;
absent from some suitablelooking forest stands, common
in others. Needs open pine
forests maintained without
much understory by regular
forest fires. Resident.
NUTTALLS WOODPECKER
restricted
red crown
extensive
red crown
black stripe
behind eye
black stripe
behind eye
The bird works its way up and

around a tree trunk in its
search for insects and grubs.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LADDER-BACKED
WOODPECKER
FINDING A MEAL
Length 712 812in (19 22cm)
Weight 1716 1916oz (40 45g)
Lifespan 12 years
Status Endangered
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
265
WOODPECKERS
Order Piciformes
Family Picidae
Species Picoides tridactylus dorsalis
American Three-toed Woodpecker

long, straight bill
large yellow
patch
black-and-white
barred back
black bars
on flanks
black head
MALE
IN FLIGHT
black-and-white
streaked crown
white
breast
MALE
FEMALE
his subspecies, formerly a separate species, breeds farther

north than any other North American woodpecker,
including its close relative, the Black-backed Woodpecker.
It resembles the Black-backed
Woodpecker in terms of size and head
markings, and because they are the
only two North American woodpeckers
with three toes on each foot.The
population of this woodpecker is
decreasing as a result of habitat loss.
This species and its relative require
matures forests with old or dead trees.
VOICE Call notes queep, quip, or pik;
generally quiet, likened to the Yellowbellied Sapsucker.
NESTING Excavates
SIMILAR SPECIES
cavity mainly in
dead or dying wood,
BLACK-BACKED WOODPECKER
shorter call;
sometimes in live
see p.267
wood; 4 eggs; 1 brood;
MayJuly.
FEEDING Flakes off
bark and eats insects
solid black
back
underneath, mainly the
larvae of Bark Beetles.
black tail, with

white outer tail
feathers
slightly
forked tail
FLIGHT: undulating flight with rapid wing
beats typical of other woodpeckers.

COLOR VARIATION
The streaks on this species back are highly variable;

some populations have nearly all-white backs.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in mature northern

coniferous forests across
Canada and through the
Rockies. Since it is largely
nonmigratory, this is also
the winter habitat for most
populations, although it is
found in more open areas
in winter.
Weight 214212 oz (6570g)
Lifespan Unknown
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
266
WHERE
NOTES
WOODPECKERS
Order Piciformes
Family Picidae
Species Picoides arcticus
Black-backed Woodpecker
white spots on
outer wings
long, black bill

yellow cap on
black head
white stripe
on head
black back
white
underparts
MALE
IN FLIGHT
black cap
black back
and wings
MALE
FEMALE
ormerly called the Black-backed Three-toed Woodpecker,

this species has a black back and heavily barred flanks. Despite
being widespread across the northern US, southern Canada, and
southern Alaska, this bird is difficult to
find.The Black-backed Woodpecker
often occurs in areas of burned forest,
eating wood-boring beetles that occur
after outbreaks of fire.This diet is very
specialized, and the species is greatly
affected by forestry programs, which
prevent the spread of fire. Although
it overlaps geographically with the
American Three-toed Woodpecker,
the two are rarely found together
in the same locality.
VOICE Main call a
SIMILAR SPECIES
single pik.
NESTING Cavity
AMERICAN THREETOED WOODPECKER
excavated in tree;
see p.266
34 eggs; 1 brood;
MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats beetles,
black-andespecially larvae of
white barred
wood-boring beetles,
upperparts
by flaking off bark.
FLIGHT: typical undulating flight
of woodpeckers.
FREQUENT MOVING
This bird excavates a new nest cavity each year,

rarely returning in subsequent years.
OCCURRENCE
Inhabitant of northern and

mountain coniferous forests
that require fire for renewal.
Breeding occurs soon after sites
are burned as new colonies are
attracted to the habitat. In
Michigans Upper Peninsula,
the bird uses trees similar to
those in its northern habitat.
Weight 212oz (70g)
Social Pairs
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
267
WOODPECKERS
Order Piciformes
Family Picidae
Species Colaptes auratus
Northern Flicker
bright yellow
underwings
gray forehead
and crown
black mustache
IN FLIGHT
black
crescent
MALE (YELLOWSHAFTED FORM)
brownish
back with
black barring
orangish red
underwings
MALE (REDSHAFTED FORM)
no
mustache
red
nape
buffy forehead
red
mustache
gray nape
brownish
back with
black barring
FEMALE
(YELLOWSHAFTED FORM)
MALE
(RED-SHAFTED
FORM )
n contrast to other North American woodpeckers, the

Northern Flicker is a ground forager.The two subspecies,
the Yellow-shafted Flicker (auratus) in the East, and Red-shafted
Flicker (cafer) in the West, interbreed in a wide area in the Great
Plains.They can be distinguished when in flight, as the underwing
feathers will either be a vivid yellow or
a striking red, as their names indicate.
VOICE Two main calls; loud kew-kew-kew,
each note ascending at the end; the other,
softer call, described as wicka-wicka-wicka.
NESTING Cavity usually in dead wood,
but sometimes in live wood; 68 eggs;
1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Feeds mainly on ants in
breeding season; also fruits in winter.
MALE
(YELLOWSHAFTED FORM)
FLIGHT: rapid wing beats followed by glides;
fewer undulations than most woodpeckers.

SHARING CHORES
The Northern Flicker nests in tree cavities, where

parents take turns incubating eggs.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
A common species found in

woodland in every part of
the US, the southern half of
Canada, and north into Alaska.
During breeding season,
prefers open woodlands
and forest edge; also suburbs.
Little is known about this
birds winter habitat.
GILDED FLICKER
cinnamon
crown
FEET ON THE GROUND
paler brown
back
Unlike other woodpeckers,

flickers can be found foraging
for ants on the ground.
Weight 4oz (125g)
Social Solitary
Lifespan 9 years
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
268
WHERE
NOTES
WOODPECKERS
Order Piciformes
Family Picidae
Species Dryocopus pileatus
Pileated Woodpecker
large
black bill
red forehead
conspicuous
red crest
large
overall
white chin
scarlet mustache
MALE
large white
wing patch
black
forehead
long
tail
IN FLIGHT
black
mustache
red crest
black
back
FEMALE
white patch
on wing
he largest woodpecker in North America, the

Pileated Woodpecker is instantly recognizable by its
spectacular large, tapering, bright-red crest. A mated pair of Pileated
Woodpeckers defends their breeding territory all yeareven if one
bird dies, the other does not desert the territory. Indeed, a pair may
live in the same old, dead tree every year, but will hammer out
a new nest cavity with their powerful bills each season. The
abandoned nest cavities created by the Pileated Woodpecker are
sometimes used by other birds, and occasionally by mammals.
VOICE Two primary calls, both high-pitched and quite loud
yuck-yuck-yuck, and yuka-yuka-yuka.
NESTING Excavates
cavity, usually in dead
tree; 35 eggs;
1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Bores deep
into trees and peels
off large strips of bark
to extract carpenter
ants and beetle larvae;
also digs on ground
EASY PICKINGS
and on fallen logs, and
This Pileated Woodpecker visits
opportunistically eats
a feeder to supplement its
fruit and nuts.
natural diet.
MALE
FLIGHT: slow, deep wing beats, with
occasional undulation when wings briefly folded.

OCCURRENCE
Breeds and lives year-round

across southern Canada, in the
northwestern US, and the
eastern half of US, in deciduous
and coniferous forest and
woodlands; also found in
swampy areas. In some
areas, chooses young forests
with dead trees but in other
places, old-growth forests.
Weight 10oz (275g)
Social Pairs
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
269
Family Tyrannidae
FLYCATCHERS
known as flycatchers
B
occur in many parts of the world, but several
different families of songbirds have this name.
IRDS POPULARLY
With the exception of some Old World species

that stray into Alaska, the North American
flycatchers are members of a single familythe
Tyrant Flycatchers (Tyrannidae). With about 400
species, this is the largest bird family in the New
World. These birds are uniform in appearance,
with only a hint of the diversity in the family
that is found in Central and South America.
Most are drab-colored, olive-green or gray birds,
sometimes with yellow underparts. The
Vermilion Flycatcher
is a striking exception,
as is the gray
and salmon-pink
Scissor-tailed
Flycatcher, which also
has elongated outer tail
ERECT STANCE
A large headed look and erect

posture are typical of this
Eastern Phoebe.
feathers. Members
of the genus
Empidonax include
some of the most
difficult birds to
identify in North
America; they are
best distinguished
by their songs. Typical
flycatcher feeding
behavior is to sit on
a branch or exposed
perch, then sally to
catch flying insects.
Tyrannid flycatchers
are found across North TYRANT BEHAVIOR
Such aggressive display
America, except in
by Couchs Kingbird reflects
Arctic regions. Many
its English and generic
live in wooded
names. Couchs Kingbird is
habitats, though others rare in the East.
prefer woodland edges
and deserts. Nearly
all flycatchers are long-distance migrants and
spend the northern winter in Central and
South America.
BIG MOUTHS
Young Dusky Flycatchers

display the wide bills that
help them to catch flying
insects as adults.
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Species Sayornis phoebe
Eastern Phoebe
round, darkcapped head
rounded wings
with two faint
wing bars
ADULT
dark eye
white
throat
yellowish
tint on
lower
belly
ADULT
(FALL)
IN FLIGHT
olive tint to sides

and breast
long, dark
tail
ADULT
(BREEDING)
he Eastern Phoebe is an early spring migrant that tends to

nest under bridges, culverts, and on buildings, in addition
FLIGHT: direct, with steady wing beats; hovers
to rocky outcroppings. Not shy, it is also familiar because of its
occasionally; approaches nest with a low swoop.
fee-bee vocalization and constant tail wagging. By
tying a thread on the leg of several Eastern Phoebes,
ornithologist John James Audubon established that
individuals return from the south to a previously
used nest site. Although difficult to tell apart, males
tend to be slightly larger and darker than females.
VOICE Common call a clear, weak chip; song an
emphatic fee-bee or fee-b-be-bee.
NESTING Open cup of mud, moss, and leaves,
almost exclusively on man-made structures;
PALE EDGES
LIGHTER FEMALE
35 eggs; 2 broods; AprilJuly.
Perched on a twig, a male
They are difficult to distinguish,
FEEDING Feeds mainly on flying insects; also
shows off the pale margins
but the female is slightly lighter
consumes small fruits from fall through winter.
of his wing feathers.
overall than the male.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
EASTERN
WOOD-PEWEE
WILLOW
FLYCATCHER
lacks tail-wag;
see p.273
flicks tail
upwards;
see p.276
distinct
wing bars
more
distinct
wing
bars
Found in open woodland

and along deciduous or mixed
forest edges, in gardens and
parks, near water. Breeds
across Canada from the
Northwest Territories south
of the tundra belt and in
the eastern half of the US.
Winters in the southeast
US and Mexico.
often
has
eyering
smaller
overall
Weight
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
16oz (20g)
11
NOTES
271
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Species Contopus cooperi
Olive-sided Flycatcher
short
tail
large, dark
head
ADULT
(SUMMER)
lower base of bill

often dull orange
brownish
gray back
pointed
wings
dull white
throat
IN FLIGHT
brownish
olive flanks
white
belly
ADULT
(SUMMER)
FLIGHT: fast and direct, with deep, rapid wing
beats; turns sharply to chase prey.
he Olive-sided Flycatcher is identified

by its distinctive song, large size, and
contrasting belly and flank colors, which
make its underside appear like a vest with
the buttons undone. Both members of
a breeding pair are known to aggressively
defend their territory. This flycatcher
undertakes a long journey from
northern parts of North America
to winter in Panama and the Andes.
VOICE Call an evenly spaced pippip-pip; song a loud 3-note whistle:
quick-THREE-BEERS or whip-WEE-DEER.
NESTING Open cup of twigs, rootlets, lichens;
FEEDING Sits and waits for prey to fly past its
perch before swooping after it; eats flying insects,
such as bees, wasps, and flying ants.
BUILDING THE NEST
EXPOSED PERCH
The female Olive-sided

Flycatcher usually constructs
the nest on her own.
This species can often be found

singing from an exposed twig
emerging from the canopy.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
EASTERN PHOEBE
Breeds in mountainous,
northern coniferous forests
at edges or openings around
ponds, bogs, meadows where
standing dead trees occur.
Also found in post-fire
forests with abundant
stumps. Winters in forest
edges with tall trees
and stumps.
WESTERN
WOOD-PEWEE
see p.271
see p.472
lack
vest
lacks
vest
longer
tail
Weight 1116 114oz (30 35g)
Social Solitary
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
272
WHERE
NOTES
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Species Contopus virens
Eastern Wood-pewee
pointed
wings
slightly
ragged
crest
partial
eye-ring
yellow
lower
mandible
pale
gray
ADULT
pale
throat
thin, white
wing bars
yellowish wash
on underparts
IN FLIGHT
thin, white edges to
wing feathers
ADULT
FLIGHT: flies out from perch to catch flying
insects; direct, steady wing beats.
he Eastern Wood-pewee
is found in many
types of woodland in
the eastern US and
southern and eastern
Canada. The male
is slightly larger than the female, but their plumage is practically identical.
Recent population declines in this species have been attributed to heavy
browsing by White-tailed Deer. This has been compounded by the
Eastern Wood-pewees susceptibility to brood
parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds.
VOICE Call terse chip; song slurred pee-ah-wee,
plaintive wee-ooo, or wee-ur, and slurred ah di dee.
NESTING Shallow cup of grass, lichens on horizontal
limb; 24 eggs; 1 brood; MaySeptember.
FEEDING Consumes mainly flying insects, such as
flies, beetles, and bees; occasionally forages for insects
on foliage on the ground.
range barely
overlaps;
see p.472
dark gray
back
smaller
size
COLORATION
The Eastern Wood-pewee has

yellowish underparts and a
yellow lower mandible.
Widely distributed in eastern
US and adjacent Canadian
provinces. Breeds in deciduous
and coniferous forests, often
near clearings or edges; uses
waterside areas in Midwest,
less so in the East. Late-arriving
migrant. Winters in shrubby,
second-growth forests of
South America.
WILLOW
FLYCATCHER
tendency to
wag tail;
see p.276
Holding its tail perfectly still,

this Wood-pewee is perched
upright, scanning for prey.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WESTERN WOOD-PEWEE
SEARCHING FOR PREY
stronger
eye-ring
lighter
breast
and
head
Length 6in (15cm)
Weight 38 1116oz (1019g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
273
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Species Empidonax flaviventris
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher
bright wing
bars
green back
and head
ADULT
rounded crown
broad base
of bill
big
head
conspicuous
yellow
eye-ring
yellowish
belly
rounded
wings
yellowolive
throat
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
white
wing
bars
square tail
FLIGHT: short flights to forage; slightly
undulating, longer flights.
he Yellow-bellied Flycatcher is
characteristic of northern
coniferous forests and
Sphagnum-moss peatlands. It is not
well known, because of the remote
locations it inhabits and its secretive
habitats. The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher
is much more often heard than seen. It
remains on its breeding grounds for
only about two months, then migrates
through the eastern US to winter
quarters in southern Mexico and
Central America to Panama, where it
favors the shade of coffee plantations.
VOICE Call chu-wee and abrupt brrrrt; song abrupt killink, che-lek,
or che-bunk, with variations.
NESTING Cup of moss, twigs, and needles on or near ground,
often in a bog; 35 eggs; 1 brood; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Catches insects in the air or gleans mosquitoes, midges,
and flies from foliage; sometimes eats berries and seeds.
see p. 275
larger
overall
longer,
wider
tail
LEAST FLYCATCHER
distinctive call;
larger see p.278
bill
lacks olive
on breast
YELLOW BELLY
A frontal view clearly shows this

species field mark.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ACADIAN
FLYCATCHER
ADULT
Breeds from Alaska to Qubec,

Newfoundland, and the
northeast US (New England)
in boreal forests and bogs
dominated by spruce trees.
Winters in Mexico and Central
America to Panama, in lowland
forests, second-growth, and
riverine habitats.
darker
lower
mandible
distinct,
pale
throat
patch
Length 512in (14cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
274
WHERE
NOTES
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Species Empidonax virescens
Acadian Flycatcher
narrow,
eye-ring
slight crest
prominent
wing bars
ADULT
broad bill
with
yellowish
lower
mandible
greenish nape
and back
two
wing bars
IN FLIGHT
pale belly
white-edged
flight feathers
yellowish wash
on lower belly
ADULT
ts often-drooped wings and minimal

wing and tail flicking give the
Acadian Flycatcher an outwardly
calm appearance compared to
other flycatchers. It bathes by
broad tail
diving into water, then preens
FLIGHT: direct, fast with quick wing beats; short
on a perch. It suffers more
flights to and from perches; hovers while foraging.
parasitism from Brownheaded Cowbirds in small
woodlots than in large forests. Where Cowbirds lay their eggs in the
flycatchers nest, they displace the flycatchers young.
VOICE Contact call soft peet, one of many calls; territorial song tee-chup,
peet-sah or flee-sick, loud and explosive sounding.
NESTING Shallow, open cup in tree fork or shrub
near water; 3 eggs; 2 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Takes insects from undersides of leaves,
also catches them in the air and occasionally on
the ground; eats berries.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WILLOW
FLYCATCHER
flicks tail;
see p.276
LEAST FLYCATCHER
smaller overall;
see p.278
smaller
bill
lacks
distinct
eye-ring
more
gray
overall
TOP PERFORMER
This flycatcher is seen typically

perched on a treetop from
where it sings forcefully.
Breeds in eastern US in mature

deciduous forests associated
with water; prefers large
undisturbed tracts. Winters in
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and
Panama, and in South America
along the Andes from Venezuela
and Colombia to Ecuador, in
tropical forests and woodlands
with evergreen trees.
Length 6in (15cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
275
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Willow Flycatcher
two buff to
yellow wing
bars
square
tail
Species Empidonax traillii

dark upper
mandible
thin
eye-ring
paler lower
mandible
brown
eye
grayish green
upperparts
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
yellow-tinged
flanks
whitish
belly
FLIGHT: weak and fluttering; swoops and
hovers when pursuing insects.
ADULT
he Willow Flycatcher is only
dark legs
and toes
distinguished from the nearly
identical Alder Flycatcher by its
song. It is a strongly territorial
bird, spreading its tail and
dark tail
flicking it upward during
aggressive encounters.The
Willow Flycatcher is, however,
a frequent victim of brood parasitism by the Brown-headed
Cowbird, which lays its eggs in the flycatchers nest and removes
the eggs that were already inside. Compounded by loss of suitable
breeding habitat, this may be a major reason for the Willow
Flycatchers decline, especially in the case of the southwestern
subspecies, E. t. extimus, which is now considered endangered.
VOICE Calls include soft, dry whit and several buzzy notes;
song sharp fitz-bew with accent on the first syllable; also creet.
NESTING Rather loose and untidy cup in base of shrub near
UNEVEN WORKLOAD
water; 34 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
Although both parents feed their young, the
FEEDING Eats insects, mostly caught in flight; eats fruit in winter. female Willow Flycatcher does so the most.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ALDER
FLYCATCHER
Breeds from southern Canada

to eastern and southwestern
US, mainly in willow thickets
and other moist shrubby areas
along watercourses. On winter
grounds, it favors lighter
woodland, shrubby clearings,
and brush near water in
coastal areas.
LEAST FLYCATCHER
see p.278
different song;
see p.277
larger
head
bolder
wing bars
bold
white
eyering
Social Solitary
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
276
WHERE
NOTES
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Alder Flycatcher
Species Empidonax alnorum

white eye-ring
brownish
olive head
dark upper
mandible
two white
wing bars
ADULT
paler lower
mandible
brownish olive
upperparts
rounded
wings
whitish throat
and breast
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
dark legs
and toes
FLIGHT: weak with shallow wing beats;
swoops and hovers when pursuing prey.
ntil 1973 the Alder Flycatcher

and the Willow Flycatcher were
considered to be one species called
Traills Flycatcher. The two species
cannot be reliably identified by sight,
but they do have distinctive songs.
The Alder Flycatcher also breeds
farther north than the Willow
long,
Flycatcher, arriving late in spring
dark tail
and leaving early in fall. Its nests
are extremely hard to locate, and
much remains to be learned about this birds breeding habits.
VOICE Calls include flat pit or pip-peep-tip, also wee-oo and churr;
male sings characteristic fee-bee-o song while breeding, and
occasionally during spring migration.
NESTING Coarse and loosely structured nest low in fork
of deciduous shrub; 3 4 eggs; 1 brood; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Mostly eats insects, caught mainly in flight, but
some gleaned from foliage; eats fruit in winter.
ON THE ALERT
Attentive to potential meals, an Alder Flycatcher

will swiftly pursue prey as soon as it flies by.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ACADIAN
FLYCATCHER
Breeds at low density across

northern North America, in
wet shrubby habitats with
alder or willow thickets, often
close to streams. Winters
at low elevations in South
America in tropical secondgrowth forest and forest edges.
WILLOW
FLYCATCHER
see p.275
see p.276
longer,
deeper fainter
bill
eyering
greener
back
slightly
longer
bill
Weight 12oz (14g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
277
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Species Empidonax minimus
Least Flycatcher
short,
narrow
tail
marked,
white
eye-ring
greenish
brown back
large head
short,
broadbased bill
two wing
bars
ADULT
short wings
pale throat
ADULT
buffy wing
bars
IN FLIGHT
JUVENILE
pale yellow
belly
FLIGHT: direct, short forays with rapid wing
beats to catch prey; sometimes hovers briefly.
he smallest eastern member of the Empidonax genus is a solitary bird

and is very aggressive towards intruders encroaching upon its breeding
territory, including other species of flycatcher. This combative behavior
reduces the likelihood of acting as unwitting host parents to eggs laid by the
Brown-headed Cowbird. The Least Flycatcher is very active, and frequently
flicks its wings and tail upward. Common in the eastern US in mixed and
deciduous woodland, especially at the edges, it spends a short timeup to
only two monthson its northern breeding grounds before migrating south.
Adults molt in winter, while young molt before and during fall migration.
VOICE Call soft, short whit; song frequent, persistent, characteristic tchebeck,
sings during spring migration and breeding season.
NESTING Compact cup of tightly woven bark strips and plant fibers in fork
of deciduous tree; 35 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Feeds principally on insects, such as flies, midges, beetles, ants,
butterflies, and larvae; occasionally eats berries and seeds.
Breeds in coniferous and mixed

deciduous forests across
North America, east of Rockies
to East Coast; occasionally in
conifer groves or wooded
wetlands, often near openings
or edges. Winters in Central
America in varied habitat from
second-growth evergreen
woodland to arid scrub.
ALDER
FLYCATCHER
see p.276
see p.277
longer
bill
larger
body
The subtle yellow tinge to its

underparts and white undertail
feathers are evident here.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WILLOW FLYCATCHER
YELLOW TINGE
larger
overall
wider
tail
Length 514 in (13.5cm)
Wingspan 734 in (19.5cm)
Weight 932 716 oz (813g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
278
WHERE
NOTES
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Species Tyrannus verticalis
Western Kingbird
strong, dark
eye-line
olive-gray
back
small bill
white
chin
ADULT
whiteedged
tail
dark wing
with no
wing bars
gray
chest
IN FLIGHT
gray
head
gray back
white edge
to outer tail
feathers
yellow belly
ADULT
notched
tail
ADULT
conspicuous summer breeder in the US, the Western Kingbird

occurs in open habitats in much of western North America.
The white outer edges on its outer tail feathers distinguish it from
other kingbirds. Its population has expanded eastward over the
last 100 years. A large, loosely defined
territory is defended against other
kingbirds when breeding begins in
spring; a smaller core area is defended
as the season progresses.
VOICE Calls include whit, pwee-t, and
chatter; song, regularly repeated sharp
kip notes and high-pitched notes.
NESTING Open, bulky cup of grass,
rootlets, and twigs in tree, shrub, utility FENCE POST
pole; 27 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
A favorite place for the Western
FEEDING Feeds on a wide variety
Kingbird to perch, and look
of insects; also berries and fruit.
around, is on fenceposts.
FLIGHT: agile, fast, direct, flapping flight; flies to
catch insects; hovers to pick bugs on vegetation.
QUENCHING THIRST
A juvenile Western Kingbird drinks at the edge

of a shallow pools of water.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
TROPICAL
KINGBIRD
Widespread in southern
Canada and the western US,
in open habitats such as
grasslands, savannah, desert
shrub, pastures, and cropland,
near elevated perches;
particularly near water. Winters
in similar habitats and in
tropical forest and shrubbery
from Mexico to Costa Rica.
CASSINS KINGBIRD
see p.458
heavier
bill
olive-yellow
chest
paler
wings
gray tip
to tail
Weight 114 1916 oz (3545g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
279
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Species Tyrannus forficatus
Scissor-tailed Flycatcher
black bill
pale gray
head
pale gray
upperparts
pointed wing
white throat
strongly
forked tail
white
underparts
salmonpink sides
and flanks
ADULT
shorter
tail
dark
gray
shoulder
ADULT
(MOLTING)
IN FLIGHT
dark brown
wings with
white edges
to feathers
very long
outer tail
feathers
black rump
and inner
wing feathers
ADULT (BREEDING)
he Scissor-tailed Flycatcher is a beautiful sight when

observed flying or when perched on a wire or fence in
the southcentral US. Its aerial courtship display, with its long
tail streaming behind it, is rather spectacular. The Scissor-tailed
Flycatchers nest incorporates many human products, such as
string, cloth, paper, and wrapping material. High winds or
thunderstorms may be responsible for many nest failures in some
years. This flycatcher forms impressive pre-migratory roosts in
large trees during late summer. Flocks usually consist of more than
100 individuals, but groups of over 1,000 birds have been recorded.
VOICE Males vocalize in breeding territories and communal
roosts; song variable number of pups followed by perleep or peroo.
NESTING Open cup of plant stems or strings, in small isolated
tree or large shrub; 36 eggs; 1 brood; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Catches insects in midair, also from trees or from
ground; eats fruits and
berries in winter.
FLIGHT: rapid wing beats, flies with folded tail,
hovers with spread tail; abrupt, midair turns.
MALE IN FLIGHT
The male birds tail seems to float behind him in

flight and vivid pink can be seen under the wings.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Breeds in southern states and

northeast Mexico; savanna,
open grasslands, agricultural
fields, pastures, golf courses, and
wherever occasional trees and
shrubs give perches or nest sites.
Winters in similar habitats and
at edges of tropical forests in
southern Mexico and Central
America south to Costa Rica.
WESTERN KINGBIRD
see p.279
wider
body
LOVES TO PERCH
Fenceposts, wires, and barbedwire fences are all excellent

perches for these birds.
shorter
tail
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
280
WHERE
NOTES
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Species Tyrannus tyrannus
Eastern Kingbird
dark eyes
dark crown and

cheeks, almost
black
ADULT
faint gray
necklace
white
throat
whitetipped
tail
white throat
and underparts
relatively short,
thick bill
slate-gray
back
IN FLIGHT
pale edges
to wing
feathers
ADULT
black legs
and toes
white belly
ADULT
white
undertail
feathers
black tail
with white tip
he Eastern Kingbird is a tame and widely distributed

bird. It is a highly territorial species and is known for its
aggressive behavior toward potential predators, particularly crows
and hawks, which it pursues relentlessly. It is able to identify and
remove the eggs of the Brown-headed Cowbird when they are
laid in its nest. The Eastern Kingbird is generally monogamous
and pairs will return to the same territory in subsequent years.
This species winters in tropical South America, where it forages
for fruit in the treetops of evergreen forests.
VOICE Principal call is loud, metallic chatter-zeer; song rapid,
electric kdik-kdik-kdik-pika-pika-pika-kzeeeer.
NESTING Open cup of twigs, roots, stems in hawthorn, elm,
stump, fence, or post; 25 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Catches flying insects from elevated perch or gleans
insects from foliage; eats berries and fruit, except in spring.
FLIGHT: strong, direct, and very agile with
vigorous, rapid wing beats; hovers and sails.
WHITE-TIPPED
The white-tipped tails of these two Eastern Kingbirds

are conspicuous as they sit on a budding twig.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
THICK-BILLED
KINGBIRD
dark mask
GRAY KINGBIRD
see p.458
Breeds across much of

North America in a variety
of open habitats, including
urban areas, parks, golf
courses, fields with scattered
shrubs, beaver ponds, and
along forest edges. Long
distance migrant; winters
in South America, south
to Argentina.
larger
bill
gray crown
thicker and back
bill
yellowish
belly
no white
on tail
Weight 1116 2oz (30 55g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
281
FLYCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Tyrannidae
Species Myiarchus crinitus
Great Crested Flycatcher
brown
crest
rusty edges
to outer wing
feathers
ADULT
whitish
wing bars
long,
thin
bill
olive-brown
back
gray breast
and face
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
yellow
belly
brownish legs
and feet
he Great Crested Flycatcher

is locally common and
geographically quite widespread
from Alberta and the
long
Maritimes to Florida
tail
and Texas, but is often
overlooked because it
FLIGHT: fast and direct; can glide between
remains in the forest
perches; will also hover.
canopy, though it visits
the ground for food and nest material. Its presence is usually given away by
its loud, sharp, double-syllabled notes. It lines its nest with shed snakeskins
like other Myiarchus flycatchers.
VOICE Principal call a loud, abrupt purr-it given by both sexes; male song
repeated whee-eep, occasionally wheeyer.
NESTING In deep cavity, usually woodpecker hole, lined with leaves, bark,
trash, and snakeskins; 46 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Picks flying insects, moths, and
caterpillars mainly from leaves and brances
in the canopy; also small berries and fruits.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ASH-THROATED
FLYCATCHER
see p.459
BROWN-CRESTED
FLYCATCHER
silvery see p.459

white more
throat rufous
wings
paler
yellow
belly
heavier
bill
paler
yellow
belly
TRICOLORED SPECIES
Viewed from the front,

the eastern Great Crested
Flycatcher is tricolored.

America, from Alberta to the
Maritimes in Canada, and,
in the US, south to Texas and
Florida. Migrates to Mexico,
Central America, and northern
South America. Breeds in
deciduous and mixed
woodlands with clearings.
Weight 78 1716oz (25 40g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
282
WHERE
NOTES
Families Laniidae, Vireonidae
SHRIKES & VIREOS

SHRIKES
VIREOS
Two of the thirty species of shrikes (Laniidae)

occur in Canada and the United States. The
Loggerhead Shrike is truly North American, but
the other North American species, the Northern
(or Gray) Shrike, is also widespread in Europe and
western Asia. Shrikes have a strongly hooked bill,
almost like a bird of prey. In fact, shrikes capture
not only insects, but also birds, rodents, and lizards,
which they impale on a thorn in a shrub (a larder).
Shrikes pounce down on their prey from high
perches in trees or on fenceposts, catching it on or
near the ground. Many shrike species are declining.
Vireos are a family of

songbirds restricted to
the New World, with
about 15 species
occurring in the
United States and
Canada. Their
classification has long
KEEN SONGSTER
been problematic
The White-eyed Vireo sings
traditionally they were
almost continuously, even on
associated with warblers, the hottest of summer days.
but recent molecular
studies suggest that they are actually related to
crow-like birds.Vireo plumage is drab, often
predominantly greenish or grayish above and
whitish below, augmented by eye-rings,
(spectacles,) eyestripes, and wing bars. Most
vireos have a preference for broadleaved habitats,
where they move about deliberately, hopping
and climbing as they slowly forage for their prey.
They are mainly insect-eaters. Most species are
mid- to long-distance migrants, retreating to
warmer climes in winter, when insects are
dormant.Vireos are most often detected by the
males loud and clear territorial song, which is
repetitive and persistent.
SEPARATE SPECIES
The Blue-headed Vireo

is one of three species,
formerly known as
just one species, the
Solitary Vireo.
Family Corvidae
JAYS & CROWS

crows belong to a highly
A
diverse family, the Corvidae, most members
share some important characteristics. They are
LTHOUGH JAYS AND
remarkably social, some species even breeding

cooperatively, but at the same time they can be
quiet and stealthy. Always
opportunistic, corvids use
strong bills and toes to
obtain a varied,
omnivorous diet.
Ornithologists have
WHITE AND BLUE
Everybody knows at least

one bird, and it is likely to
be the Blue Jay.
shown that ravens, magpies, and crows are among the

most intelligent birds.They exhibit self-awareness
when looking into mirrors, can make tools, and
successfully tackle difficult counting and problemsolving. As a rule, most corvid plumage comes in
shades of blue, black, and white.The plumage of adult
corvids does not vary by season. Corvidae are part of
an ancient bird lineage (Corvoidea) that originated in
Australasia. Crows and jays were among the birds
most affected by the spread of West Nile virus in
the early 2000s, but most populations seem
to have recovered quickly.
SHRIKES AND VIREOS

Order Passeriformes
Family Laniidae
Species Lanius ludovicianus
Loggerhead Shrike
white flash
in wings
ADULT
white
edges
to tail
gray
crown
hooked
bill
black
mask
black
wings
IN FLIGHT
pale
undertail
feathers
JUVENILE
unstreaked,
gray
underparts
FLIGHT: fast with rapid wing beats, sometimes
ADULT
interspersed with glides; swoops from perches.
lthough a songbird, the Loggerhead

Shrike is superficially raptor-like in
rounded
several ways, particularly its prominent
tail
black face mask and powerful, hooked
bill. It sits atop posts or tall trees,
swooping down to catch prey on the
ground. It has the unusual habit of then impaling its prey
on thorns, barbed wire, or sharp twigs, which is thought to be
the reason for the nickname butcher bird. Unfortunately, the
Loggerhead Shrike is declining, principally because of human
alteration of its habitat.
VOICE Quiet warbles, trills, and harsh notes; song harsh notes
singly or in series: chaa chaa chaa.
NESTING Open cup of vegetation, placed in thorny tree;
5 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJune.
FEEDING Kills large insects and small vertebratesrodents,
birds, reptileswith powerful bill.
GEARED FOR HUNTING
The Loggerhead Shrike perches upright on tall

shrubs or small trees, where it scans for prey.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
NORTHERN SHRIKE
see p.285
smaller
bill
Found in semi-open country

with scattered perches, but its
distribution is erratic, occurring
in relatively high densities in
certain areas, but absent from
seemingly suitable habitat.
Occurs in congested residential
areas in some regions (south
Florida), but generally favors
fairly remote habitats.
NORTHERN
MOCKINGBIRD
see p.329
darker upperparts
longer
lighter
tail
upperparts
Length 9in (23cm)
Weight 114218oz (3560g)
Social Solitary
Lifespan Unknown
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
284
WHERE
NOTES
SHRIKES AND VIREOS

Order Passeriformes
Family Laniidae
Species Lanius excubitor
Northern Shrike
conspicuous
white wing bar
strongly
hooked
bill
ADULT
large head
narrow
black mask
pale gray
upperparts
delicately
barred
breast
pale gray
upperparts
brownish
underparts
IN FLIGHT
long tail
IMMATURE
black
wings
gray-white
underparts
FLIGHT: short flights between hunting
perches; pounces on prey.
ADULT
his northern version of the familiar

Loggerhead Shrike is an uncommon
winter visitor to the northern US and
southern Canada. In some winters,
black tail,
this species is widespread across the
with white
mid-latitudes of North America,
outer tail
feathers
in other winters it is nearly absent.
The Northern Shrike is paler,
larger bodied, and larger billed than
the Loggerhead Shrike, which enables it to attack and subdue
larger prey than the Loggerhead. Many Northern Shrike
populations worldwide are in decline, but to date there
is no sign of a similar decline in North America.
VOICE Variety of short warbles, trills, and harsh notes; generally
silent on wintering grounds.
NESTING Open, bulky cup in low tree or large shrub, lined
with feathers and hair; 46 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Swoops down on prey, such as rodents, small birds,
and insects, which it impales on thorns or pointed branches.
BLACK-AND-WHITE DISPLAY
The Northern Shrike flashes its distinctive

black-and-white markings while in flight.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE
see p.284
Breeds in sub-Arctic coniferous

forests, across Canada and
Alaska. Winters in more
southerly open country with
sufficient perches. Avoids
built-up and residential
districts, but spends much
time perching on fenceposts
and roadside signs.
NORTHERN MOCKINGBIRD
shorter see p.329

bill
straight, whiteedged tail
darker,
smaller
overall
thin
bill
less black
in wings
Length 10in (25cm)
Weight 134 2 58 oz (50 75g)
Social Solitary
Lifespan Unknown
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
285
SHRIKES AND VIREOS

Order Passeriformes
Family Vireonidae
Species Vireo griseus
White-eyed Vireo
bright yellow
spectacles
white eye
two wing bars
whitish
throat
gray nape
ADULT
short
tail
yellow-andblack wing
markings
IN FLIGHT
two
prominent
wing bars
yellow flanks
FLIGHT: undulating, short, direct, and
quick flight.
ADULT
he White-eyed Vireo is a vocal inhabitant

of dense thickets and tangles. It is
generally heard more often than it is seen,
singing persistently into the heat of the day
and late into the year, long after most birds have
become silent. A small-bodied but large-headed vireo, it
looks and behaves like a plump warbler as it forages actively
in shrubbery. It is heavily parasitized by the Brown-headed
Cowbird, and as many as half of the White-eyed Vireos
offspring do not survive.
VOICE Call a raspy, angry scold; males song a highly variable
and complex repertoire of over a dozen distinct songs.
NESTING Deep cup in dense vegetation, outer layer composed
of coarse material, lined with finer fibers, often near water,
suspended from twigs by the rim; 35 eggs; 2 broods;
MarchJuly.
FEEDING Hops from branch to branch pursuing bees, flies,
beetles, and bugs, plucking them from leaves or sallying out
to snatch them in the air; feeds primarily on fruit in winter.
WHITE EYE, WHITE WING BARS
The White-eyed Vireos distinctive markings

ensure that it is highly conspicuous.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BELLS VIREO
A common breeder in dense

brush and scrub across the
eastern US, from Texas to
the Great Lakes region and
southern New England.
Retreats to southern states
of the US, the Atlantic
slope of Mexico, Cuba, and
the Bahamas in winter.
BLUE-HEADED
VIREO
see p.287
see p.289
bright
greenish
anks
white
eyering
yellow
anks
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight 38 oz (10g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
286
WHERE
NOTES
SHRIKES AND VIREOS

Order Passeriformes
Family Vireonidae
Species Vireo bellii
Bells Vireo
faint
spectacles
single bright
wing bar
thin, dark
eye-line
gray head
greenish back
and rump
ADULT
short bill
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
long tail
yellowish
lower sides
bright bluish
legs
his pale, grayish, and nondescript

vireo is hard to see as it moves
through dense brushy vegetation
searching for food. Its most distinctive
feature is a long tail which it flicks as it moves. In the arid
western parts of its range, in northern Mexico and Arizona,
Bells Vireo is usually found close to rivers or streams. The
Eastern subspecies (V. b. belli) is distinctly brighter in plumage
than the three western subspecies, one of which, the Least Bells
Vireo (V. b. pusillus) of southern California, is endangered.
VOICE Call high, raspy, and nasal; males highly vocal and
sing all day long during the breeding season; song quite
fast for a vireo.
NESTING Deep, rounded cup constructed of coarse materials,
lined with fine grasses and hair, and bound with spider webs,
in dense shrubbery woven to twigs by the rim; 35 eggs;
2 broods; AprilMay.
FEEDING Actively gleans its insect and spider prey from leaves
and twigs, hopping from branch to branch in brushy vegetation.
FLIGHT: slightly undulating flight with rapid
wing beats followed by short glides.
TAIL FLICKING
Unlike other vireos, Bells Vireo is known for

flicking its long tail as it sings.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WARBLING
VIREO
white
eyebrow
see p.290
Fairly common breeder in

the bushy habitats of the
central US, and the riverine
thickets of the southwestern
US, southward into northern
Mexico. Winters along the
Pacific slopes of Mexico.
PHILADEPHIA
VIREO
see p.291
greenish
upperparts
no wing
bar
Length 434in (12cm)
Wingspan 7in (18cm)
Weight 516 oz (9g)
Social Solitary
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
287
SHRIKES AND VIREOS

Order Passeriformes
Family Vireonidae
Species Vireo flavifrons
Yellow-throated Vireo
conspicuous white
wing bars
bright, yellow spectacles

and patch between eye
and bill
olive back
ADULT
gray
rump
yellow throat
and breast
IN FLIGHT
fairly
short
tail
ADULT
white
belly
white undertail
feathers
his large and robust vireo of

eastern US woodlands is usually
found foraging and singing high in the
canopy. It is distinctly patterned, with a
bright yellow throat, breast, and spectacles, and a white belly and
FLIGHT: direct, but jerky, alternating rapid
flanks.The fragmentation of forests, spraying of insecticides,
wing beats with brief pauses.
and cowbird parasitism have led to regional declines
in Yellow-throated Vireo populations, but the birds
range, as a whole, has actually expanded.
VOICE Scolding, hoarse, rapid calls; male song
a slow, repetitive, two- or three-note phrase,
separated by long pauses.
NESTING Rounded cup of plant and animal fibers
bound with spider webs, usually located towards
the top of a large tree and hung by the rim;
35 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Forages high in trees, picking spiders
CANOPY SINGER
HIGH FORAGER
and insects from the branches; also eats fruit
The Yellow-throated Vireo sings
This bird finds much of its food in
when available.
from the very tops of tall trees.
the peeling bark of mature trees.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PINE WARBLER 2
YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT 2
see p.374
see p.391
Breeds in extensive, mature

deciduous, and mixed
woodlands in the eastern
half of the US, and extreme
southern Canada. Winters
mainly from southern Mexico
to northern South America,
primarily in wooded areas.
white spectacles
streaked
anks
long
tail
greenish
yellow rump
no wing
bars
Length 512in (14cm)
Weight 58oz (18g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
288
WHERE
NOTES
SHRIKES AND VIREOS

Order Passeriformes
Family Vireonidae
Blue-headed Vireo
Species Vireo solitarius

gray
head
conspicuous white
spectacles
looks bigheaded
two wing
bars
contrasting
white throat
greenish
back
ADULT
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
white belly
bright greenish
flanks
relatively
short tail
losely related to the Cassins Vireo and Plumbeous Vireo,

the fairly common Blue-headed Vireo is the brightest and
most colorful of the three. Its blue-gray, helmeted head, adorned
with striking white spectacles around its dark eyes also helps
to distinguish it from other vireos in its range. This stocky and
slow moving bird is heard more often than it is seen in its forest
breeding habitat. However, during migration it can be more
conspicuous and, is the first vireo to return in spring.
VOICE Call a harsh, scolding chatter; males song a series of
rich, sweet, high phrases of two to six notes slurred together.
NESTING Shallow, rounded cup loosely constructed of animal
and plant fibers, lined with finer material and suspended from
twigs by the rim; 35 eggs; 2 broods; MayJuly.
FEEDING Gleans insects from branches and leaves, usually
high in shrubs and trees; often makes short sallies after prey.
FLIGHT: slow, heavy, undulating flight with a
series of deep wing beats followed by short pauses.
SPECTACLED VIREO
Its rather thick head with conspicuous spectacles

and gray color are distinctive field marks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-CAPPED VIREO 5
Breeds in large tracts of

undisturbed coniferous and
mixed forests with a rich
understory, largely across
eastern North America. It
winters in woodlands across
the southeastern US from
Virginia to Texas, as well
as in Mexico and northern
Central America to Costa Rica.
CASSINS VIREO
see p.459
smaller
overall
thin bill
duller
overall
Length 512in (14in)
Weight 916oz (16g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
289
SHRIKES AND VIREOS

Order Passeriformes
Family Vireonidae
Warbling Vireo
Species Vireo gilvus

pale brownish
crown contrasts
with darker back
grayish green
upperparts
white
eyebrow
grayish
behind eye
blackish
bill
ADULT
ADULT
(FALL)
IN FLIGHT
pale
patch
between
eye
and bill
grayish
overall
ADULT
yellowish
flanks
FLIGHT: fast and undulating; rapid wing beats
followed by brief, closed-wing glides.
idely distributed across North America, this rather drab

vireo is better known for its cheerful warbling song than
for its plumage, and coincidentally, its thin bill and longish tail
give this rather active vireo a somewhat warbler-like appearance.
The eastern subspecies (V. g. gilvus), which is heavier and has
a larger bill, and the western subspecies (V. g. swainsonii) are
quite different and may in fact be separate species. Out of all
the vireos, the Warbling Vireo is most likely to breed in human
developments, such as city parks, suburbs, and orchards.
VOICE Harsh, raspy scold call; males persistent song a high,
rapid, and highly variable warble.
NESTING Rough cup placed high in a deciduous tree, hung from
the rim between forked twigs; 35 eggs; 2 broods; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Gleans a variety of insects, including grasshoppers,
aphids, and beetles from leaves; eats fruit in winter.
PLAIN-LOOKING SONGSTER
The Warbling Vireo makes up for its plain

appearance by its colorful voice, full of
rounded notes and melodious warbles.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BELLS VIREO
PHILADELPHIA
VIREO
see p.287
see p.291
faint wing
bar
no wing
bar
longer
tail
Extensive distribution across

most of temperate North
America, from Alaska, around
the northern limit of the northerly
zone, and through western,
central, and eastern North
America. Breeds in deciduous
and mixed forests, particularly
near water. Winters in southern
Mexico and Central America.
dark line
extends
to bill
shorter
bill
yellow on
breast and
throat
Length 512in (14cm)
Weight 716oz (12g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
290
WHERE
NOTES
SHRIKES AND VIREOS

Order Passeriformes
Family Vireonidae
Species Vireo philadelphicus
Philadelphia Vireo
white
eyebrow
dark line
through
eye
gray cap
slightly hooked,
black bill
greenish
upperparts
yellow
throat
ADULT
yellowish
underparts
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
FLIGHT: fast, bouncy, undulating flight with
strong wing beats.
espite being widespread, the Philadelphia Vireo remains

rather poorly studied. It shares its breeding habitat with
the similar looking, but larger and more numerous, Red-eyed
Vireo, and, interestingly, it modifies its behavior to avoid
competition. It is the most northerly breeding vireo, with
its southernmost breeding range barely reaching the US. Its
scientific and English names derive from the fact that the bird
was first discovered near Philadelphia in the mid-19th century.
VOICE Song a series of two and four note phrases, remarkably
similar to the song of the Red-eyed Vireo.
NESTING Rounded cup of plant fibers bound by spider webs,
hanging between forked twigs that narrows at the rim; 35 eggs;
12 broods; JuneAugust.
FEEDING Gleans caterpillars, bees, flies, and bugs from leaves;
usually forages high in trees, moving with short hops and flights.
DISTINGUISHED APPEARANCE
The Philadelphia Vireos gentle expression

and pudgy appearance help separate it from
its neighbor, the Red-eyed Vireo.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BELLS VIREO
Breeds in deciduous
woodlands, mixed woodlands,
and woodland edges, in
a wide belt across Canada,
reaching the Great Lakes and
northern New England. The
Philadelphia Vireo winters
from Mexico to Panama and
northern Colombia.
WARBLING VIREO
see p.287
see p.290
faint wing
bar
plainer face
less
yellow
below
longer
tail
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Weight 716oz (12g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
291
SHRIKES AND VIREOS

Order Passeriformes
Family Vireonidae
Red-eyed Vireo
generally
olive
above
head held at
downward
angle
ADULT
Species Vireo olivaceus

gray crown
heavy eye-line
white eyestripe
with black upper
border
long bill
bird appears
long and
slender
deep
red eye
ADULT
whitish
underparts
IN FLIGHT
bluish legs
and toes
robably the most common songbird of northern and

eastern North America, the Red-eyed Vireo is perhaps
the quintessential North American vireo, although it is heard far FLIGHT: fast, strong, and undulating with the
more often than it is seen. It sings persistently and monotonously body angled upwards.
all day long and late into the season, long after other species have
stopped singing. It generally stays high in the canopy of the deciduous and
mixed woodlands where it breeds.The entire population migrates to central
South America in winter. To reach their Amazonian winter habitats, Red-eyed
Vireos migrate in fall (AugustOctober) through Central America, Caribbean
Islands, and northern South America to Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil.
VOICE Nasal mewing call; male song consists of slurred three-note phrases.
NESTING Open cup nest hanging on horizontal fork of tree branch;
built with plant fibers bound with spiders web; exterior is sometimes
decorated with lichen; 35 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
HOPPING BIRD
FEEDING Gleans insects from leaves, hopping methodically in the
The Red-eyed Vireos primary
canopy and sub-canopy of deciduous trees; during fall and winter,
form of locomotion is hopping;
primarily feeds on fruit.
at ground level and in trees.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES

from the Yukon and British
Columbia east to the Canadian
maritimes, southward from
Washington to south central
Texas, and west to Canada in
central and northern states.
Inhabits the canopy of
deciduous forests and pine
hardwood forests.
BLACK-WHISKERED
VIREO
faint black
see p.460
mustache
duller green
upperparts
BROWN EYES
Immature Red-eyed Vireos

have brown eyes, but those
of the adult birds are red.
Length 6in (15cm)
Weight 58oz (17g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
292
WHERE
NOTES
JAYS AND CROWS

Order Passeriformes
Family Corvidae
Species Perisoreus canadensis
Gray Jay
brownish back
with white
streaks
ADULT
ADULT
P. c. obscurus
(NORTHWESTERN USA)
dark crown
white
forehead
white collar
dark gray
upperparts
long
tail
with
white
corners
short
bill
gray overall,
darker
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
whitish
mustache
uniform medium
to dark gray
JUVENILE
ADULT
P. c. canadensis
(NORTHERN
AND EASTERN)
dark, smoky-gray
tail and wings
black legs
and toes
earless and cunning, the Gray Jay can often be a nuisance

to campers because of its inquisitive behavior. It is
particularly adept at stealing food and shiny metal objects, which
has earned it the colloquial name of Camp Robber. One of
the interesting aspects of its behavior is the way it stores food
for later use, by sticking it to trees with its viscous saliva. This
is thought to be one of the reasons that enable it to survive
the long northern winters. Gray Jays can often gather in noisy
groups of three to six birds in order to investigate intruders
encroaching upon their territory.
VOICE Mostly silent, but also produces variety of odd clucks
and screeches; sometimes Blue Jay-like jay! and eerie whistles,
including bisyllabic whee-oo or ew.
NESTING Bulky platform of sticks with cocoons on south side
of coniferous tree; 25 eggs; 1 brood; FebruaryMay.
FEEDING Forages for insects and berries; also raids birds nests.
FLIGHT: hollow-sounding wing beats followed
by slow, seemingly awkward, rocking glides.
BUILT FOR COLD
The Gray Jays short extremities and dense, fluffy

plumage are perfect for long, harsh winters.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CLARKS NUTCRAKER
Northern forests, especially

lichen-festooned areas with
firs and spruce. Found in
coniferous forests across
northern North America from
Alaska to Newfoundland, the
Maritimes, and northern New
York and New England; south to
western mountains; an isolated
population in the Black Hills.
see p.329
white
wing
patch
longer
bill
longer
tail
no dark
crown
white
wing
patch
Weight 218278 oz (6080g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
293
JAYS AND CROWS

Order Passeriformes
Family Corvidae
Species Cyanocitta cristata
Blue Jay
long tail
with white
corners
black patch
between eye
and bill
blue crest
black collar
white streak
in blue wings
plain blue
mantle
blue wings
and tail
ADULT
white
trailing
edge
feathers
long,
black bill
whitish throat
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
grayish
underparts
black legs
and feet
black bars
on tail
he Blue Jay is one of the best known birds in North America;

it is loud, flashy, and common in rural and suburban backyards
across the eastern US and southern Canada. Beautiful as it is, this
bird has a darker side. It often raids the nests of smaller birds for
eggs and nestlings. Although usually thought of as a nonmigratory
species, some Blue Jays undergo impressive migrations, with loose
flocks sometimes numbering in the hundreds visible overhead in
spring and fall.
VOICE Harsh, screaming jay! jay!;
other common call an odd ethereal,
chortling queedle-ee-dee; soft clucks
when feeding.
NESTING Cup of strong twigs at
variable height in trees or shrubs;
3 6 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJuly.
UNIQUE FEATURES
FEEDING Eats insects, acorns, small
The Blue Jay is unique among
vertebrates, such as lizards, rodents, bird American jays in having white
eggs, birds, tree frogs; fruits and seeds.
patches on its wings and tail.
FLIGHT: bursts of flapping followed by long
glides on flat wings.
VERSATILE BIRD
Blue Jays are true omnivores, eating almost

anything they can find. They are also excellent
imitators of other bird calls.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
STELLERS JAY
FLORIDA SCRUB-JAY
see p.461
Native to eastern deciduous,

coniferous, and mixed
woodlands, but also at home
in suburban vegetation; often
found in backyards. The
Blue Jay is fond of oak trees
and their acorns. Blue Jays
from northeast Canada and
northeast US migrate in the
fall to more southern locations.
lacks
crest
black head
and breast
blue
belly
sandcolored
shoulder
feathers
Weight 214312oz (65100g)
Social Small flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
294
WHERE
NOTES
JAYS AND CROWS

Order Passeriformes
Family Corvidae
Species Pica hudsonia
Black-billed Magpie
large, white
patches on
outer wings
black back
and head
thick,
black
bill
white
shoulders
ADULT
black
breast
blue-green
iridescence to
wings and tail
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
white belly
long
black tail
oud, flashy, and conspicuous, the Black-billed Magpie

is abundant in the northwestern quarter of the continent,
from Alaska to interior US. It has adapted to suburbia, confidently
strutting across front lawns locally. Until recently, it was
considered the same species as the Eurasian Magpie (P. pica),
and even though they look nearly identical, scientific
evidence points instead to a close relationship with the other
North American magpie, the Yellow-billed Magpie. Its long tail
enables it to make rapid changes in direction in flight. The male
uses his tail to display while courting a female. Why the
Black-billed Magpie does not occur widely in eastern
NorthAmerica is a biological mystery.
VOICE Common call a questioning, nasal ehnk; also raspy shenk,
shenk, shenk, usually in series.
NESTING Large, domed,
SIMILAR SPECIES
often made of thorny
sticks; 58 eggs; 1 brood; YELLOW-BILLED
MAGPIE
MarchJune.
yellow bill
FEEDING Omnivorous;
yellow patch
forages on ground,
around eye
mainly for insects,
worms, seeds and
carrion; even picks
ticks from mammals.
FLIGHT: direct, with slow, steady, and often
shallow wing beats; occasional shallow glides.
IRIDESCENT SHEEN
In bright sunlight, beautiful iridescent blues, greens,

golds, and purples appear on the wings and tail.
OCCURRENCE
Found in open habitats,

foothills, and plains of the
western US and Canada;
nests in streamside vegetation;
persecution has made it wary
and restricted to wilderness
in some areas, but in others
it has adapted to suburbs
of towns and cities.
Social Small flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
295
JAYS AND CROWS

Order Passeriformes
Family Corvidae
Species Corvus brachyrhynchos
American Crow
long,
black bill
black
overall
black overall
with greenish
sheen
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
shorter bill
dull black
overall
ADULT
strong legs
and feet
JUVENILE
ne of the most
widespread and familiar
of North American birds, the
American Crow is common in almost
all habitatsfrom wilderness to urban centers.
Like most birds with large ranges, there is substantial geographical
variation in this species. Birds are black across the whole
continent, but size and bill shape vary from region to region.
Birds from western Canada and western USA (C. b. hesperis),
are on average smaller and have a lower-pitched voice; birds from
southern Florida (C. b. pascuus) are more solitary and more wary.
VOICE Call a loud, familiar caw!; juveniles call higher-pitched.
NESTING Stick base with finer inner cup; 37 eggs; 1 brood;
April June.
FEEDING Feeds omnivorously on fruit, carrion, garbage, insects,
spiders; raids nests.
FLIGHT: direct and level with slow, steady
flapping; does not soar.
LOOKING AROUND
Extremely inquisitive, American Crows are always

on the lookout for food or something of interest.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
FISH CROW
higher, more nasal

call; see p.297
smaller CHIHUAHUAN
head RAVEN
Often seen converging at dusk

toward favored roosting areas;
most numerous in relatively
open areas with large and
widely spaced trees; has
become abundant in some
cities; a partial migrant,
some populations are more
migratory than others.
larger
bill
see p.461
slightly
smaller
overall
larger
overall
wedgeshaped tail
Length 15121912in (39 49cm)
Wingspan 3ft (1m)
Weight 1522oz (425 625g)
Social Social
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
296
WHERE
NOTES
JAYS AND CROWS

Order Passeriformes
Family Corvidae
Fish Crow
long,
square
tail
Species Corvus ossifragus
dark brownblack eyes
ADULT
thick, glossy
black bill
slender neck
and head
slightly shaggy
throat feathers
long wings
bluish black
glossy sheen
IN FLIGHT
black overall
ADULT
strong, black
legs and feet
he Fish Crow is, in many respects, the East Coast version of

the Northwestern Crow. Like the Northwestern Crow, it is
a highly social species, and not only forages in flocks but also
breeds in small colonies. The Fish Crow is common along the
eastern seaboard of the US, where it occurs alongside the nearly
identical, but slightly larger, American Crow. The Fish Crow is
also distinguishable as it has a higher-pitched and more nasal call.
Its Latin species name ossifragus translates as bone-breaker.
VOICE Call a paired ehn uhn with the second note lower.
NESTING Bulky stick platform with finer inner bowl in fork
of tree, often high up; 35 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Takes arthropods such as crabs and insects, small live
fish and reptiles, nestling birds, bird and turtle eggs, fruit, carrion,
and garbage; notorious for raiding nests in heron rookeries.
FLIGHT: rowing motion with quick, snappy

wing beats; soars occasionally.
OMNIVORE
Fish Crows are numerous along coastlines and

riverbanks where they eat virtually anything edible.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
AMERICAN CROW
lower-pitched,
huskier voice;
see p.296
shorter
tail
Found in lowland coastal

and riverbank habitats
such as beaches, estuaries,
and marshes; also found
inland and near human
structures such as parking
lots in suburban malls.
Northern populations
appear to be migratory.
shorter COMMON RAVEN massive

see p.298
bill
head
larger
body
wedgeshaped
tail
shaggier
throat
feathers
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
297
JAYS AND CROWS

Order Passeriformes
Family Corvidae
Species Corvus corax
Common Raven
thick, long
bill, with
pronounced
curvature
flared outer
wing feathers
long
wings
ADULT
large,
protruding
head
black upperparts,
with purplish
gloss
shaggy
throat
IN FLIGHT
black
neck and
underparts
wedge-shaped
tail
ADULT
long, black
legs and toes
he Common Raven, twice the size of the American Crow,

is a bird of Viking legend, literature, and scientific wonder,
and the Yukon Official Bird. Its Latin name, Corvus corax, means
crow of crows. Ravens are perhaps the most brilliant of all birds:
they learn quickly, adapt to new circumstances with remarkable
mental agility, and communicate with each other through an array
of vocal and motional behaviors.They are master problem solvers
and deceivers, tricking each other with ingenious methods.
VOICE Varied and numerous vocalizations, including hoarse,
rolling krruuk, twangy peals, guttural clicks, and resonant bonks.
NESTING Platform of sticks with fine inner material on trees,
cliffs, or man-made structure; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJune.
FEEDING Feeds omnivorously on carrion, small crustaceans,
fish, rodents, fruit, grain, and garbage; also raids nests.
FLIGHT: slow, steady, powerful, and direct;
can also be quite acrobatic; commonly soars.
SHARING INFORMATION
Ravens in flocks can communicate information

about food sources.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
AMERICAN CROW
lacks shaggy throat

feathers;
see p.296
Found in almost every kind

of habitat, including tundra,
mountains, northern forest,
woodlands, prairies, arid
regions, coasts, and around
human settlements; has
recently recolonized areas
at southern edge of range,
from which it was once
expelled by humans.
CHIHUAHUAN
RAVEN
smaller see p.461

bill
much smaller
overall
lacks
wedgeshaped tail
slightly smaller
overall
Social Solitary/Pairs/Small flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
298
WHERE
NOTES
Family Bombycillidae
WAXWINGS
crest, a black mask, silky
W
smooth rosy-brown plumage, secondary
wing feathers with waxy red tips, and bright yellow
AXWINGS HAVE A
tail bands. Of the three species of waxwings, one

(the Cedar Waxwing) breeds only in North America.
Waxwings are fond of fruit, including mistletoe
berries, of which they help to spread the seeds.
Waxwings are nomadic, and emigrate following
years of food abundance, nesting in areas quite
distant from their regular breeding ranges. Bohemian
Waxwings are especially

notorious wanderers, and
in irruption years many
thousands can be seen far
away from their normal
Alaskan and north
Canadian breeding areas.
CEDAR WAXWING
The Cedar Waxwing breeds across

North America, from coast to coast.
Family Paridae
CHICKADEES & TITMICE

CHICKADEES
Chickadees are among the best-known and most
widespread birds in North America.Tolerant of people,
they are frequent visitors to backyards and birdfeeders.
The name chickadee is derived from the calls of
several species.These energetic birds form flocks
in winter. Some species, like the Black-capped Chickadee,
can lower their body temperature in extreme cold.
TAME BIRDS
Black-capped Chickadees
have distinctive black-andwhite markings and are
often very tame.
TITMICE
Distinguished from chickadees by their crests and lack
of black throats (except the Bridled Titmouse from the
Southwest), titmice usually have more restricted
North American distributions than chickadees.
Families Hirundinidae, Alaudidae, Reguliidae
SWALLOWS, LARKS, & KINGLETS

SWALLOWS
LARKS
Ornithologists usually call the short-tailed species

in this group martins, and the longer-tailed
species swallows. This nomenclature also has a
geographic component. For example, one species
is called Bank Swallow in America,but Sand
Martin in the United Kingdom. As a family,
swallows are cosmopolitan. North American
species are migratory, and winter in Central
and South America. Barn Swallows
have been observed migrating
over the Atacama Desert, and
as far south as the Diego
Ramrez Islands, not far from
the Antarctic Peninsula.
The only widespread North American species of

lark, the Horned Lark, also occurs in the OldWorld,
where it is named the Shore Lark. Larks are
brownish birds, usually streaked, and live in open
habitats, where they live on the ground. Display
flights take the birds high up in the air, and are
accompanied with musical songs.
SURFACE SKIMMER
This Tree Swallow flies

low over fresh water to
catch insects .
KINGLETS
The five species of kinglets belong
to one genus, Regulus.They are
small, greenish birds, and males
have a conspicuous crest of a
different color.Two species are
widespread in North American
coniferous forests. Energetic and
hardy, kinglets lay large clutches, eat insects and can
survive harsh winters.The Ruby-crowned Kinglet
has a very loud and ringing song for a bird weighing
only 316 to 38 of an ounce (5-10 grams).
WAXWINGS
Order Passeriformes
Species Bombycilla garrulus
Bohemian Waxwing
yellow edges to
outer flight
feathers
wispy
crest
variable
crest
black
throat
gray
upperparts
gray-brown
upperparts
ADULT
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
yellow tail
band
reduced wing
markings
gray
underparts
MALE
FEMALE
(1ST WINTER)
chestnut
undertail
feathers
ornate
wing
markings
FLIGHT: quick wing beats interspersed with
glides; often flies in tightly bunched flocks.
he Bohemian Waxwing is the wilder and rarer of the two waxwing

species in North America. It breeds mainly in Alaska and western
Canada. The species is migratory, but the extent of its wintertime movement
is notoriously variable, depending on the availability of wild fruits. In most
winters, relatively few Bohemian Waxwings visit the lower 48 states, but in
special irruption years, tens of thousands may reach as far south as Colorado.
VOICE Call a dull trill, but effect of hundreds of birds calling at the same time
is remarkable and sounds like a high-pitched chorus; flocks vocalize constantly.
NESTING Dishevelled cup of sticks and grasses, placed in tree; 46 eggs;
number of broods unknown; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Catches insects on the wing in summer; flocks devour berries
of native and exotic trees and shrubs throughout the year.
Breeds in sub-Arctic coniferous

forest, favoring disturbed areas
such as beaver ponds and
logging sites. Flocks gather
at forest edges, hedges, and
residential areas in winter.
Hundreds or thousands
of birds appear in an area,
then disappear once food
is depleted.
CEDAR WAXWING 5
see p.301
see p.301
plainer
wing
markings
warmer
tones
overall
unmarked
wings
The Bohemian Waxwings

yellow tail band and chestnut
undertail are evident here.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CEDAR
WAXWING
STRIKING TAIL
smaller
overall
Length 812in (21cm)
Weight 1916 212 oz (4570g)
Social Flocks
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
300
WHERE
NOTES
WAXWINGS
Order Passeriformes
Species Bombycilla cedrorum
Cedar Waxwing
white lines
on face
wispy
crest
short
yellow
tip to
tail
brown neck
and breast
brownish
tan back
black
bandit
mask
ADULT
yellow
belly
ADULT
black mask
IN FLIGHT
whitish
undertail
feathers
lacks red
on wing
ADULT
streaks on
underparts
waxy red tips
on inner wing
JUVENILE
FLIGHT: straight and direct with alternate
glides; usually in small to medium flocks.
locks of Cedar Waxwings, a nomadic

species, move around the US looking for
berries, which are their main source of food.
Common in a specific location one year, they
may disappear the next and occur elsewhere.
Northern breeders tend to be more migratory
than southern ones. In winter, their nomadic
tendencies can send Cedar Waxwings as far south as
South America.They can often be heard and identified
by their calls, long before the flock settles to feed.
VOICE Basic vocalization a shrill trill: shr-r-r-r-r-r or tre-e-e-e-e-e,
which appears to serve the function of both call note and song.
NESTING Open cup placed in fork of tree, often lined with
grasses, plant fibers; 35 eggs; 12 broods; JuneAugust.
FEEDING Eats in flocks at trees and shrubs with ripe berries
throughout the year; also catches flying insects in summer.
BATHING ADULT
Cedar Waxwings love to take baths, and use

birdbaths in suburban gardens.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
see p.300
see p.300
larger
overall
Across northern US and southern

Canada, in wooded areas.
Breeds in woodlands, especially
near streams and clearings.
Winters anywhere where trees
and shrubs have ripe fruits,
especially in Mexico and South
America. Spends a lot of time
in treetops, but sometimes
comes down to shrub level.
BOHEMIAN WAXWING 14
BOHEMIAN WAXWING 2
more
ornate
wing
pattern
pale
gray
breast
rufous
undertail
Length 712in (19cm)
Weight 1116 114 oz (3035g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
301
CHICKADEES AND TITMICE

Order Passeriformes
Family Paridae
Species Parus carolinensis
Carolina Chickadee
short
black
bill
white
cheeks
plain gray
upperparts
ADULT
pale gray edges

on inner wing
feathers
conspicuous
black-and-white
head
IN FLIGHT
sharp-edged
bib margin
short, slightly
notched tail
buffy flanks
ADULT
FLIGHT: fast, undulating, with quick wing beats.
he Carolina Chickadee is the only chickadee found in the southeastern

US, and was first described and named by John James Audubon in 1834,
when he was in South Carolina. Its northern range limit locally overlaps the
Black-capped Chickadees southern limit in a narrow band from Kansas to
New Jersey, where the two species interbreed regularly, creating hybrids with
mixed plumage that are hard to identify. The Carolina Chickadee hides food
in caches under branches or even within curled dead leaves, returning for it
within a few days. It has a strong preference for sunflower seeds, and can be
seen at birdfeeders along with the Black-capped Chickadee, where the
Carolinas characteristic call is the easiest way to distinguish the two species.
VOICE Fast dee-dee-dee call; song clear,
whistled, 4-note sequence wee-bee weebay, second note lower in pitch.
NESTING Cavity lined with moss,
fur, hair, plant down in soft, rotting
tree; 58 eggs; 12 broods; AprilMay.
FEEDING Forages for insects and
spiders; visits birdfeeders in winter.
MEXICAN CHICKADEE
see p.303
larger
overall
brighter
overall
longer
tail
In worn plumage, and in its

southwestern range, this bird
has grayish white flanks.
BRIGHT EXTREME
In fresh plumage, some

Carolina Chickadees have
brighter, buffy flanks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEE
DULL EXTREME
Year-round dweller in deciduous,

mixed and conifer woodlands,
urban parks, and suburbs. In
the Appalachians, prefers lower
elevations than Black-capped.
Range is expanding northward,
especially in Ohio and
Pennsylvania, where it is
gradually replacing Blackcapped as the resident species.
larger
black
bib
dark gray
underparts
Length 434in (12cm)
Weight 38 oz (11g)
Social Mixed flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
302
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Paridae
Species Parus atricapillus
Black-capped Chickadee
white on
wings
and tail
black-andwhite head
grayish
brown
upperparts
ADULT
short
black bill
bright white
cheeks
white edges on
wing feathers
black cap
and bib
IN FLIGHT
white edges
on outer tail
feathers
ADULT
faded buff
flanks
he Black-capped Chickadee, the State Bird of Maine and

Massachusetts, is the most widespread chickadee in North
America, equally at home in the cold far north and in warm
Appalachian valleys. To cope with the harsh winters in the
northern parts of its range, this species can decrease its body
temperature, entering a controlled hypothermia to conserve
energy. There is variation in appearance depending upon
geographical location, northern birds being slightly larger and
possessing brighter white wing edgings than southern birds.
Although it is largely nonmigratory, in winter chickadee flocks
occasionally travel south of their traditional range.
VOICE Raspy tsick-a-dee-dee-dee call; song loud, clear whistle
bee-bee or bee-bee-be, first note higher in pitch.
NESTING Cavity in rotting tree stump, lined with hair, fur,
feathers, plant fibers; 68 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJune.
FEEDING Forages for insects and their eggs, and spiders in
trees and bushes; mainly seeds in winter; may take seeds from
an outstretched hand.
FLIGHT: swift and undulating, with fast
wing beats.
ROUGH-EDGED BIB
The Black-capped Chickadee has a less well-defined

lower bib margin than the Carolina Chickadee.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CAROLINA CHICKADEE
see p.302
lacks white
wing edges
MEXICAN CHICKADEE
Variety of wooded habitats,

from vast forests in the far
north to small woodlands in
urban parks and suburbs.
In years of poor seed crops in
northern parts of the range,
large numbers migrate
southward as far as the
Carolina Chickadees range.
large bib
extends
to upper
breast
no white
tail
edges
Weight 38 oz (11g)
Social Mixed flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
303

Order Passeriformes
Family Paridae
Species Parus hudsonicus
Boreal Chickadee
brown cap
grayish
brown
back
ADULT
gray cheeks
black bib
gray
tail
gray wings
IN FLIGHT
rich brown
flanks and
belly
ADULT
FLIGHT: bouncy, fast wing beats with brief glides.
he Boreal Chickadee was previously known by other

names, including Hudsonian Chickadee, referring to
its northern range, or Brown-capped Chickadee, due to its
appearance. In the past, this species made large, irregular
journeys south of its breeding range during winters of food
shortage, but this pattern of invasions has not occurred in
recent decades. Its back color is an interesting example of
geographic variationgrayish in the West and brown in the
central and eastern portions of its range.
VOICE Call a low-pitched, buzzy, and rather slow tsee-day-day;
also a high-pitched trill, dididididididi; no whistled song.
NESTING Cavity lined with fur, hair, plant down; in natural,
excavated, or old woodpecker hole; 49 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Gleans insects, conifer seeds; hoards larvae and seeds
in bark crevices in fall in
preparation for winter.
IDENTIFICATION TIP
A brown back or flank help distinguish a Boreal

Chickadee from a Black-capped Chickadee.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Found across the vast northern

spruce-fir forests from Alaska
to Newfoundland, and from
the treeline at the tundra
south to the northeastern
and northwestern states. The
southern edge of the range
appears to be retracting, for
unknown reasons.
CHESTNUT-BACKED
CHICKADEE narrow, white
cheeks
ACROBATIC FORAGER
chestnut
sides
This acrobatic feeder is able to

cling on to conifer needles as it
searches for insects and spiders.
Length 512in (14 cm)
Weight 38 oz (10g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
304
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Paridae
Species Parus bicolor
Tufted Titmouse
ADULT
tufted dark
gray head
black
forehead
conspicuous black
eye in whitish face
crest may be
flattened
gray wings
orange flanks
IN FLIGHT
gray tail
ADULT
gray
underparts
gray-black
legs and feet
FLIGHT: swift and undulating, with irregular
wing beats; usually across short distances.
familiar and friendly sight, the

Tufted Titmouse is widespread in eastern
North America. Its lack of fear of people has enabled the
Tufted Titmouse to adapt to human surroundings. In the last
century its range has expanded significantly northward to southern
Canada, probably due to the increased numbers of birdfeeders,
which allow the Tufted Titmouse to survive cold northern winters.
Its loud and cheerful song is a sure sign of spring!
VOICE Call a loud, harsh pshurr, pshurr, pshurr; song a ringing,
far-carrying peto peto peto, sometimes shortened to peer peer peer.
NESTING Tree cavities, old woodpecker holes, and nest boxes, lined
with damp leaves, moss, grass, hair; 56 eggs; 1 brood; MarchMay.
FEEDING Forages actively in trees and shrubs for insects, spiders,
and their eggs; in winter, corn kernels, seeds, and small fruits, can
split an acorn by hammering it with its bill.
COLOR VARIATION
The orange on an adults flanks varies from bright

in freshly molted feathers to dull in worn plumage.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-CRESTED
TITMOUSE
see p.462
BLUE-GRAY
high,
black crest GNATCATCHER
pale
forehead
see p.323
Lives year-round in areas

of large and small deciduous
and coniferous woodlands
in the eastern half of the
US. It has flourished in parks
and gardens and can often
be found using nest boxes
in suburban backyards.
lacks
crest
smaller,
slimmer
body
Weight
Social Mixed flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
16 oz (20g)
11
NOTES
305
SWALLOWS
Order Passeriformes
Family Hirundinidae
Bank Swallow
ADULT
dark
breastband
Species Riparia riparia
dark brown
head
dark brown
upperparts
whitish chin
and throat
white
belly
complete
breastband
brownish
cheeks
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
ADULT
forked
tail
whitish
underparts
wings dark
underneath
he Bank Swallow, known in the UK as the Sand Martin,

is the slimmest and smallest of North American swallows.
As its scientific name riparia (meaning riverbanks) and common
names suggest, the Bank Swallow nests in the banks and bluffs of
rivers, streams, and lakes. It also favors sand and gravel quarries in
the East. It is widely distributed across North America, breeding
from south of the tundrataiga line south to the central US.
Nesting colonies can range from as few as 10 pairs to as many
as 2,000, which are quite busy and noisy when all the birds
are calling or coming in simultaneously to feed the young.
VOICE Call a soft brrrrr or breee often issued in pairs; song
a harsh twittering or continuous chatter.
NESTING Both sexes excavate burrows in sandy banks containing
a flat platform of grass, feathers, and twigs; 26 eggs; 1 brood;
AprilAugust.
FEEDING Catches insects, such as flies, moths, dragonflies, and bees
in flight, but occasionally skims aquatic insects or their larvae off the
water or terrestrial insects from the ground.
FLIGHT: fast, frantic, butterfly-like flight with
glides, twists, and turns; shallow, rapid wing beats.
WAITING FOR MOM OR DAD
Hungry youngsters still expect to be fed, even

when theyre ready to fledge.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
TREE SWALLOW 5
Widespread in North America.

Breeds in lowland habitats
associated with rivers, streams,
lakes, reservoirs, and coasts, as
well as in sand and gravel
quarries. Often prefers man-made
sites; winters in grasslands, open
farm habitat, and freshwater
areas in South America, south
to Chile and Argentina.
NORTHERN ROUGHWINGED SWALLOW
larger; gray-brown
upperparts with
greenish tinge;
see p.307
larger overall;
see p.309
uniformly
colored
upperparts
incomplete
breastband
Weight 38 1116oz (1019g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
306
WHERE
NOTES
SWALLOWS
Order Passeriformes
Family Hirundinidae
Species Tachycineta bicolor
Tree Swallow
dark, pointed
wings
small
black
bill
iridescent bluish
green upperparts
no blue on
head or
upperparts
white
throat
MALE
partial
grayish
brown
breastband
blackish
flight
feathers
IN FLIGHT
slightly
forked tail
brilliant white
underparts
JUVENILE
bluish back
brownish
cap
MALE
reddish
brown legs
and feet
SECOND-YEAR BIRD
brownish
primaries
FLIGHT: rapid, deep, fluttery wing beats without
pause; quick turns and twists.
ne of the most common North American swallows, the Tree Swallow

is found from coast to coast in the northern two-thirds of the continent,
all the way north to Alaska. As its Latin name bicolor suggests, it is a two-toned
bird, with iridescent bluish green upperparts and white underparts. Juveniles
can be confused with the smaller Bank Swallow, which has a more complete
breastband. The Tree Swallow lives in a variety of habitats, but its hole-nesting
habit makes it dependent on crevices in old trees, abandoned woodpecker
cavities, and on artificial housing such as nest boxes. The size of the
population fluctuates according to the availability of nesting sites.
VOICE Ranges from variable high, chirping notes to chatters and soft
trills; also complex high and clear 2-note whistle phrases.
NESTING Layer of fine plant matter in abandoned woodpecker hole
or nest box, lined with feathers; 46 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Swoops after flying insects from dawn to dusk; also takes bayberries.
This species uses nest boxes,

which the males occupy and
defend as soon as they arrive.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BANK SWALLOW
VIOLET-GREEN SWALLOW
paler brown rump;

see p.306
white flank patch;
distinct dusky
breastband
KEEPING LOOKOUT
Typically breeds close to water

in open habitat such as fields,
marshes, lakes, and swamps,
especially those with standing
dead wood for cavity-nesting.
Winters in roosts of hundreds
of thousands of birds in
marshes, in the southern US,
and from Mexico to Panama;
also Cuba.
white
eye
patch
violetgreen
upperparts
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
307
SWALLOWS
Order Passeriformes
Family Hirundinidae
Species Progne subis
Purple Martin
large, peaked
head
pale
collar
wings lighter in
color than in male
black
bill
bluish gray
upperparts
FEMALE
blue-black
upperparts
whitish gray
underparts
FEMALE
blue-black
underparts
MALE
IN FLIGHT
MALE
long, forked
black tail
long, dark wings
FLIGHT: direct, powerful flight with deep wing
beats; soars and glides when foraging.
he Purple Martin, the largest species of North American

swallow, is one of the most popular of all backyard birds.
Thousands of Purple Martin-lovers belong to two national
organizations that publish magazines and newsletters devoted
to the species. Found mostly in the eastern half of the continent,
with local populations scattered across the West, this glossy-blue
swallow is common in some areas but quite scarce in others. In
the West it nests in abandoned woodpecker holes, but in the
East the Purple Martin now depends almost entirely on the
provisioning of apartment-type birdhouses for breeding.
VOICE Alarm call a zwrack or zweet; other calls are
a variety of rolling, bubbling sounds; song a series
of gurgles, chortles, and croaking phrases.
NESTING Loose mat of vegetation and mud in
birdhouse compartments, rarely in natural cavities;
FEEDING Captures flying insects at 150 500ft
(45150m) in the air; sometimes gleans insects
from foliage or the ground.
FLOCK TOGETHER
Purple Martins are social birds: they breed in

colonies and roost in flocks.
OCCURRENCE
In North America, eastern birds

found almost exclusively in towns
and cities where nest boxes are
provided; western populations
occur in more rural areas such
as mountain and coastal forests
where woodpecker holes are
abundant; also uses Saguaro
cactus for nesting in the
Southwest. Winters in Brazil.
Weight 1716218oz (40 60g)
Social Large flocks/Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
308
WHERE
NOTES
SWALLOWS
Order Passeriformes
Family Hirundinidae
Species Stelgidopteryx serripennis
Northern Rough-winged Swallow

square
tail
ADULT
light crescent
from cheek
to crown
black eye
dark brown
overall
JUVENILE
brown head
tan-buffy
wing bars
dark
face
pale
underparts
pale
brown
breast
IN FLIGHT
pale, grayish
brown belly
long, brown
wings
ADULT
iven the name serripennis,

saw-like, by Audubon in
1888, and characterized by
the serrations on its outer
wing feathers, this species is
otherwise somewhat drab in color
and aspect.The Northern Rough-winged Swallow has a broad
distribution in North America, across southern Canada and
throughout the US. Often overlooked by birdwatchers, this
brown-backed, dusky-throated swallow can be spotted hunting
insects over water. In size and habit, the Northern Rough-winged
Swallow shares many similarities with the Bank Swallow,
including breeding habits and color, but the latters notched
tail and smaller size help tell them apart.
VOICE Steady repetition of short, rapid brrrt notes inflected
upward; sometimes a buzzy jee-jee-jee or high-pitched brzzzzzt.
NESTING Loose cup of twigs and straw in a cavity or burrow
in a bank, such as road cuts; 47 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Captures flying insects, including flies, wasps, bees,
damselflies, and beetles in the air; more likely to feed over
water and at lower altitudes than other swallows.
FLIGHT: slow, deliberate wing beats; short to
long glides; long, straight flight, ends in steep climb.
BROWN BIRD
This swallow is brownish above and grayish below,

with a brown smudge on the sides of its neck.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
In North America widespread

from coast to coast. Nests at a
wide variety of altitudes, prefers
exposed banks of clay, sand, or
gravel such as gorges, shale
banks, and gravel pits. Forages
along watercourses where
aerial insects are plentiful.
Breeds south to Costa Rica.
Winters in Central America.
TREE SWALLOW 5
BANK SWALLOW
see p.306
see p.307
smaller
overall
brownish
breastband
whitish
belly and
throat
long,
notched tail
white
throat
grayish
breastband
white
belly
Social Solitary
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
309
SWALLOWS
Order Passeriformes
Family Hirundinidae
Species Hirundo rustica
Barn Swallow
shiny blue
head and
upperparts
duller plumage
than adult
long,
pointed
wings
chestnut
forehead
JUVENILE
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
deep,
chestnutbrown
throat
reddish
orange
underparts
slender
wings
reddish
orange belly
ADULT
deeply
forked tail
long tail
streamers
he most widely distributed and abundant swallow in the

world, the Barn Swallow is found just about everywhere in
North America south of the Arctic timberline. Originally a cavenester before Europeans settlers came to the New World, the Barn
Swallow readily adapted to nesting under the eaves of houses,
under bridges, and inside buildings such as barns. It is now rare
to find this elegant swallow breeding in a natural site. Steely blue
upperparts, reddish underparts, and a deeply forked tail identify
the Barn Swallow. North American breeders have deep, reddish
orange underparts, but birds from Eurasia are white-bellied.
VOICE High-pitched, squeaky chee-chee call; song a long series
of chatty, pleasant churrs, squeaks, chitterings, and buzzes.
NESTING Deep cup of mud and grass-stems attached to vertical
surfaces or on ledges;
SIMILAR SPECIES
46 eggs; 12 broods;
MaySeptember.
TREE SWALLOW 2
see p.307
FEEDING Snatches flying
lacks forked
insects, such as flies,
tail and dark
breastmosquitoes, wasps, and
band
beetles in the air at lower
white
altitudes than other
underswallows; sometimes eats
parts
wild berries and seeds.
FLIGHT: bursts of straight flight; close to the
ground; weaves left and right, with sharp turns.
WELL PROTECTED
Whether in a barn or other structure, a Barn

Swallow nest is totally protected from wind and rain.
OCCURRENCE

south to central Mexico. Prefers
agricultural regions and towns.
Winters near sugarcane fields,
grain fields, and marshes,
south in South America as
far as Patagonia. Hundreds of
thousands winter in marshes
of northern Argentina.
Weight 58 1116oz (1720g)
Social Small colonies/Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
310
WHERE
NOTES
SWALLOWS
Order Passeriformes
Family Hirundinidae
Species Petrochelidon pyrrhonata
Cliff Swallow
long, roundish
wings
brown-tinged,
black back
pale hind
neck
collar
rusty cheek
patch
mottled
throat
JUVENILE
bluish black
cap
rusty-brown
cheeks
whitish
forehead
dark
throat
bluish black
back
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
pale
underparts
slight notch in
squared tail
pale reddish
rump
he Cliff Swallow is one of North Americas most social land

birds, sometimes nesting in colonies of over 3,500 pairs,
especially in the western US. It is more locally distributed in the
East. It can be distinguished from other North American
swallows by its square tail and orange rump, but it resembles its
close relative, the Cave Swallow, in color, pattern, and in affixing
its mud nests to the sides of highway culverts, bridges, and
buildings. The considerable increase in such structures has
allowed the species to expand its range from the west to breed
almost everywhere on the continent south of the tundra.
VOICE Gives purr and churr calls when alarmed; song a low,
squeaky, 6-second twitter given in flight and near nests.
NESTING Domed nests of mud pellets on cave walls, buildings,
culverts, bridges, and dams; 35 eggs; 12 broods; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Catches flying insects (often swarming varieties)
while on the wing; sometimes forages on the ground; ingests
grit to aid digestion.
FLIGHT: strong, fast wing beats; glides more
often but less acrobatically than other swallows.
GATHERING MUD
The Cliff Swallow gathers wet mud from puddles,

pond edges, and streamsides to build its nest.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CAVE
SWALLOW
Breeds in North America from

Alaska to Mexico. Prefers walls,
culverts, buildings, cliffs, and
undersides of piers on which
to affix mud nests. Migrates to
South America. Hundreds of
thousands winter in marshes
of northern Argentina.
brighter orange
cheek
see p.312
paler
overall
INDIVIDUAL HOMES
In a Cliff Swallow colony, each

nest has a single opening.
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
16114oz (20 35g)
11
NOTES
311
SWALLOWS
Order Passeriformes
Family Hirundinidae
Species Petrochelidon fulva
Cave Swallow
dark cap
tawny to rufous
forehead
tawny
collar
light lines
on back
pale orange chin

and orange
cheeks
ADULT
blue-black
upperparts
browntinged
wings
IN FLIGHT
pale
underparts
ADULT
bright
rump
and sides
of rear
flanks
istinguished from its close relative, the Cliff Swallow, by

a pale rather than black throat and rufous rather than
white forehead, the buffy-rumped Cave Swallow is limited
in its breeding range to parts of New Mexico, Arizona, Texas,
and southern Florida. As its name suggests, the Cave Swallow
cements its cup nest to the walls of caves, which it often shares
with bats; it also builds nests on bridges, water culverts, and
buildings. The Cave Swallow was once rare in North America,
but in recent years it has expanded both geographically and
numerically because it has adapted to nesting on man-made
structures. In winter the US Cave Swallow population moves
south to Mexico.
VOICE Call a low wheet; song a series of bubbly sounds
blending into warbling trill, ending in series of
double-toned notes.
NESTING Open flat cup with tall, broad rim, made of
mud and guano, glued to concrete structure or cave wall;
35 eggs; 12 broods;
SIMILAR SPECIES
AprilJuly.
FEEDING Captures a
CLIFF
light
SWALLOW forehead
variety of flying insects
see p.311
while on the wing,
dark
including beetles, flies,
throat
and bees; sometimes
flushes its prey out into
the air by flying
into vegetation.
FLIGHT: uses rapid wing beats to swoop and
dive, but also likes to glide.
MUD BOWL NEST
Cave Swallow nests are cup-like, and not domed

like those of the Cliff Swallow.
OCCURRENCE
In US, breeds in the arid central

West (Arizona, Texas) and
southern Florida, wherever
nests can be attached to walls
of caves, sinkholes, bridges,
buildings, and culverts;
preferably near open water
for feeding on flying insects.
Outside US, breeds in Mexico
and the Greater Antilles.
Length 512in (14cm)
Social Colonies
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
312
WHERE
NOTES
LARKS
Order Passeriformes
Family Alaudidae
Horned Lark
Species Eremophila alpestris

muted facial
markings
bold black-andyellow face
variable
brown on
upperparts
brown
wings
tiny horns
dark streaks on
reddish brown
upperparts
ADULT
ADULT
(POSTBREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
black tail with

narrow, white
edges to outer
feathers
streaked
upperparts
whitish
underparts
short legs
JUVENILE
ADULT
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: undulating, with wings folded in after
every few beats.
he Horned Lark is a bird of open country, especially places

with extensive bare ground.The species is characteristic
of arid, alpine, and Arctic regions; in these areas, it flourishes
GROUND FORAGER
in the bleakest of habitats imaginable, from sun-scorched, arid
With its short legs bent under its body, an adult
looks for insects and seeds.
lakeshores in the Great Basin, to windswept tundra north of
the timberline. In some places, the only breeding bird species
are the Horned Lark and the equally resilient Common Raven.
In Europe and Asia, this species is known as the Shorelark.
VOICE Flight call a sharp sweet or soo-weet; song, either in flight or from
the ground, pleasant, musical tinkling series, followed by sweet... swit...
sweet... ssweeaweeawittaswit.
NESTING In depression in bare ground, somewhat sheltered by grass or
low shrubs, lined with plant matter; 25 eggs; 13 broods; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Survives exclusively on seeds of grasses
and sedges in winter; eats mostly insects in summer.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SPRAGUES
PIPIT
see p.343
shorter
tail
SKYLARK
streaked
crest
shorter
wings
streaked
overall
VERY VOCAL
The Horned Lark is a highly

vocal bird, singing from the air,
the ground, or low shrubs.
Breeds widely, in any sort

of open, even barren habitat
with extensive bare ground,
especially short-grass prairies
and deserts. Winters wherever
there are snow-free openings,
including along beaches
and roads. Winters from
southern Canada southward
to Florida and Mexico.
Length 7in (18cm)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
313
KINGLETS
Order Passeriformes
Family Reguliidae
Species Regulus satrapa
Golden-crowned Kinglet
yellow crown patch,
with black border
whitish
wing bars
orange-and-yellow
patch on crown,
with black border
broad whitish
stripe above eye
MALE
FEMALE
olive-green
upperparts
short,
straight
bill
IN FLIGHT
MALE
white
wing bar
notched
tail
pale buff
to whitish
underparts
FLIGHT: quick and erratic, but not direct; high
in the air; can hover while foraging.
his hardy little bird, barely more than a ball of feathers, breeds
in northern and mountainous coniferous forests in the US,
after a considerable hiatus in mountain forests of Mexico and
Guatemala. Planting of spruce trees in parts of the US Midwest
has allowed this species to increase its range in recent years to
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Pennsylvania.
VOICE Call a thin, high-pitched and thread-like tsee or see see;
song a series of high-pitched ascending notes for 2 seconds;
complex song tsee-tsee-tsee-tsee-teet-leetle, followed by brief trill.
NESTING Deep, cup-shaped nest with rims arching inward,
made of moss, lichen, and bark, and lined with finer strips
of the same; 89 eggs; 12 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Gleans flies, beetles, mites, spiders, and their eggs from
tips of branches, under bark, tufts of conifer needles; eats seeds,
and persimmon fruits.
EXPANDING RANGE
This bird has expanded its range southward

following spruce forestation.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RUBY-CROWNED
KINGLET
see p.315
Breeds in remote northern and

subalpine spruce or fir forests,
mixed coniferousdeciduous
forests, single-species stands,
and pine plantations; winters
in a wide variety of habitats
coniferous and deciduous
forests, pine groves, low-lying
hardwood forests, swamps, and
urban and suburban habitats.
white
eye-ring
no eyestripe
HIGHER VOICE
olive
underparts
The Golden-crowned has a

higher-pitched and less musical
song than the Ruby-crowned.
Weight 532 932 oz (48g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
314
WHERE
NOTES
KINGLETS
Order Passeriformes
Family Reguliidae
Species Regulus calendula
Ruby-crowned Kinglet
incomplete
white eye-ring
white wing
bars
patch on crown
often concealed
ADULT
red patch
on crown
olive-green
upperparts
notched
tail
no red
patch on
crown
IN FLIGHT
two white
wingbars
MALE
FEMALE
olive
underparts
MALE
small
upturned bill
brown legs with

he Ruby-crowned Kinglet is perhaps
paler brown feet
one of the most easily recognizable songbirds
in North America because of its very small size,
incomplete white eye-ring, two white wing bars,
and habit of incessantly flicking its wings while foraging. This
FLIGHT: short bursts of rapid wing beats, but
bird is renowned for its loud, complex song and for laying up to
overall quick and direct flight.
12 eggs in a clutchprobably the highest of any North American
songbird. Despite local declines resulting from logging and forest fires, the
Ruby-crowned Kinglet is common across the continent. It will sometimes be
found in mixed-species flocks in winter, together with nuthatches and titmice.
VOICE Call a low, husky jidit; song, remarkably loud for such a small bird,
begins with 23 high, clear notes tee or zee followed by 56 lower tu or turr
notes, and ends with ringing galloping notes tee-da-leet, tee-da-leet, tee-da-leet.
NESTING Globular or elongated nest hanging from or on large branch with
an enclosed or open cup, made of mosses, feathers, lichens, spiders silk, bark,
hair, and fur; 512 eggs; 1 brood; MayOctober.
CONCEALED COLOR
FEEDING Gleans a wide variety of insects, spiders, and their eggs among the
This birds red patch is often
leaves on the outer tips of higher, smaller branches; eats fruit and seeds; often
concealed unless the bird is
hovers to catch prey.
agitated or excited.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HUTTONS VIREO
Within the northern forest

zone, breeds near water in
Black Spruce and tamarack
forests, muskegs, forests with
mixed conifers and northern
hardwoods; in the mountainous
West, spruce-fir, Lodgepole Pine,
and Douglas Fir forests. Winters
in a broad range of forests,
thickets, and borders.
larger
head
see p.460
stouter
bill
heavier
overall
ALWAYS FLICKING
Ruby-crowned Kinglets are

easily identified by their habit of
constantly flicking their wings.
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
315
Families Troglodytidae, Polioptilidae
WRENS & GNATCATCHERS

, the Eurasian
W
Winter Wren, wrens are all small American
songbirds. Most are brown with light and
ITH ONE EXCEPTION
dark streaking. The scientific family name,

Troglodytidae, which derives from a Greek word
meaning cave-dweller, seems apt in light of
the furtive habits of wrens, which are heard
more often than they are seen. Wrens are
renowned for their remarkable songs, and, in some
species, for their precisely synchronized duets. Of
the 13 species of gnatcatchers, small songbirds with
subdued plumage and
COCKED TAIL
discreet habits, three
As they sing, Winter Wrens
occur in Canada
often hold their tails upward
and the USA.
in a near-vertical position.
Families Sittidae, Certhiidae
NUTHATCHES &
TREECREEPER
their distinctive
E
shape and feeding technique, nuthatches are
common North American woodland birds.They
ASILY RECOGNIZED BY
are plump-bodied and short-tailed, with blue-gray

backs, and often have a contrasting darker crown.
These birds use their bills to probe for insects in
the crevices of tree trunks and branches. Strong
feet and long claws allow them to move along the
underside of branches.This contrasts with many
other birds, which only move upward on a tree
trunk.This characteristic movement is one of
the easiest ways to identify nuthatches. Only one
species of treecreeper is found in North America.
Often overlooked, treecreepers forage by searching
methodically in bark crevices.
ACROBATIC POSE
Downward-facing
nuthatches such as this
one often lift their heads
in a characteristic pose.
Family Mimidae
THRASHERS &
RELATIVES
for catbirds, mockingbirds,
T
and thrashers is from the Latin for to imitate,
and no other word better defines the ten species of
HE FAMILY NAME
these birds that are found in North America. The

Northern Mockingbird is especially well known
for its ability to incorporate the songs of other
species into its own song. Members of the Mimidae
have long, curved bills and reclusive habits. Some
members of this group are able to recognize and
remove the eggs of brood parasites such as the
Brown-headed Cowbird. The Gray Catbird is
recognized by its cat-like meeow calls and its overall
gray plumage. Only one species of thrasher, the
Brown Thrasher, is found in the eastern US.
DISTINCTIVE BILL
This Long-billed Thrasher is

characterized by its slender,
curved bill, long, thin
legs, and long,
rounded tail.
WRENS
Order Passeriformes
Family Troglodytidae
Species Cistothorus platensis
Sedge Wren
buffy eyebrow
ADULT
reddish
tan
rump
short bill
streaked cap
streaked
back
streaked back
and inner wing
feathers
short,
round
wings
IN FLIGHT
barred wings
and tail
faint white
barring on
chest
buffy
underparts
ADULT
FLIGHT: short bursts, from cover to cover, with
fast wing beats.
he Sedge Wren, formerly named the Short-billed Marsh

Wren, is a shy bird. It stays hidden in dense cover except
when singing atop a sedge stalk or a shrub. If discovered,
it flies a short distance, drops down, and disappears out
of sight through the vegetation. The Sedge Wren has two
geographically distinct breeding seasonsMayJune in the
north central region of its range, and JulySeptember in
the southern and eastern regions. A feature of its breeding behavior, also found
in other species of wrens, is the males habit of building up to 810 unlined
dummy nests before the female builds the better-concealed, real nest.
VOICE Call a loud chap; song a dry, staccato two-part chatter: cha cha cha cha
chchch chchchch.
NESTING Globular, woven structure of sedges with side entrance; lined with
plant matter, down, and hair; 48 eggs; 12 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Forages for spiders and insects, such as grasshoppers, flies,
mosquitoes, and bugs, close to or on ground in cover of sedges and grass.
MARSH WREN
HOUSE WREN
see p.318
see p.322
white
eyebrow
Close study is necessary to

appreciate the Sedge Wrens
subtle patterning, which is
plainer than the Marsh Wrens.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
plain
heavily
striped back back
plain cap
LOOK CLOSELY
In North America, breeds in wet

meadows and sedge marshes
with low water levels. Widely
distributed from the Canadian
prairies, east to Qubec and from
northern US, to the south central
states, and from there to Chile
and Argentina. Winters from
Texas to Florida in grassy fields
and coastal-plain prairies.
faint
eyebrow
grayish
brown
underparts
Wingspan 512 6in (1415.5cm)
Weight 516oz (9g)
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
317
WRENS
Order Passeriformes
Species Cistothorus palustris
Marsh Wren
boldly striped
black-andwhite back
ADULT
barred tail
feathers
heavily streaked,
black-andwhite back
plain, rusty
wing
patches
rusty
rump
rusty flanks
and uppertail
feathers
whitish
eyebrow
IN FLIGHT
brown
forehead
and cap
dull whitish, buff

underparts
long
bill
FLIGHT: straight, with rapid wing beats over
short distances, from one reed patch to another.

ADULT
he Marsh Wren, a common resident of saltwater and

freshwater marshes, is known for singing loudly through
both day and night.The males perform fluttery, aerial courtship
flights while singing, and are polygamous, mating with two or
more females. Like the Sedge Wren, the male builds several
dummy nests before his mate constructs one herself.The
Marsh Wren nests in taller vegetation than the Sedge Wren
and over deeper water. Eastern (C. p. palustris) and Western
(C. p. paludicola) Marsh Wrens differ in voice and behavior,
and some ornithologists classify them as separate species.
VOICE Calls a low chek and a raspy churr; song a loud chuk
chuk chuk, then fast tih-tih-tih-rih-tih-tih, an enthusiastic singer.
NESTING Oblong structure with side entrance, woven of reeds
and lined with soft materials; 45 eggs; 2 broods; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Forages acrobatically for insects, such as mosquitoes,
dragonflies, and beetles, within dense clusters of cattails and reeds.
DELICATELY PERCHED
This wren perches on vertical reeds and often holds

itself up by spreading its legs across two stalks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES

from Canada to the mountains of
the western and central northern
states. Inhabits freshwater and
saltwater marshes with tall
vegetation, above water,
sometimes more than 3ft (1m)
deep. It is irregularly distributed
in its range. Winters in grassy
marshes and wetlands.
streaked HOUSE WREN

cap
see p.322
SEDGE WREN
see p.317
plain back
barred
wings
buffy
underparts
grayish
brown
underparts
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 6in (15cm)
Weight 38oz (11g)
Lifespan Unknown
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
318
WHERE
NOTES
WRENS
Order Passeriformes
Bewicks Wren
Species Thryomanes bewickii
brown
cheeks
white
eyebrow
long, slightly
curved bill
whitish throat
and breast
black-andwhite outer
tail tips
ADULT
T. b. drymoecus
(PACIFIC COAST)
ADULT
dark brown
flight
feathers
plain gray
upperparts
long,
rounded
tail
IN FLIGHT
pale gray
underparts
FLIGHT: fast and straight; over short distances.
ike the House Wren, but less common and

occupying a smaller range, Bewicks Wren
is also familiar around human habitations. It is known
to nest in any sort of hole or crevice in barns, houses, abandoned
machinery, woodpiles, and even trash heaps in farms and towns.
Bewicks Wren has undergone large-scale changes in geographic
distribution: in the 19th century its range expanded northward to
the eastern and midwestern US, but it gradually disappeared from
those regions in the 20th century. It has been suggested that the
more aggressive House Wren slowly replaced Bewicks Wren in these areas.
VOICE Loud, complex, and varied mixture of cheeps, buzzes, and clear notes;
vocalizations differ according to geographic location; also mimics other birds.
NESTING Cup of sticks lined with leaves, and other soft materials, in natural
or human-made cavity, including nest boxes; 510 eggs; 2 broods; MarchJune.
FEEDING Forages for insects in brush, shrubs, crannies of buildings, and leaf
litter on ground.
TALENTED MIMIC
Bewicks is sometimes known as

the Mocking Wren, due to its
imitations of other species songs.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Year-round resident in brushy

areas, open woodlands, and
around human structures;
from southern British Columbia
southward to Baja California,
east to Arkansas, and as far
south as Oaxaca in Mexico.
May withdraw slightly
southward from northernmost
portions of range in winter.
CAROLINA WREN
see p.320
rufous
upperparts
TYPICAL POSTURE
Bewicks Wren may often be

spotted with its distinctive tail
cocked vertically.
buffy
underparts
ADULT
T. b. eremophilus
(WESTERN)
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 7in (18cm)
Weight 38 oz (11g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
319
WRENS
Order Passeriformes
Carolina Wren
large head
tiny
tail
Species Thryothorus ludovicianus

conspicuous white
eyebrow bordered
by black above
powerfullooking,
bluish bill
rufous
upperparts
ADULT
duller
overall
white wing
spots
thin,
black
barring
on tail
white
spots on
wing
FLEDGLING
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
buffy
underparts
pinkish legs
and toes
he Carolina Wren is a popular and

common backyard bird in most of
its range. It is rarely still, often flicking its tail and looking
around nervously. Extremely harsh winters at the northernmost
fringe of the Carolina Wrens range in New England can cause
a sudden decline in numbers, as food resources are covered for
long periods by ice and heavy snow. At such times, survival may
depend on human help for food and shelter.
VOICE Calls variable; often a sharp chlip or long, harsh chatter;
song a loud, long, fast wheedle-dee wheedle-dee wheedle-dee.
NESTING Cup of weeds, twigs, leaves in natural or humanmade cavity; 48 eggs; 23 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Forages for insects in shrubs and
on ground; in winter,
favorite foods are peanut
butter or suet at a feeder.
FLIGHT: fast and straight over short distances,
with rapid wing beats.
DISTINCTIVE BORDER
A unique feature of this wren, not always noticed

but visible here, is the black border on the eyebrow.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Breeds in a variety of bushy

woodland habitats, such as
thickets, parks with shrubby
undergrowth, suburban yards
with dense, low trees or bushes,
and gardens; from northeastern
Mexico to the Great Lakes and
northeastward to New England.
Four subspecies occur from
Mexico to Nicaragua.
BEWICKS WREN dull brown
see p.319
or gray
upperparts
longer
tail
TIRELESS SINGER
Unlike many birds, the male

Carolina Wren sings all year
long, even on cold winter days.
Weight
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
320
WHERE
NOTES
16 oz (19g)
11
WRENS
Order Passeriformes
Winter Wren
Species Troglodytes troglodytes
distinct, tan
eyebrow
dark brown,
barred back
stubby tail, usually

cocked straight up
small, thin
bill
ADULT
short,
barred
tail
ADULT
barred,
rounded
wings
flanks
strongly
barred
IN FLIGHT
he Winter Wren has one of the

loudest songs of any North American
bird of a similar size: the males song carries far
through its forest haunts. It is widespread, found throughout Eurasia,
and from the Aleutians and Alaska eastward to Newfoundland, and
as far south as California in the West and the Appalachians in the
East, where the subspecies T. t. pullus resides. Its winter range is also
western (to California) and eastern (to Texas), with a wide hiatus in
between.This bird spends its time foraging in tangles of fallen trees
and shrubs, appearing mouse-like as it creeps amid the shadows. In
Europe, as its familys sole species, it is simply called the Wren.
VOICE Call a double chek-chek or chimp-chimp; song a loud,
extremely long, complex series of warbles, trills, and single notes.
NESTING Well-hidden in a cavity near ground with dead wood
and crevices; nest a messy mound lined with feathers; 47 eggs;
12 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Forages for insects in low, dense undergrowth, often
in wet areas along streams; sometimes thrusts its head into water
to capture prey.
FLIGHT: fast and direct, with rapid beats of its
short, broad wings.
VOCAL VIRTUOSO
The Winter Wren is a skulker, but in the breeding

season singing males show up on lower perches.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
Breeds in northern and mountain

forests dominated by evergreen
trees with a dense understory,
fallen trees, and banks of
streams. In the Appalachians,
breeds in treeless areas with
grass near cliffs. Northernmost
birds migrate south to winter in
woodlands, brush piles, tangles,
and secluded spots.
HOUSE WREN
see p.322
pale brown
back
long
tail
plain,
unbarred
anks
NERVOUS REACTION
When alarmed, this wren cocks

its tail almost vertically, before
escaping into a mossy thicket.
Length 4in (10cm)
Weight 516oz (9g)
Social Solitary/Family groups
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
321
WRENS
Order Passeriformes
House Wren
Species Troglodytes aedon
thin, indistinct
eyebrow
narrow, pale
eye-ring
faintly barred
wings
grayish brown
back
plain brown
crown
thin, slightly
curved bill
pale gray-brown
underparts
ADULT
(EASTERN)
narrow, black
barring on tail
browner
upperparts
ADULT
T. a. parkmanii
(WESTERN)
IN FLIGHT
pale buffy
throat
ADULT
T. a. aedon
(EASTERN)
FLIGHT: straight, with fast wing beats;
typically over short distances.
f all the North American wrens, the

House Wren is the plainest, yet one
of the most familiar and endearing, especially
when making its home in a backyard nest box.
However, it can be a fairly aggressive species, driving away nearby nesting birds
of its own and other species by destroying nests, puncturing eggs, and even killing
young. In the 1920s, distraught bird lovers mounted a campaign calling for the
eradication of House Wrens, though the campaign
did not last long as most people were in favor of
letting nature take its course.
VOICE Call a sharp chep or cherr ; song opens with
several short notes, followed by bubbly explosion
of spluttering notes.
NESTING Cup lined
SIMILAR SPECIES
with soft material on
stick platform in natural,
WINTER WREN dark brown
overall
see p.321
manmade cavities, such
shorter
as nest boxes; 58 eggs;
tail
23 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Forages for
NESTING MATERIAL
insects and spiders in
heavily
This small bird has brought an
barred
trees and shrubs,
unusually large twig to its nest
anks
gardens, and yards.
inside an old woodpecker hole.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in cities, towns, parks,

farms, yards, gardens, and
woodland edges. Rarely seen
during migration period (late
July to early October). Winters
south of its breeding range,
from southern US to Mexico, in
woodlands, shrubby areas, and
weedy fields. Nests, or is resident
as far south as Tierra del Fuego.
Wingspan 6in (15cm)
Weight 38oz (11g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
322
WHERE
NOTES
GNATCATCHERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Polioptilidae
Species Polioptila caerulea
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher
lacks black line
blue-gray
nape
paler
upperparts
MALE
black
line above
eye; absent
in winter
FEMALE
pale gray
overall
white
outer tail
feathers
white
eye-ring
IN FLIGHT
blue-gray
upperparts
white
throat
black central
tail feathers
pale patch
on wing
pale gray
underparts
MALE
FLIGHT: short, straight and fluttering; usually
in short bursts from tree-top to tree-top.
f it did not give its continual wheezy call, the Blue-gray

Gnatcatcher might often be missed, as it spends much of
its time foraging high up in tall trees. In winter it becomes
even harder to find as it is generally silent. This species is the
most northern of the North American gnatcatchers and is
also the only one to migrate. It can exhibit aggressive behavior
and is capable of driving off considerably larger birds than
itself. The range of the Blue-gray Gnatcatcher appears to
be expanding and populations are increasing.
VOICE Call soft, irregular zhee, zhee, uttered constantly while
foraging; song soft combination of short notes and nasal wheezes.
NESTING Cup of plant fibers, spider webs, mosses; usually high
on branch; lined with soft plant material; 45 eggs; 12 broods;
AprilJune.
FEEDING Forages for small insects and spiders by acrobatically
flitting from twig to twig, while twitching long tail.
LISTEN CLOSELY
The rather faint complex song is best heard

when the bird is singing from a low perch.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACK-TAILED GNATCATCHER
see p.463
black
cap
In eastern North America,

breeds in deciduous or pine
woodlands; in the West, in
scrubby habitats, often near
water. Winters in brushy
habitats in southern US,
Mexico, and Central America.
Also breeds in Mexico,
Belize, and the Bahamas.
TENNESSEE WARBLER
see p.357
greenish
upperparts
no eyering
short
tail
tail
white
only at
tip
white
underparts
Length 414in (11cm)
Wingspan 6in (15cm)
Weight 732 oz (6g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
323
NUTHATCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Sittidae
Species Sitta pusilla
Brown-headed Nuthatch
pointed,
chisel-like,
dark bill
warm brown
nape and crown
white spot
on nape
pale
lower
bill
blue-gray
upperparts
ADULT
gray
overall
rounded
wings
white
cheek
and
throat
with pale
yellow
wash
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
pale gray
underparts
short tail with
white on
uppertail feathers
sturdy legs
and toes
long claws
FLIGHT: fairly weak and slow, with deeply
undulating motion; appears tiny in flight.
his pine-loving species is the southeastern counterpart of the

western Pygmy Nuthatch, but separated from it by the Great
Plains. In most aspects of their history, these two nuthatch species
are very similar and play the same ecological roles in their respective
ecosystems. Like the Pygmy, the Brown-headed is a busy bird that
travels in noisy packs. In each species, the young are raised by both
parents and one or more nonparental relatives, or helpers.
VOICE Call a short bek; foraging flocks bwee! tutututu, emphatic first
note followed by soft series; chorus of sounds when calling in flocks.
NESTING Excavates cavity in pine tree; nest of plant material lined
with fur and feathers; 46 eggs; 12 broods; MarchMay.
FEEDING Forages high in pine trees; in summer, gleans beetles,
bugs, other insects, and also spiders; in winter, supplements diet
with pine seeds.
INTREPID FORAGING
The Brown-headed Nuthatch forages upside down

along branches, and head-first down tree trunks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PYGMY
NUTHATCH
Breeds in pine forests and oakpine woods in southeastern US:

Delaware, Virginia, and Maryland
southward to Florida, westward
to Oklahoma and Texas; also in
the Bahamas. Prefers old and
extensive forest stands with
dead trunks for nesting. Resident;
small groups wander in fall, but
not far from breeding areas.
grayish
crown
pale
yellowish
wash
PERCHED ADULT
This bird depends upon forest

tracts with standing dead wood
and snags for nesting.
Length 414in (11cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Weight 38oz (10g)
Social Small flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
324
WHERE
NOTES
NUTHATCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Sittidae
Species Sitta canadensis
Red-breasted Nuthatch
rounded
wings
slightly muted
head pattern
dark blue-gray crown

and eyestripe
white
bands
on tail
FEMALE
pointed,
chisellike bill
black
eyestripe
pale orange
underparts
MALE
bold black-andwhite head pattern
blue-gray
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
white
cheeks
blue-gray, short
tail, with black
side feathers
rusty
underparts
compact
body shape
MALE
FLIGHT: short, swift dashes across forest
clearings; irregular, undulating motion.
his aggressive, inquisitive nuthatch, with its distinctive black

eyestripe, breeds in conifer forests across North America.
The bird inhabits mountains in the West; in the East, it is found
in lowlands and hills. However, sometimes it breeds in conifer
groves away from its core range. Each fall, birds move from their
main breeding grounds, but the extent of this exodus varies from
year to year, depending on population cycles and food availability.
VOICE Call a one-note tooting sound, often repeated, with strong
nasal yet musical quality: aaank, enk, ink, rather like a horn.
NESTING Excavates cavity in pine tree; nest of grass lined with
feathers, with sticky pine resin applied to entrance; 57 eggs,
1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Probes bark for beetle grubs; also eats insect larvae
found on conifer needles; seeds in winter.
TASTY GRUB
This nuthatch has just extracted its dinner from

the bark of a tree, a favorite foraging habitat.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BROWN-HEADED NUTHATCH
see p.324
see p.326
brown nape
slightly
smaller
overall
Found year-round in coniferous

and mixed hardwood forests.
During breeding season, absent
from southeastern pine forests,
except in the Appalachians.
In the west, shares its habitat
with Pygmy Nuthatch, but
ranges to higher elevations.
WHITE-BREASTED
NUTHATCH
larger
overall
pale gray
lacks
black
eyestripe
white
belly
chestnut undertail
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
325
NUTHATCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Sittidae
Species Sitta carolinensis
White-breasted Nuthatch
white
flashes
on
tail
black crown
and nape
MALE
conspicuous black eye

long, pointed,
chisel-like bill
white face
white
throat
rounded
wings
gray crown
narrower, black
band on nape
dull gray
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
whitish
underparts
blue-gray
upperparts
whitish gray
underparts
short
tail
chestnut
undertail and
lower belly
FEMALE
MALE
long,
strong
claws
FLIGHT: weak, with quick wing beats followed
by glide; often short, from tree to tree.
he amiable White-breasted Nuthatch inhabits residential

neighborhoods across the US and southern Canada, and often
visits birdfeeders in winter.The largest of our nuthatches, it spends
more time probing furrows and crevices on trunks and boughs
than other nuthatches do. It walks irregularly on trees: forward,
backward, upside-down, or horizontally. Of the eleven subspecies
in its Canada-to-Mexico range, five occur in Canada and in the
US. They differ in call notes and, to a lesser extent, in plumage.
VOICE Calls vary geographically: eastern birds nasal yank yank;
interior birds stuttering sttttt; Pacific slope birds tremulous yiiiirk;
song of all populations a mellow tu tu tu tu, like a flicker, but softer.
NESTING Tree cavity, once used by woodpeckers, lined with grass
and hair, adds mud to cavity opening; 59 eggs, 1 brood; AprilJune.
FEEDING Scours bark methodically for insects such as beetle larvae.
UNUSUAL DESCENT
Nuthatches are unusual in that they routinely

descend branches and trunks head-first.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BROWN-HEADED
NUTHATCH
RED-BREASTED
NUTHATCH
see p.324
see p.325
brown
crown
More liberal than other

nuthatches in use of forest
types; overlaps with the
smaller species in coniferous
forest ranges, but also common
in broadleaf deciduous or
mixed forests; weakly migratory:
little movement in most falls,
but moderate departures from
breeding grounds in some years.
black eyestripe
smaller
overall
reddish
underparts
smaller
overall
Weight
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
326
WHERE
NOTES
16 78 oz (1925g)
11
TREECREEPERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Certhiidae
Species Certhia americana
Brown Creeper
thin, downwardcurving bill

white chin,
throat, and
breast
whitish streak
above eye
buff wing
bars
finely
streaked
crown
ADULT
rusty
rump and
uppertail
feathers
rounded
wings
mottled
brown
above
IN FLIGHT
pale streaks
on brown
background
FLIGHT: short, floppy flights from one tree to
ADULT
(SUMMER)
another; also capable of sustained migration.
rusty tint to
belly and
undertail
lthough distinctive, widespread, and fairly common,

the Brown Creeper is one of the most understated
of the forest birds, with its soft vocalizations and cryptic
plumage. As it forages, it hops up a tree trunk, then flies down
to another tree, starts again from near the ground, hops up, and
so on.These birds have adapted to habitat changes in the Northeast
and their numbers have increased in regenerating forests. Mid- and
southwestern populations, by contrast, have declined because forest
cutting has reduced their breeding habitat.The Brown Creeper is a
partial migrantsome individuals move south in the fall, and head
north in the spring; others remain close to their breeding grounds.
VOICE High-pitched and easily overlooked call a buzzy zwisss,
flight call an abrupt tswit; song a wheezy jumble
of thin whistles and short buzzes.
NESTING Unique hammock-shaped nest, behind
piece of peeling bark; 56 eggs, 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Probes bark for insects, especially larvae,
eggs, pupae, and aphids.
long,
forked tail
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PYGMY NUTHATCH
BROWN-HEADED
NUTHATCH
see p.324
blue-gray
upperparts
straight
bill
smaller
overall
smaller
overall
blue-gray
upperparts
shorter tail
STRONG TAIL
The Brown Creeper uses its

forked tail to prop it against the
trunk of this tree.
The only North American

creeper, it breeds in a variety of
forests, particularly fairly moist
coniferous or mixed hardwood
forests, also large stands with
snags and standing dead trees.
In winter, seen in small groves
without coniferous trees; also in
residential districts or suburbs.
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Weight 14 38 oz (710g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
327
THRASHERS AND RELATIVES

Order Passeriformes
Family Mimidae
Species Dumetella carolinensis
Gray Catbird
straight blackish bill
dark gray to
black head
gray
overall
gray
upperparts
large,
black
eye
ADULT
long,
black
tail
IN FLIGHT
gray
underparts
bright brick-red
undertail feathers
ADULT
n addition to the feline-like, mewing calls that

earned it its common name, the Gray Catbird not only
has an extraordinarily varied vocal repertoire, but it can also
sing two notes simultaneously. It has been reported to imitate
the vocalizations of over 40 bird species, at least one frog species,
and several sounds produced by machines and electronic devices. FLIGHT: short flights between habitat patches
Despite their shy, retiring nature, Gray Catbirds tolerate human
with constant, medium-speed wing beats.
presence and will rest in shrubs in suburban and
urban lots. Another fascinating skill is the Gray
Catbirds ability to recognize and remove eggs
of the brood parasite, the Brown-headed Cowbird.
VOICE Mew call, like a young kitten; song a long,
complex series of unhurried, often grouped notes,
sometimes interspersed with whistles and squeaks.
NESTING Large, untidy cup of woven twigs, grass,
and hair lined with finer material; 34 eggs;
ANGLED ATTITUDE
LARGE BLACK EYES
12 broods; MayAugust.
Between bouts of feeding, a Gray Peering from the foliage,
FEEDING Feeds on a wide variety of berries and
Catbird often rests with its body
a Gray Catbird investigates
insects, usually whatever is most abundant in season.
and tail at a 50-degree angle.
its surroundings.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
see p.329
curved bill
white wing
patch
longer
tail
edged
in white
Breeds in mixed young to

mid-aged forests with abundant
undergrowth, from British
Columbia east to Maritimes
and Newfoundland, and in the
US diagonally west-east from
Washington State to New
Mexico, east to the Gulf Coast,
north to New England. Northern
population migratory.
CRISSAL THRASHER longer,
brown-gray
overall
lighter gray
Weight 114 218oz (35 60g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
328
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Mimidae
Species Mimus polyglottos
Northern Mockingbird
pointed,
curved bill
gray head
ADULT
white
patches
on wing
shorter
tail
speckled breast
and belly
JUVENILE
yellow
eye
IN FLIGHT
long tail with

white outer
tail feathers
ADULT
white undertail
feathers
white patch
on wing feathers
FLIGHT: usually direct and level on constant,
somewhat fluttering, quick wing beats.
he ability of the Northern Mockingbird to imitate

sounds is truly impressive: some individuals can
incorporate over 100 different phrases of as many
different birds in their songs. Phrases are usually repeated,
often quite a few times, and somewhat modified at each
repetition. This species, once thought to be headed for
extinction due to the caged-bird trade in the 1700s and
1800s, has largely recovered since then. In fact, the Northern
Mockingbirds range has expanded in the last few decades,
due partly to its high tolerance for humans and their habitats.
A diagnostic field characteristic of the Northern Mockingbird
is its tendency to wing flash, showing its white outer wing
feather patches when holding its wings overhead.
VOICE Long, complex repertoire often imitating other birds,
non-bird noises, and the sounds of mechanical devices.
NESTING Bulky cup of twigs, lined, in shrub or tree; 35 eggs;
13 broods; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Eats a wide variety of fruit, berries, and insects,
including ants, beetles, and grasshoppers.
BERRY PICKER
Northern Mockingbirds love berries, and make

good use of them during the fall.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE 5
Widespread in the US
from coast to coast south
of the timberline, primarily
along edges of disturbed
habitats, including young
forests and especially
suburban and urban areas
with shrubs or hedges.
CLARKS
NUTCRACKER
see p.284
brown mask
white patch
low on
wing
black wings
whiter
sides to tail
darker
gray
belly
Weight 1916 2oz (4555g)
Social Pairs
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
329

Order Passeriformes
Family Mimidae
Brown Thrasher
Species Toxostoma rufum

fairly straight,
dark bill
bright
yellow eye
grayish cheeks
rufous wings
and upperparts
indistinct
mustache
reddish brown
upperparts
dark streaking
on pale
underparts
ADULT
long tail
with pale
outer
tips
IN FLIGHT
two pale wing

bars
long tail, paler
than back
ADULT
he Brown Thrasher is usually difficult to view

clearly because it keeps to dense underbrush. Like most other
thrashers, this species prefers running or hopping to flying.When
nesting, it can recognize and remove the eggs of brood parasites
FLIGHT: slow and heavy with deep wing beats;
like the Brown-headed Cowbird.The current population decline
below treetops, especially in and around ground.
is most likely the result of fragmentation of large, wooded habitats
into patches, which lack the forest interior habitat this species needs.
VOICE Calls varied, including rasping sounds; song a long series of musical
notes, sometimes imitating other species; repeats phrase twice before moving
onto the next one.
NESTING Bulky cup of twigs, close to ground, lined
with leaves, grass, bark; 35 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Mainly insects (especially beetles) and
worms gathered from leaf litter on the forest floor; will
peck at cultivated grains, nuts, berries, and fruit.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LONG-BILLED
THRASHER
longer,
curved bill
see p.464
CURVE-BILLED
THRASHER
see p.464
mouse graybrown
upperparts
duller
brown
back
heavily
streaked
underparts
orange
eye
pale
brown
spots,
not
streaks
STREAKED BREAST
Displaying its heavily streaked

underparts, this Brown Thrasher
is perched and ready to sing.
Widespread across central and

eastern North America, from
Canada to Texas and Florida,
in a variety of densely wooded
habitats, particularly those with
thick undergrowth, but will use
woodland edges, hedges, and
riverside trees. A partial
migrant, it winters in the
southern part of its range.
Weight 218278oz (6080g)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
330
WHERE
NOTES
STARLING
Order Passeriformes
Family Sturnidae
Species Sturnus vulgaris
European Starling
short,
square
tail
pointed,
triangular
wings
body feathers
tipped whitish
or buff
wing feathers
edged bright
orange-buff
ADULT
(BREEDING)
large spots
on undertail
black face with

hints of shiny,
glossy purple
glossy black
body with
mostly green
sheen
blue-based,
sharp, yellow
bill; pinkbased on
female
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
dark, glossy,
blue-black
belly
IN FLIGHT
dull brownish
head
MALE
(BREEDING)
dark
bill
plain
brown
body
long, pinkish
brown legs and
strong toes
IMMATURE
(FALL)
JUVENILE
his distinctive non-native species is perhaps the most successful

bird in North Americaand probably the most maligned. In
the 1890s, 100 European Starlings were released in New York Citys
Central Park; these were the ancestors of the many millions of birds
that now live all across the US.This adaptable and aggressive bird
competes with native species for nest sites, and the starling usually
winseven against larger species such as the Northern Flicker.
VOICE Highly varied; gives whooshing sssssheer, often in flight;
also whistled wheeeooo; song an elaborate pulsing series with slurred
whistles and clicking notes; imitates other species vocalizations.
NESTING Natural or artificial cavity of any sort; 46 eggs;
12 broods; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Omnivorous; picks at anything that might be edible;
insects and berries are common food items; also visits birdfeeders
and trashcans; often feeds on grubs in lawns.
FLIGHT: individuals fly in direct, buzzy manner;
flocks bunch up tightly in flight.
INSECT EATER
Despite its parents omnivorous diet, the nestlings

are fed almost exclusively on insects and larvae.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BRONZED COWBIRD 2
see p.468
red eye
In North America from southern

Canada to the USMexico
border; also Puerto Rico and
other Caribbean islands.
Common to abundant in cities,
towns, and farmlands; also
occurs in relatively wild
settings far from human
habitation. Forms flocks at
all times, huge in winter.
BROWN-HEADED
COWBIRD
see p.395
no spots
no
spots
longer
tail
Weight 258 338 oz (7595g)
Social Colonies
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
331
Family Turdidae
THRUSHES
medium-sized
M
brown-or olive-brown-backed birds with
varying amounts of spotting underneath. Although
OST THRUSHES ARE
undistinguished in color, they more than make

up for their drab plumage with beautiful flutelike
songs. By contrast, the Varied Thrush, which is the
sole member of the genus Ixoreus, differs dramatically
from other thrushes
with its bold black-andrust pattern, and is one
of the most distinctive birds in North America.

The brightly colored bluebirds, target of successful
conservation efforts, and the duller Townsends
Solitaire both stand out from other thrushes.
Thrushes are insectivorous during the breeding
season, but have a varied diet at other times,
including berries, fruit, snails, and other small
invertebrates. Most thrushes are long-distance
migrants and spend the northern winter in
tropical America.
ORCHARD DWELLER
Bluebirds, for example this Mountain

Bluebird, favor orchards far more
than other thrushes. This species
is rare in the East.
GROUND BIRDS
Though they perch to sing,

thrushes, including this Varied
Thrush, spend a lot of their time
on or near the ground. Varied
Thrushes are rare in the East.
Families Motacillidae, Cinclidae
PIPITS & DIPPERS

PIPITS
DIPPERS
The two species of pipits that breed in North

America largely spend the winter south of their
breeding range. They are very much birds of
open, treeless countryone
North American pipit species
is montane and arctic, while
the other is restricted to the
Great Plains.
Dippers (five species worldwide) are the only

song birds that feed underwater. The only North
American species of dipper occurs from Alaska
in the north, southward through British Colombia
to the mountain states of the West, and south to
Mexico and Panama. Although they do not breed
in the East, dippers dave been recorded in the
Great Plains east to Minnesota.
COUNTRY-LOVERS
Pipits, such as this female

American Pipit, live in
open countryside.
THRUSHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Turdidae
Species Sialia sialis
Eastern Bluebird
spotted
throat and
breast
gray-brown
upperparts
bluish gray
underwings
MALE
bright blue
upperparts
JUVENILE
rufous
breast and
throat
white
belly
chestnut-brown
chin, throat, breast,
and flanks
IN FLIGHT
MALE
white belly
pale chestnut
throat
gray
upperparts
blue wings,
rump, and tail
white undertail
FEMALE
he Eastern Bluebirds vibrant

blue and chestnut body is a
beloved sight in eastern North America,
especially after the remarkable comeback of
the species in the past 30 years. It is also New Yorks State Bird.
After much of the birds habitat was eliminated by agriculture
in the mid-1900s, volunteers offered the bluebirds nest boxes
as alternatives to their tree cavities, and they took to these like
ducks to water.The Eastern Bluebirds mating system involves
males seeking (or not minding) multiple partners.
VOICE Main song a melodious series of soft, whistled notes;
churr-wi or churr-li; songs for mating and asserting territoriality.
NESTING Cavity nester, in trees or man-made boxes; nest
of grass lined with grass, weeds, and twigs; uses old nests of
other species; 37 eggs; 2 broods; FebruarySeptember.
FEEDING Feeds on insects, like grasshoppers, and caterpillars
in breeding season; in winter, also takes fruit and plants.
FLIGHT: shallow wing beats; slow and easy.
HOME DELIVERY
A female bluebird delivers food to a nest box.

OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WESTERN BLUEBIRD 1
see p.472
brownish
back
Found in eastern Canada and

the eastern US, where it lives
in clearings and woodland
edges; occupies multiple
open habitats in rural,
urban, and suburban areas:
woodlands, plains, orchards,
parks, and spacious lawns.
Breeds and winters across
the eastern half of the US.
MOUNTAIN
BLUEBIRD 1
grayish
throat
graybrown
head and
body
Social Flocks
Lifespan 810 years
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
333
THRUSHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Turdidae
Veery
Species Catharus fuscescens
pale, reddish
brown upperparts
inconspicuous,
pale eye-ring
less distinct
spotting on
breast
creamy
pink at
base of
bill
brownish tan
upperparts
ADULT
IMMATURE
C. f. fuscescens
(EASTERN)
poorly marked
brown spots
on buff breast
and throat
IN FLIGHT
white
underparts
ADULT
tan wash
on flanks
creamy pink
legs and feet
he least spotted of the North American

Catharus thrushes, the Veery is medium-sized,
like the others, but browner overall. It has been
described as dusky, but there is a geographical variation
FLIGHT: rapid and straight, with intermittent
hops and glides; makes long hops when on ground.
in duskiness; four subspecies have been described to
reflect this.The Veery is a long-distance migrant,
spending the northern winter months in central
Brazil, in a variety of tropical habitats.
VOICE A series of descending da-vee-ur, vee-ur,
veer, veer, somewhat bi-tonal, sounding like the
name Veery; call a rather soft veer.
NESTING Cup of dead leaves, bark, weed stems,
and moss on or near ground; 4 eggs; 12 broods;
DAMP DWELLINGS
MayJuly.
The Veery breeds in damp habitats
FEEDING Forages on the ground for insects,
such as moist wooded areas or
spiders, snails; eats fruit and berries after breeding. in trees near or in swamps.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GRAY-CHEEKED
THRUSH
see p.335
BICKNELLS THRUSH
gray
face
bold blackbrown
breast
spots
SWAINSONS
THRUSH
see p.336
buffy-colored
face
see p.337
bold brown
breast spots
bold
brownblack
breast
spots
grayish
brown
upperparts
In summer, mainly found in

damp deciduous forests, but
in some places habitat near
rivers preferred. In winter,
choice of habitat flexible; found
in tropical broadleaf evergreen
forest, on forest edges, in open
woodlands, and in secondgrowth areas regenerating
after fires or clearing.
Length 7in (18cm)
Social Pairs
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
334
WHERE
NOTES
THRUSHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Turdidae
Species Catharus minimus
Gray-cheeked Thrush
black upper
bill
indistinct gray
eye-ring
ADULT
yellowish
pink base
olive-gray
upperparts
gray cheeks
blackish brown
spots on throat
and breast
IN FLIGHT
grayish white
belly
olive-gray
tail
ADULT
pink legs
and toes
flaps and glides.
he Gray-cheeked Thrush is the least known

of the four North American Catharus thrushes because
it breeds in remote areas of Canada and Alaska. In fact, most of
the existing information on this species is a result of research
on the Bicknells Thrush, which was considered to be
a subspecies of the Gray-cheeked Thrush until 1993. During
migration, the Gray-cheeked Thrush is more likely to be heard
in flight at night than seen on the ground by birdwatchers.
VOICE Call a thin kweer, sometimes two notes; song flute-like,
somewhat nasal, several notes ending on a lower pitch.
NESTING Cup of grass, twigs, moss, dead leaves, and mud, placed
near ground in shrubbery; 4 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Forages insects, including beetles, ants, spiders,
earthworms; and also fruit.
FEEDING HABITAT
A Gray-cheeked Thrush hops across the forest

floor looking for prey.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
On breeding grounds occupies

densely vegetated areas with
small shrubs; preference for
spruce forests in northern
Canada and Alaska. During
migration, favors wooded
areas with dense understory.
In winter, prefers forested
areas and secondary
succession woodlands.
BICKNELLS olive-brown
THRUSH
upperparts
see p.336
brownish
spots
MIGRATION PATTERN
During migration, this bird can

be seen near a variety of sites
with trees or shrubs.
Weight 781116 oz (2630g)
Social Mixed flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
335
THRUSHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Turdidae
Species Catharus bicknelli
Bicknells Thrush
olive-brown
upperparts
indistinct
eye-ring
blackish
upper bill
olive-brown
head
pale base
to bill
brownish
olive back
ADULT
tan spots
rufous
tail
brown specks
and spots
olive-brown
wings
buff
breast
IN FLIGHT
whitish to
buff belly
whitish to buff
undertail feathers
grayish buff
wash on flanks
IMMATURE
pink legs
flaps and glides.
amed for E.P. Bicknell (1859-1925), a founding

member of the American Ornithologists Union, Bicknells
Thrush was considered a subspecies of the Gray-cheeked Thrush.
In 1993, it was shown to be a distinct species with slight
differences in color, song, habitat, and migration. In the field, it
is best distinguished from the Gray-cheeked Thrush by its song,
which is less full and lower in pitch. Bicknells Thrush breeds only
in dwarf conifer forests on mountain tops in the northeastern US
and adjacent Canada. Habitat loss threatens this species on its
wintering grounds in Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. Males
and females mate with multiple partners in a single season;
because of this, males may care for young in multiple nests.
VOICE Call pheeuw, one or two notes; complicated flute-like
song of about four parts, ending with rising pitch; males sing,
especially during flight.
SIMILAR SPECIES
NESTING Cup of moss
and evergreen twigs,
GRAY-CHEEKED THRUSH
see p.335
near ground; 34 eggs;
olive-gray
1 brood; JuneAugust.
grayish
brown
face
FEEDING Feeds mainly
on caterpillars and
insects; eats fruit during
migration and possibly
in winter.
MOUNTAIN-TOP BREEDING
This species breeds in high-elevation woodland

areas, especially in conifers.
OCCURRENCE
Restricted to dense spruce or

fir forest at or near the treeline,
at 3,000ft (1,000m), often in
disturbed areas undergoing
successional changes. During
migration, found in a variety
of habitats, such as woodlots
and beaches. In winter, strong
preference for wet mountain
Caribbean forests.
Weight 781116 oz (26 30g)
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
336
WHERE
NOTES
THRUSHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Turdidae
Species Catharus ustulatus
Swainsons Thrush
ADULT
more rufous
in upperparts
russet
back
olive-brown
upperparts
smaller, less distinct,

sparser spotting
buffy
eye-ring
IN FLIGHT
olive-brown
rump and
tail
ADULT
C. c. ustulatus
(WESTERN)
buff
breast
distinct
blackish
spots
wainsons Thrush can be distinguished from other spotted

thrushes by its buffy face and the rising pitch of its flute-like,
melodious song. This species is also distinctive as it feeds
higher up in the understory than most of its close relatives.
The eastern subspecies of Swainsons Thrush migrates to
eastern South America, where it spends the winter.
VOICE Single-note call whit or whooit;
main song delivered by males, several
phrases, each one spiraling upward;
flute-like song is given during
breeding and migration.
NESTING Open cup of twigs, moss,
dead leaves, bark, and mud, on branches
near trunks of small trees or in shrubs;
34 eggs; 12 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Forages in the air, using
fly-catching methods to capture a wide DISTINCTIVE SONG
range of insects during breeding season; This birds song distinguishes
berries during migration and in winter. it from other thrushes.
ADULT
C. c. swainsoni
(EASTERN)
flaps and glides.
TREE DWELLER
Shy and retiring, Swainsons Thrush feeds

higher in trees than other Catharus thrushes.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
VEERY
HERMIT
THRUSH
see p.334
tawny
brown
back
see p.338
lightly
spotted
breast
rust-colored
tail
Breeds mainly in coniferous

forests, especially spruce and
fir, except in California, where
it prefers deciduous riverine
woodlands and damp
meadows with shrubbery.
During spring and fall
migrations, dense understory
is preferred. Winter habitat is
mainly old-growth forest.
grayish
cheeks
streaks
on sides
of breast
Weight 78 1916 oz (25 45g)
Social Pairs/Flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
337
THRUSHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Turdidae
Species Catharus guttatus
Hermit Thrush
thin white
eye-ring
gray-brown
upperparts
darker brown
upperparts
dark spots on
whitish breast
ADULT
C. g. faxoni
(EASTERN)
brownish
back
paler
gray
flanks
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
C. g. guttatus
(NORTHWESTERN)
gray-brown
upperparts
dark spots
on buff
breast
more extensive
breast spotting
ADULT
C. g. auduboni
(ROCKIES)
reddish
tail
ADULT
C. g. faxoni
(EASTERN)
tawny buff
flanks
he Hermit Thrushs song is the signature sound of northern

forests in the Eastfluted, almost bi-tonal, far-carrying, and
ending up with almost a question mark. The Hermit Thrush
is Vermonts State Bird. It is so named because of its
solitary lifestyle, especially in winter, when birds maintain
inter-individual territories. Geographical variation within
the vast range of the species has led to the recognition of nine
subspecies (three are illustrated here). Eastern birds winter in
the southern US and Mexico.
flaps and glides.
VOICE Calls tchek, soft, dry; song
flute-like, ethereal, falling, repetitive,
and varied; several phrases delivered
on a different pitch.
NESTING Cup of grasses, mosses,
twigs, leaves, mud, hair, on ground
or in low tree branches; 4 eggs;
12 broods; MayJuly.
FEEDING Mainly forages on ground
URBAN VISITOR
for insects, larvae, earthworms, and
This thrush is frequently seen in wooded areas
snails; in winter, also eats fruit.
in urban and suburban parks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
VEERY
BICKNELLS TRUSH
SWAINSONS THRUSH
see p.334
see p.336
see p.337
tawny
brown
back
olivebrown
back
lightly
spotted
breast
yellow
base of
bill
olive-brown
upperparts
Occurs in coniferous forests

and mixed conifer deciduous
woodlands; prefers to nest
along the edges of a forest
interior, like a bog. During
migration, found in many
wooded habitats. Found
in forest and other open
woodlands during winter
in Mexico.
Weight 78 1116 oz (2530g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
338
WHERE
NOTES
THRUSHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Turdidae
Species Hylocichla mustelina
Wood Thrush
ADULT
white eye-ring
rusty orange
head and back
rusty orange head

reddish brown lower
back and rump
black bill
with pink
base
roundish,
brown
wings
IN FLIGHT
large, black
triangular
spots on
breast, sides,
and flanks
short, reddish
brown tail
pink legs
and toes
ADULT
FLIGHT: straight, direct flight with consistent
wing beats.
he Wood Thrush is perhaps the most striking

of the small North American thrushes, because of
the triangular black spots that cover its underparts, and its rich
rufous head and back. In the breeding season, its flute-like song
echoes through the Northeastern hardwood forests and suburban
wooded areas.Wood Thrush populations have sharply decreased
over the past 30 years, as a direct result of forest destruction and
fragmentation. Sadly, this decline has been exacerbated by its
susceptibility to parasitism by the Brown-headed Cowbird.
VOICE Rapid pip-pippipip or rhuu-rhuu; a three-part flute-like
songfirst part indistinct, second part loudest, third part trilled;
males have variations of all three parts; mainly before sunrise.
NESTING Cup-shaped nest made with dried grass and weeds
in trees or shrubs; 34 eggs; 12 broods; MayJuly.
FEEDING Forages in leaf litter, mainly for worms, beetles,
moths, caterpillars; eats fruit after breeding season.
STUNNING SOLOIST
The Wood Thrush can often be seen singing its

melodious songs from a conspicuous perch.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
see p.334
smaller
overall
Hardwood forests in the East,

from Texas and Florida northward
to Minnesota and the Canadian
Maritimes. Breeds in interior and
at edges of deciduous and mixed
forests; needs dense understory,
shrubbery, and moist soil. Winters
in Texas, Louisiana, Florida, and
south through Central America
to Panama; also Cuba.
HERMIT
THRUSH
VEERY
see p.338
fainter
spotting
reddish
tail
longer
tail
spotting
only on
throat
and
upper
breast
Weight 1716 134 oz (4050g)
Social Pairs/Flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
339
THRUSHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Turdidae
Species Turdus migratorius
American Robin
more
complete
white
eye-ring
yellow
bill
broken white
eye-ring
MALE
dark head
gray back
orangish
red breast
IN FLIGHT
white
rump
dark
streaks
on chin
dark gray
back
FEMALE
spotted
breast
mottled
gray back
JUVENILE
brick-red
underparts
MALE
fairly long,
dark tail
FLIGHT: strong, swift flights with intermittent
flaps and glides.
he American Robin, the largest and most abundant of the

North American thrushes, is probably also the most familiar bird across
the entire continent. Its presence on suburban lawns is a clear sign of spring.
Unlike other species, it has adapted and prospered in human-altered habitats.
It breeds in the entire US and Canada, winters across the US, and migrates
out of most of Canada in fall. The decision to migrate is largely governed by
changes in the availability of food. As the breeding season approaches, it is the
males that sing first, either late in winter or early spring. The birds brick-red
breastmore vivid in males than in femalesis its most distinguishing feature.
VOICE Calls a high pitch tjip and a multi-note, throaty tjuj-tjuk; primary song
a melodious cheer-up, cheer-up, cheer-wee, one of the first birds to be heard
during the dawn chorus, and one of the last to cease singing in the evening.
NESTING Substantial cup of grass, weeds, twigs, strengthened with mud,
in tree or shrub, in fork
SIMILAR SPECIES
of tree, or on branch on
tree; 4 eggs; 23 broods;
VARIED THRUSH orange
eyebrow
see p.472
AprilJuly.
bluish
gray
FEEDING Forages in
upperparts
leaf litter, mainly for
earthworms and
wide
small insects; mostly
black
consumes fruit in
necklace
the winter season.
SEASONAL DIET
Robins are particularly

dependent on the availability of
fruit during the winter months.
OCCURRENCE
Breeding habitat a mix of forest,

woodland, suburban gardens,
lawns, municipal parks, and
farms. A partial migrant, these
robins tend to be found in
woodlands where berry-bearing
trees are present. Nonmigrating
populations winter habitat is
similar to breeding habitat.
Winters in Guatemala.
Weight 258 oz (75g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
340
WHERE
NOTES
OLD WORLD SPARROWS

Order Passeriformes
Family Passeridae
Species Passer domesticus
House Sparrow
white wing
bar
gray
crown
yellowish
bill
buff
eyestripe
brown
nape
black-and-brown
streaks on
upperparts
pale
rump
black
throat
drab brown
underparts
gray
breast
MALE
(SUMMER)
white
wing bar
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
MALE
(SUMMER)
his is the familiar sparrow of towns, cities, suburbs,

and farms. The House Sparrow is not actually a sparrow
as understood in North America, but rather, a member of a
Eurasian family called the weaver-finches. It was first introduced
in Brooklyn, New York, in 1850. From this modest beginning,
and with the help of several other introductions up until the
late 1860s, this hardy and aggressive bird eventually spread right
through the North American continent. In a little more than
150 years, the House Sparrow has evolved and shows the same
sort of geographic variation as some widespread native birds.
It is pale in the arid Southwest, and darker in wetter regions.
VOICE Variety of calls, including a cheery chirp, a dull jurv and
a rough jigga; song consists of chirp notes repeated endlessly.
NESTING Untidy mass of dried vegetable material in either
natural or artificial cavities; 35 eggs; 23 broods; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Mostly seeds; sometimes gleans insects and fruit.
FLIGHT: fast and bouncing, with rapid wing
beats; short wings and tail give it a portly profile.
APTLY NAMED
This sparrow is seen near human structuresroofs,

outbuildings, loading docks, curbs, and streetlights.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
DICKCISSEL 1
DICKCISSEL 27
pale
see p.437
bill
pale
black and
throat tan streaks
see p.437
yellowish
highlights
Flourishes in the downtown

sections of cities and around
human habitations, including
agricultural outbuildings in
remote areas of the continent.
Found also in Mexico, Central
and South America, and the
West Indies. Also widespread
in Eurasia, southeast Asia,
North Africa, and Arabia.
pale
bill
Length 6in (15.5cm)
Weight 581116 oz (1830g)
Social Flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
341
PIPITS AND DIPPERS

Order Passeriformes
Family Motacillidae
American Pipit
faint streaking on
gray upperparts
ADULT
Species Anthus rubescens

buffy
eyestripe
pale
eyebrow
thin, dark bill
dark
mustache
mustache
no streaking on
grayish back
whitish with
heavier
streaking on
chest and
flanks
gray cheek
with buffy
eyestripes
white
outer
tail
feathers
wing
bars
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
pale edges to
wing feathers
light reddish
buffy chest
and flanks
long tail with

white outer
tail feathers
ADULT
(BREEDING)
dark legs
and toes
long hind
claw
FLIGHT: typically strong with a distinct,
undulating, rise and fall pattern.
he American Pipit is divided into four subspecies, three of

which breed in North America, and the fourth in Siberia.
In nonbreeding plumage, the American Pipit is a drab-looking,
brownish gray bird that forages for insects along waterways and
lake shores, or in cultivated fields with short stems. In the breeding
season, molting transforms it into a beautywith gray upperparts
and reddish underparts. American Pipits are known for pumping
their tails up and down.When breeding, males display by rising
into the air, then flying down with wings open and singing. Its
migration takes the American Pipit as far south as Guatemala.
VOICE Alarm call a tzeeep; song repeated tzwee-tzooo from the air.
NESTING Cup in shallow depression on ground, outer frame of
grass, lined with fine grass and hair; 46 eggs; 1 brood; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Picks insects; also eats seeds during migration.
WINTER DRAB
Foraging in short vegetation, this bird is almost

the same color as its surroundings.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HORNED LARK 5
see p.313
less white
on tail
edge
Breeds in Arctic tundra in the

north, and alpine tundra in
the Rockies; also breeds on
treeless mountaintops in
Maine and New Hampshire.
Winters in open coastal areas
and harvested agricultural
fields across the US. Some
North American migrants
fly to Asia for the winter.
SPRAGUES PIPIT
see p.343
heavy streaking
on back
less streaking
on throat
and chest
pale
cheeks
and
throat
pale legs
Weight
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
342
WHERE
NOTES
16 oz (20g)
11
PIPITS AND DIPPERS

Order Passeriformes
Family Motacillidae
Species Anthus spragueii
Spragues Pipit
eyes appear large

pale cheeks
ADULT
broken
collar
white
outer
tail
feathers
thick,
twotone
bill
thin mustache
heavily
streaked
back
two pale
wing bars
IN FLIGHT
buffy wash
on flanks
pale
whitish
belly,
unstreaked
ADULT
FLIGHT: strong with distinct up and down
long, pale pink

legs and toes
white outer
tail feathers
bobbing; prefers running to escape predators.
pragues is the only wholly

long, dark
hind claw
North American pipit.
Males perform a very
extraordinary fluttering display flight, circling high above
the earth while singing an unending series of high-pitched
calls, for periods of up to an hour.The current decline in the
population of the Spragues Pipit is quite likely the result of
the conversion of tall-grass native prairie to extensive farmland.
Interestingly, the Chaco Pipit of Argentina now breeds almost
exclusively in wheat fields, offering some hope for this species.
VOICE Call a high squeeek; song a high, repetitive series of
szee- szee-szee, usually given during lengthy aerial displays.
NESTING Small cup of loose woven grass on the ground
and level with it, often attached to standing vegetation to
form a sort of dome; 45 eggs; 12 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Feeds almost exclusively on insects when breeding,
especially crickets and grasshoppers; eats seeds occasionally.
SONG PERCH
This Spragues Pipit sings from a perch in its

vanishing tall-grass prairie habitat.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HORNED LARK 5
AMERICAN PIPIT
see p.313
see p.342
shorter
tail, less
white
unstreaked
gray back
lessstreaked
on throat
and chest
dark
legs
Spragues Pipit is truly North

American; it breeds along the
border of Canada with the US,
in dry, open, tall-grass upland
habitat, especially native prairie
systems in the northern part
of the Great Plains; most
birds migrate to Mexico in
winter, where habitat is
similar to breeding grounds.
thin,
dark
bill
streaked
chest, belly
and anks
Weight
Social Solitary
Lifespan Unknown
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
16 78oz (20 25g)
11
NOTES
343
Family Fringillidae
FINCHES
applies to the
T
Fringillidae, a family of seed-eating songbirds
that includes 16 species in North America.
HE NAME FINCHES
They vary in size and shape from the small and

fragile-looking redpolls to the robust and chunky
Evening Grosbeak. Finch colors range from
whitish with some pink (redpolls) to gold
(American Goldfinch), bright red (crossbills),
and yellow, white, and black (Evening Grosbeak).
However, irrespective of body shape, size, and
color, all have conical
bills with razor-sharp
edges. Finches do not
crush seeds. Instead,
they cut open the hard
hull, then seize the seed
inside with their tongue
and swallow it. The bills
of conifer-loving
CROSSBILL
crossbills are crossed at
Perched on a pine tree branch,
the tip, a unique
a female Red Crossbill grinds a
arrangement that
seed in her bill to break open
permits them to open
the hull and reach the fat-rich
tough-hulled pine
kernel inside.
cones. Roughly
50 percent of crossbills
are left-billed and
50 percent rightbilledlefties are rightfooted, and vice versa. Most
finches are social. Although
they breed in pairs, after
nesting finches form
flocks, some of
which are huge.
Most finch
NOT REALLY PURPLE
populations fluctuate in The inaccurately named Purple
size, synchronized with
Finch actually has a lovely
seed production and
wine-red color.
abundance. All finches
are vocal, calling constantly while flying, and
singing in the spring. Calls are usually sharp,
somewhat metallic sounds, although the American
Goldfinchs tinkling calls are sweeter. Songs can be
quite musical, clear-sounding melodies, like that of
the Cassins Finch. Finches make open cup-shaped
nests of grasses and lichens, in trees or shrubs, and
are remarkably adept at hiding them.
GARDEN GLOW
Even pink flower buds

cannot compete with
the yellow of a male
American Goldfinch.
FINCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Fringillidae
Species Carduelis pinus
Pine Siskin
pale eyebrow
brownish
cheek
conspicuous yellow
wing bar
notched
tail
heavily
streaked
back
slender,
pointed
bill
MALE
yellow in outer
wing feathers
IN FLIGHT
heavily
streaked
underparts
yellow base
of tail
ADULT
FLIGHT: undulating, with quick series of wing
beats and closed-wing glides.
his unpredictable little bird of the conifer belt

runs in gangs and hordes, zipping over the trees with
incessant twittering. An expert at disguise, the Pine Siskin can
resemble a clusters of pine needles or cones, and even disappear when
a Sharp-shinned Hawk appears. Often abundant wherever there are pines,
spruces, and other conifers, Pine Siskins may still disappoint birdwatchers
by making a mass exodus from a region if the food supply is not to their
liking. A vicious fighter at feeding tables, nomadic by nature, with high
energy and fearlessness, the Pine Siskin is a fascinating species.
VOICE Rising toooeeo, mostly when perched;
also raspy chit-chit-chit in flight.
NESTING Shallow cup of grass and lichens
near the end of a conifer branch; 34 eggs;
12 broods; FebruaryAugust.
FEEDING Eats conifer seeds; gleans insects
and spiders; also seen feeding on roadsides,
lawns, and weed fields.
see p.370
tiny,
pale
bill
heavier
streaking
QUARRELSOME
A bird warns off a neighbor

at a food source, displaying
its yellow wing stripe.
Widespread across North
America; occurs in coniferous
and mixed coniferous forests,
but also seen in parkland
and suburbs. In some winters
may appear south of regular
breeding range to Missouri
and Tennessee, also Mexico.
Prefers open areas to
continuous forest.
YELLOW-RUMPED
WARBLER 1
see p.347
The streaked Pine Siskin

inhabits northern and western
coniferous forests.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON REDPOLL
FOREST DWELLER
yellow
rump
yellow
patches
Weight 716 58oz (1218g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
345
FINCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Fringillidae
Species Carduelis tristis
American Goldfinch
brownish
bill
tan back
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
brownish
olive back
yellow
throat
and collar
bright
yellow
back
pinkish bill
black
forehead
and crown
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
pale tan
underparts
IN FLIGHT
short,
conical
pinkish
bill
black tail
white
rump
brownish
overall
dull yellow
throat
bright yellow
underparts
white
wing
bar
pinkish legs
and feet
MALE
(BREEDING)
FEMALE
(NONBREEDING)
ometimes described as a giant yellow-and-black bumblebee,

a male American Goldfinch is a spectacular summer sight.
FLIGHT: deeply undulating; wing beats
Goldfinches reveal their presence before they are seen by
alternating with closed-wing dips.
their tinkling, bell-like calls. If there are weeds in seed around,
goldfinches will find them and feed energetically on the manna.
This all-American species is the State Bird of Washington State.
VOICE Loud, rising, quizzical pter-yee? by males; 35-note
tit-tse-tew-tew by both sexes, usually in flight; song complex,
warbling, tinkling, and melodious.
NESTING Neat open cup of grass, shaded by leaves, in a tree
or tall shrub; 45 eggs; 12 broods; JuneSeptember.
FEEDING Feed mainly on seeds from annuals; also birch and alder; some
insects; love sunflower and thistle seed, whether on flower heads or at feeders.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LAWRENCES GOLDFINCH
LESSER GOLDFINCH
WILSONS WARBLER
see p.389
see p.465
yellow
wing
bars
greenish
back
conspicuous
wing bars
black face
black
cap
yellow
breast
yellow
face
In low shrubs, deciduous

woodlands, farmlands,
orchards, suburbs, and
gardens across much of
North America, from southern
Canada to California and
Georgia; in winter south to
northern Mexico and Florida;
winter habitats similar to
those used at other times.
Weight 381116oz (1120g)
Social Small flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
346
WHERE
NOTES
FINCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Fringillidae
Species Carduelis flammea
Common Redpoll
red cap
small, pointed
yellow bill
ruby-red
cap
rosy-red
breast
MALE
(BREEDING)
MALE
wing
bars
reddish
cap
IN FLIGHT
black
streaks
on
rosy-red
breast
streaked
underparts
FEMALE
pale
wing
bars
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
pale wing
bar
notched tail
JUVENILE
very other year, spruce, birch, and other trees in the northern
forest zone fail to produce a good crop of seeds, forcing the
Common Redpoll to look for food farther south than usual
as far south as the northern US states. The Common Redpoll
FLIGHT: deeply undulating, with dips between
is oddly tame around people and is easily attracted to winter
bouts of wing beats.
feeders. The degree of whiteness in its plumage varies greatly
among individuals, related to sex and age. The taxonomy of the
Common Redpoll includes four subspecies around the world,
and there are suggestions that some may be distinct species.
VOICE Flight call dry zit-zit-zit-zit and rattling chirr; also high too-ee call while
perched; song series of rapid trills.
NESTING Cup of small twigs in spruces, larches,
willows, alders; 46 eggs; 12 broods; MayJune.
FEEDING Feeds on small seeds from conifers,
sedge, birch, willow, alder; also insects and spiders.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PINE SISKIN
HOARY REDPOLL
see p.345
see p.465
red
cap
brownish
upperparts
yellow
on tail
FRIENDLY FLOCK
two
wing
bars
pale
overall
whitish
underparts
Common Redpolls are only

weakly territorial, sometimes
even nesting close together.
Mainly in extreme northern

North America from Alaska to
Qubec and Labrador, in low
forest, sub-Arctic, and shrubby
tundra habitats. More southern
winter appearances typically
occur every other year, rarely
south of northern US states,
from the Dakotas east to
New York and New England.
Weight 38 1116oz (1119g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
347
FINCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Fringillidae
Purple Finch
pinkish
red
body
MALE
Species Carpodacus purpureus

brown stripe
between eye
and bill
brownish,
conical bill
pale brown
overall
raspberry-red
crown
lightly streaked
overall
pink-and-brown
streaked
upperparts
darker,
streaked
wings
FEMALE
round, brownish
wings
IN FLIGHT
pink rump and
upper tail
MALE
whitish belly
with rosy
patches
ne of three difficult-to-distinguish members of the genus

Carpodacus in North America, the Purple Finch is best
known as a visitor to winter feeding stations. The western
subspecies (californicus) is slightly darker and duller than
the eastern form (purpureus). Only moderately common, the
FLIGHT: rapid wing beats, alternating with
raspberry-red males pose less of an identification challenge
downward glides.
than the brown-streaked females. Even on
their breeding grounds in open and mixed
coniferous forest, Purple Finches are more
often heard than seen.
VOICE Flight call single, rough pikh; songs
rich series of notes, up and down in pitch.
NESTING Cup of sticks and grasses on a
conifer branch; 4 eggs; 2 broods; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats buds, seeds, flowers of
RASPBERRY TINTED
deciduous trees; insects and caterpillars
On a lichen-covered branch this male's
in summer; also seeds and berries.
delicate coloring is quite striking.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HOUSE FINCH 1
CASSINS FINCH 1
Breeds in northern mixed

conifer and hardwood forests
in the East, where it is partially
migratory, moves as far south
as the Gulf Coast. Resident
from Baja California north
along the Pacific coast and
the Cascade Mountains to
Yukon Territory.
RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD 1
western;
see p.349
see p.396
larger
overall
thinner
streaks
more
marked
facial
patterning
heavily
streaked
darker
overall
Weight
Social Flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
348
WHERE
NOTES
16 1116 oz (20 30g)
11
FINCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Fringillidae
Species Carpodacus mexicanus
House Finch
brown cap
grayish
streaks
all over
red face
usually
brick-red
bib and
head
brown
upperparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
FEMALE
pinkish
head
IN FLIGHT
pale brown
streaking
streaked belly
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
brown
streaked
undertail
feathers
long tail
feathers
MALE (BREEDING)
FLIGHT: bouncy, undulating flight typical
of finches; usually flies above treetop level.
istorically, the House Finch was a western bird, and was first reported
in the eastern side of the US on Long Island, New York, in 1941. These
birds are said to have originated from the illegal bird trade. The population
of the eastern birds started expanding in the 1960s, so much so that by the
late 1990s, their population had expanded westward to link up with the
original western population. The male House Finch is distinguished from
the Purple and Cassins finches by its brown streaked underparts, while the
females have plainer faces and generally blurrier streaking.
VOICE Call note queet; varied jumble of notes, often starting with husky
notes to whistled and burry notes, and ending with a long wheeerr.
NESTING Females build nests from grass stems, thin twigs, and thin weeds
in trees and on man-made structures; 16 eggs; 23 broods; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Eats, almost exclusively, vegetable matter, such as buds, fruits, and
seeds; readily comes to feeders.
Found in urban, suburban,

and settled areas; in the East
almost exclusively in settled
areas, including the centers
of large cities; in the West
also in wilder areas such as
savannas, desert grasslands,
and chaparral, particularly
near people. Resident, some
birds move after breeding.
CASSINS FINCH
see p.348
pinkish
neck
reddish
head
whitish
underparts
The breeding male House Finch

can be identified by its stunning
brick-red plumage.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PURPLE FINCH
RED IN THE FACE
white
underparts
Length 5 6in (12.5 15cm)
Weight 916 1oz (16 27g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
349
FINCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Fringillidae
Species Pinicola enucleator
Pine Grosbeak
pinkish red
head
greenish head
pale
patch
under
eye
two white
wing bars
greenish
rump
stubby,
curved,
blackish bill
short neck
gray belly
MALE
FEMALE
pinkish rump
IN FLIGHT
long,
blackish
tail
IMMATURE
MALE
MALE
pinkish
red
underparts
(but
regionally
variable)
FLIGHT: undulating, buoyant, calm wing beats
interrupted by glides.
he largest member of the Fringillidae family in

North America, and easily distinguished by the males
unmistakable thick, stubby bill, the Pine Grosbeak is a resident of
boreal forests in northeastern Canada and the Adirondacks. The
bird is also found across northern Eurasia, where nine subspecies
have been identified, four of which are found in North America.
Due to extensive color variation of individual plumages, the age
and sex of given individuals are not always easily determined.
VOICE Contact calls of eastern birds tee-tew, or tee-tee-tew;
western forms give more complex tweedle; warbling song.
NESTING Well-hidden, open cup nest usually in spruce or
larch trees; 25 eggs, 1 brood; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Eats spruce buds, maple seeds, and mountain ash
berries throughout the year; consumes insects in summer.
FRUIT LOVER
This species can often be seen hanging

from branches, gorging on ripe fruit.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RED CROSSBILL
WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL
see p.351
see p.352
brownish
back
mandibles
crossed
mandibles
crossed
Found in the boreal zone

from Alaska to Qubec and
Newfoundland, in open,
northern coniferous forests
in summer, usually near fresh
water. Winters throughout its
breeding range, but may move
southward to southern Canada
and the northeastern US.
white bars
on wing
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
350
WHERE
NOTES
FINCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Fringillidae
Species Loxia curvirostra
Red Crossbill
black wings
crown usually
brick-red
black stripe
over eye
crossed
mandibles
MALE
streaked
belly
red body
some males
greenish red
overall
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
dark brown
wings
MALE
red rump
greenish
breast
dark
wings
MALE
FEMALE
he Red Crossbill has evolved one

of the most efficient mechanisms
to unlock the seeds of conifers.The highly
adapted bill is used to bite between the scales
of a conifer cone and pry them apart, then the
seed is lifted out with its tongue. Eight different
forms have been recognized, all of the same color but different
in body size, bill shape and size. Each form has a different
flight call and rarely interbreeds with other forms even where
they overlap. These forms may actually be different species.
VOICE Common call jit repeated 25 times; song complex,
continuous warbling of notes, whistles, and buzzes.
NESTING Cup nest on lateral conifer branch; 35 eggs; 2 broods;
can breed year-round.
FEEDING Feeds on pine seeds; also insects and larvae, particularly
aphids; also other seeds.
FLIGHT: strong and deeply undulating.
PROCESSING SEEDS
The Red Crossbill manipulates seeds with its

tongue before swallowing them.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL
see p.352
see p.436
conspicuous
wing bars
Range covers coniferous

or mixed-coniferous and
deciduous forests from
Newfoundland to British
Columbia and southern
Alaska; also mountain forests
in the Rockies, south to
Mexico; irregular movements,
depending on the availability
of pine cones.
SCARLET
TANAGER
vivid red
plumage
no
black
stripe
pinker
plumage
Length 5 634 in (1317cm)
Weight 78 114oz (25 35g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
351
FINCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Fringillidae
Species Loxia leucoptera

crossed mandibles
White-winged Crossbill
brownish
green head
two conspicuous
white wing bars
variable dark
patch on cheek
dark brown
wings
red
body
greenish streaked
underparts
MALE
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
blackish wings
MALE
pinkish red
underparts
notched tail
FLIGHT: strong and undulating with quick
wing beats alternating with glides.
one debris, needles, and whole cones clatter down from

a spruce in the otherwise silent winter forest. Some
twittering is heard, and then a chorus of metallic, yanking notes
reveals that a flock of a dozen White-winged Crossbills has been
causing all the commotion. In an instant, the entire flock erupts
into the air, calling loudly in flight, only to disappear completely
in the distance. Few other creatures of the northern forests go
about their business with such determined energy, and no others
accent a winter woodland with hot pink and magentathe
colors of the White-winged Crossbills head and breast.
VOICE Calls are sharp, chattering plik, or deeper tyoop, repeated
in series of 37 notes; song melodious trilling.
NESTING Open cup nest, usually high on end of a spruce
branch; eggs 35; 2 broods; July, JanuaryFebruary.
FEEDING Eats seeds from small-coned conifers; spruces, firs,
larches; feeds on insects when available.
EATING SNOW
The White-winged Crossbill frequently eats snow

to provide essential moisture.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PINE GROSBEAK
see p.350
Nomadic; most common

in the spruce zone of Alaska
and Canada but has bred
as far south as Colorado in
the West; in the East, from
Qubec and Newfoundland
southward to New York City
and New England.
RED CROSSBILL
blunt bill
longer
tail
see p.351
no wing
bars
redder
plumage
Weight
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
352
WHERE
NOTES
16 1116 oz (20 30g)
11
FINCHES
Order Passeriformes
Family Fringillidae
Species Hesperiphona vespertina
Evening Grosbeak
black wing
tips
conspicuous
yellow
eyebrow
very dark gray head

and shoulders
yellow rump
MALE
huge,
yellowish
bill
large white
wing patches
large white
wing patch
MALE
IN FLIGHT
black outer
wing feathers
mustard
yellow
underparts
large
grayish
bill
grayish
wing patch
short, square
tail
here is no mistaking a noisy, boisterous winter flock of husky

FEMALE
gold-and-black Evening Grosbeaks when they descend on
a birdfeeder.The birds outsize yellow bill seems to be made as
much for threatening would-be rivals as it is designed for efficiently
cracking sunflower seeds. In the breeding season, by contrast, the
Evening Grosbeak is secretive and seldom detected, neither singing
loudly nor displaying ostentatiously and nesting high in a tree. Once FLIGHT: undulating, with dips between bouts
a bird of western North America, it has extended its range eastward of wing beats, may hover briefly.
in the past 200 years, and now breeds as far as Newfoundland.This
may be a result of the planting of ornamental box elder, which carries
its abundant seeds winter-long, ensuring a ready food supply for the bird.
VOICE Call descending feeew; also buzzy notes and beeping chatter.
NESTING Loose, grass-lined twig cup, usually on conifer branch;
34 eggs; 12 broods; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats seeds of pines and other conifers;
also maple and box elder seeds; also insects and their
larvae, particularly spruce budworms, which are
actually Tortricid moths.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PINE GROSBEAK 1 stubby
see p.350
bill
BALTIMORE ORIOLE 1
see p.394
slender aspect
wing
bars
pale orange
underparts
gray
underparts
mottled
head
CAPABLE BILL
This birds extremely robust

bill can deal with all kinds
of winter fruits and seeds.
Breeds in mixed conifer and

spruce forests from the Rocky
Mountain region to eastern
Canada, and in western
mountain ranges south to
Mexico. Winters in coniferous or
deciduous woodlands, often in
suburban locations; may move
south from northern range,
depending on food supply.
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
353
Family Parulidae
WOOD-WARBLERS
is restricted to the
T
Americas, and is remarkable for its diversity
in plumage, song, feeding, breeding biology, and
HE FAMILY PARULIDAE
sexual dimorphism. In general, however, woodwarblers share similar shapes: all are smallish,
slender birds with longish, thin bills (unlike thick
vireo bills) mostly used for snapping up insects.
The odd, chunky, thick-billed Yellow-breasted
Chat is an exception. Molecular data suggests
what some birders have long thought: that it is
not a warbler at all. However, there is not yet any
consensus as to what family this bird belongs in.
Ground-dwelling
warblers tend to be
larger and clad in olives,
browns, and yellows,
whereas many arboreal
species are smaller and
sport bright oranges,
cool blues, and even
ruby reds. The location
FEEDING STRATEGIES
and presence or absence
Some warblers, such as this
of wingbars and tail
Black-and-White, probe the
cracks in tree trunks for food.
spots is often a good
STATIC PLUMAGE
In other warbler species, such

as this Golden-winged, males
keep their stunning plumage
year-round.
identification aid.
Warblers are especially
diverse in the East,
where over 30 species
may be seen in a single
morning of spring
birding, which may
be the highlight of
the year for some
birdwatchers. Eastern
PLASTIC PLUMAGE
species have three
Some male Dendroica warblers
different migration
(like this Blackburnian) are only
routes to deal with the
brightly colored when breeding.
obstacle of the Gulf of
Mexico when going to or coming from their
Neotropical wintering grounds. Circum-Gulf
migrants fly along the eastern shore of Mexico,
Caribbean migrants travel through Florida then
island-hop through the West Indies, and trans-Gulf
migrants fly directly across the Gulf of Mexico, from
the Yucatn Peninsula to the US Gulf Coast. Birds
flying this third route are subjected to weather
changes that sometimes result in spectacular fallouts
at locations such as High Island,Texas.
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Vermivora chrysoptera
Golden-winged Warbler
bright yellow
wing panel
gray
back
bright
yellow
crown
black mask
gray back
suffused with
yellow
MALE
white
outer tail
feathers
unstreaked
wings
black
throat
IN FLIGHT
yellow
wing panel
white
undertail
gray
mask
MALE
greenish
yellow
crown
FEMALE
ne of the continents most beautiful warblers,

this species is unfortunately being genetically
swamped by the more southerly Blue-winged Warbler.
This situation is worsening as more habitat is cleared and
climate changes take place. It commonly interbreeds with the
Blue-winged, resulting in two more frequently seen hybrid forms:
Brewsters Warbler, which resembles the Blue-winged Warbler, and
Lawrences Warbler, which looks like a Blue-winged Warbler with
the mask and black throat of a Golden-winged.
VOICE Call a sharp tsip; flight call high, slightly buzzy ziiih;
song buzzy zee zuu zuu zuu, first note higher; birds that deviate
from this song pattern may be hybrids.
NESTING Shallow bulky cup, on or just above ground; 46 eggs;
1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Hangs upside-down at clusters of curled-up dead
leaves; feeds on moth larvae, other winged insects, and spiders.
FLIGHT: typical warbler flight: fast, slightly
undulating, and direct with rapid wing beats.
SMALL TREES REQUIRED
Golden-winged Warblers breed in shrubby

habitats created by clearance and re-growth.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CAROLINA CHICKADEE
see p.302
black
cap
yellowish wash
on underparts
BLACK-CAPPED
CHICKADEE
Breeds in the northeastern

US and southern Canada in
secondary growth habitat with
dense patches of deciduous
shrubs or tangles, or in marshes
with a forest edge; uses any
wooded habitat on migration;
winters in Central America from
Guatemala to northern Colombia;
mostly along the Caribbean.
black
cap
see p.303
white
cheek
buffy
underparts
Weight 932 38oz (8 11g)
Social Migrant/Winter flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
355
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Vermivora pinus
Blue-winged Warbler
blackish wings
white in
outer tail
yellow patch
on wing
yellow
head
black
mask
blue-gray wings
MALE
fine
white
wing bars
black
eye-line
MALE
(BREWSTERS
HYBRID)
IN FLIGHT
two wing
bars
white
undertail
feathers
spiky bill
MALE
yellow breast
and belly
FEMALE
yellow
underparts
bright-yellow bird, the Blue-winged Warbler breeds along

forest edges and in second growth. Despite their many
differences, Blue-winged and Golden-winged Warblers are
closely related and interbreed freely, producing a variety of
fertile combinations.The most frequently produced hybrid,
FLIGHT: typical warbler flight: fast, slightly
Brewsters Warbler, named in 1874, was once believed to be
undulating, and direct with rapid wing beats.
a different species. It is similar to the Golden-winged Warbler
(yellowish breast, two yellow wing bars), but has the Blue-wingeds
facial pattern, minus the black mask and throat.
VOICE Sharp tsip call, like Spizella sparrows; flight call: a high, slightly buzzy
ziiih; song is a low, harsh, buzzy beee-burrrrr, second note very low in pitch
and rattling; deviation from this song pattern may hint at hybrid origin.
NESTING Deep, bulky cup of vegetation, just off the ground in grasses;
FEEDING Hangs upside-down at clusters of dead
leaves; probes for moth larvae and small insects.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
YELLOW WARBLER 1
PROTHONOTARY WARBLER 1
see p.362
see p.378
yellow
wings
lacks
black
mask
shorter
tail
lacks
white
wing
bars
DECEPTIVE HYBRID
The black border to this birds

ear patch indicates a Blue- or
Golden-winged ancestry.
Breeds in areas of secondgrowth forest, but is less

choosy than the Goldenwinged Warbler and can use
older and taller stands. Occurs
in any wooded habitat during
migration. Migrates across
the Gulf of Mexico to winter
in southeastern Mexico, central
Panama, and the West Indies.
Weight 932 38 oz (811g)
Social Loose flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
356
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Vermivora peregrina
Tennessee Warbler
gray
head
white
eyestripe
olive-green
upperparts
olive-gray
head
blue-gray
crown
spiky
bill
olive back
and wings
whitish
belly
FEMALE
MALE
(BREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
white
undertail
feathers
olive-gray
back
yellowish
throat and
breast
grayish white
underparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
MALE (FALL)
he Tennessee Warbler was named on the basis of a specimen

found in that state on migration, as this species breeds almost
entirely in Canada and winters in Central America.These warblers
inhabit fairly remote areas and their nests are difficult to find. It is
one of a number of species that takes advantage of outbreaks of
spruce budworms (actually Tortricid moths); their populations
tend to increase in years when budworms themselves increase.
VOICE Call a sharp tzit; flight call a thin slightly rolling seet;
song usually three-part staccato series, chip-chip-chip, each series
increasing in pitch and usually in tempo.
NESTING Nest woven of fine plant matter, in ground depression,
concealed from above by shrubbery; 47 eggs; 1 brood; June.
FEEDING Searches outer branches of trees for caterpillars, bees,
wasps, beetles, and spiders; also eats fruits in winter and drinks
nectar by piercing base of flowers.
FLIGHT: fast, slightly undulating, and direct
UNIQUE UNDERPARTS
The breeding male is the only North American woodwarbler with unmarked grayish white underparts.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PHILADELPHIA
VIREO
see p.291
white
eyebrow
Breeds in a variety of habitats,

especially woodlands with
dense understory and thickets
of willows and alders. Very
common in suburban parks
and gardens during migration,
particularly in the Midwest.
Winters from southern Mexico
to northern Ecuador and
northern Venezuela; also Cuba.
ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER
see p.358
shorter
wings
greenish
yellow
yellowish
underparts rump
muted
markings
Weight 932 58 oz (817g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
357
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Vermivora celata
Orange-crowned Warbler
gray head
dull olive
overall
drabber plumage
overall
MALE
IN FLIGHT
pale
yellow
eyebrow
crown shows orange

when bird alarmed
olive-green
upperparts
yellow
undertail
feathers
IMMATURE
(EAST; 1ST WINTER)
short wings
muted breast
markings
greenish
yellow rump
ADULT (WEST)
ncommon and dull-colored in the East, but more common

and brightly colored in the West, the Orange-crowned
Warbler has a large breeding range. The 19th-century American
naturalist Thomas Say described this species on the basis of
specimens collected in Nebraska. He was struck by the tiny
orange cap, but because it was so concealed in the plumage
of the crown, he named it celata, which is Latin for hidden.
The orange cap is not usually visible in the field.
VOICE Call a clean, sharp tsik; flight call a high, short seet; song a
loose, lazy trill; eastern birds lazier, western birds more emphatic.
NESTING Cup of grasses, fibers, and down, usually on ground
under bush; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Gleans mostly arthropods such as beetles, ants, spiders,
and their larvae; also eats fruits; collects nectar by piercing base
of flower.
FACE MARKINGS
In eastern populations of this warbler, the birds have

whitish facial markings during their first winter.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
TENNESSEE WARBLER 6
YELLOW WARBLER 1
see p.357
see p.362
Breeds in a variety of habitats

across North America from
Alaska eastward to
Newfoundland, and in the West
from British Columbia southward
to California, New Mexico,
and western Texas. Prefers
streamside thickets. Some winter
in the West, while others go to
Mexico and Guatemala.
yellow
upperparts
longer
wings
whitish
underparts
bright
yellow
breast
and belly
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight 14 38 oz (711g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
358
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Vermivora ruficapilla

whitish
eye-ring
Nashville Warbler
little contrast
between gray
and yellow
MALE
V. r. ruficapilla
(EASTERN)
dull olive
back
olive-green
upperparts
olive
wings
IN FLIGHT
rounded
wings
dull yellow
underparts
rufous
crown patch
blue-gray
head
grayish
green back
yellow
undertail
feathers
conspicuous
white eye-ring
olive
wings
FEMALE
V. r. ruficapilla
(EASTERN)
MALE
V. r. ridgwayi
(WESTERN)
lthough often confused with the ground-walking, chunky

Connecticut Warbler, the Nashville Warbler is much smaller,
hops about up in trees, and has a yellow throat. Nashville has
FLIGHT: fast, slightly undulating, and direct,
two subspecies: V. r. ruficapilla in the East and V. r. ridgwayi in the
West. Differences in voice, habitat, behavior, and plumage hint that
they may in fact be separate species. V. r. ridgwayi can be distinguished
by more extensive white on the belly and a grayish green back.
VOICE Call sharp tik, sharper in West; flight call high, thin siit; eastern song two
parts: first part lazy, second faster trill tee-tsee tee-tsee tee-tsee tititititi; western song
slightly lower and fuller with lazier second part, a seldom trilled tee-tsee tee-tsee teetsee weesay weesay way.
NESTING Cup hidden on ground in dense cover;
36 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Gleans insects and spiders from trees.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
VIRGINIAS
WARBLER
CONNECTICUT
WARBLER 2
walks on ground;
see p.385
lacks
yellow
belly
lacks
olive
wings
shorter
tail
chunky
pink bill
FIELD MARKS
The white eye-ring and belly are

evident on this singing male.
Eastern ruficapilla breeds in wet

habitats from Saskatchewan east
to Newfoundland and south to
West Virginia; it migrates south
to winter in Mexico. Western
ridgwayi breeds in brushy
montane habitats of the Sierras
and northern Rockies, and winters
in coastal California, and from
southern Texas to Guatemala.
Length 434in (12cm)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
359
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Parula americana
Northern Parula
dark patch
between eye
and bill
interrupted white
eye-ring
MALE
yellow
throat
blue-gray neck
and head
two white
wing bars
yellow chest,
lacks chestnut
streaks
chestnut
streaks
on chest
olive
back
IN FLIGHT
FEMALE
gray rump and
uppertail
delicate,
pale gray
belly
MALE
dark
legs
pinkish
yellow
toes
white patches on
outer tail feathers
he Northern Parula
is a small wood-warbler that somewhat
resembles a chickadee in its active foraging behavior. This
bird depends on specific nesting materialsUsnea lichens,
or Old Mans Beard, in the north, and Tillandsia, or Spanish
Moss, in the South. The Northern Parulas song is one of the
early signs that May has arrived. The Northern Parula
interbreeds with the Tropical Parula in southern Texas where
their ranges overlap, producing hybrids.
VOICE Call a very sharp tsip; flight call a thin, weak, descending
tsiif; song a variable, most common buzzy upslurred trill, variably
continuous or in steps, ending very high, but then dropping off
in an emphatic zip.
NESTING Hanging
SIMILAR SPECIES
pouch in clump of
lichens; 45 eggs; 1
TROPICAL
PARULA
dark
brood; MayJuly (south)
see p.466
face
or AprilAugust (north).
FEEDING Gleans for
caterpillars, flies, moths,
beetles,wasps, ants,
more
yellow
spiders; also eats berries,
nectar, some seeds.
THE AMERICAN FINCH-CREEPER
Carolus Linnaeus described this bird on the basis

of a plate in Catesbys Natural History of
Carolina, called Finch-creeper.
OCCURRENCE
Nests in almost any kind

of wooded area if Tillandsia
or Usnea are available.
Migrants (some of which
cross the Gulf of Mexico)
occur in almost any habitat;
winters in varied habitats
from southern Texas and
Florida across Caribbean
and Mexico south to Panama.
Length 414in (11cm)
Wingspan 7in (18cm)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
360
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica pensylvanica
Chestnut-sided Warbler
yellow
cap
MALE (BREEDING)
two yellow
wing bars
black
mustache
conspicuous
white cheeks
yellow-and-black
streaks on
upperparts
yellow
crown
chestnut band
along flanks
IN FLIGHT
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
white
outer
tail feathers
white
throat
white tail
spots
two wing
bars
olive crown
rich chestnut
flanks
bright
lime-green
above
plain face with

white eye-ring
MALE
(BREEDING)
FEMALE
(1ST FALL)
plain gray
underside
he Chestnut-sided Warbler is one of the few wood-warbler

species that has benefited from deforestation, because it
depends on deciduous second-growth and forest edges for
breeding. Once a rare bird, it is more common now than it
was in the early 19th century. These birds vary in appearance,
immature females looking quite unlike adult males in breeding.
In all plumages, yellowish wing bars and whitish belly are the
most distinguishing characteristics. Its pleasant song has long
been transcribed as pleased pleased pleased to MEETcha.
VOICE Call a sweet chip; flight call a low, burry brrrt; song a series
of fast, sweet notes, usually ending with emphatic WEET-chew.
NESTING Open, easy-to-find cup just off ground in small
deciduous tree or shrub; 35 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Eats insects, especially larvae; also berries and seeds.
MALE TERRITORY
This singing, territorial male prefers secondgrowth thickets as its habitat.

OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACKPOLL WARBLER 6
BAY-BREASTED WARBLER 6
see p.363
see p.364
white
wing
bars
white wing
bars
pale stripe
on face
ne
streaks
on breast
buffy
undertail
Breeds in successive stages

of regrowth in deciduous
forests, from Alberta to the
Great Lakes, New England,
and the Appalachians; isolated
populations in the Midwest.
Winters in the West Indies,
Mexico, and Central America,
south to Venezuela and
northern Colombia.
olive
upperparts
greenish
underside
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Weight 932 716oz (813g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
361
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica petechia
Yellow Warbler
plain
face
dark flight
feathers with
yellow edges
dull
yellowish
overall
MALE
faint yellow
wing bars
bright yellow face

with conspicuous
black eye
thin,
pointed bill
yellow
upperparts
IMMATURE
FEMALE
(1ST WINTER)
mostly
yellow tail
IN FLIGHT
yellowish
olive back
rusty streaks on
breast and flanks
MALE
yellow underparts
dull brown
legs and toes
FEMALE
y May, the song of the Yellow Warbler can be heard across

North America as the birds arrive for the summer.This species
is extremely variable geographically, with about 40 subspecies,
especially on its tropical range (West Indies and Central and
South America). The Yellow Warbler is known to build another
nest on top of an old one when cowbird eggs appear in it,
which can result in up to six different tiers. The Yellow Warbler
does not walk, but rather hops from branch to branch.
VOICE Call a variable chip, sometimes given in series; flight call
buzzy zeep; song variable series of fast, sweet notes; western birds
often add an emphatic ending.
NESTING Deep cup of plant material, grasses in vertical fork of
deciduous tree or shrub; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats mostly insects and insect larvae, plus some fruit.
ONE OF A KIND
This species has more yellow in its plumage than

any other North American wood-warbler.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ORANGE-CROWNED
WARBLER
WILSONS
dark crown
WARBLER 1
see p.358
see p.389
olivegreen
overall
Widespread in most shrubby

and second-growth habitats
of North America. Migrates to
southern US and southward
to Mexico, Central America,
and South America. Resident
populations live in Florida
and the West Indies.
longer
tail
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
362
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica striata
Blackpoll Warbler
white
tail
spots
MALE
greenish upperparts
with fine black
streaks
black
cap
white
cheek
faint,fine
streaking on
underparts
two
white
wing
bars
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
bold black
streaks on
gray back
greenish
overall
streaking
on breast
streaked
underparts
MALE
(FALL)
pale feet
contrasting
with darker legs
white
undertail
feathers
MALE
(BREEDING)
orange
legs
he Blackpoll Warbler is well known for undergoing

a remarkable fall migration that takes it over the Atlantic
Ocean from the northeastern US to northern Venezuela. Before
departing, it almost doubles its body weight with fat to serve as
fuel for the nonstop journey.With the return of spring, most of
these birds travel the shorter Caribbean route back north.
VOICE Call piercing chip; flight call high, buzzy yet sharp tzzzt;
common song crescendo of fast, extremely high-pitched ticks,
ending with a decrescendo tsst tsst TSST TSST TSST tsst tsst;
less commonly, ticks run into even faster trill.
NESTING Well-hidden cup placed low against conifer trunk;
35 eggs; 12 broods; May-July.
FEEDING Gleans arthropods, such as worms and beetles, but
will take small fruit in fall and winter.
REACHING THE HIGH NOTES
The song of the male Blackpoll is so high-pitched

that it is inaudible to many people.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BAY-BREASTED WARBLER 6
see p.364
cheek
see p.376
greenish sides
to neck
warm
wash to
anks
Breeds in spruce-fir forests

across the northern boreal
forest zone from Alaska
eastward to Newfoundland,
southward to coastal coniferous
forests in the Maritimes and
northern New England. Migrants
fly over the Atlantic Ocean to
a landfall in the Caribbean
and northern South America.
BLACK-AND-WHITE
black
WARBLER 2
distinct
black-andwhite stripes
Length 512in (14cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
363
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica castanea

olive crown
and back
Bay-breasted Warbler
two white
wing bars
MALE
(BREEDING)
white
tips on
outer tail
feathers
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
two wing
bars
chestnut crown,
streaked black
dusky ear
patch
buffy wash
on flanks and
under tail
bold buffy
neck patch
IMMATURE
FEMALE
(FALL)
gray upperparts
with black streaks
greenish
cheeks
unstreaked
breast
chestnut
brown crown
black
face
two white
wing bars
IN FLIGHT
chestnut
brown
chin and
flanks
buff undertail
MALE
(BREEDING)
yellowish
buff belly
plashed with deep chestnut, crisp

white, warm buff, and jet black, a male
Bay-breasted Warbler in breeding plumage is
a particularly striking bird, but fall females are very different
with their dull, greenish plumage. Like the Tennessee Warbler,
this species depends largely on outbreaks of spruce budworms
(a major food source), so its numbers rise and fall according to
those outbreaks. Overall, the Bay-breasted Warbler population
has decreased because of the increased use of pesticide sprays.
VOICE Call a somewhat upslurred tsip; flight call a high, buzzy,
short, and sharp tzzzt; song of very high, thin notes, often
ending on lower pitch: wee-si wee-si wee-si wee.
NESTING Fragile-looking cup of grass and lichens on horizontal
branch at mid-level in forest; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Mostly eats moths, smaller insects, worms, spiders,
and caterpillars during migration and on breeding grounds;
eats mainly fruit in winter.
SINGING IN THE FOREST
A brilliantly colored breeding male sings its

high-pitched song on a spruce branch.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACKPOLL WARBLER 2
PINE WARBLER 1
see p.363
see p.374
Breeds in mature spruce-firbalsam forest across the

forest belt from Yukon to
the Maritimes, and south
to the Great Lakes area
and northern New England.
Migrants occur in varied
habitat, but especially
woodland edges. Winters in
wet forest in Central America.
yellow around
eye
streaked
breast
white
sides
to tail
Length 512in (14cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Social Migratory/Winter flocks
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
364
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica fusca
Blackburnian Warbler
white edges
to outer tail
feathers
bold white
wing patches
white streaks
on black back
pale orange line in

center of crown
complex blackand-orange face
pattern
white patch
on wing
MALE
IN FLIGHT
white belly
more subdued
facial pattern
brilliant
orange
throat
MALE
white wing bars
black streaks
on breast
and belly
orange
throat and
breast
FEMALE
black
streaks on
flanks
his fiery beacon of the treetops is considered one of the

most beautiful members of its family; its orange throat is
unique among the North American warblers. The Blackburnian
Warbler co-exists with many other Dendroica warblers in the
coniferous and mixed woods of the north and east, but is able
to do so by exploiting a slightly different niche for foragingin
this case the treetops. It also seeks the highest trees for nesting.
VOICE Call a slightly husky chik; flight-call a high, thin zzee;
song variable, but always high-pitched;
swirling series of lisps, spiraling upward
to end in an almost inaudible trill.
NESTING Fine cup in conifer on
horizontal branch away from trunk,
usually high in tree; 45 eggs;
1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Gleans arthropods, such as
spiders, worms, and beetles; also fruit.
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES
The female is like a dull adult male, but with

two wing bars and no black on the face.
AVIAN FIREFLY
This male in breeding plumage glows when seen

against a dark forest background.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CERULEAN WARBLER 1
BAY-BREASTED
WARBLER (FALL) 14
see p.367
see p.364
sea-green
back
greenish
back
unstreaked
underparts

forests from Alberta east through
the northern Great Lakes area
to Newfoundland and south
into the Appalachians of Georgia;
migrants found in wooded,
shrubby, or forest edge habitats.
Winters in wet forests in
Costa Rica and Panama, and
southward as far as Peru.
shorter
tail
white
corners
to tail
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight 516716 oz (912g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
365
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Magnolia Warbler
Species Dendroica magnolia
plain face with

pale eye-ring
greenish back
gray
crown
yellow
rump
broken
white
tail
band
IMMATURE
(FALL)
IN FLIGHT
greenish back
with black
stripes
white
eyebrow
incomplete
eye-ring
white
undertail
feathers
MALE
(BREEDING)
black
face
large white
patch on wing
black streaking on
breast and flanks
not as heavy
yellow underparts
with black streaks
MALE
(BREEDING)
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
he bold, flashy, and common Magnolia Warbler is hard

to miss as it flits around at eye level, fanning its uniquely
marked tail. This species nests in young forests and winters in
almost any habitat, so its numbers have not suffered in recent
decades, unlike some of its relatives. Although it really has no
preference for its namesake plant, the 19th century ornithologist
Alexander Wilson discovered a Magnolia Warbler feeding in
a magnolia tree during migration, which is how it got its name.
VOICE Call a tinny jeinf, not particularly warbler-like;
also short, simple whistled series wee-sa wee-sa WEET-a-chew;
short, distinctive, flight call a high, trilled zeep.
NESTING Flimsy cup of black rootlets placed low in dense
conifer against trunk; 35 eggs; 1 brood; JuneAugust.
FEEDING Gleans mostly caterpillars, beetles, and spiders.
SPRUCE WARBLER
The conspicuous male Magnolia Warbler can

be found singing its distinctive, loud song,
often throughout the day, in a spruce tree.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PRAIRIE WARBLER 1
Breeds in dense, young mixed

and coniferous forests from
Yukon east to Newfoundland
and south into Appalachians
of Tennessee; migrates
across the Gulf and Caribbean;
winters in varied habitats
in Caribbean and from
southeast Mexico to Panama;
rare vagrant in the West.
CANADA
yellow patch
WARBLER 1 between eye
yellowish undertail;
see p.373
see p.390
and bill
greenish yellow
upperparts
thinner
streaks
dark gray
wings
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight 732 716 oz (612g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
366
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica cerulea
Cerulean Warbler
pale blue
crown
whitish eyebrow
sea-green
upperparts
bright blue
crown
black
breastband
yellowish
underparts
MALE
short
tail
with
white
band
FEMALE
two white
wing bars
blue upperparts
indistinct
eyestripe
MALE
IN FLIGHT
white chin
and throat
white
undertail
feathers
MALE
white
belly
black streaks
on flanks
his unusually colored species

is difficult to spot, as it spends its
time foraging high in the canopy of tall deciduous
forests. It was once common across the Midwest and the Ohio
River Valley, but its habitat is being cleared for agriculture and
fragmented by development. In winter, this bird lives high in
the canopy of forests in the Andean foothills, but this habitat
is threatened by coffee cultivation.
VOICE Call a slurred chip; flight call a buzzy zeet; three-part, buzzy
song consisting of a short series of low paired notes followed by a
mid-range trill and upslurred high-pitched zhree.
NESTING Compact cup high on fork in deciduous tree, far from
trunk; 25 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Gleans insects high in canopy, especially from leaf bases.
UNIQUE COLOR
Female Cerulean Warblers have a unique pale

blue color on their crown and back.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER 1
BLACK-AND-WHITE WARBLER 1
see p.365
see p.376
white streaks
on upperparts
pale streaking
on back
Breeds mostly in mature

deciduous forests across
the northeastern US; tends
to prefer dense woodlands
during migration. Winters
in evergreen forests along
the foothills of the Andes,
from Colombia to Peru.
white
eyebrow
yellow
throat
black
undertail
markings
Weight 932 38 oz (810g)
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
367
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica tigrina
Cape May Warbler

gray back
MALE
white patches
on wings
white patches
on flanks and
breast
thin,
pointed
bill
black
cap
pale yellow
nape
yellow
nape
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
rufous
cheeks
yellow
underparts,
heavily
streaked
with black
white marks
on outer tail
feathers
MALE
he Cape May Warbler is a spruce budworm (a moth actually,

not a worm) specialist, and its populations increase during
outbreaks of this pest. Cape May Warblers chase other birds
aggressively from flowering trees, where they use their semitubular
tongue to suck the nectar from blossoms. In its summer spruce
forest habitat, the Cape May Warbler plucks insects from clumps of
needles.The Cape May Warbler was named this way because the
first specimen was collected here, but it doesnt breed at Cape May!
VOICE Song a high, even-pitched series of whistles see see see see.
NESTING Cup placed near trunk, high in spruce or fir near
top; 49 eggs; 1 brood; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Gleans arthropods, especially spruce budworms, and
also flies, adult moths, and beetles from mid-high levels in
canopy; also fruit and nectar during the nonbreeding season.
SPRING FLASH
Magnificently colored, a male shows its chestnut

cheek, yellow necklace, and yellow rump.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
YELLOW-RUMPED WARBLER
(MYRTLE) 1
PALM WARBLER
(WESTERN) 6
see p.370
see p.375
Breeds from the Yukon and

British Columbia to the
Great Lakes, the Maritimes,
and New England in mature
sprucefir forests. Migrants
occur in a variety of habitats.
Winters especially in gardens
in Central America, as far
south as Honduras.
thicker,
heavier browner
overall
bill
yellow
rump
yellow ank
patches
yellow
undertail feathers
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
368
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica caerulescens
Black-throated Blue Warbler

olive
upperparts
dark blue
overall
pale eyebrow
MALE
black face
white
patch
white wing
patches
white
patches
on outer
tail
feathers
incomplete
eye-ring, only
below eye
FEMALE
dark
blue
crown
dark blue
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
black
mask
and
throat
black
flanks
white breast
(kerchief)
white belly
MALE
with rapid wing beats; typical warbler flight.
ale and female Black-throated Blue Warblers look

so different that early ornithologists thought they
belonged to different species. Many of the females have a blue
wash to their wings and tail, and almost all have a subdued version
of the males white kerchief, so identification is not difficult.This
beautiful eastern North American species migrates northward in
spring, along the eastern flank of the Appalachians, but a small
number of birds fly, along an imaginary line, northwestward to
the Great Lakes.This line is so clearly defined that this bird
is common in Chicago but extremely rare in St. Louis.
VOICE Call a husky junco-like tchunk; flight call a distinctive,
drawn-out, metallic ssiiink, reminiscent of some Northern
Cardinal calls; song a relatively low-pitched series of upslurred
buzzes zu zu zo zhray zhree, or slower zhray zhray zhreee.
NESTING Bulky cup of
SIMILAR SPECIES
plant material a meter
off ground in dense
(MYRTLE) 1
forest; 35 eggs; 12
see p.370
broods; MayAugust.
yellow
FEEDING Gleans
rump
two
arthropods, mainly
wing
caterpillars, from midbars
low level in forest; takes
small fruit and nectar.
BLACK, WHITE, AND BLUE
Males are gorgeous year-round, especially when

viewed against contrastingly colored fall foliage.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in relatively undisturbed

deciduous and mixed hardwood
forests from southern Ontario
and northern Minnesota
to Nova Scotia and into the
Appalachians of Georgia.
Fall migration through wooded
habitats; a Caribbean
migrant. Winters in Central
and South America.
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight 932 716 oz (8 12g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
369
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica coronata
Yellow-rumped Warbler
white wing
bars
whitish eyebrow
whitish
throat
same pattern
as male, but
duller
dark
cheeks
MALE (MYRTLE; EAST)
black streaks
on gray
back
yellow
flanks
white
throat
black streaks
across breast
IN FLIGHT
MALE
D. c. coronata
(MYRTLE;
EAST)
bright
yellow
rump
lacks white
eyebrow
FEMALE
D. c. coronata
(MYRTLE; EAST)
large, white
wing patch
solid
black
breast
unmarked
undertail
white corners
on outer tail
feathers
FEMALE
D. c. auduboni
(AUDUBONS)
yellowish
throat
grayish
overall
he abundant and widespread

Yellow-rumped Warbler is
not choosy about its wintering
habitats. It was often considered to consist of two
species, Myrtle (D. c. coronata) in the East, and Audubons
(D. c. auduboni) in the West. Because they interbreed freely in
a narrow zone of contact in British Columbia and Alberta, the
American Ornithologists Union merged them. The two forms
differ in plumage and voice, and their hybrid zone appears stable.
VOICE Myrtles call a flat, husky tchik; Audubons a higherpitched, relatively musical, rising jip; flight call of both a clear,
upslurred sviiit; song loose, warbled trill with an inflected ending;
Myrtles song higher and faster, Audubons lower and slower.
NESTING Bulky cup of plant matter in conifer; 45 eggs; 1 brood;
MarchAugust.
FEEDING Feeds mostly on flies, beetles, wasps, and spiders
during breeding; takes fruit and berries at other times of
the year, often sallies to catch prey.
MALE
D. c. auduboni
(AUDUBONS)
WIDESPREAD WARBLER
Yellow-rumped Warblers are widespread and are

likely to be spotted often.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MAGNOLIA WARBLER 2
CAPE MAY WARBLER 1
see p.366
see p.368
Both eastern and western

populations are widespread
across the continent from
Alaska eastward to Qubec
and Labrador, and westward
in the mountains south to
Arizona, New Mexico, and
Northern Mexico. Prefers
coniferous and mixed
hardwood coniferous forests.
dark
eye-line
yellow throat
and breast
more
white
in tail
thin,
curved
bill
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Weight 38 58 oz (10 17g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
370
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica virens
Black-throated Green Warbler

olivegreen
back
greenish
cap
same as male,
but duller
yellow face
MALE
two white
wing bars
greenish
flanks
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
black bib
and chin
white outer
tail feathers
heavily streaked
underparts
yellowish
flanks
MALE
with rapid wing beats; typical warbler flight.
his species is easy to distinguish as its bright

yellow face is unique among birds inhabiting
northeastern North America. It is a member of the virens
superspecies, a group of non-overlapping species that are
similar in plumage and vocalizationsthe Black-throated Green,
Golden-cheeked,Townsends, and Hermit Warblers. Sadly, this
species is vulnerable to habitat loss in parts of its wintering range.
VOICE Flat tchip call; flight call a rising siii; two high-pitched, buzzy
songs, fast zee zee zee zee zoo zee; and lower, slower zu zee zu-zu zee.
NESTING Cup of twigs and grasses around 1065ft (320m) on
horizontal branch near trunk in the North, away from trunk in
the South; 35 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Gleans arthropods, especially caterpillars; also takes
small fruit, including poison ivy berries, in nonbreeding season.
YELLOW-AND-BLACK GEM
From a high perch in a spruce tree, a male

advertises his territory with persistent singing.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
see p.466
Breeds in many forest types,

especially a mix of conifers
and hardwood, from British
Columbia east to Newfoundland
and the southeastern US along
the Appalachians. Migrants and
wintering birds use a variety of
habitats. Winters from southern
Texas into Venezuela; small
numbers in Caribbean.
GOLDEN-CHEEKED WARBLER 1
GOLDEN-CHEEKED
WARBLER 2 black
see p.466
crown
darker
crown
thin,
black
eye-line
darker
upper
breast
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
371
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica dominica
Yellow-throated Warbler
large black sideburns

bordered by white spot
unmarked gray back
white line
from bill to
nape
long
thin bill
unmarked white
undertail feathers
white chin
yellow throat
white on
tail
long bill
white wing bars

black streaks
on flanks
yellow and black

facial pattern
MALE
(EASTERN)
ADULT
D. d. albilora
two white bars

on each wing
IN FLIGHT
his is one of the earliest warblers to return from its

southerly wintering grounds to its breeding grounds in
the forests of the eastern US in the spring; in fact, some birds
arrive by late March. The Yellow-throated Warbler is perhaps
best known for its habit of creeping along branches, much like
its cousin, the Black-and-white Warbler. Four subspecies have
been described; the subspecies, D. d. albilora, has a penchant for
sycamore trees. The species occasionally interbreeds with the
Northern Parula, creating the so-called Suttons Warbler.
VOICE Flight call high, thin siit; song long, descending cascade
of clear whistles, often with jumbled or slightly emphatic ending
Tseu-ee tseu-ee tseu-oh tseu-oh tseu-uh tseu-uh teedle-ee-EEdle.
NESTING Cup of fine grasses on branch tip, usually in tree
canopy; 35 eggs; 12 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Gleans spiders, insects, and insect larvae, especially
caterpillars, from foliage and bark.
SOUTHERNER
The Yellow-throated Warbler is a species of

southern woodlands, such as cypress swamps.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GRACES WARBLER
Breeds in the eastern half

of North America, but not in
southern Florida, in woods
with cypress, sycamore, or
live oak; wintering birds
may prefer tall palms and
parklike settings. Range
has extended northwards
in recent years. Southern US
population is non-migratory.
BLACK-AND-WHITE WARBLER
see p.376
yellow around
eye
shorter
bill
black
and white
markings
black
streaks
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Weight 932 38oz (8 11g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
372
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Prairie Warbler
MALE
Species Dendroica discolor
paler markings
on face
no rufous
spots on
back
pale yellowish
wing bars
straight,
black bill
rufous spots
on back
FEMALE
roundish
wings
white
sides
to tail
streaks on
breast not
as bold as
male
yellow face
with black
markings
IN FLIGHT
black streaks on
yellow underparts
white outertail
feathers
MALE
ontrary to its common name, the Prairie Warbler does not live
on the prairie. Its distinctive song is a quintessential sound
of scrubby areas across the eastern US. Although its populations
increased in the 19th century as a result of the widespread cutting
of forests, the later maturation of this habitat, along with human
development, is having a negative impact on local populations.
VOICE Call a thick tsik or tchip, flight call a high, thin sssip; song
variable in tempo, but always series of husky, buzzy notes that
increase in pitch: zzu zzu zzu zzo zzo zzo zzee zzee.
NESTING Cup of plant material in fork of sapling or low trees,
often within human reach; 35 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats various insects, such as flies and crickets; also berries.
HIGH AND LOUD
Males sing from preferred elevated perches,

producing their characteristic buzzy song
that increases in pitch and tempo.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MAGNOLIA
WARBLER 6
see p.366
white
eyering
Breeds in shrubby, opencanopied, second-growth

habitats, and mangroves; migrant
and wintering birds prefer
similar-looking brushy habitats.
Florida birds are partially
resident. Winters in the Bahamas,
Greater and Lesser Antilles, and
along the coast from southern
Mexico to El Salvador.
PINE WARBLER 2
see p.374
thin, dark
line through
eye
less
prominent
streaking
white
wing
bars
larger
overall
Length 434in (12cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
373
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Pine Warbler
round
wings
two white
wing bars
Species Dendroica pinus
overall similar
to male, but
duller
yellow
eye-ring
FEMALE
two wing
bars
MALE
olive
upperparts
white
sides to
long tail
whitish
belly
bright
yellow
throat
IMMATURE
MALE
IN FLIGHT
grayish
upperparts
dark
cheek
line
brownish
streaks on
breast
and flanks
white
undertail
feathers
IMMATURE
FEMALE
MALE
ine Warblers live in pine forests in the eastern US. In fact, this
appropriately named species is often the most common bird in
this habitat. Several birds can be heard from the same forest spot,
emitting their distinctive songs. One of the few warblers that uses
birdfeeders, the Pine Warbler winters within the US.
VOICE Call a soft tsip, flight call a high, thin, slightly rolling, descending
ziit; song a lazy, musical trill, variably of round or sharper notes.
NESTING Cup of grass high up, far out on horizontal branch, concealed
by pine needles; 35 eggs; 12 broods; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Gleans arthropods, especially caterpillars,
from pine needles; will also eat seeds and fruit in
nonbreeding season.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACKPOLL WARBLER 6
see p.363
BAY-BREASTED
WARBLER 6
greenish
cheeks
see p.364
streaks on
anks
WELL NAMED
larger
overall
buff
underparts
In many areas, Pine Warblers

are the most common breeding
birds in mature pine woods.
Pine and mixed forests from

southern Canada and the
eastern US, south to eastern
Texas and Florida. Nests in
deciduous forests if individual
trees or small stands of pine
are present. Resident in
southern half of its US range.
Also breeds and winters in
the Bahamas and Hispaniola.
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
374
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica palmarum
Palm Warbler
ADULT
(EASTERN)
grayish green
mustache
chestnut
crown
yellow throat
dusky streaks on
breast and belly
dark gray
upperparts
ADULT
D. p. palmarum
(WESTERN MALE;
BREEDING)
dark
upperparts
whiteedged
tail
yellowish
rump
IN FLIGHT
yellow
eyestripe
ring below
eye
dull gray
upperparts
yellow
undertail
coverts
dull grayish
brown
overall
chestnut
streaks
on breast
whitish below
with brown
streaks
rich yellow
underparts
ADULT
D. p. palmarum
(WESTERN;
NONBREEDING)
yellow
undertail
coverts
ADULT
D. p. hypochrysea
(EASTERN; BREEDING)
he Palm Warbler is one of North Americas most abundant

warblers. Its tail-pumping habits make it easy to identify in
any plumage. It was named palmarum (meaning palm) in 1789
because it was first recorded among palm thickets on the
Caribbean island of Hispaniola. The eastern subspecies
(D. p. hypochrysea) has a yellow face, and breeds in southwestern
Canada and northeastern US. The western subspecies (D. p. palmarum)
breeds in western and central Canada. It is grayish brown above and
lacks the chestnut streaks of the eastern subspecies.
VOICE Call a husky chik or tsip; flight call a light ziint; slow, loose, buzzy
trill: zwi zwi zwi zwi zwi zwi zwi zwi.
NESTING Cup of grasses on or near ground in open area of conifers at
forest edge of a bog; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats insects, sometimes caught in flight;
also takes seeds and berries.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CAPE MAY WARBLER 1
see p.368
olive gray
back
(MYRTLE) 1
see p.370
streaking
on back
white
throat
FAR FROM THE PALMS
thin patch
of yellow
on throat
and neck
This male Palm Warbler is far

north of the coastal palms
where its kin spend the winter.
In North America, breeds in

spruce bogs within the
northern forest zone, across
Canada from the Yukon to the
Maritimes and Labrador, and
in the US from Minnesota to
Maine. Often migrates through
central portions of eastern
US; winters in southeastern US,
Florida, and Central America.
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
375
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Mniotilta varia
Black-and-white Warbler
MALE
two white
wing bars
black
cheek
black-and-white
streaks overall
white
eye-ring
white crown
streak
white
mustache
IN FLIGHT
white
outer
tail
feathers
black
throat
black spots on
undertail feathers
lighter
streaking
heavily streaked
underparts
white throat
FEMALE
MALE
he Black-and-white Warbler is best known for its creeper-like habit

of feeding in vertical and upside-down positions as it pries into bark
crevices, where its relatively long, curved bill allows it to reach tiny nooks
and crannies. These habits, combined with
streaked plumage, make this bird one of the
most distinctive warblers in North America.
It is a long-distance migrant, with some birds
wintering in parts of northern South America.
VOICE Sharp stik call; flight call a very high, thin ssiit,
often doubled; song a thin, high-pitched, wheezy
series wheesy wheesy wheesy wheesy wheesy wheesy.
NESTING Cup on ground against stump, fallen
SQUEAKY WHEEL
logs, or roots; 46 eggs; 1 brood; AprilAugust.
The high-pitched, wheezy song
FEEDING Creeps along branches and trunks,
of this warbler is said to be
probing into bark for insects and insect larvae.
reminiscent of a squeaky wheel.
see p.363
Breeds in deciduous and

mixed mature and secondgrowth woodlands; migrants
occur on a greater variety
of habitats; winters in a wide
range of wooded habitats
in southern US, Mexico
and into Central and
South America. Rare along
West Coast in winter.
BLACK-THROATED yellow
GRAY WARBLER 2 patch
black
cap
Black-and-white Warblers
often creep head-first along
trunks and branches of trees.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLACKPOLL
WARBLER 2
UPSIDE-DOWN
see p.472
white cheek
patch
bright
orange legs
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Weight 516 12oz (9 14g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
376
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Setophaga ruticilla
American Redstart
conspicuous
orange
wing bar
MALE
grayish
head
olive back
yellow tail base
black head
and back
whitish
underparts
yellowish flanks
IN FLIGHT
FEMALE
black
inverted
T on tail
long, black tail with

orange on sides
orange flank
patch with
black border
blackish
smudge on
undertail
yellow
tail
base
white belly
irregular, dark
patches
yellow
flanks
MALE
IMMATURE MALE
he American Redstart is a vividly colored, energetic and

acrobatic warbler with a reasonably broad range across
North America. One of its behavioral quirks is to fan its tail
and wings while foraging, supposedly using the flashes of bold
color to scare insects into moving, making them easy prey.
It possesses well-developed rictal bristles, hair-like feathers
extending from the corners of the mouth, which help it to detect insects.
VOICE Harsh tsiip call; flight call a high, thin sveep; song a confusingly
variable, high, thin, yet penetrating series of notes; one version burry,
emphatic, and downslurred see-a see-a see-a see-a ZEE-urrrr.
NESTING Cup of grasses and rootlets, lined with feathers; placed low
in deciduous tree; 25 eggs; 12 broods; MayJuly.
FEEDING Gleans insects and spiders from leaves at mid-levels in trees;
also catches moths, flies in flight; will also eat fruit.
OCCURRENCE
COMMON SONG
MALE CAREGIVER
This birds short, ringing song is a common sound in

the moist deciduous woods of the East and North.
As with most warblers, male Redstarts help raise

the young, though they may be polygamous.
Breeds in moist deciduous

and mixed woodlands across
North America; migrants and
wintering birds use a wide
range of habitats. Winters
from Baja California and south
Florida through Middle America
and the Caribbean to northern
South America.
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Weight 732 38 oz (6 11g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
377
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Protonotaria citrea
Prothonotary Warbler
white
in tail
black eye
glowing
gold head
large
bill
olive back
MALE
bluish wings
and tail
bluish
rump
IN FLIGHT
bright yellow
underparts
duller
colored
head
blue wings
and tail
large bill
yellowish breast
and head
MALE
FEMALE
he ringing song of the Prothonotary Warbler

once known as the Golden Swamp Warblerechoes
through the swamps of the southeastern US every summer.
This is one of the few cavity-nesting warbler species; it will
FLIGHT: fast, with slight undulations, and
use man-made bird houses if they are placed close enough to still direct with rapid wing beats.
water. Prothonotary Warblers also tend to forage fairly low over
the water, making them easy to spot. This warblers yellow head and breast
reminded an early naturalist of the bright yellow robes worn by Prothonotaries
(high ranking papal clerks), and he passed the name to this colorful bird.
VOICE Flight call a loud, high sviit; call note a loud chip; song a loud series
of penetrating and internally rising notes tsveet tsveet tsveet tsveet tsveet tsveet tsveet.
NESTING Over or near still water; woodpecker
holes often used; 38 eggs; 12 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Mostly eats insects and small mollusks;
also seeds, fruit, and nectar.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLUE-WINGED WARBLER
YELLOW WARBLER 1
see p.356
see p.362
smaller bill
black
eye-line
GOLDEN SONGBIRD
white
wing bars
Visible in the darkness of a

southern swamp, a Prothonotary
Warbler sings its ringing song.
Breeds in wooded areas

over or near still water,
especially in cypress
swamps and bottomlands
across the southeastern
US. Winters in mangroves
and dry forests in
southern Mexico.
Length 512in (14cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Status Endangered
DATE SEEN
378
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Helmitheros vermivorum
Worm-eating Warbler
short
tail
dull olive
overall
boldly
striped
buff-andblack crown
ADULT
blurry pattern on
undertail feathers
IN FLIGHT
large
pinkish
bill
tawny wash
on breast
ADULT
ontrary to its name, the Worm-eating Warbler does not

eat real worms such as earthworms. Rather, it consumes
inchworms and other caterpillars. It can often be found hanging
upside down, quietly prying into a mass of suspended dead
leaves in search of unsuspecting prey. It specializes in probing
the curled leaves that have been adopted by caterpillars as safe
havens for feeding or resting, examining them carefully for
potential occupants and then levering the curl open with its
bill to claim its prize. Although this bird nests on the ground
and tends to forage fairly low, singing males may perch quite
high in trees. It is the only member of the genus Helmitheros
and is unlike any other North American warbler, except
perhaps the elusive Swainsons Warbler.
VOICE Thick chip call; flight call an upslurred, thin, rolling ziiit,
often given in series of two to three notes; song a thin, dry trill.
NESTING WellSIMILAR SPECIES
concealed cup of leaf
litter at base of sapling
SWAINSONS
paler
WARBLER
or shrub on an often
head
see p.380
steep hillside; 36 eggs;
1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Forages
in low shrubs, mainly
paler
for caterpillars, but
underparts
also insects and spiders.
CAMOUFLAGED WARBLER
Worm-eaters are patterned to blend in with

the leaf litter of rich deciduous forests.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds locally in large expanses

of hilly, rich, mature, deciduous
forests with abundant leaf
litter and dense undergrowth;
migrants prefer similar forested
habitats. Winters in Central
America and the Caribbean,
in varied forested habitats, but
prefers dense undergrowth.
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight 716 58oz (1217g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
379
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Limnothlypis swainsonii
Swainsons Warbler
rusty-brown
crown
short
tail
pale eyebrow
plain brown
upperparts
ADULT
long
bill
IN FLIGHT
dusky wash
on underparts
ADULT
ew people ever get to see Swainsons

Warblernot even those enthusiasts
who regularly go looking for it. The species
remarkable song makes it relatively easy to track, but its reclusive
nature, drab plumage, and liking for dense thickets make it one
of the most difficult birds in North America to actually spot.
The species is also quite unusual in that it has two seemingly
identical populations that breed in distinct habitatsone in
dense, giant canebreaks in swampy lowlands, and the other
in Appalachian rhododendron or mountain laurel thickets.
VOICE Flight call high siiii, often doubled; song loud series
of downslurred whistles ending emphatically and purposefully
su see-a see-oh WEE-chuh WEE-oh.
NESTING Bulky mass of vegetation placed low in dense
understory thicket; 25 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Forages slowly and methodically on the forest
floor for insects, insect larvae, and spiders.
PROUD SURVEYOR
A male Swainsons Warbler surveys his breeding

territory from the vantage of a perch.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WORM-EATING WARBLER
LOUISIANA
WATERTHRUSH
see p.379
black head
stripe
buff
underparts
black
eyebrow
see p.383
Breeds in floodplains, often

in areas of dense undergrowth,
and in mountain forests with
suitable undergrowth; during
migration and in winter found
in forests with dense
understory and abundant leaf
litter. Winters in Central
America and the West Indies.
dark gray
crown
bold
streaks
below
Length 512in (14cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Weight 716 1116oz (1220g)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
380
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Seiurus aurocapillus
Ovenbird
orange-and-black
striped crown
bold white
eye-ring
plain olive
overall
olive
upperparts
ADULT
white
throat
IN FLIGHT
black
streaked
underparts
ADULT
FLIGHT: fast, slightly undulating, and
direct with rapid wing beats.
ike members of the unrelated,

tropical ovenbird family
(Furnariidae), this little bird is so-called for
the domed, oven-like nests it builds on the ground;
unique structures for a North American bird. The Ovenbird
is also noted for its singing. Males flit about boisterously, often
at night, incorporating portions of their main song into a jumble
of spluttering notes. In the forest, one male singing loudly to
declare his territory can set off a whole chain of responses
from his neighbors, until the whole forest rings.
VOICE Call variably pitched, sharp chik in series; flight call high,
rising siiii; song loud, ringing crescendo of paired notes chur-tee
chur-tee chur-tee chur-tee chur-TEE chur-TEE chur-TEE.
NESTING Domed structure of leaves and grass on ground
with side entrance; 3 6 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Forages mainly on the forest floor for insects
and other invertebrates.
STRUTTING ITS STUFF
The Ovenbird is noted for the way it struts

across the forest floor, a little like a tiny chicken.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
NORTHERN
WATERTHRUSH dark brown
much slimmer;
see p.382
upperparts
Breeds in closed-canopy
mixed and deciduous forests
with suitable amount of
fallen plant material for
nest building and foraging;
migrants and wintering
birds use similar habitats.
Winters in Florida, Central
America, and the West Indies.
LOUISIANA
white
WATERTHRUSH eyebrow
see p.383
dark brown
upperparts
no eyering
Length 6in (15cm)
Weight 916 78oz (16 25g)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
381
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Seiurus noveboracensis
Northern Waterthrush
pale eyebrow
narrows behind eye
dull brown
upperparts
short tail
small,
short
bill
ADULT
pale
eyebrow
streaking
on white or
yellowish
flanks
fine, dense
breast
streaking
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
dull, fleshy-colored
legs and toes
he tail-bobbing Northern Waterthrush is often

heard giving a spink! call as it swiftly flees from
observers. Although this species may be mistaken for the closely
related Louisiana Waterthrush, there are clues that are helpful in
its identification. While the Northern Waterthrush prefers still
water, its relative greatly prefers running water; in addition, its
song is quite unlike that of the Louisiana Waterthrush.
VOICE Call a sharp, rising, ringing spink!; flight call a rising,
buzzy ziiiit; song a loud series of rich, accelerating, staccato notes,
usually decreasing in pitch teet, teet, toh-toh toh-toh tyew-tyew!.
NESTING Hair-lined, mossy cup placed on or near ground,
hidden in roots of fallen or standing tree or in riverbank;
FEEDING Mostly eats insects such as ants, mosquitoes, moths,
and beetles, both larvae and adult, plus slugs, and snails; when
migrating, also eats small crustaceans, and even tiny fish.
YELLOW FORM
Many Northern Waterthrushes have yellow

underparts, like this one, while others have white.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
OVENBIRD
much rounder;
fatter; see p.381
Breeds right across northern

North America in dark,
still-water swamps and bogs;
also in the still edges of rivers
and lakes; migrant birds use
wet habitats; winters in
shrubby marshes, mangroves,
and occasionally in crops, such
as rice fields and citrus groves.
Rare in Baja California in winter.
eyebrow
LOUISIANA
WATERTHRUSH widens behind
bold
eye-ring see p.383
olive
upperparts
orange
wash to
anks
eye
thicker,
longer
bill
Length 6in (15cm)
Weight 12 78oz (14 23g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
382
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Seiurus motacilla
Louisiana Waterthrush
white eyebrow
flares behind eye
dull brown
overall
short
tail
buffy area near

bill and eye
ADULT
large
bill
unstreaked
throat
IN FLIGHT
thick, sparse
breast streaking
bicolored flanks; white

forward, washed
cinnamon on rear
ADULT
bright, bubble-gum
pink legs and
toes in spring
he Louisiana Waterthrush is one of

the earliest warblers to return north in
the spring; as early as March, eastern ravines are
filled with cascades of its song. Both the stream-loving
Louisiana Waterthrush and its still-water cousin, the Northern
Waterthrush, bob their tails as they walk (the genus name,
Seiurus, means tail-bobber), but the Louisiana Waterthrush
arcs its entire body at the same time. In spring, this species
shows brighter pink legs than the Northern Waterthrush.
VOICE Call a round spink; flight call a rising, buzzy ziiiit; song
a loud, descending, ringing, whistled cascade, ending with
sputtering see-oh see-oh see-uh see-uh tip-uh-tik-uh-tip-wheeur-tik.
NESTING Bulky mass of leaves, moss, and twigs, under steep
stream bank over water; 46 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Forages in streams for insect larvae, snails, and small
fish; also catches flying insects such as dragonflies and stoneflies.
TAKING A DIP
In many ways, this species is the dipper of the

East, picking invertebrates from shallow streams.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
OVENBIRD
much rounder;
fatter; see p.381
bold
eye-ring
Breeds along fast-moving

streams in deciduous forests in
the eastern US; migrants stop
over anywhere near running
water, including gardens;
winters along wooded streams
and rivers in mountains and
hills in the Caribbean, Mexico,
Central America, and northern
South America.
NORTHERN WATERTHRUSH
see p.382 thinner,

shorter bill
olive
upperparts
ne
breast
streaks
Length 6in (15cm)
Weight 58 78oz (18 25g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
383
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Oporornis formosus
Kentucky Warbler
black-andyellow facial
pattern
yellow streak
above eyes
black cheek
dark olive
upperparts
ADULT
short
tail
black crown
with gray spots
yellow chin
and throat
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
pale pinkish
legs and feet
bright yellow
underparts
pale olive
upperparts
less black
on face
FEMALE
he loud and cheery song of the Kentucky Warbler

is one of the characteristic sounds of dense, moist
eastern US forests. Unlike the Connecticut Warbler, it is
appropriately named, because it actually breeds in its namesake
state, Kentucky. This species is a rather secretive inhabitant of
dense US hardwood forests, where it forages close to or on
the ground, looking for insects that live on the forest floor.
VOICE Call a low, hollow chup, flight call a buzzy dziiip; song
a loud rolling series of paired notes chur-ee chur-ee chur-ee
chur-ee chur-ee, with little variation.
NESTING Concealed bulky cup of leaves and grass on or just
above ground in shrub; 45 eggs; 12 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Gleans beetles, spiders, and other arthropods,
mainly in low vegetation.
LUCKY SHOT
This bird is mostly seen in the underbrush of moist

forests, not out in the open like this migrant.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON YELLOWTHROAT 2
smaller; see p.387
HOODED
WARBLER 1
Breeds in eastern US
moist, deciduous forests
with dense deciduous
understory. Migrants
prefer dense woodlands
and thickets. Winters
from Mexico to Panama
and northern South America,
in dense, wet lowland
thickets and forests.
greenish
crown
see p.388
longer
tail
blackandgray
face
longer
tail
plain,
yellow
face
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight 716 1116 oz (1219g)
Status Secure (p)
DATE SEEN
384
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Oporornis agilis
Connecticut Warbler
olive
upperparts
grayish green
hood
olive
flanks
MALE
gray
hood
FEMALE
very
long,
yellow
undertail
feathers
IN FLIGHT
conspicuous
white eye-ring
olive upperparts
short tail
dark
gray bib
MALE
pale sunshineyellow underparts
pink legs
and toes
he shy Connecticut Warbler, which incidentally does

not breed in this state, breeds in remote, boggy habitats in
Canada and is hard to spot during its spring and fall migrations.
It arrives in the US in late May and leaves its breeding grounds
in August. It is the only warbler that walks along the ground in
a bouncy manner, with its tail bobbing up and down.
VOICE Seldom-heard call a nasal champ, flight call a buzzy ziiiit;
song a loud whippy, accelerating series, often ending with upward
inflection tweet, chuh WHIP-uh chee-uh-WHIP-uh chee-uh-WAY.
NESTING Concealed cup of grass or leaves, lined with fine plant
matter and hair; placed near or on ground in damp moss or grass
clump; 35 eggs; 1 brood; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Gleans a variety of adult insects, insect larvae, and spiders
from under leaves; also eats small fruits.
EXCEPTIONAL UNDERTAIL
The yellow undertail feathers nearly reach the tip

of the Connecticut Warblers tail.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
NASHVILLE WARBLER 1
MOURNING WARBLER 4
see p.359
see p.386
pale
gray
back
Breeds across Canada

from British Columbia
to Qubec and in the US
in Minnesota and the
Great Lakes region, in
bogs and pine forests.
Winters in forest habitats
of Amazonian Peru
and Brazil.
darker breast
patch
yellowish
throat
Length 6in (15cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Weight 716 1116 oz (1320g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure (p)
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
385
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Oporornis philadelphia
Mourning Warbler
gray head
pattern like male (breeding),

but more subdued
MALE
(BREEDING)
black
mask
olive
upperparts
hooded
look
yellow
undertail
feathers
black
bib and
speckled
throat
IMMATURE MALE
IN FLIGHT
yellow
underparts
pale gray
hood
pink toes
and legs
lacks
speckled
markings
on throat
MALE (BREEDING)
FEMALE
he pleasant song of the Mourning Warbler

is often used in commercials and movies as
a background sound of idyllic suburban settings.
It is doubtful, however, that you would find
this gray-headed, black-throated warbler in
a backyard, as it prefers dense, herbaceous tanglesboth for
breeding and during migration. These birds are late spring
migrants and the leaves are fully out when they arrive in
the eastern US, making it difficult to see them. The easiest
way to see a Mourning Warbler is to track a male by its song.
VOICE Call a flat tchik; flight call a high, thin, clear svit;
song a very burry series of paired notes with low-pitched
ending: churrr-ee churrr-ee churrr-ee churr-ee churrr-ee-oh.
NESTING Well-concealed cup of leaves, lined with grass, on
or near ground in dense tangle; 25 eggs; 1 brood; JuneAugust.
FEEDING Mainly gleans insects and spiders in low foliage;
eats some plant material in winter.
FOLLOW THAT BIRD
Tracking down a singing male is the easiest way

to find this skulking species.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MACGILLIVRAYS
WARBLER 1
incomplete
COMMON
smaller,
YELLOWTHROAT 1 black bill
see p.472
see p.387
eye-ring
Breeds in dense thickets

of disturbed woodlands
from the Yukon and British
Columbia, east to Qubec
and Newfoundland, south
to the Great Lakes, New
England, New York, and
the Appalachians. Winters
in dense thickets in Central
and South America.
longer
tail
longer
tail
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 7.5in (19cm)
Weight 38 716oz (10 13g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
386
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Geothlypis trichas
Common Yellowthroat
plain,
olive-green
overall
pale eye-ring
olive
upperparts
yellow
throat
black
mask
pale stripe over

mask, varies from
gray to white or
yellowish
black
mask
including
forehead
olive-green
upperparts
FEMALE
MALE
IN FLIGHT
yellow
throat
olive-green
tail
greenish gray
underparts
MALE
his common and easy-to-see warbler is noticeable partly

because of its loud, simple song. This species varies in
voice and plumage across its range and 14 subspecies have
been described. In the western US, the birds have yellower
underparts, brighter white head stripes, and louder, simpler
songs than eastern birds. The male often flies upward rapidly,
delivering a more complex version of its otherwise simple song.
VOICE Call a harsh, buzzy tchak, repeated into chatter when
agitated; flight call a low, flat, buzzy dzzzit; song a variable
but distinctive series of rich (often 3-note) phrases:
WITCH-uh-tee WITCH-uh-tee WITCH-uh-tee WHICH;
more complex flight song.
NESTING Concealed, bulky cup of grasses just above ground
or water; 35 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Eats insects and spiders in low vegetation; also seeds.
UNFORGETTABLE CALL
The song of the male Common Yellowthroat is

an extremely helpful aid in its identification.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
KENTUCKY
WARBLER 2
much larger;
see p.384
shorter
tail
MOURNING
WARBLER 1
see p.386
yellow
eyebrow
bright
yellow
belly
Found south of the tundra, from

Alaska and the Yukon to Qubec
and Newfoundland, and south
to California, Texas, and to
southeastern US. Inhabits
dense herbaceous understory,
from marshes and grasslands
to pine forest and hedgerows.
Winters from Mexico to
Panama and the Antilles.
gray head
pinkbased
bill
bright
yellow
on belly
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight 29oz (825g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
387
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Hooded Warbler
Species Wilsonia citrina
hint of a
dark hood
dark patch
between eye
and bill
FEMALE
MALE
yellow
underparts
whitish
undertail
feathers
black cap
and hood
black eye
plain, olive
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
white
markings
on tail
yellow
face
black bib
MALE
yellow
underparts
he Hooded Warbler is a strikingly patterned and loud

warbler, and is often particularly conspicuous in its eastern
US breeding range. Both males and females frequently flash
the white markings hidden on the inner webs of their tails. The
extent of the black hood varies in female Hooded Warblers; it
ranges from none in first fall birds to almost as extensive as males
in some adult females. Genetic (DNA) and vocal information
point to a close relationship with Dendroica warblers.
VOICE Call a metallic tsink; flight call a high, thin sveep; song
a rich, whistled series, ending loudly and emphatically:
tu-wee tu-wee tu-wee-TEE-tee-yu.
NESTING Bulky cup of leaves lined with hair, in shrub near eye
level; 35 eggs; 12 broods; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats many different kinds of insects found low
in vegetation.
STRIKING MASK
The black and yellow face of the Hooded Warbler

makes the male an unmistakable bird.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WILSONS WARBLER 2
WILSONS WARBLER 1
see p.389
see p.389
smaller overall
smaller
overall
no black
bib
Breeds in moist deciduous

forests with dense understory
in eastern US; has bred in
some moist mountain canyons.
Migrants like similar habitat.
Winters in moist woodlands
with good understory,
especially lowland rain forest,
from eastern Mexico to
Panama and the West Indies.
no
dark
patch
Wingspan 7in (17.5cm)
Weight 516oz 716oz (912g)
Status Secure (p)
DATE SEEN
388
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Wilsonia pusilla
Wilsons Warbler
MALE
olive or blackish
crown
yellow
eyebrow
and chin
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
black
cap
olive
upperparts
large
black
eye
long,
narrow
tail
yellow
brightest
on face
MALE
he tiny Wilsons Warbler is perhaps the most

common spring migrant of all the wood-warblers
across many areas of the western US and Canada. In the East,
however, it is much scarcer in spring. Wilsons Warblers have a wide
range of habitats, yet their numbers are declining, especially in the
West, as its riverine breeding habitats are gradually being destroyed
by development. This species and the entire genus are named after
the renowned early 19th-century ornithologist, Alexander Wilson.
VOICE Call a rich chimp or champ;
flight call a sharp, liquid tsik; song a
variable, chattering trill, often increases
in speed che che che che chi-chi-chi-chit.
NESTING Cup of leaves and grass
placed on or near ground in mosses
or grass, higher along Pacific coast;
BRIGHT WESTERN BIRD
FEEDING Captures insects in foliage,
In its western range, male Wilsons
leaf litter, or during flight; also takes
Warblers have a glowing yellow-orange
berries and honeydew.
face; eastern birds are duller.
YELLOW
WARBLER 1 yellow edges to
HOODED
WARBLER 1
see p.362
see p.388
Breeds in wet shrubby thickets

with no canopy, often along
streams and lakes; Pacific slope
birds use more varied habitats,
including moist forests.
Widespread in forests south
of tundra, from Newfoundland,
the Great Lakes, and northern
New England; British Columbia
to California and New Mexico.
larger
bill
shorter
tail
yellow
overall
The black cap and yellow face of the

otherwise olive-colored Wilsons Warbler
are good field marks.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
wing feathers
EASY IDENTIFICATION
larger
body
Length 434in (12cm)
Weight 732 516oz (6 9g)
Social Flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
389
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Canada Warbler
Species Wilsonia canadensis

paler
crown
bicolored
eye-ring
faint
necklace
plain
gray
tail
FEMALE
MALE
dark
crown
yellow
patch
between
eye and
bill
conspicuous
yellow eye-ring
plain gray
upperparts
white
undertail
feathers
IN FLIGHT
yellow
throat
black
necklace
across
breast
MALE
yellow belly
ne of the last species of wood-warblers to

arrive in the US and Canada in the spring, and
among the first to leave in the fall, the Canada Warbler
is sometimes called the Necklaced Warbler, for the
conspicuous black markings on its chest. This uncommon
bird is sadly declining, probably because of the maturation
and draining of its preferred breeding habitat, consisting of
old mixed hardwood forests with moist undergrowth.
VOICE Call a thick tchip; flight call
a variable, clear plip; song a haphazard
jumble of sweet notes, often
beginning with or interspersed
with tchip, followed by a pause.
NESTING Concealed cup of leaves,
in moss or grass, on or near ground;
TAKING FLIGHT
FEEDING Gleans at mid-levels
This species often waits for prey
for many species of insects; also
to fly by, before launching into
flycatches and forages on ground.
flight to pursue it.
FAMILIAR MEAL
Flying insects, including crane flies, make up the

bulk of the Canada Warblers diet.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
KIRTLANDS WARBLER 2
MAGNOLIA
WARBLER 1 white
see p.366
Breeds in moist deciduous,

mixed, and coniferous
forests with well-developed
understory, especially
swampy woods; migrants
use well-vegetated
habitats; winters in dense,
wet thickets and a variety
of tropical woodlands in
South America.
eyebrow
see p.466
streaked
mantle
and
anks
streaked
anks
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Weight 932 12oz (8 15g)
Social Flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
390
WHERE
NOTES
WOOD-WARBLERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Parulidae
Species Icteria virens
Yellow-breasted Chat
rounded
wings
yellow
underwing
feathers
buff patch
between eye
and bill
duller olive
upperparts
MALE
thick
blackish
bill
white
spectacles
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
olive upperparts
black
patch
between
eye and
bill
long,
rounded
tail
bright
yellow
breast
FLIGHT: fast and direct with rapid wing beats
MALE
and drooping tail; tends to stay under cover.
black legs
and toes
his unique species has puzzled

ornithologists and scientists for a long time,
and still does, as molecular (DNA) studies have
given conflicting results about whether it actually
belongs to the Wood-warbler family or not. Sometimes
it skulks in dense vegetation and is difficult to spot; at other
times it sits in full view, singing atop small trees. One of its behavioral quirks
is to suddenly fly upward, then glide slowly back down to earth, while singing.
VOICE Seldom-heard calls include a low, soft tuk and nasal, downslurred tiyew;
song is a mixture of monosyllabic grunts, clucks, and whistles in repeated,
decelerating series, with pauses between different series;
sometimes sings at night; also mimics other birds.
NESTING Concealed and bulky structure of dead
plant matter, in thicket near eye-level; 35 eggs;
FEEDING Eats insects; also fruit and berries.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
YELLOW-THROATED
VIREO
Breeds in dense shrubby

areas, including forest
edges; western birds
mostly restricted to thickets
along riverine corridors;
migrants found in a variety
of habitats. Winters in
scrubby habitats from
Mexico to Panama.
yellow
COMMON
spectacles YELLOWTHROAT 2
see p.288
see p.387
shorter
tail
black
mask
CLUCKS AND WHISTLES
This bird has a remarkably

varied vocal repertoire, including
loud clucks and whistles.
Weight
Social Solitary
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
16 1116 oz (2030g)
11
NOTES
391
Family Icteridae
ORIOLES & BLACKBIRDS

T
the wonderful
diversity that exists among birds.
Most members are common and
widespread, occurring from coast to
coast. They are present in nearly every
habitat in North America, from the arid
Southwest and Florida to the boreal forest
zone in the north but do not live in the
tundra. The species reveal a tremendous
variety in color, nesting, and social
behaviorfrom solitary orioles to vast
colonies of blackbirds. One group of
icterids, the cowbirds, are obligatory
brood parasites, and make no nest, but lay
their eggs in the nests of other species,
mostly small songbirds.
HE ICTERIDS EXEMPLIFY
ORIOLES
Orioles are generally recognized by their
contrasting black and orange plumage,
although some species tend more toward
yellow or chestnut shades. They are common
tropical to subtropical seasonal migrants to
North America, and their intricate hanging
nests are an impressive combination of
engineering and weaving. Most oriole species
have a loud and melodious song and show
tolerance of humans, a combination that
makes them popular throughout their range.
The Orchard Oriole and the Baltimore
Oriole are widespread in the East, but the
other North American species live either in
the West, the Southwest, or in southern
Texas. The Eastern North American orioles
spend the winter in tropical America.
NECTAR LOVER
The magnificently colored

Baltimore Oriole inserts its bill
into the base of a flower, taking
the nectar, but playing no part
in pollination.
COWBIRDS
These strictly parasitic

birds have been known
to lay eggs in the nests of
nearly 300 different bird
species in North and
South America.The
SUBTLE BRILLIANCE
males of all three North
Although its plumage is
American species are
dark, the Common Grackle
readily identified by their displays a beautiful iridescence.
thick bills and dark,
iridescent plumage.The females and immatures,
however, are drab, brownish, or blackish birds.The
eastern species, the Brown-headed Cowbird, has
dramatically increased in recent years.
BLACKBIRDS & GRACKLES

This group of birds is
largely covered with
dark feathers, and has a
streamlined appearance
due to long, pointed bills
and tails. Not as
brilliantly colored as
some of the other
icterids, these are among
the most numerous birds
on the continent. After
the breeding season they
gather in huge flocks and
form an impressive sight.
BIG VOICE
A Meadowlarks melodious
voice is a defining feature in
many rural landscapes.
MEADOWLARKS
Meadowlarks occur in both North and South
America.The North American species have yellow
breasts; the South American species have bright red
ones. Only one species breeds in the East. It can be
distinguished from its western counterpart by its song.

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Icterus spurius
Orchard Oriole
slightly curved,
blue-gray,
black-tipped bill
black back
olive upperparts,
very similar to
female
deep orange
shoulders
MALE
black
face,
chin,
and
throat
IMMATURE MALE
(1ST SPRING)
IN FLIGHT
dark, rusty
orange belly
dark, rusty
orange rump
white-edged
flight feathers
olive upperparts
two white
wing bars
MALE
yellowish
underparts
FEMALE
black tail
small bird, the Orchard Oriole resembles a large warbler in

size, color, and the way it flits among leaves while foraging
for insects. It flutters its tail, unlike other orioles. It spends less
time on the breeding grounds than other migrant orioles, often
arriving there as late as mid-May and leaving as early as late-July.
The Orchard Oriole tolerates humans and can be found
breeding in suburban parks and gardens. In recent years,
its numbers have increased in the eastern part of its range.
VOICE Fast, not very melodious, series of high warbling notes
mixed with occasional shorter notes ending in slurred shheere.
NESTING Woven nest of grass suspended in fork between
branches; 45 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Mainly eats insects during breeding season, but
will also feed on seeds, fruit, and occasionally, nectar; in
winter, mostly fruit and nectar, and some insects.
FLIGHT: quite bouncy flight due to shallow,
quick wing beats; interrupted by glides.
RUSTY ORANGE SPLASH
The male Orchard Oriole has distinctive black

upperparts and dark, rusty-orange underparts.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SCOTTS ORIOLE
BALTIMORE ORIOLE
see p.467
see p.394
yellow
shoulder
black
breast
bright
yellow
underparts
Breeds in the eastern US, in

open forest and woodland
edges with a mixture of
evergreen and deciduous
trees, especially along river
bottoms and in shelter belts
surrounding agricultural land.
Winters in Mexico, Central
America, and South America.
larger
overall
orange
underparts
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Weight
Social Pairs
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
16oz (20g)
11
NOTES
393

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Icterus galbula
Baltimore Oriole
black
and
orange
tail
orangeyellow head
white-edged
black wings
black head
black back
MALE
(1ST FALL)
orange-yellow
shoulder patch
straight
bluegray bill
MALE
IN FLIGHT
orange
rump
black
upper
breast
black tail with

orange outer tail
feathers
yellow-olive
rump
orange
underparts
olive
upperparts
MALE
pale orange
underparts
two wing
bars
FEMALE
he Baltimore Orioles brilliant colors are familiar to many

persons in the East because this bird is tolerant of human
presence.This species originally favored the American Elm for
nesting, but Dutch Elm disease decimated these trees.The oriole has
since adapted to using sycamores, cottonwoods, and other tall trees
for its nesting sites. Its ability to use suburban gardens and parks has
helped expand its range to areas densely occupied by humans.The
Baltimore Oriole is Marylands State Bird, somewhat ironically.
VOICE Loud, clear, melodious song comprising one or two, or
several short notes in series, often of varying lengths.
NESTING Round-bottomed basket usually woven of grass, hung
toward the end of branches; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Hops or flits among leaves and branches picking insects
and spiders; fond of caterpillars; also eats fruits and sips nectar.
FLIGHT: strong with rapid wing beats; full
downstrokes during flight provide great power.
PERFECT FOR FORAGING
The Baltimore Oriole forages alone in dense

foliage of trees and bushes or on the ground.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
ORCHARD ORIOLE
BULLOCKS ORIOLE
see p.393
see p.467
incomplete
black hood
darker
overall
chestnutcolored
belly
Forest edges and tall, open

mixed hardwoods, especially
close to rivers; regularly uses
forested parks, suburban
and urban areas with
abundant tall trees. Small
numbers winter in southeastern
US and Florida, but most
birds move to Mexico,
Colombia, and Venezuela.
black
eyeline
orange
cheeks
huge
white
patch
Weight 1116114oz (3035g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
394
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Molothrus ater
Brown-headed Cowbird
rounded, black
wings
thick short bill

dull sepiabrown head
glossy greenish
black back and
wings
dull, unmarked
brownish plumage
MALE
faintly
streaked
underparts
IN FLIGHT
brown
throat
and upper
breast
FEMALE
MALE
black feet
and toes
FLIGHT: somewhat undulating, with rapid
wing beats.
fairly long
black tail
orth Americas most common

brood parasite, the Brown-headed
Cowbird was once a bird of the Great Plains, following the vast
herds of bison to feed on insects kicked up by their hooves. Now,
most likely as a result of forest clearance and suburban development,
it is found continent-wide and north to the Yukon and Canada.
It has become a serious threat to the breeding success of
North American songbirds. It lays its eggs in the nests of more than
220 different species, and its young are raised to fledglings by more
than 140 species, including the highly endangered Kirtlands Warbler.
VOICE High-pitched, squeaky whistles and bubbling notes,
dub-dub-come-tzeee; also various clucks and cheks.
NESTING No nest, lays eggs in nests of other species; a female may
lay an astounding 2555 (or more) eggs per season; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Primarily eats grass seeds and cereal grains, but also
insects when available, especially grasshoppers and beetles.
AT A FEEDER
A female Brown-headed Cowbird enjoys a snack

of seeds at a suburban feeder.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BRONZED COWBIRD 2
see p.468
red eye
see p.468
glossy
purplishblack
glossy
blue-black
wings and
tail
longer,
thicker
bill
Favors habitats modified by

human activity, such as open
wooded patches, low grass fields,
orchards, agricultural pastures
with livestock, and suburban
residential areas. Widespread
across North America in both
Canada and the US. Eastern
birds spend the winter locally,
and south to central Mexico.
SHINY COWBIRD 2
thinner,
more
pointed
bill
Weight 1716 134 oz (40 50g)
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
395

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Agelaius phoeniceus
Red-winged Blackbird
MALE
no clear yellow
edging on red
shoulder
patches
dark, grayish
brown body
red and
yellow
flags
dull reddish
or yellowish
shoulder patches
buff to
brown
edging on
feathers
pale
throat
JUVENILE
(BICOLORED)
IMMATURE
black outer
wings
black eye
light brown
eyebrow
IN FLIGHT
MALE
(BICOLORED)
all-black
back and tail
pointed
bill
off-white
underparts with
dark streaks
bright red
shoulder patches
(epaulettes)
with yellow edge
FEMALE
MALE
FLIGHT: swift wing beats interrupted by brief

bobbing, flapping, and gliding sequences.
ne of the most abundant native bird species in North America,

the Red-winged Blackbird is also one of the most conspicuous
in wetland habitats. The sight and sound of males singing from
the tops of cattails is a sure sign that spring is near. This adaptable
species migrates and roosts in flocks that may number in the millions.
There are 22 subspecies, one of the most distinctive being the
Bicolored Blackbird (A. p. gubernator) from Mexico.
VOICE Various brusk chek, chit, or chet calls; male song a kronk-a-rhee
with a characteristic nasal, rolling and metallic undulating ending.
NESTING Cup of grasses and mud woven into dense standing
reeds or cattails; 34 eggs; 12 broods; MarchJune.
FEEDING Forages for seeds and grains; largely insects when breeding.
DENSE FLOCKS
The huge flocks of Red-winged Blackbirds seen in

the fall and during migration are an amazing sight.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
TRICOLORED
BLACKBIRD 2
RUSTY BLACKBIRD
all-black
body
longer
tail
Widespread across Canada

and the US from Alaska to
the Maritimes, and south
to Mexico, Central America,
and the Bahamas. Lives in
wetlands, especially freshwater
marshes with cattails, and also
saltwater; wet meadows with tall
grass and open woodlands with
reeds. Migrates south in winter.
see p.397
pale
eye
whiteedged red
shoulder
patches
Weight 1916212oz (45 70g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
396
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Rusty Blackbird
long
tail
MALE
(BREEDING)
Species Euphagus carolinus

purplish sheen
yellowish
on head
eyes
pale whitish
gray-brown or yellow eye
eyebrow
pale gray to
rusty brown
underparts
short,
narrow
bill
FEMALE
(FALL)
rusty
brown crown
yellowish
eyes
black overall,
with blue-green
to greenish
black
sheen
mask
between
eye and bill
IN FLIGHT
pale
eyebrow
rusty brown edging
to feathers
MALE
(FALL)
MALE
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: strong, direct, with slight undulations
between flapping and brief gliding.
he Rusty Blackbird is
perhaps the least known of
all North American blackbirds.
This is mainly because it breeds
in remote, inaccessible swampy areas, and is much less of a pest to agricultural
operations than some of the other members of its family. Unlike most other
blackbirds, the plumage on the male Rusty Blackbird changes to a dull,
reddish brown during the fallgiving the species its common name. It is
also during the fall migrations that this species is most easily observed,
moving south in long flocks that often take several minutes to pass overhead.
VOICE Both sexes use chuk call during migration flights; male song
a musical too-ta-lee.
NESTING Small bowl of branches and sticks, lined with wet plants
and dry grass, usually near water; 35 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats seasonally available insects, spiders, grains, seeds of
trees, and fleshy fruits or berries.
COMMON
GRACKLE
see p.398
Breeds in moist to wet forests

up to the timberline in the
far north from Alaska to NE
Canada; but barely in the
continental US (farther north
than any other species of
North American blackbird);
winters in eastern US, in several
kinds of swampy forests.
bluish sheen
on head
see p.399
purplish sheen
on head
bill thicker
at base
large
tail
longer
tail
Seldom seen, the males

courtship display includes
gaping and tail-spreading.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BREWERS BLACKBIRD
WIDE OPEN
glossy
bronze
body
Weight 1916 278 oz (45 80g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
397

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Euphagus cyanocephalus
Brewers Blackbird
purplish sheen
on head
brown eyes
yellow eyes
stout
bill
gray brown
overall
MALE
long,
dark
tail
black body with

greenish blue sheen
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
MALE
FLIGHT: several wing beats followed by short
glides with shallow rise and fall pattern.
he Brewers Blackbird, unlike the swamp

loving Rusty Blackbird, seems to prefer areas
disturbed by humans to natural ones throughout much of its
range. It is likely that the relatively recent eastward range
expansion of Brewers Blackbird has been aided by changes
in land practices. Interestingly, when the Brewers Blackbird
range overlaps with that of the Common Grackle, it wins out
in rural areas, but loses out in urban areas. This species can be
found feasting on waste grains left behind after the harvest.
VOICE Buzzy tshrrep song ascending in tone.
NESTING Bulky cup of dry grass, stem and twig framework
lined with soft grasses and animal hair; 36 eggs; 12 broods;
AprilJuly.
FEEDING Forages on the ground for many species of insects
during breeding season, also snails; seeds, grain, and occasional
fruit in fall and winter.
black legs
and feet
BROWN-EYED BIRD
Brown eyes distinguish the female Brewers from

the yellow-eyed, female Rusty Blackbird.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RUSTY BLACKBIRD
Breeds and winters in open

areas, readily adapting to,
and preferring, disturbed
areas and human developments
such as parks, gardens,
clear-felled forests, and
fallow fields edged with
dense trees or shrubs.
COMMON GRACKLE
see p.397
bill
thinner
at base
see p.399
shorter
tail
long, wedgeshaped tail
glossy
bronze
body
Weight 134 212oz (50 70g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
398
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Quiscalus quiscula
Common Grackle
dark
wings
pale
yellow eye
iridescent bluish
purple head
iridescent brownish
bronze back
ADULT
long,
thick bill
IN FLIGHT
pale eye
long, V-shaped tail
MALE
(BRONZED FORM)
bluish to
purplish head
iridescent purplish
to greenish or
bluish back
dull purplish
bronze
overall
FEMALE
MALE (PURPLE FORM)
his adaptable species has expanded its range rapidly in the

recent past, thanks to human land clearing practices.
The Common Grackle is so well suited to urban and suburban
FLIGHT: straight, level, and direct without the
habitats that it successfully excludes other species from them.
up and down undulation of blackbird species.
During migration and winter, Common Grackles form immense
flocks, some of which may be made up of more than one million
individuals.This tendency, combined with its preference for cultivated areas,
has made this species an agricultural pest in some regions.
VOICE Call a low, harsh chek; loud song series of odd squeaks and whistles.
NESTING Small bowl in trees, with a frame of sticks filled with mud and
grasses; 46 eggs; 12 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Eats beetles, flies, spiders, and worms,
as well as small vertebrates; also seeds and grain,
especially in nonbreeding season; an omnivore.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GREAT-TAILED GRACKLE
BOAT-TAILED
GRACKLE
larger; see p.400
see p.401
very long,
deeply
wedged
tail
purplish
gloss to
feathers
longer
tail
bluish
gloss on
black
feathers
HIGHLY ADAPTABLE
This grackle is comfortable near

human developments, resulting
in the expansion of its range.
The Common Grackle lives

in a wide variety of open
woodlands, suburban
woodlots, city parks,
gardens, and hedgerows.
It is absent west of the
Great Plains. Wintering
range extends south to
the Gulf Coast.
Weight 318 4oz (90125g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
399

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Quiscalus mexicanus
Great-tailed Grackle
pale
brown
throat
tan
throat
Q. m. nelsoni
(WESTERN;
FEMALE)
MALE
darker
brown
belly
deep, large,
V-shaped
tail
very long tail,
sometimes
raised
IN FLIGHT
pale brown
belly
flattened
head
pale
eye
Q. m. prosopidicola
(EASTERN; FEMALE)
iridescent
purple on
body
long,
pointed
bill
MALE
FLIGHT: swift and level with regular, relatively
quick wing beats; long tail trails behind.
ong thought to be the same species as the

Boat-tailed Grackle, the Great-tailed Grackle is
an interior species that is less dependent on wetlands,
and the two species do not interbreed in areas where
they overlap. Its rapid range expansion throughout the 1900s
can be attributed to increased human-made habitat changes.
VOICE Long, four-part series with a number of different notes;
unusual noises include rattling, rustling, and harsh whistles.
NESTING Open cup of woven plant material and
mud, lined with soft grasses in trees or shrubs;
35 eggs; 12 broods; MarchJuly.
FEEDING Eats insects when breeding, including
grasshoppers, caterpillars, and beetles; also cultivated
grains; omnivorous diet varies seasonally.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON
GRACKLE
BOAT-TAILED
smaller overall GRACKLE
see p.399
see p.401
more black
appearance
shorter
tail
round
head
less V-shaped
tail
bluish
iridescence
overall
ELABORATE DISPLAY
The male Great-tailed Grackle

establishes his territory with its
spectacular head-up display.
An increasingly common
interior US species, the
Great-tailed Grackle lives in
fields mixed with open wooded
areas; often found near human
developments, along the edges
of freshwater marshes.
Northern US breeding
populations are migratory,
southern ones are resident.
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
400
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Quiscalus major
Boat-tailed Grackle
brown or
yellow eyes
tawny cinnamon
eyebrow
long,
black bill
ADULT
round head
glossy blueblack overall

dark brown
upperparts
long,
spread
out, wedgeshaped tail
IN FLIGHT
much
smaller
overall
FEMALE
black wings
MALE
black legs
and feet
FLIGHT: swift wing beats with occasional glides,
maintaining same level; no undulating pattern.
o similar to each other are

very long
the Boat-tailed Grackle and the
tail, often
Great-tailed Grackle that they were
spread out
once thought to belong to the same
species.The Boat-tailed Grackle lives in
coastal marshes, but readily scavenges in nearby
human settlements. In spring, females form large nesting colonies.
These attract many males, but only the most dominant males
succeed in mating.Their preferred breeding habitat is salt marshes.
VOICE Long, loud, three-part series of high pitched notes, chreeet
chreeet, followed by low growl, and finally by shreet shreet.
NESTING Rough cups of grass and mud, woven into standing
marsh vegetation like cattails or branches of shubs or trees;
25 eggs; 12 broods; MarchJune.
PLAIN BROWN
FEEDING Highly varied diet includes insects, crayfish, clams,
Unlike the glossy blue-black males, females
seeds, fruit, fish, frogs, lizards, nestling birds; also human refuse.
are brown, with darker wings and tail.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON GRACKLE
see p.399
shorter
tail
paler
eye
smaller
overall
Breeds along the Gulf and

Atlantic coasts of the US,
and in Florida along interior
waterways; resident in tidal
areas of coastal marshes
and their neighboring upland
components; also urban and
suburban, human-altered
habitats. Roosts colonially
in same areas in winter.
GREAT-TAILED GRACKLE
see p.400
longer
tail
larger
overall
Weight 312 812oz (100 240g)
Social Loose colonies/Winter flocks
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
401

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Sturnella magna
Eastern Meadowlark
long, pointed bill

black stripe
behind eye
black-and-white
striped crown
buffy wash
on face
buffy mottling
in black
breastband
ADULT
brown
upperparts
streaked
with buff
and black
whitish
face
yellow
throat
FALL
rounded
wings
IN FLIGHT
yellow
breast
with
black V
short tail with

white outer
tail feathers
yellow belly
BREEDING
FLIGHT: moderately fast; flushes with a series
long toes
of rapid wing beats, then begins to flap and glide.
bird of eastern grassy fields, the

colorful Eastern Meadowlark is
well known for its plaintive sounding
song. During courtship, the male sings insistently from the highest
available perch. This species overlaps with the very similar looking Western
Meadowlark in the Great Plains, but is the only meadowlark farther west.
Where they occur together, these birds are distinguished by their different
calls and songs. Throughout its range, numbers of Eastern Meadowlark
have fallen because of human modification of its habitat, although in
the last decade or so, the species has made a slow (and local) comeback.
VOICE Call a sharp dzzeer; song a series of clear, descending whistles
consisting of 38 notes, tseeeooou tseeeeou.
NESTING Loosely woven, usually domed, cup of grasses and other plants,
located on the ground in tall grass fields; 38 eggs; 1 brood; MarchMay.
FEEDING Forages on ground, mainly for insects, especially grasshoppers,
but also caterpillars and grubs; seeds and grain in winter.
Breeds in native tallgrass

openings, pastures, and
overgrown roadsides.
America, from Qubec to New
Mexico and Arizona; also in
Mexico and Cuba, and locally in
northern South America. Partial
migrant in the US, resident in
Mexico and South America.
WESTERN MEADOWLARK
see p.342
see p.403
more
slender,
shorter
bill
slightly
paler
Eastern Meadowlarks are

partial to fenceposts as a
favorite perch for singing.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
AMERICAN PIPIT
FAVORITE PERCH
more
yellow
at corner
of bill
no yellow
on chest
Weight 218 4oz (60125g)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
402
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Sturnella neglecta
Western Meadowlark
short
wings
long,
pointed
bill
blackish
brown stripe
behind eye
ADULT
yellow throat
white
outer
tail
feathers
yellow patch
between bill
and eye
chunky body
IN FLIGHT
black V
on yellow
chest
duller pattern
than breeding
bird
black spots
and streaks
on sides and
flanks
yellow
underparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
short,
wide tail
ADULT (NONBREEDING)
long toes
FLIGHT: several rapid wing beats followed
by a short glide.
lthough the range of the Western Meadowlark overlaps widely with that
of its Eastern counterpart, hybrids between the two species are very rare
and usually sterile. The large numbers of Western Meadowlarks in the western
Great Plains, the Great Basin, and the Central Valley of California, combined
with the males tendency to sing conspicuously from the tops of shrubs, when
fenceposts are not available, make this species attractive to birdwatchers. Where
the two meadowlarks overlap they are best identified by their song.
VOICE Series of complex, bubbling, whistled notes descending in pitch.
NESTING Domed grass cup, well hidden in tall
grasses; 37 eggs; 1 brood; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Feeds mostly on insects, including
beetles, grubs, and grasshoppers; also grains
and grass seeds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
AMERICAN PIPIT
EASTERN
MEADOWLARK
see p.342
shorter
bill
see p.402
lacks yellow
chest and
black necklace
less
yellow at
corner
of beak
slightly darker
overall
A SHRUB WILL DO
With few fenceposts in the

Western Meadowlarks habitat,
it perches on a shrub to sing.
Common in western
North America, across much
of southern Canada and the
western US, south to Mexico.
Breeds primarily in open
grassy plains, but also uses
agricultural fields with
overgrown edges and
hayfields. Partial migrant in
US, winters south to Mexico.
Weight 278 4oz (80125g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
403

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Species Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus
Yellow-headed Blackbird
bright yellow
head and
chest
black, conical bill

yellow head
MALE
black mask
and crown on
yellow head
conspicuous
white wing
patches
JUVENILE
MALE
IN FLIGHT
yellowish
throat and
facial patch
brownish
overall
black overall
white
wing
patch
MALE
FEMALE
long tail
FLIGHT: direct with shallow rise and fall
pattern; flaps and glides.
he male Yellow-headed
Blackbird is unmistakable, with
its conspicuous bright yellow head. Females, however, are more drab. Populations
of this species fluctuate widely in numbers, but locally, depending on rainfall, which
controls the availability and quality of its breeding marshland habitat. In some
wetlands, the Yellow-headed Blackbird can be extremely abundant, and is easily
noticeable due to its amazing song, which, once heard, can never be forgotten.
VOICE Call a nasal whaah; song a series of harsh, cackling noises, followed
by a brief pause, and a high, long, wailing trill.
NESTING Cup of plant strips woven into standing
aquatic vegetation; 34 eggs; 1 brood; MayJune.
FEEDING Eats insects while breeding; agricultural
grains and grass seeds in winter.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RUSTY BLACKBIRD 26
TRICOLORED
BLACKBIRD 1
see p.397
lacks yellow
throat
larger
pale
eye
lacks
yellow
throat
YELLOW GARLAND
Five evenly spaced yellowheaded males watch over their

wetland habitat from a twig.
Widely distributed in
western Canada and the
central and western US, this
species breeds in marshes
with cattail and bullrush
vegetation, and also, locally,
in wetlands within wooded
areas. Winters in Mexico;
resident in Baja California.
Length 812 1012 in (2127cm)
Weight 218 312oz (60 100g)
Status Localized
DATE SEEN
404
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Icteridae
Bobolink
Species Dolichonyx oryzivorus

blackish brown
crown
gold-buff
overall
black wings
pinkish bill
buff-colored
hindneck
black
face and
crown
MALE
(BREEDING)
sparrow-like
markings
central
crown stripe
IN FLIGHT
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
white
shoulder
feathers
buffy
throat
pointed tail
feathers
ADULT
(FALL)
black
underparts
white
rump
MALE
(BREEDING)
FLIGHT: typically direct flight; series of rapid
wing beats; glides of varying length.
he Bobolink is a
common summer
resident of open fallow
black tail with
fields through much of the
pointed feathers
northern US and southern
Canada. In spring, the males perform
a conspicuous circling or helicoptering display, which includes
singing, to establish territory and to attract females. Bobolink
populations have declined on its breeding grounds and in wintering
areas because of habitat loss and changing agricultural practices.
VOICE Calls like the end of its name link; song a long, complex
babbling series of musical notes varying in length and pitch.
NESTING Woven cup of grass close to or on the ground, well
hidden in tall grass; 3 7 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
TAKING A BREAK
FEEDING Feeds mostly on insects, spiders, grubs in breeding
This male has fled the sun of the open fields to
season, but seasonally variable; also cereal grains and grass seeds.
seek shelter in the shade of a tree.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
RED-WINGED
BLACKBIRD
see p.396
lacks buffcolored
hindneck
red shoulder
patches
Breeds in open fields with

a mixture of tall grasses and
other herbaceous vegetation,
especially old hayfields. In
Canada from British Columbia
to the East Coast; in the US
from Idaho to New England.
Migrates through the southern
US and the Caribbean; winters
in northern South America.
LARK BUNTING
see p.411
lacks buffcolored
hindneck
larger
overall
larger
white
wing
patches
Weight 1116 2oz (30 55g)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
405
Family Emberizidae
LONGSPURS & AMERICAN SPARROWS

of finch-like
T
birds that includes longspurs, buntings, and
American sparrows. These birds occur everywhere
HE EMBERIZIDAE IS A FAMILY
in the world except for Australia and Antarctica.

Emberizid finches are a diverse group, with over
300 species worldwide, including about 50 in
North America. Although the scientific names of
these birds are straightforward, their common
names are not, and it is easy to become confused.
Early settlers in North America thought these
birds resembled European sparrows, and most
North American emberizids are named sparrows,
despite having no close relationship with the
European species Passer domesticus, which was
deliberately introduced to the US.
TYPICAL SPARROW
A White-crowned Sparrow
shows the typical stout
emberizid beak.
Family Thraupidae
Distinguishing between
different North
American sparrows
can be a daunting job.
Many are small,
brownish birds, with
streaking in their
plumage. They usually
remain hidden in dense
vegetation, and are not
easy to see. Clues such
as voice, habitat,
BEST VIEW
behavior, and body
Singing males like this
shape are essential in
Chestnut-collared Longspur
their identification.
are easily seen in summer.
Emberizids tend to
forage for seeds on or near the ground,
using their stout, conical bills to crush the
seeds. Some North American sparrow species
are year-round residents, but most are either
migrants or partial migrants, and some have
both resident and migrant populations. Fox
Sparrows and Song Sparrows provide superb
examples of species in the making, with
numerous subspecies and overlapping ranges:
because of geographical and ecological
diversification, we are able to observe
evolution in action.
Family Cardinalidae
TANAGERS
CARDINALS
a large, diverse
T
family of over 200 songbird species, found
only in the Americas. Some tropical species
includes the
T
well-known Northern Cardinal, but also
the Dickcissel, several grosbeaks, and buntings.
are dull-colored, and feed on insects from the

forest floor, while others are rainbow-colored
fruit-eaters that congregate in the canopy
of fruit-bearing trees. North American
tanagers belong to the genus Piranga, a TupiGuarani name from South America. Males are
brightly colored in reds or yellows, but females
are dull greenish yellow. The Eastern species
migrate to South America.
These buntings have the same common name

as some emberizid finches, but are unrelated
to them. All cardinalids are vocal, and some
are spectacularly colored,
especially the electric-blue
Indigo Bunting and
the multicolored
Painted Bunting.
The Pyrrhuloxia, with
a parrot-like bill, is a
close relative of the
Northern Cardinal.
HE TANAGERS COMPRISE
HE FAMILY CARDINALIDAE
MALE COLORS
Male Western Tanagers are

among North Americas
most colorful birds.
This species is rare
in the East.
STRONG BILLS
Male Pyrrhuloxias have impressive

bills for cutting open seed hulls
and nuts, and opening large fruits.
Pyrrhuloxias are rare in the East.
LONGSPURS AND AMERICAN SPARROWS

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Lapland Longspur
thin
white
edge
to tail
Species Calcarius lapponicus

streaked
crown
thick
yellowish
bill
white
eye-line
bright
rufous
nape
MALE
(BREEDING)
black streak
on throat
black face
rich buffy
hood
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
IN FLIGHT
rusty wing
panel
thick streaking
on flanks
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
white
underparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
black flanks
FLIGHT: deeply undulating, with birds often
calling in troughs as they flap.
he genus name, Calcarius, refers to the

long hind claw of this bird, hence longspur in
American usage.The Lapland Longspur is one of the most numerous breeding
birds in the Arctic tundra, from Labrador west to Alaska, and across northern
Eurasia. In winter, they form huge flocks in open habitats of southern Canada and
the US.They are found on gravel roads and barren countryside immediately after
heavy snowfalls. DNA data suggest that the longspurs and Plectrophenax buntings
may not belong to the family Emberizidae, but where remains an open question.
VOICE Flight call a dry rattle, tyew, unlike other longspurs; song a series of
thin tinklings and whistles, melodious often in flight.
NESTING Cup of grass and sedges placed in depression on ground next to
a clump of vegetation; 46 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats insects during breeding season; seeds in winter.
see p.408
white bars
on wing
thin
bill
Breeds in tundra right

across the high Arctic
of North America and
Eurasia. Winters in open
grasslands and barren
fields, and on beaches
across the northern and
central US and south-central
and northeastern Canada.
CHESTNUT-COLLARED
LONGSPUR 17
see p.409
more
white
in tail
This longspur is one of the

most conspicuous breeding
birds of the Arctic tundra.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SMITHS LONGSPUR 1
CONSPICUOUS SPECIES
dark
cheek
patch
Length 612in (16cm)
Weight 781116oz (2530g)
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
407

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Calcarius pictus
Smiths Longspur
black-andwhite helmet
rich, buffy
overall
MALE
(BREEDING)
fine
breast
streaks
white cheek
patch
white
outer
tail
feathers
wings
extend
past tail
small bill
FEMALE
white
shoulder
relatively
long wings
orange
collar
IN FLIGHT
rich pumpkincolored
underparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
white
undertail
feathers
ith their pumpkin colored breast and black-and-white

helmet, breeding males Smiths Longspurs contrast strongly
with their drab winter plumage. Females are pale versions of the
males. On both its remote breeding grounds in the Arctic, and its
restricted shortgrass range in winter, this bird hides on the ground at
all times, making it hard to spot. Smiths Longspurs migrate through
the Great Plains to reach their wintering grounds, but on the return
journey they swing east, making their migration path elliptical.This
species breeds communally and does not hold territories: males
mate with several females who, in turn, mate with other males.
VOICE Flight call a mechanical, dry, sharp rattle; also a nasal nief
when squabbling; song a series of thin, sweet whistles.
NESTING Concealed cup of sedges, lined with feathers, placed
in hummock on ground; 35 eggs; 1 brood; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Eats mainly seeds and insects; migrants may rely
heavily upon introduced foxtail grass.
LINEBACK LONGSPUR
On his breeding or spring staging grounds, the

male sports a striking black-and-white helmet.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LAPLAND LONGSPUR
17
thicker bill
Breeds along the tundra-taiga

timberline from northern Alaska
southeastwards to northern
Ontario; also mountainous
southeastern Alaska and
southwestern Yukon. Migrants
are found in shortgrass prairies.
Winters in open areas with
shortgrass in Kansas, Oklahoma,
Texas, and Arkansas.
CHESTNUT-COLLARED
LONGSPUR 17
see p.407
see p.409
lacks rich buff
color and
streaks
broad, reddish
edges to
wings
more
white in tail
Weight 78 1116 oz (25 30g)
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
408
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Calcarius ornatus
Chestnut-collared Longspur
gray-brown
overall
white patch
on wing
buff eyebrow
chestnut neck
tan
cheeks
streaked
upperparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
FEMALE
(NONBREEDING)
pale rufous
on nape
IN FLIGHT
white
eyebrow
black
underparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
buff-white
underparts
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
white
outer tail
feathers
he Chestnut-collared
Longspur was once much
more widespread and numerous than today. This is
because it traditionally bred in areas of the western prairies
that had been recently disturbed by huge, roaming herds of bison,
or by wild fires. After the elimination of the bison, however,
and the taming of the plains, such areas were hard to find, and
so the bird declined. One of the Chestnut-collared Longspurs
distinguishing features is the triangular black patch on its tail. The breeding
males black belly is also unique among the North American longspurs.
VOICE Flight call a chortling KTI-uhl-uh, often in series; also a soft rattle
and short buzz; song a sweet, rich, whistled series, in
fluttering, circular flights over the prairies.
NESTING Grassy cup on ground, in grass clump or
next to rock; 35 eggs; 12 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Eats seeds year-round; also feeds on
insects when breeding.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
MCCOWNS LONGSPUR 1
SMITHS LONGSPUR 16
see p.472
see p.408
shorter, mostly
white tail
larger, thicker bill

less white
in tail
NOW AND THEN

rich, buff
coloration
The male bird usually sings

from the air, but occasionally
from a prominent perch.
Breeds in shortgrass prairie

from Alberta east to Minnesota,
south to northeastern Colorado
and northwestern Nebraska;
on migration, grasslands and
cultivated fields. Winters in
grasslands and other barren
areas in the southern Great
Plains west to southeastern
Arizona and south to Mexico.
Weight 381116 oz (1120g)
Social Large flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
409

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Snow Bunting
less
white
white in outer tail
wings
feathers
Species Plectrophenax nivalis

pale rufous
crown
white head and

underparts
white
underparts
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
black back
black
bill
yellow
bill
IN FLIGHT
large white
patches on
black wings
dark brown
eyes
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
rusty-orange
cheek patch
MALE
(BREEDING)
black peeks
through buffy
feather
edgings
FEMALE
(NONBREEDING)
gray
body
white
eye-ring
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
rustyorange
breast
patch
white
underparts
JUVENILE
he bold white wing patches of the Snow Bunting make

it immediately recognizable in a whirling winter flock
of dark-winged longspurs and larks. In winter, heavy snowfall
forces flocks onto roadsides, where they can be seen more easily.
To secure and defend the best territories, some males arrive as
early as April in their barren high-Arctic breeding grounds;
these buntings breed farther north than any other songbirds. The
Snow Bunting is very similar in appearance to the rare McKays
Bunting, localized to western Alaska. Although McKays Bunting
generally has less black on the back, in the wings, and on the tail,
the two species cannot always be conclusively identified. This is
especially true as they sometimes interbreed, producing hybrids.
VOICE Flight a call musical, liquid rattle, also tyew notes and
short buzz; song a pleasant series of squeaky and whistled notes.
NESTING Bulky cup
SIMILAR SPECIES
of grass and moss, lined
with feathers, and
MCKAYS
BUNTING
placed in sheltered
rock crevice; 3 6 eggs;
mostly
white
tail,
FEEDING Eats seeds
back,
and
(sedge in Arctic), flies
wings
and other insects, and
buds on migration.
FLIGHT: deeply undulating; flocks roll along
as birds at back overtake those in front.
ROCKY GROUND
About the only perches in the Snow Buntings

barren breeding grounds are large boulders.
OCCURRENCE
Breeds in rocky areas, usually

near sparsely vegetated tundra,
right across the Arctic in both
North America and Eurasia.
North American birds winter in
open country and along shores
across the southern Canada
and the northern US, and in
southern and western coastal
areas of Alaska.
Social Large flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
410
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Calamospiza melanocorys
Lark Bunting
white
tail
tips
thick, silvery,
bluish gray bill
variable
black
marks
black
upperparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
large,
white wing
patches
white
wing
patch
blunttipped
wings
IN FLIGHT
black spots
on undertail
feathers
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
black underparts
brown-andwhite streaks
MALE
(BREEDING)
bluegray
bill
brown legs
and toes
short, slightly
rounded tail
FEMALE
(NONBREEDING)
he stocky Lark Bunting is perhaps the most frequently

seen bird on the North American High Plains. Unlike the
Chestnut-collared Longspur, which lives alongside it, it has coped
with the changes wrought on its habitat by humans, and occurs
in extraordinarily high density throughout its range. Nomadic
flocks of thousands of birds scour the high deserts, open grasslands,
and sage brushlands for seeds. Breeding-plumage males are
unmistakable: black with large white wing patches. Females
and immature birds are duller, with more subdued wing patches.
VOICE Call a low, soft, whistled hwoik; song partly melodious,
partly scratchy, with repetitions of phrases, then whistles.
NESTING Open cup of grass, lined with fine plant material, in
depression in ground; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Mainly seeds in winter, a variety of insects in summer.
FLIGHT: low and undulating, short glides
alternating with stiff wing beats.
CAUGHT BY ANY MEANS
Lark Buntings hawk, glean, and forage insect

prey throughout the breeding season.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PURPLE FINCH 1
Breeds in grasslands and

sage flats on High Plains
from Alberta south to the Texas
panhandle. Winters in similar
habitatsand also in deserts,
cultivated plains, and open
shrubsteppesacross interior
southwestern US and northern
Mexico. Migrants use similar
open-country habitats.
VESPER SPARROW
see p.348
see p.431
no white
wing
patches
pink
bill
longer,
squarer tail
no white
in notched tail
Length 7in (18cm)
Weight 1116134oz (3050g)
Social Large flocks
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
411

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Fox Sparrow
ADULT
(RED)
Species Passerella iliaca

dark
upper
mandible
gray nape
gray head
and back
rusty streaks
on back
P. i. altivagans
(SLATE-COLORED;
ROCKY MOUNTAINS)
dark rufous
overall
two white
wing bars
dark brown
head and
upperparts
IN FLIGHT
rusty
tail
densely
spotted
breast
P. i. unalaschensis
(SOOTY; ALASKA
AND BRITISH COLUMBIA)
belly marked
with rufous
chevrons
very large
bill
grayish brown
head and
upperparts
fine streaks
on throat
rusty wings
and tail
P. i. iliaca
ADULT (RED)
long, rusty
tail
P. i. stephensi (THICK-BILLED;
CALIFORNIA MOUNTAINS)
FLIGHT: alternates wing beats and glides;
arger, more robust, and more colorful than its close relatives,
the Fox Sparrow is a beautiful species.When it appears in
backyards, its presence can be detected by its foraging habits;
it crouches low in leaf litter, and hops back and forth, noisily,
to disturb leaves, under which it finds seeds or insects. It varies
considerably over its huge range. Eastern birds are the distinctive
reds. Thick-billed birds are found in the Sierras, sooty ones in
the Pacific Northwest, and slate-colored ones in the Rockies.
VOICE Call is sharp, dry tshak or tshuk; flight call a high-pitched
tzeep!; song is complex and musical with trills and whistles.
NESTING Dense cup of grasses or moss lined with fine material;
usually placed low in shrub; 25 eggs; 1 brood; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Forages for insects, seeds, and fruit.
straight and fluttery, from cover to cover.
FOXY RED
The Fox Sparrow gets its name from the rusty

coloration of the eastern Red birds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HERMIT THRUSH
SONG SPARROW
see p.338
unstreaked
anks
see p.413
Encompasses the entire boreal

forest zone, from Alaska in
the West to Qubec, Labrador,
and Newfoundland in the
East. In the East, it occurs
in boreal forests. Winters in
the Pacific West, south to
Baja California; also from
Texas to Massachusetts.
thinner
bill
different
bill shape
longer
tail
breast
streaking
less
marked
Length 6 712 in (15 19cm)
Weight 78 1916 oz (25 45g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
412
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Song Sparrow
grayish head with

dark chestnut
brown crown
heavily streaked
brownish gray
upperparts
ADULT
(WEST COAST)
streaked
underparts
Species Melospiza melodia
dark mustache
bordering
whitish throat
grayish head
with brown
markings
ADULT
(WEST COAST)
central
breast
spot
IN FLIGHT
long, dark,
rounded tail
paler neck
heavily
streaked
underparts
M. m. melodia
(EASTERN)
more rusty
overall
M. m. saltonis
(SOUTHWEST)
he familiar song of this species can be heard in backyards

across the continent, including in winter, although it varies
both individually and geographically. In the southeastern US, where FLIGHT: low and direct, staying within cover
it does not breed, migrant birds start singing in early spring before whenever possible.
departing for northern areas.The Song Sparrow may be the North
American champion of geographical variationabout 40 subspecies have
been described.These vary from the large, dark birds of the Aleutian Islands
(M. m. maxima) to the smaller, paler birds of southern Arizona (M. m. saltonis).
Eastern birds, such as M. m. melodia, fall between the two in size.
VOICE A dry tchip call; flight call a clear siiiti; song a jumble of variable
whistles and trills, deeep deeep deep-deep chrrrr tiiiiiiiiiiiii tyeeur most common.
NESTING Bulky cup on or near ground, in brush or
marsh vegetation; 35 eggs; 13 broods; MarchAugust.
FEEDING In summer, feeds mainly on insects; in
winter, eats mainly seeds, but also fruit.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SAVANNAH SPARROW
LINCOLNS SPARROW
see p.420
see p.414
thinner
black
streaks
less
rounded
tail
yellow
eyestripe
BREAST SPOT
shorter,
square tail
The Song Sparrow often sings

from exposed perches, showing
off its characteristic breast spot.
Widespread in a range
of habitats (although not
in dense forests) across
Canada and the US, from
the Atlantic to the Pacific
Coasts and north to Alaska.
Some populations move
south of their breeding
range in winter.
Weight 716 134 oz (13 50g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
413

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Lincolns Sparrow
Species Melospiza lincolnii

crested or
peaked,
rufous
crown
bold eyering
broad gray
eyebrow
small,
thin bill
dark brown streak

under cheek
streaks on
throat
pencil-thin
streaking on
buffy breast
rounded
tail
ADULT
rufous-edged
wing feathers
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
t first glance, Lincolns Sparrow

appears plain, but on close inspection
it reveals itself to be a bird with subtly varying,
but crisply outlined, markings. In the breeding season, it seeks
out moist willow scrub at the tundrataiga timberline; outside
the breeding season, Lincolns Sparrow occurs in scrubby
habitats right across North America. It will occasionally visit
backyard feeders in winter, but it is generally secretive and stays
within fairly dense cover. Lincolns Sparrows rich, musical song
is unmistakable, and it varies remarkably little from region to
region. Audubon named this species in 1834 in honor of his
collector Thomas Lincoln.
VOICE Call a variable, loud tchip, flight call a rolling ziiiit; song
series of rich, musical trills, ju-ju-ju dodododo dididididi whrrrrr.
NESTING Grass cup, lined with fine grass, and hidden in
depression in ground under overhanging sedges or grasses;
35 eggs;1 brood; JuneAugust.
FEEDING Mainly seeds in winter; in summer, mostly insects,
such as beetles, mosquitoes, and moths.
FLIGHT: low and direct, staying within cover
whenever possible.
RAISE THE ALARM
When disturbed, Lincolns Sparrow often raises its

central crown feathers, which form a crest.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SONG SPARROW
see p.413
SAVANNAH
SPARROW
larger overall
see p.420
more
coarse
streaking
Breeds in muskeg and wet

thickets across northern North
America, also south into the
western ranges of California
and Arizona. Migrants and
wintering birds use a variety
of scrubby habitats. Winters
in southern US (and farther
south), and on Pacific Coast
north to British Columbia.
yellow
stripe
above
eye
short,
square,
notched
tail
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
414
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Melospiza georgiana
Swamp Sparrow
rufous crown
gray and
rufous face
unstreaked
gray nape
rufous
flanks
tan upperparts
with dark
streaks
ADULT
(BREEDING)
tawny
flanks
IN FLIGHT
dark,
rounded tail
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
gray
breast
with fine
streaking
rusty margins to
wing feathers
ADULT
(BREEDING)
whenever possible.
he Swamp Sparrow is a common breeder in wet habitats across

eastern North America and Canada west to the southern Yukon and
eastern British Columbia. It is abundant in its preferred habitat of tall reed and
cattail marshes. A somewhat skittish bird, the Swamp Sparrow is often seen
darting rapidly into cover, but usually repays the patient observer with a
reappearance, giving its characteristic chimp call. Though often confused with
both the Song Sparrow and Lincolns Sparrow, the Swamp Sparrow never
shows more than a very faint, blurry streaking on its gray breast, and sports
conspicuous rusty-edged wing feathers. Its song is also quite different.
VOICE Call a slightly nasal, forceful chimp, flight call a high, buzzy ziiiiii; song
a slow, monotonous, loose trill of chirps.
NESTING Bulky cup of dry plants placed 1 4ft (30120cm) above water in
marsh vegetation; 35 eggs; 12 broods; MayJuly.
FEEDING Mostly insects in the breeding season, especially grasshoppers; seeds
in winter; occasionally fruit.
SONG SPARROW
LINCOLNS SPARROW
see p.413
see p.414
Breeds in marshes, cedar

bogs, damp meadows, and
wet hayfields, from the Yukon
east to Newfoundland and
south to Nebraska and the
Delmarva Peninsula; winters
in marshes in eastern US and
south through Mexico;
rare but regular along
Pacific coast.
brown
tail
streaked
breast
less red
overall
This male Swamp Sparrow is

checking his territory from atop
a seeding cattail flower.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
brown
wings
HIGH PERCH
ne
breast
streaks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
415

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Zonotrichia querula
Harriss Sparrow
two
wing
bars
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
black
crown
pinkish
bill
pinkish
or yellow
bill
black cheek
patch
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
indistinct
facial
markings
gray
cheeks
black
chin
and
throat
gray rump
and undertail
feathers
IN FLIGHT
tan cheek
white chin
concentration
of streaks
on chest
ADULT
(BREEDING)
JUVENILE
n unmistakable black-faced, pink-billed bird,

Harriss Sparrow is the only breeding bird endemic to
Canada. It can be seen in the US during migration or in winter
on the Great Plains. This species is occasionally found in large
flocks of White-throated and White-crowned Sparrows. Harriss
Sparrow is the largest sparrow in North America, approaching
the Northern Cardinal in size. Its scientific name, querula, comes
from the plaintive quality of its whistled song. The First Harriss
Sparrow nest was found in 1907 in the Northwest Territories.
VOICE Call a sharp weeek; song a melancholy series of 24
whistles on the same pitch.
NESTING Bulky cup placed on ground among vegetation
or near ground in brush; 35 eggs; 1 brood; JuneAugust.
FEEDING Eats seeds, insects, buds, and even young conifer
needles in summer.
whenever possible.
NORTHERN ACROBAT
This nonbreeding Harriss Sparrow grips two

different weeds, one in each foot.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HOUSE SPARROW
Breeds in scrub-tundra along

the Canadian taigatundra
timberline from northern
Northwest Territories to
northern Ontario. Winters in US
Great Plains from South Dakota
and Iowa south to northern
Texas. Nonbreeders found in
thickets, hedges. Casual in the
East, and rare in the West.
WHITE-THROATED
SPARROW 5
see p.341
see p.418
much
smaller
lacks bright
pink bill
no black
necklace
smaller and
shorter-tailed
Weight 11161716oz (30 40g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
416
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Zonotrichia leucophrys
White-crowned Sparrow
white crown with
two black stripes
gray rump
and
uppertail
yellowish
bill
duller
overall
black line
gray cheek
ADULT
longish
tail
two
wing
bars
IN FLIGHT
brown crown
ADULT
A. i. nuttalli
(CALIFORNIACOAST)
two wing bars
unmarked,
grayish
underparts
gray
breast
ADULT
IMMATURE
whenever possible.
he White-crowned Sparrow breeds far north in eastern

Canada in open boreal forests ranging westward to
Alaska. Geographic variation in this species is well-marked,
and recognized by five subspecies. Eastern birds belong to
Z. l leucophrys. Four western subspecies have been described.
Eastern birds migrate south to wintering grounds in a number
of states, southward of a line from southern Minnesota to
New York to the Gulf Coast (but not Florida).
VOICE Call a sharp tink; flight call a thin seep; song a buzzy whistle.
NESTING Bulky cup of grass placed on or near the ground
in bushes; 4 6 eggs; 13 broods; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Forages for seeds, insects, fruit, buds, and grass.
LOOKING RESTED
Perched on a shrub, this sparrows white

eyestreak is highly visible.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WHITE-THROATED
SPARROW
see p.418
chunkier
overall
Widespread across the boreal

forest and the taiga-tundra
border, from Alaska eastward
to Qubec and Labrador,
and southward from British
Columbia to coastal California
and the intermontane west. In
the North, breeds in willow
thickets, wet forest; in the west,
habitats are more varied.
yellow GOLDEN-CROWNED
plain face
patch SPARROW 4
gray
bill
yellowish
forecrown
gray
bill
more
reddish
Weight 1116114oz (2035g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
417

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Zonotrichia albicollis

yellow
patch
White-throated Sparrow
bold white
stripe
tan stripe
two white
wing bars
browner
face
white
throat
bright
rufous back
and tail
ADULT
ADULT
(TAN-STRIPED FORM)
IN FLIGHT
gray bill
gray
underparts
streaking
on breast
ADULT
(WHITE-STRIPED FORM)
IMMATURE
(TAN-STRIPED)
fairly long tail
ommon almost everywhere in eastern North America,

White-throated Sparrows sing all year round.Their distinctive,
whistled, rhythmic song can be remembered with the popular
mnemonics Oh sweet Canada Canada Canada, or the less accurate
Old Sam Peabody.This species has two different color forms, one
with a white stripe above its eye, and the other with a tan stripe.
In the nonbreeding season, large flocks roam the leaf litter of
woodlands in search of food. Often the only indication of their
presence is the occasional moving leaf or thin, lisping flight call.
VOICE Call loud, sharp jink; flight call lisping tssssst!; song clear
whistle comprising 12 higher notes, then three triplets.
NESTING Cup placed on or near ground in dense shrubbery;
FEEDING Mainly forages on the ground for seeds, fruit, insects,
buds, and various grasses.
whenever possible.
DIFFERENT COLOR FORMS
The presence of white or tan stripes on Whitethroated Sparrows is not related to their sex.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW
slimmer overall;
see p.417
no yellow
patch
Breeds in forests from eastern

Yukon to Newfoundland,
south to the Great Lakes
region and northern
Appalachians. Nonbreeders
prefer wooded thickets and
hedges. Winters across the
eastern US and extreme south
of the Southwest. Rare but
regular along the Pacific Coast.
GOLDEN-CROWNED
yellowish
SPARROW 4
forecrown
orange or
pink bill
plain,
grayish
breast
Length 612712in (16 17.5cm)
Weight
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
418
WHERE
NOTES
16114oz (20 35g)
11

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Dark-eyed Junco
bluish gray
hood
MALE
(SLATE-COLORED)
Species Junco hyemalis
dark area between

eye and bill
dull, brownish
back
white
outer tail
feathers
dark gray
head
gray body
with darker
gray back
pinkish flanks
FEMALE
(PINK-SIDED)
IN FLIGHT
reddish
brown back
black mask
gray
rump
white
belly
pale gray
underparts
MALE
(GRAY-HEADED)
rust
back
reddish flanks
MALE
J. h hyemalis
(SLATE-COLORED;
EAST)
blackish
hood
MALE
(OREGON)
he Dark-eyed Juncos arrival at birdfeeders during

winter snowstorms has earned it the colloquial name
of snowbird. The name Dark-eyed Junco is used to
describe a group of birds that vary geographically in such
a strikingly diverse way that 16 subspecies have been
described. Slate-colored populations are widespread across
Canada and the northeastern US. White-winged birds nest
in the Black Hills. Pink-sided ones breed in Idaho, Montana,
and Wyoming, and Oregon birds breed in the West, from
Alaska to British Columbia and the mountains of the western
US in the Sierras south to Mexico. Birds from the
Appalachians are ascribed to the subspecies J.h carolinensis.
VOICE Loud, smacking tick and soft dyew calls; flight call
a rapid, twittering, and
SIMILAR SPECIES
buzzy zzeet; song a simple,
liquid, 1-pitch trill.
YELLOW-EYED JUNCO
NESTING Cup placed on
yellow
red
ground hidden under
eyes
back
vegetation or next to
rocks; 35 eggs; 12
buff
wash
broods; MayAugust.
to belly
FEEDING Eats insects
and seeds; also berries.
whenever possible.
BRIGHTER MALE
Like other juncos, this male is brighter

than females.
OCCURRENCE

forests across Canada, the
northeastern and northwestern
US, south in the east Appalachians
to Georgia, and in the west, in
mountains from Alaska and British
Columbia to New Mexico and
northern Baja California. Winters
from southern Canada to northern
Mexico, but not in Florida.
Weight 581116oz (1830g)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
419

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Savannah Sparrow
brown overall
ADULT
yellow patch
between eye
and bill
tail short with

whitish edges
Species Passerculus sandwichensis
pale yellow
eyebrow
small
bill
white belly
IN FLIGHT
reddish
streaks on
underparts
pale sandy
overall
crisp black
streaking
on
underparts
ADULT
(WESTERN)
ADULT
P. s. princeps
(IPSWICH
SPARROW)
pinkish legs
and toes
FLIGHT: square-tailed with an often
undulating or stair-step flight pattern.

ADULT (EASTERN)
short, notched
tail, edged
with white
he Savannah
Sparrow shows
tremendous geographic
variation21 subspeciesacross its vast range, but it is always brown,
with dark streaks above and white with dark streaks below. The pale
Ipswich Sparrow (P. s. princeps), originally described as a species, breeds on
the very isolated Sable Island, Nova Scotia, and winters along the East Coast.
Eastern Savannah Sparrows breed in eastern Canada and the northwestern
US, and winter in the southern half of the US, Mexico, and the West Indies.
VOICE Call a sharp, but full stip; flight call a thin, weak, down-slurred
tseew; song a sit sit sit sit suh-EEEEE say, from perch or in display flight
with legs dangling.
NESTING Concealed cup of grass placed in depression on ground, protected
by overhanging grass or sedges; 26 eggs; 12 broods; JuneAugust.
FEEDING Forages on the ground, mostly for insects; in summer also
eats seeds; in winter berries and fruit when available; also small snails
and crustaceans.
SONG SPARROW
VESPER SPARROW
see p.413
see p.431
Breeds in meadows, grasslands,

pastures, bushy tundra, and some
cultivated land across northern
North America. Also along Pacific
Coast and in Mexican interior.
Nonbreeders use varied open
habitats. Eastern birds winter
across southern US to Honduras,
also Cuba, the Bahamas, and
the Cayman Islands.
rusty
shoulder
longer,
rounded
tail
This birds yellow eyebrow

matches the colour
of its surroundings.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
larger overall
SAVANNAH SPARROW
dark tail
Weight 121116oz (1530g)
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
420
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Seaside Sparrow
yellow patch
between eye
and bill
gray cheek
bordered
by dusky
brown line
dark overall
long, rather
thick bill
dark olivetoned
upperparts
and head
ADULT
Species Ammodramus maritimus
rusty wing
coverts
dark malar
streak can be
conspicuous
blackish
streaking on
underparts
round
tail
white throat
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
overall
appearance
dark
ADULT
A. m. mirabilis
(CAPE SABLE,
FLORIDA)
indistinct
dusky streaks
on underparts
FLIGHT: low and weak, over short distances,
with tail pointed down; much flapping.
he song of the Seaside Sparrow

is a characteristic summer sound
of East Coast US saltmarshes with
Spartina grass. Seaside Sparrows
vary geographically with nine
described subspecies. East Coast
subspecies are duller, with smudgy markings and dusky gray coloration.
Gulf Coast birds are more boldly marked, with brighter plumage, and orangish
color to the head and breast. Sadly, marsh drainage has caused the extinction of
the blackish, boldly marked Dusky Seaside Sparrow (A.m. nigrescens), which
was endemic to eastern Florida in 1987.The crisply marked Cape Sable Seaside
Sparrow of southwestern Florida (A.m. mirabilis) is now endangered.
VOICE Call a husky tchup, sometimes in series; also a descending tchee-tchee choh,
choh, CHOO; song is buzzy, drrr-tiz-uh-ZHAAAAY, and individually variable.
NESTING Cup of grasses, occasionally domed, placed near ground; 25 eggs;
FEEDING Eats seeds of grasses, and sedge; also insects in the breeding season.
FAMILIAR PHRASING
This sparrows song resembles

that of a distant Red-winged
Blackbird, but often varies.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SAVANNAH
SPARROW
see p.420
paler,
square
tail
Breeds in coastal salt and

brackish marshes from the
Rio Grande in southeastern
Texas northeastward and
southward to New Hampshire.
Absent from many parts
of Florida. Mostly resident,
but retreats from areas
north of Massachusetts
in the winter.
SALTMARSH
SHARP-TAILED
SPARROW
much see p.423

smaller
bill
small,
pale
bill
shorter,
spikier tail
Wingspan 7 8in (17.5 20cm)
Weight
Social Solitary
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
1678oz (2025g)
11
NOTES
421

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Ammodramus nelsoni
Nelsons Sharp-tailed Sparrow

dark,
rounded,
spiky
tail
brighter
upperparts
ADULT
A. n. nelsoni
(NORTHWEST)
no bold
streaks on
underparts
mediumsized bill
smaller bill
ADULT
A. n. subvirgatus
streaked,
washed-out
pattern
on back
dark
cheek
marks
IN FLIGHT
short,
pointed tail
breast
streaks
faint
streaking on
underparts
ADULT
A. n. subvirgatus
(COASTAL; EASTERN)
FLIGHT: low and weak, with spiky tail pointed
down; much flapping.
his rather shy species, which

was recently split from the
Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed Sparrow
(Ammodramus caudacutus), includes three
subspecies that differ in plumage, breeding
habitat, and distribution. A. n. subvirgatus
breeds in coastal Maine and the Maritimes,
and along the St. Lawrence River. It is duller
colored than A. n. nelsoni, with a longer bill and flatter head.The intermediatelooking A. n. alterus breeds along the southern and western coasts of Hudson
Bay. A. n. nelsoni is the most brightly colored, and is found from the southern
Northwest Territories south to northwest Wisconsin.
VOICE Sharp tik call; song a husky t-SHHHHEE-uhrr.
NESTING Cup of grass placed on or just above
ground; 45 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Forages on the ground mainly for insects,
spiders, and seeds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SALTMARSH SHARPTAILED SPARROW
LE CONTES
SPARROW
see p.423
see p.424
white crown
stripe
longer
white stripes
bill
on back
darker
streaks darker
streaking
IDENTIFYING MARKS
The orange-and-gray facial

pattern and streaks on the
breast are distinctive.
Breeds in a variety of marsh

habitats across central Canada
and the Maritimes and extreme
north-central North America;
nonbreeders in marshes and wet,
weedy fields. A. n. nelsoni and
A. n. alterus winter on coast
from Texas northeastward to New
Jersey; A. n. subvirgatus from
eastern Florida to New Jersey.
Weight 716 1116oz (1320g)
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
422
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Ammodramus caudacutus
Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed Sparrow

orange facial
markings
crisp streaking
on underparts
spiky
tail
grayish cheek
relatively
large,
long bill
ADULT
bold white
streaks on
back
IN FLIGHT
brownish wings
ADULT
bold
streaking on
underparts
his species used to

be grouped together
rather short
pointed tail
with Nelsons
Sharp-tailed Sparrow
in a single speciesthe
Sharp-tailed Sparrow. Birdwatchers refer to them as
Saltmarsh Sparrows and Nelsons Sparrows. The Saltmarsh
Sparrow has more defined facial markings, darker streaks on
its breast, and a longer bill; it is found only along the East Coast
of the US, whereas Nelsons Sparrow is quite widespread inland.
VOICE Call a sharp tik; complex flight song given just above
the grass; song a series of muted, thin, airy notes, often
without pausing.
NESTING Cup, occasionally domed, placed on or near ground;
3 5 eggs; 1 brood; May August.
FEEDING Forages on ground for insects, spiders,
and seeds.
see p.421
longer,
less
spiky
tail
larger,
darker
bill
Its distinct breast streaks

distinguish the Saltmarsh
Sparrow from Nelsons Sparrow.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SEASIDE
SPARROW
STREAKED BREAST
Breeds in salt marshes,

especially those with
salt-meadow cordgrass, from
Virginia northward to southern
Maine. Nonbreeders use
similar-looking habitats.
Winters from Florida north
to New Jersey, New York,
and southern Massachusetts.
Does not breed in Canada.
NELSONS SHARPTAILED SPARROW
see p.422
fainter streaks
on underparts
Length 5in (13cm)
Weight 58 1116oz (1720g)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
423

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Ammodramus leconteii
Le Contes Sparrow
rich orange
eyebrow
spiky
tail
white median
crown stripe
ADULT
purplish and gray

streaks on nape
boldly striped
back
pale,
tawny
rump
small
bill
orange
throat
IN FLIGHT
grayish
brown
cheeks
buffy breast
and flanks
with bold
streaks
whiteedged wing
feathers
ADULT
down; much fast flapping.
ntricately patterned in browns and

buffs, Le Contes Sparrow is usually very
difficult to see. Not only is it tinyone of the smallest of
all North American sparrowsbut in its grassland and marsh habitats of
interior North America, it darts for cover, hiding under grasses instead
of flushing when disturbed. The flight call and song of this elusive little
bird are remarkably insect-like. Many people who hear it believe that
the unseen caller is a grasshopper. Its nest is even harder to find, making
this bird a real challenge to study as well as observe.
VOICE Call long, down-slurred zheeep; flight call similar to grasshopper;
song insect-like, buzzy tik-uht-tizz-ZHEEEEEE-k.
NESTING Concealed little cup placed on or near ground; 35 eggs;
FEEDING Forages on the ground and in grasses for insects, insect larvae,
spiders, and seeds.
see p.422
GRASSHOPPER
SPARROW
Breeds in marshes, wet

meadows, and bogs from
the southwestern Yukon
east to Lake Superior and
western Qubec. Migrants
and wintering birds are found
in tall grass and marshes
from southwestern Kansas
to southern Indiana, and from
central Texas to the Carolinas.
larger bill
see p.426
nape
Le Contes Sparrow is usually

found skulking in mediumto-tall grass.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
NELSONS SHARP-TAILED
SPARROW gray
HIDEAWAY BIRD
duller
overall
less
streaked
Length 4125in (11.5 13cm)
Weight 716 916oz (1216g)
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
424
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Ammodramus henslowii
Henslows Sparrow
round,
spiky
tail
yellowish green
(or olive) head with
black stripes
dark reddish
overall
heavy
bill
heavy blackish
streaking
ADULT
black streaks
on buffy
breast
rufous-edged
wing feathers
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
pointed tail
feathers
he combination of a proportionally large, flat head

with a greenish olive cast and heavily streaked back are
characteristic marks of Henslows Sparrow. Audubon named this FLIGHT: low and weak, with spiky tail pointed
species in 1829 to honor John Henslow, a distinguished British
botanist. A bird of the tallgrass prairies and wet meadows, it has
suffered from the drainage, cultivation, and urbanization of its breeding
habitats. However, Henslows Sparrows have recently occupied abandoned
strip mines in northwest Missouri and Iowa for breeding.
VOICE Call a sharp tsik, flight call a long, high, shrill tseeeeee; song a hiccupping
sputter with second note higher tsih-LIK!
NESTING Cup of grass placed on or near ground;
25 eggs; 12 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Eats seeds; forages for insects, insect
larvae, and spiders in the summer.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
GRASSHOPPER SPARROW
Western; see p.426
GRASSHOPPER SPARROW
Eastern; see p.426

darker crown
gray-brown
streaking
OUT LOUD
no
streaks
less
rounded tail
The male puts considerable

effort into his short, but
surprisingly far-carrying song.
This eastern North American

sparrow breeds in tallgrass
prairie and wet grasslands
from Oklahoma north eastward
to New York, and southeast to
North Carolina. Winters in weedy,
brushy fields, grassy pine woods,
and undergrowth along Gulf
Coastal Plain from Texas to North
Carolina, and northern Florida.
Lifespan Unknown
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
425

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Ammodramus savannarum

darker
crown
Grasshopper Sparrow
short,
spiky
tail
white
eye-ring
buff
overall
darker
overall
yellow at
bend of wing
ADULT
large
head
pale
eye-ring
fairly
long
bill
pale
eyebrow
IN FLIGHT
shorter
tail
ADULT
A. s. pratensis
(EASTERN)
buffy
breast,
sides, and
flanks,
unstreaked
reddish and
dark spots on
upperparts
ADULT
A. s. perpallidus
(WESTERN)
Grasshopper Sparrow singing

briefly atop a weed is usually the
first glimpse people get of a member of
the secretive genus Ammodramus. Although its large head and
spiky tail are characteristic of species in its genus, it is the only
Ammodramus sparrow to have a plain breast and two completely
different songs.While it does eat grasshoppers, its common name
derives from its grasshopper-like song.The Grasshopper Sparrow
varies geographically, with about 12 subspecies.
VOICE Sharp tik call; flight call a long, high tseeee; song an
insect-like trill tik-tok-TREEEE, or series of quick buzzes.
NESTING Cup of grass placed in clump of grass; 36 eggs;
12 broods; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Forages on ground for seeds and insects.
YELLOW STRIPE
The pale crown stripe is quite visible here as the

bird faces the photographer.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
LE CONTES SPARROW
see p.424
brighter
overall
BAIRDS SPARROW
orange see p.472

eyebrow
gray
cheek
patch
Breeds in short grassland,

pastures, and even mown
areas across much of the
US and in southern Canada.
Locally distributed in the
Southwest, also patchily
through central US. Winters
in similar habitats from
southern US to Colombia;
also in the West Indies.
ocher
crown
dark,
lateral
throat
stripe
Length 5in (13cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Weight 12 1116oz (15 20g)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
426
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Spizella arborea
American Tree Sparrow
rufous
crown
black-andyellow bill
gray eyebrow
and nape
rusty tones
on shoulder
and wings
rusty stripe
behind eye
streaked
underparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
rust
patch at
shoulder
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
black and rust

streaking
on back
striped
back
dark central
breast spot
two wing
bars
tan, unstreaked
flanks and
underparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ADULT
(NONBREEDING)
long tail
he first heavy
snowfalls of
winter often bring flocks of American Tree Sparrows
to birdfeeders in the Northeast. This bird is commonly mistaken
for the smaller Chipping Sparrow, but the two species look
different in winter. The American Tree Sparrows central breast
spot, bicolored bill, and relatively large size are unique among
Spizella sparrows. American Tree Sparrows are social birds and
some winter flocks can number in the hundreds. Poorly named,
this species actually breeds in boggy habitats of the far North.
VOICE Call a bell-like teedle-ee; flight call a thin, slightly
descending tsiiiu; song seee seee di-di-di di-di-di dyew dyew.
NESTING Neat cup on ground concealed within thicket;
46 eggs; 1 brood; JuneJuly.
FEEDING Feeds on seeds, berries, and a variety of insects.
FLIGHT: lightly undulating, often flies to open
perch when flushed.
WINTER HABITATS
In winter this species frequents barren habitats,

like old fields and roadsides, as well as feeders.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CHIPPING SPARROW
FIELD SPARROW
see p.428
lacks rusty
eye-line
see p.429
Breeds in scrubby thickets

of birch and willows in the
area between taiga and
tundra across Alaska and
northern Canada. Nonbreeders
choose open, grassy, brushy
habitats. Winters across
northern US. Casual to Pacific
coast and southern US.
all-pale
bill
bold white
eye-ring
no central,
black breast
spot
smaller
overall
Length 614in (16cm)
Social Flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
427

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Spizella passerina
Chipping Sparrow
rusty cast
to crown
pale
underparts
pinkish
bill
bright rufous
crown
blackish
bill
white
eyebrow
black eye
line
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
ADULT
(WINTER)
ADULT
(BREEDING)
gray
underparts
heavily streaked,
especially on
breast
JUVENILE
long tail
he Chipping Sparrow is a common and trusting bird, which

breeds in backyards across most of North America. While
they are easily identifiable in the summer, Chippers molt into
a drab, nonbreeding plumage during the fall, at which point they
are easily confused with the Clay-colored and Brewers Sparrows
they flock with. Most winter reports of this species in the north
are actually of the larger American Tree Sparrow. In winter,
Chipping Sparrows lack their bright, rusty crown and are
restricted to southern states.
VOICE Call a sharp tsip; flight call a sharp, thin tsiiit; song an
insect-like trill of chip notes, variable in duration and intensity.
NESTING Neat cup usually placed well off the ground in tree
or shrub; 35 eggs; 12 broods; AprilAugust.
FEEDING Eat seeds of grasses and annuals, plus some fruits;
when breeding, also eat insects and other invertebrates.
FLIGHT: lightly undulating, often to open
perch when flushed.
BACKYARD BIRD
Chipping Sparrows are common in gardens

and backyards all across the continent.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CLAY-COLORED
SPARROW
BREWERS
SPARROW
Found in a wide variety of

habitats: open forest, woodlands,
grassy park-like areas, seashores,
and backyards. Breeds in
North America south of
the Arctic timberline
southward to Mexico, and in
Central America as far south
as Nicaragua. Winters from
southern states to Nicaragua.
streaked
crown
see p.430
heavy
streaks
partial
necklace
pale
underparts
Length 512in (14cm)
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
428
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Field Sparrow
ADULT
(REDDISH FORM)
rusty markings
on head
Species Spizella pusilla
small
pink bill
whitish
eye-ring
streaking
on back
light rust
cheek and
crown
white
wing
bars
ADULT
(GRAYISH FORM)
long,
notched
tail
IN FLIGHT
tan
underparts
duller overall
dusky
chest
JUVENILE
distinctive
pink legs
ADULT
(REDDISH FORM)
long tail
FLIGHT: lightly undulating; female may use
moth-like flight to approach the nest.
he distinctive accelerating trill song of the Field Sparrow is a characteristic

sound of shrubby fields and scrubby areas in the eastern US. The birds
bright-pink bill, plain baby face, and whitish eye-ring make this sparrow
one of the easiest to identify. The Field Sparrow has a brighter plumage in
the eastern part of its range than farther west, a pattern also seen in other
sparrows, like the Vesper Sparrow. Although quite dissimilar at first glance,
the Black-chinned Sparrow may in fact be the Field Sparrows closest
relative, sharing its pink bill, relatively unpatterned plumage, and song.
VOICE Call a sharp tsik; flight call a strongly descending tsiiiu; song a series
of sweet, down-slurred whistles accelerating to a rapid trill.
NESTING Grass cup placed on or just above ground in grass or bush;
35 eggs; 13 broods; MarchAugust.
FEEDING Eats seeds; also insects, insect larvae, and spiders in the summer.
AMERICAN TREE
SPARROW
see p.417
pale see p.427

crown
stripe
larger
body
Male Field Sparrows sing their

familiar song, an accelerated
trill, throughout the summer.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
WHITE-CROWNED
SPARROW 4
FAMILIAR SONG
Breeds in overgrown fields,

woodland edges, roadsides,
and other shrubby, overgrown
areas; occasionally in orchards
and parks in the eastern US,
west to North Dakota, east to
New England. Winters in similar
habitats in the southern US.
Casual in Atlantic Canada
and on the Pacific Coast.
lacks
bold,
white
eye-ring
central,
black
breast
spot
Length 512in (14cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
429

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Spizella pallida
Clay-colored Sparrow
white
crown
stripe
unstreaked
gray nape
white
wing
bars
long
tail
bold, dark
cheek stripes
bold dark
brown streaks
on upperparts
thick, white
eyebrow
ADULT
brown
rump
IN FLIGHT
pale buffy
wash
across
breast
whitish gray
underparts
ADULT
long
notched
tail
FLIGHT: lightly undulating, often flies to open
perch when flushed.
he small Clay-colored Sparrow is best known for

its mechanical, buzzy song. This bird spends much of
its foraging time away from its breeding habitat; consequently,
males territories are very small, allowing for dense breeding
populations. Clay-colored Sparrows have shifted their breeding
range eastward and northward over the last century, most likely
because of changes in land practices. During the nonbreeding
season, they form large flocks in open country, associating with
other Spizella sparrows, especially Chippings and Brewers.
VOICE Call a sharp tsip; flight a call short, rising sip; song
a series of 27 mechanical buzzes on one pitch.
NESTING Cup of grass placed just off the ground in shrub
or small tree; 35 eggs; 12 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Forages on or near the ground for seeds and insects.
CHRISTMAS PRESENT
The Clay-colored Sparrow is fond of low conifers

for breeding, so Christmas tree farms form
a perfect habitat.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
CHIPPING SPARROW 7
see p.428
grayish
rump
Breeds in open habitats:

prairies, shrubland, forest edges,
and Christmas tree farms along
the US/Canadian border and
northward to the southern
Northwest Territory. Winters in
a large variety of brushy and
weedy areas from south Texas
to Mexico. Migration takes it to
the Great Plains.
BREWERS SPARROW
streaked
dark stripe nape
through
eye
grayer
breast
lacks
bold,
crown
stripe
Length 512in (14cm)
Weight 38 12oz (10 15g)
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
430
WHERE
NOTES

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Vesper Sparrow
Species Pooecetes gramineus
white
eye-ring
dark bordered
ear patches
rusty
shoulders
pale brown
upperparts
ADULT
streaked
breast
IN FLIGHT
conspicuous
white edges
uniformly
streaked
upperparts
ADULT
boldly whiteedged long,

dark, square tail
white outer
ADULT
he Vesper Sparrow got
tail feathers
its common name because
its song was considered by some
ornithologists to sound sweeter in
the evening, when vespers are sung in the Catholic churches.
When Henry David Thoreau wrote of this species, he called it
the Bay-winged Bunting, a name given by Audubon, because
FLIGHT: strong, often perches when flushed;
of its (sometimes concealed) rusty shoulder patches. The Vesper
often moves on ground.
Sparrow needs areas with bare ground to breed, so it is one
of the few species that can successfully nest in areas of intensive
agriculture; the birds numbers seem to be declining in spite of this.
VOICE Full tchup call, flight call thin tseent; song consists of
2 whistles of same pitch, followed by 2 higher-pitched ones, then
trills, ends lazily.
NESTING Cup placed on patch of bare ground,
against grass, bush, or rock; 35 eggs; 1 brood;
AprilAugust.
FEEDING Eats insects and seeds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SAVANNAH SPARROW
(EAST)
In the East, breeds in sparse

grassland, cultivated fields,
and recently burned areas.
It is widely distributed across
northern US. Winters in sparsely
vegetated, open habitats from
southern US to southwestern
Mexico. Found in patches of
bare earth in all seasons.
SAVANNAH SPARROW
(IPSWICH)
see p.420
see p.420
smaller
bill
lacks
white
eye-ring
orange
feet
GIFTED SONGSTER
The sweet song of the Vesper

Sparrow is a characteristic sound
of northern open areas.
Length 614in (16cm)
Weight
Social Flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
161116oz (2030g)
11
NOTES
431

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Chondestes grammacus
Lark Sparrow
rounded
tail with
white
corners
unique bold
facial pattern
thick gray
bill
ADULT
central
breast spot
pale patch at
base of outer
wing feathers
JUVENILE
IN FLIGHT
brown
upperparts
central
breast spot
long tail
ADULT
pale plain
rump
FLIGHT: strong flight, in straight lines;
often perches when flushed.
he bold harlequin facial pattern, single central breast spot,

and long, rounded black tail with white outer corners make
the Lark Sparrow one of the most easily identifiable of North American
sparrows. Lark Sparrows have declined precipitously in the East,
where they are mostly associated with western-like
sandy soils. It is likely, that this species presence in
the East has been possible because of forest
clearing. In the West, by contrast, Lark Sparrows
are common, and often found singing from the
top of a fencepost or small tree, and perched on
barbed wire fences.
VOICE Thin, up-slurred tseep call, flight call
sharp tink; song series of trills, whistles, and
rattles on varying pitches.
NESTING Cup usually placed on ground
ON THE FENCE
at base of plant, or off-ground in tree or
The Lark Sparrow is a common
bush; 35 eggs; 12 broods; AprilAugust.
roadside bird, often found
FEEDING Eats seeds and insects.
perching on barbed wire fences.
OCCURRENCE
Localized breeder in the East,

associated with well-drained soils.
Breeds east to Ohio. In the West,
breeds in a variety of habitats
such as sagebrush flats of the
Great Basin, and grasslands
from British Columbia and
Saskatchewan to Baja California
and central Mexico. Winters in
southern US and Mexico.
Weight
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
432
WHERE
NOTES
161116oz (2030g)
11

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Aimophila aestivalis
Bachmans Sparrow
grayish
brown cheek
rufous
eyestripe
ADULT
(EASTERN)
streaked
crown
gray
eyebrow
brown, lightly
streaked
upperparts
long,
dark,
round
tail
bold, rufous-andblack streaks

on back
long
grayish
bill
yellowish
tan breast
IN FLIGHT
tan-buffy
breast
ADULT
A. a. illinoensis
(INDIANA, MISSOURI,
LOUISIANA, TEXAS)
pale gray belly
ADULT
A. a. aestivalis
(SOUTH CAROLINA,
GEORGIA, FLORIDA)
long tail
his rather shy, skulking species is predominantly associated

with pine woods in the South, and can be identified
by its melodious song. It was first described in 1833 by
John James Audubon in honor of his friend, John Bachman,
a social reformer and naturalist.This sparrow invaded the open,
shrubby habitats along the Ohio River Valley as far north as
Chicago in the early 20th century, only to abandon the area by
the 1970s.The reddish subspecies from the south-central US was
even named A. a. illinoensis, which is now ironic, as it has been
extirpated from Illinois. Bachmans Sparrow populations have
been declining for some time, primarily as a result of habitat loss.
VOICE Call a thin tseep; song a melodious, high, thin whistle
followed by a loose, musical trill.
NESTING Cup of grasses, sometimes domed, placed on ground,
often in thicket; 25 eggs; 13 broods; MaySeptember.
FEEDING Forages on the ground for insects, such as weevils
and beetles; also eats various seeds.
FLIGHT: direct, low, and fairly weak; usually
over short distances.
PINE SPARROW
This species was once known by this name,

which refers to its preferred habitat.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SWAMP SPARROW
BOTTERIS SPARROW
see p.415
much grayer in Texas;

see p.469
gray nape
Found in open, grassy

old-growth and pine woods with
dense undergrowth of palmettos,
and orchards from eastern
Texas and southwestern Missouri
to southeastern Kentucky, and
south around the Appalachians
to southeastern Virginia.
Northernmost populations winter
in the Southeast and Florida.
dark long,
throat dark
stripe tail
grayish
underparts
Length 6in (15cm)
Weight 581116oz (1820g)
Social Solitary
Lifespan Unknown
Status Vulnerable
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
433

Order Passeriformes
Family Emberizidae
Species Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Eastern Towhee
white
corners
to tail
black
hood and
upperparts
red eye
single white
patch in each
wing
ADULT
IN FLIGHT
MALE
white belly
rusty-red
flanks
white wing
patches
brown hood
and upperparts
long tail
small white
markings
on wings
FEMALE
rusty
flanks
he Eastern Towhee gets its name from the up-slurred

chew-eee (or to-whee) call it makes. Eastern Towhees
are famous for their vocalizations and have one of the
best-known mnemonics for their song: drink your tea.
The Eastern Towhee was once lumped with the western
Spotted Towhee under the name Rufous-sided Towhee,
because they interbreed in the Great Plains. Eastern Towhees
from the southeast of Florida have increasingly paler eyes;
Florida birds have white eyes. Like all towhees, the Eastern
Towhee feeds noisily by jumping backwards with both feet
at once to move leaves and reveal the insects and seeds that
may be hidden underneath.
VOICE Call a nasal, up-slurred chew-eee; flight call zeeeooooweeet;
song sounds like dweee, dyooo di-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i-i.
NESTING Large cup in depression on ground under cover, also
low in thicket; 35 eggs; 12 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Eats seeds, fruits, insects, and buds.
FLIGHT: low and direct with much gliding,
usually within cover.
TERRESTRIAL LIFE
Eastern Towhees stay near the ground, and are

usually found not more than a few feet above it.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SPOTTED TOWHEE 2
SPOTTED TOWHEE 1
see p.472
see p.472
Found in dense thickets,

woodlands, shrubbery, forest
edges, and disturbed forests from
southeastern Saskatchewan,
eastern Nebraska, western
Louisiana, east to southern
Qubec, southern Maine,
and southern Florida. Retreats
from areas north of Chicago
to winter in eastern Texas.
two white
wing bars
two white
wing bars
white
spots on
shoulder
Weight 1116 134oz (3050g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
434
WHERE
NOTES
TANAGERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Thraupidae
Species Piranga rubra
Summer Tanager
tail
appears
short in
flight
thick, long, yellowish bill

variable redand-yellow
patchwork
dark eye
bright red
upperparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
red
head
and
breast
IN FLIGHT
IMMATURE
(1ST SPRING)
lacks grayish
cheek patches
red wash
overall
crested head
olive-yellow
upperparts
FEMALE
P. r. rubra
(EASTERN)
brownish
legs and toes
MALE
(BREEDING)
FEMALE
P. r. cooperi (SOUTHWESTERN)
FLIGHT: strong and direct with quick wing
he stunning male Summer Tanager is the only

North American bird that is entirely bright red. Immature
males in their first spring plumage are almost equally as striking,
with their patchwork of bright yellow-and-red plumage.The
two subspecies of Summer Tanager are quite similarP. r. rubra
breeds in the East while P. r. cooperi breeds in the West.The latter
is, on an average, paler, larger, and longer-billed.
VOICE Call an explosive PIT-tuck! or PIT-a TUK; flight call
a muffled, airy vreee; song similar to American Robin, but
more muffled and with longer pauses.
NESTING Loosely built cup of grasses usually placed high up
in tree; 34 eggs; 1 brood; MayAugust.
FEEDING Eats bees, wasps, and other insects; also consumes fruit.
beats; occasionally glides.
MAD FOR MULBERRIES
All Piranga tanagers are frugivores in season, and

mulberries are one of their favorites.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HEPATIC TANAGER 1
SCARLET TANAGER 1
yellowish
upperparts
greenish
overall
P. r. rubra breeds in deciduous

and mixed woodlands from New
Jersey and Nebraska south to
Texas; P. r. cooperi in cottonwoodwillow habitats near streams
and rivers from California and
Utah to Texas and Mexico. Both
winter from southern Texas and
Mexico to Bolivia and Brazil,
and the West Indies.
see p.436
reddish brown
wings
smaller,
grayish
bill
darker,
wings
and tail
Length 8in (20cm)
Weight 78 1716oz (25 40g)
Social Solitary
Lifespan Unknown
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
435
TANAGERS
Order Passeriformes
Family Thraupidae
Species Piranga olivacea
Scarlet Tanager
black
wings
red
body
dark
brown
eyes
vibrant scarlet
head and body
yellow patches
in red
plumage
grayish
yellow
bill
MALE
(MOLTING)
tail
appears
short in
flight
MALE
(BREEDING)
greenish
rump and
upper
tail
IN FLIGHT
overall
greenish
upperparts
FEMALE
black wings
dark gray
feet and
legs
black
tail
yellow-green
body, head,
and rump
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
MALE
(BREEDING)
n breeding plumage, the male Scarlet Tanager is one of the

brightest and most easily identified North American birds. Its
secretive nature and preference for the canopies of well-shaded
oak woodlands, however, make it difficult to spot. Males are
most easily located by their distinctive and easily recognizable
song. Male Scarlet Tanagers vary in appearancesome are
orange, not scarlet, and others have a faint reddish wing bar.
VOICE Call a hoarse, drawn out CHIK-breeer, often shortened
to CHIK; flight call an upslurred, whistled pwee; song a burry,
slurred querit-queer-query-querit-queer.
NESTING Loosely woven cup of grass, lined with fine material,
high up in tree; 35 eggs; 1 brood; MayJuly.
FEEDING Gleans insects, larvae, fruit, buds, and berries.
FLIGHT: strong and direct; rapid wing beats.
STUNNING MALE
Taking a bath away from the treetops, a male

Scarlet Tanager can be seen in all its glory.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SUMMER TANAGER 1
VERMILION
FLYCATCHER 2
see p.457
brown
wings
and tail
see p.435
Breeds in mature deciduous

and mixed forests (especially
with large oaks) from southern
Manitoba and eastern
Oklahoma east to the Maritime
Provinces and the Carolinas.
Trans-Gulf migrant. Winters
in a variety of habitats along
the eastern slope of the Andes
from eastern Panama to Bolivia.
larger
bill
olive-yellow
upperparts
thinner
bill
yellowish
underparts
Length 7in (18cm)
Weight
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
436
WHERE
NOTES
16 114oz (20 35g)
11
CARDINALS
Order Passeriformes
Family Cardinalidae
Dickcissel
Species Spiza americana

large
pointed
bill
yellow
eyebrow
bold braces
on back
gray
nape
streaked
back
yellow-tinged
eyebrow
black V
on yellow
breast
rufous
shoulder
MALE
(BREEDING)
FEMALE
IN FLIGHT
finely
streaked
underparts
no rufous
shoulder
paler gray
on face
MALE
(BREEDING)
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
he Dickcissel is a tallgrass prairie specialist

and seldom breeds outside the range
of this habitat. Known for its spectacular seasonal movements,
the Dickcissel winters in Venezuela, with flocks in the tens of
thousands ravaging rice fields and damaging seed crops, making it a
notorious pest. Immature birds, without yellow and rusty plumage,
are very similar to female House Sparrowsvagrant and wintering
Dickcissels in North America are often mistaken for sparrows.
VOICE Call a flat chik; flight call a distinctive, low, electric buzz
frrrrrrrt; song a short series of sharp, insect-like stutters followed
by few longer chirps or trill dick-dick-dick-SISS-SISS-suhl.
NESTING Bulky cup placed near ground in dense vegetation;
36 eggs; 12 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Forages on ground for insects, spiders, and seeds.
FLIGHT: strong, direct, and slightly undulating;
flocks in tight balls.
UNIQUE SONG
The Dickcissels onomatopoetic song is the

characteristic sound of a healthy tallgrass prairie.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
HOUSE
SPARROW 1
shorter
bill
see p.341
Breeds in tallgrass prairie,

grasslands, hayfields, unmown
roadsides, and untilled
cropfields across the eastern
and central US. Barely reaches
southernmost Canada and
northeastern Mexico. Winters in
huge flocks in Venezuela, in
open areas with tall grass-like
vegetation, including rice fields.
longer bill
EASTERN
MEADOWLARK
see p.402
shorter
tail
no streaking
on underparts
bright
yellow
underparts
Weight 78 114oz (2535g)
Social Large flocks
Status Declining
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
437
CARDINALS
Order Passeriformes
Family Cardinalidae
Species Pheucticus ludovicianus
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
bold, white
wing patches
MALE
(BREEDING)
white
rump
rosy or
orange
breast
IMMATURE
MALE
(1ST FALL)
IN FLIGHT
short
tail
with
white
corners
white
wing bars
black head
and back
rose-red
breast
large,
pinkish bill
white marks
on head
thick streaks
on underparts
FEMALE
white belly
brown patches
on back
streaked
underparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
MALE
(NONBREEDING)
he massive bill of this species earned it the name grosbeak.

For many birdwatchers in the East, the appearance of a flock
of dazzling male Rose-breasted Grosbeaks in early May signals
FLIGHT: undulating but powerful flight with
the peak of spring songbird migration. Adult males in their
bursts of wing beats.
tuxedo attire, with rose-red ties, are unmistakable, but females and
immature males are more somber. In the fall, immature male Rose-breasted
Grosbeaks often have orange breasts, and are commonly mistaken for female
Black-headed Grosbeaks.The difference is in the pink wing lining usually
visible on perched birds, pink bill, and streaking across the center of the breast.
VOICE Call a high, sharp, explosive sink or eeuk, flight call an airy vreee; song
a liquid, flute-like warble, rather slow in delivery, almost relaxed.
NESTING Loose, open cup or platform, usually in deciduous saplings, mid
to high level; 25 eggs; 12 broods; MayJuly.
FEEDING Eats arthropods, fruit, seeds, and buds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
PURPLE FINCH 1
see p.348
much
smaller
smaller,
dark bill
thick, lateral
throat stripe
BLACK-HEADED
GROSBEAK 1
see p.472
tawny
breast
pencil-thin
streaks on
underparts
STUNNING MALE
A striking male Rose-breasted

Grosbeak in springtime is quite
unmistakable on a tree.
Breeds in deciduous and mixed

woods, parks, and orchards
across the northeastern
quarter of the US, and across
Canada westward from
Newfoundland through
Ontario to southeast Yukon.
Winters from Mexico and the
Caribbean, south to Guyana
and Peru. Rare in the West.
Length 8in (20cm)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
438
WHERE
NOTES
CARDINALS
Order Passeriformes
Family Cardinalidae
Species Cardinalis cardinalis
Northern Cardinal
warm red
overall
thick
orangered bill
prominent
crest
smaller,
duller crest
darker
bill
brownish
wings
MALE
JUVENILE
bright red back

and wings
dark patch not

as extensive
as male
IN FLIGHT
reddish
crest
black
patch
on face,
extends
onto
throat
buff-olive
upperparts
red on outer
tail feathers
MALE
grayish
brown
underparts
brownish toes
and legs
FEMALE
he Northern Cardinal,
long,
red tail
or redbird, is
a familiar sight across the
eastern US. Its range was
expanding in the early- to mid-20th century, when state birds
were being chosen, and was considered a novelty at the time;
as a result, it is the state bird of seven different states.The male
aggressively repels intruders and will occasionally attack his own
reflection in windows and various shiny surfaces.
VOICE Sharp, metallic tik call, also bubbly chatters; song
a loud, variable, sweet, slurred whistle, tsee-ew-tsee-ewwhoit-whoit-whoit-whoit-whoit.
NESTING Loose, flimsy cup of grass, bark, and leaves, in
deciduous thicket; 24 eggs; 13 broods; AprilSeptember.
FEEDING Eats seeds and insects, such as beetles and
caterpillars; also buds and fruit.
FLIGHT: weak, flapping with downward-angled

tail; interrupted by short glides; low within cover.
CONSPICUOUS COLOR
This Northern Cardinals vivid plumage means

that it is easy to spot on snowy winter days.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
SUMMER TANAGER 2
PYRRHULOXIA 1
see p.435
rosy red
plumage
see p.470
Resident in thickets of various

kinds of relatively moist
habitats, such as deciduous
woodlands, scrublands, desert
washes, and backyards.
Ranges across the eastern US,
southernmost Canada, the
extreme Southwest, and
south into Mexico, northern
Guatemala, and northern Belize.
pointed
crest
red on outer
wing feathers
no black
patch
stubby,
yellow
bill
Length 812in (22cm)
Weight 1716 134oz (4050g)
Social Solitary
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
439
CARDINALS
Order Passeriformes
Family Cardinalidae
Blue Grosbeak
uniform dark
indigo head
black patch
between
eye and bill
upperparts like
adult male, but
with brown
patches
rufous
wing bars
Species Passerina caerulea
blue
upperparts
black streaks
on shoulder
feathers
MALE
IMMATURE
MALE
(1ST SUMMER)
IN FLIGHT
rufous
shoulder
huge
bill
tawny
wing bars
pale tan
overall
MALE
FEMALE
lue Grosbeaks, formerly seen only

in the South, have expanded
their range northward and westward
in recent years, especially in the
Great Plains. Nevertheless, they
are not abundant anywhere and
FLIGHT: lightly undulating, fast, and direct.
spotting one is a treat. In the East, dull-plumaged male
Indigo Buntings with brown wing bars can be misidentified
as Blue Grosbeaks in the spring. Features that help identification
are the Blue Grosbeaks huge bill, uniformly dark plumage, black face,
and reddish shoulder, which the buntings lack.
VOICE Call a loud, sharp, metallic tchink; similar to Indigo Bunting, but lowerpitched, louder, and burrier; song rambling, husky.
NESTING Compact cup placed low in deciduous
tangle; 35 eggs; 12 broods; AprilJuly.
FEEDING Eats seeds in winter, insects such as beetles,
caterpillars, and grasshoppers in summer, and fruit.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
INDIGO BUNTING 21ST 9
see p.441
LAZULI BUNTING 1
see p.472
pale blue
markings
overall
pale brown
upperparts
much
smaller
bill
TRUE INDIGO
The Blue Grosbeak is actually

indigo in color, with rufous
shoulders and wing bars.
Breeds in dense undergrowth

of disturbed habitats: old
fields, hedgerows, and desert
scrub across the southern US
from California to New Jersey,
and southward to northwestern
Costa Rica; breeders are
trans-Gulf migrants; winters
from Mexico to Panama
and West Indies.
Length 634in (17cm)
Weight 78 1116oz (25 30g)
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
440
WHERE
NOTES
CARDINALS
Order Passeriformes
Family Cardinalidae
Indigo Bunting
blue overall;
often appears
black in flight
Species Passerina cyanea
head
darker
coloring
than body
intermediate
between male
and female
indigo
plumages
face
bright cyanblue body
MALE
(BREEDING)
IMMATURE
MALE
(1ST SPRING)
IN FLIGHT
small bill
dull
brown
overall
whitish throat
MALE
(BREEDING)
blurry streaks
on breast
bluish cast to
wings and tail
FEMALE
ew other North American birds are more brilliantly colored

than the Indigo Bunting. However, it is not particularly well
named, because the bird is really not indigo but rather a vibrant,
almost cyan-blue.The males head color is indigo with a rich
FLIGHT: lightly undulating, fast, and direct;
violet tone on the face. Indigo Buntings are specialists of disturbed gliding and fluttering in territorial encounters.
habitats, originally depending on tree-falls within forests and the
grassland-forest edge. Human activity, especially the clearing of forests,
has considerably increased suitable breeding habitats. As a result, Indigo Buntings
are much more common and widespread than they were a hundred years ago.
This adaptable species has even learned to nest in cornfields.
VOICE Call a sharp, dry, rattling pik!; flight a call long buzz; song series
of simple, high-pitched, paired whistles, often described as fire!-fire!,
where?-where?, there!-there!, put-it-out!, put-it-out!
NESTING Open cup above ground in dense tangle
or shrub; 34 eggs; 13 broods; MaySeptember.
FEEDING Eats seeds, insects, fruits, and buds.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
BLUE GROSBEAK 2
VARIED
BUNTING 1
see p.440
deep
indigoviolet
overall
much
larger bill
see p.470
rich reddish
rust shoulder
SOUND OF SUMMER
unstreaked
underparts
This is one of the most common

and cheerful songbirds found in
eastern North America.
Breeds in moist disturbed

habitatsweedy fields, forest
edges, and areas of heavy
cultivation across the eastern
US, southeastern Canada, and
also locally in the Southwest.
Winters from Mexico and the
Caribbean south to Panama,
and in small numbers along
the Gulf Coast and in Florida.
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Weight 716 1116oz (1219g)
Social Large flocks
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
WHERE
NOTES
441
CARDINALS
Order Passeriformes
Family Cardinalidae
Painted Bunting
Species Passerina ciris

lime-green
color above
irregular bluish
patches on
head
blue
head
yellowish
underparts
irregular
reddish
patches on
wings and
underparts
MALE
(BREEDING)
violet-blue
hood
FEMALE
glowing
lime-green
back
red-and-green
wings
IN FLIGHT
MALE
(1ST SPRING)
red
rump
red
underparts
FLIGHT: lightly undulating, fast, and direct
hovering butterfly flight when males meet.
MALE
ith its violet-blue head, red underparts,
and vibrant lime-green back, the adult male
Painted Bunting is the most brightly colored North American bunting. Although
duller, the female is distinctive as one of the few truly green songbirds of the
region.Young males take on a variety of appearances and can resemble an adult
male, a female, or something in between.There are two populations, differing in
molt pattern.The more western birds molt after leaving the breeding grounds,
whereas the more eastern molt before they depart south for the winter.
VOICE Call a soft, ringing, upward slurred pwip!; flight call slurred, softer, and
flatter than Indigo Bunting; song a sweet, rambling,
relatively clear warble.
NESTING Deep cup in dense tangle or shrub, just
above ground; 34 eggs; 13 broods; MayAugust.
FEEDING Eats seeds, fruit, and insects.
OCCURRENCE
SIMILAR SPECIES
INDIGO BUNTING 1
VARIED
BUNTING 1
see p.441
stubbier
bill
see p.470
lacks green
upperparts
streaked breast
tan overall
bluish
wash
to tail
lacks green
upperparts
tan
overall
NONPAREIL
In Louisiana, the French word for

unparalleled is fittingly used to
describe this gorgeous species.
Breeds in thickets and disturbed

areas, across the south central US
and northern Mexico, and along
the East Coast from Florida to
North Carolina. Nonbreeders
use similar habitats. Western
birds (New Mexico, Texas) winter
from tropical Mexico to western
Panama; eastern birds winter in
southern Florida and Cuba.
Length 512in (14cm)
Weight 716 1116 oz (1221g)
Status Secure
DATE SEEN
442
WHERE
NOTES
RARE SPECIES
RARE SPECIES
Family Cracidae
Species Ortalis vetula
Family Odontophoridae
Species Callipepla squamata
Plain Chachalaca
Scaled Quail
A large, dull-brown to olive-green bird, the

Plain Chachalaca deftly moves through trees and
shrubs when foraging, running along branches
and hopping from tree to tree. Males develop
a distinct reddish to pink, naked-skin facial
patch and throat during the breeding season.
OCCURRENCE Occurs only along the lower
Rio Grande River valley of Texas, in shrubby
and wooded areas, and edges of brushy
thickets along river bottoms.
VOICE Boisterous, three-syllable
cha-ca-lak; especially loud when
pairs or groups call in chorus.
Named for the scale-like appearance of its chest,

neck, and belly feathers, this quail is also called the
Blue Quail, because of its bluish sheen in some
lights, or Cottontop, because of the fluffy white
tip to its crest. Its populations periodically go
through boom and bust cycles that may be tied
to rainfall and its impact on their food supply, but
are also influenced by grazing practices.
OCCURRENCE Common in
arid rangeland and semi desert
of western Texas, New Mexico,
and eastern Arizona, preferring
less dense vegetation than
other quails.
VOICE Flushed or
separated covey
(flock) uses
2-syllable CHEkar call to
reunite.
ADULT
long, fannedout, whitetipped tail
short tail
Family Anatidae
Species Dendrocygna autumnalis
MALE
Family Anatidae
Species Cygnus buccinator
Black-bellied Whistling-Duck
Trumpeter Swan
With its distinctive red bill and long, pink legs, this
Whistling-Duck is spectacular and unmistakable.
Unlike most other waterfowl, it has long legs and
an upright posture when standing. Whistling-ducks
used to be known as tree-ducks because they
perch on trees when they roost and nest.
OCCURRENCE Prefers shallow, freshwater wetlands;
rice fields are a common foraging habitat; also
occurs along shorelines and mud bars.
Casual west to southeastern
California and occasionally
east as far as Florida.
VOICE Soft wheezy series
of 5 6 notes pit pit weee do
dew; flight calls
include a chitchit-chit.
North Americas quintessential swan and heaviest

waterfowl, the magnificent Trumpeter Swan has
made a remarkable comeback after numbers were
severely reduced by hunting; by the mid-1930s,
fewer than a hundred birds were known to exist.
Active reintroduction efforts were made in the
upper Midwest and Ontario to re-establish the
species to its former breeding range. Its typical farreaching call is usually the best way to identify it.
OCCURRENCE Alaskan and northern Canadian
breeders go south to winter; others remain year
round at local places such as Yellowstone National
Park. Found on freshwater lakes and marshes with
plenty of vegetation. Occurs in estuaries in winter.
VOICE Call nasal, resonant oh-OH
reminiscent of a French horn, is
usually the best way to identify it.
ADULT
all-white
plumage
black
belly
ADULT
long pink
legs
444
Length 4145ft (1.31.5m)
Wingspan 612ft (2m)
RARE SPECIES
Family Anatidae
Species Nomonyx dominicus
Species Pterodroma hasitata
Masked Duck
Black-capped Petrel
A small, widespread, Neotropical species, the Masked

Duck is rarely seen because of its secretive behavior.
Masked Ducks stay hidden in dense vegetation. Like
grebes, it sinks below the surface to avoid detection,
and drags its tail under the water. In flight, its white
wing patch is characteristic. Females have two dark
bars across their face, and a mottled brown body.
They are related to the Ruddy Duck, both of
which are called stiff-tailed ducks.
OCCURRENCE Resident of southern Texas, with
scattered records elsewhere. Found in heavily
vegetated freshwater marshes and ponds. Resident
from Mexico to Argentina, and in the Caribbean.
VOICE Male gives a throaty coo-coo-coo, or kir-rookirroo-kiroo call during courtship; female a short,
repeated hiss.
blue bill with
Until recently, the Black-capped Petrel was

almost unknown in North America because of its
off-shore feeding grounds. After breeding in the
West Indies, they move northwestward to feed in
the warm Gulf Stream during the summer, where
they are seen fairly commonly during deep-water
birdwatching trips. Their flight is characteristic of
Pterodroma species: they rocket up above the ocean
and then drop back down while moving forward
swiftly, using lift
from the air
white
forehead
currents above
the water.
black tip
deep chestnut with
black mottling
MALE
OCCURRENCE
When not breeding,

forage at sea over
the deep,
warm water
of the Gulf
Stream off the
southeastern US.
VOICE Silent at
sea but vocal
on breeding
grounds.
long,
pointed
wings
ADULT
Species Puffinus lherminieri
Length 13in (33cm)
Family Hydrobatidae
Species Oceanodroma castro
Audubons Shearwater
Band-rumped Storm-Petrel
Audubons Shearwater, also known as the Tropical

Shearwater, is smaller and more slender than all
the other regularly occurring shearwaters in North
American waters. It has especially short wings that,
when combined with its small size, make its flight
similar to that of members of the family Alcidae
(auks, murres, and puffins).
OCCURRENCE Breeds on Caribbean islands;
widespread in tropical waters; spends warmer
months feeding in the Gulf of Mexico and along
the east coast of the US.
VOICE Occasional thin,
high-pitched call;
twittering and
mewing calls at
colonies, but
silent at sea.
This uncommon summer visitor forages

2535 miles (4056km) in warm offshore waters of
the Gulf Stream and the Gulf of Mexico. Its origin
is unclear, but it probably comes from colonies in the
eastern Atlantic.They appear brawny, long-winged,
and square-tailed with the white at the base of
their tail extending along the flanks to the belly.
OCCURRENCE A warm-water petrel of the Gulf
Stream and Gulf of Mexico. Breeds on islands in
the tropical and subtropical Pacific (O. c. bangsi)
and Atlantic Oceans (O. c. castro). Most birds seen
in North America probably breed in the eastern
Atlantic Ocean.
VOICE Silent at sea; squeaking and purring
sounds at nest.
dark
undertail
feathers
white
underparts
white
extends
to sides
feet do not
extend beyond
tail in flight
ADULT
ADULT
Length 12in (31cm)
Length 712 812in (19 21cm)
445
RARE SPECIES
Species Tachybaptus dominicus
Family Podicepedidae
Species Aechmophorus occidentalis
Least Grebe
Western Grebe
This tiny, tropical and subtropical species is the

most easily overlooked of the North American
grebes.This is primarily because it breeds only
in fresh or brackish water in southern Texas. It is
a good diver, capable of remaining submerged for
over 25 seconds.While adults are not seen on land,
swimming chicks can clamber ashore when
they are threatened.
OCCURRENCE Temporary or permanent bodies
of fresh and brackish water, such as mangrove
swamps, marsh openings, small ponds, ditches,
lakes, and slow-moving rivers, often with very
little or no emergent vegetation.
VOICE Metallic, sputtering trill, accelerating at the
start, then slowing down then accelerating again;
alarm call a single beep.
yellowish
A strictly North American species, the Western

Grebe shares much of its breeding habitat and
elaborate mating rituals with Clarks Grebe. Until
1985, they were considered to be different color
forms of a single species. Females are smaller than
males and have smaller, thinner, slightly upturned
bills.This species dives more frequently than Clarks,
and remains submerged for about 30 seconds.
OCCURRENCE Western North America, breeds in
freshwater lakes and marshes with open water and
emergent vegetation; also man-made marshes and
artificial habitats. Winters along the Pacific Coast.
VOICE At least nine different calls, each with
a specific information content, such as alarm,
begging, and mating calls; advertising call a harsh,
rolling 2-noted krrrikk-krrreek.
orange
eye
ADULT
(SUMMER)
Species Aechmophorus clarkii
ADULT
black
behind eye
Family Sulidae
Species Sula leucogaster
Clarks Grebe
Brown Booby
Clarks and Western grebes are closely related

and very difficult to distinguish from each other.
They rarely fly except when migrating at night.
As their legs and toes are set far back making their
movement awkward, they seldom come on land.
However, they have been reported to run upright
rapidly. Their flight muscles are quite reduced
when they arrive on their breeding grounds.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in freshwater lakes and
marshes bordered by emergent vegetation; has
been nesting in man-made Lake Havasu marshes
since 1960s. Winters along the Pacific Coast.
VOICE Variety of calls, including a harsh, grating,
2-syllable, single, rising kree-eekt advertising call.
The Brown Booby, which is actually bicolor, sooty

brown and white, overlaps with the Masked and
Red-footed Boobies and often nests in mixed
colonies with them. Unlike juvenile Brown
Boobies, the juvenile Masked Booby has a whitish
ring around the neck and a pale rump.
OCCURRENCE Breeds on tropical islands of the
Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and on
Caribbean islands. Rare along Atlantic and Pacific
coasts. Occurs closer to shore than Masked Booby.
VOICE Silent, but can make loud or subdued
quacking, honking, or braying noises, especially
when nesting.
wings black
and white
underneath
long,
yellowish
bill
ADULT
ADULT
white
around eye
446
Length 30in (76cm)
RARE SPECIES
Family Phalacrocoracidae Species Phalacrocorax brasilianus
Family Falconidae
Species Caracara cheriway
Neotropic Cormorant
Crested Caracara
The slender Neotropic Cormorant ranges widely

in the Western Hemisphere. In the US, it breeds
and winters along the Gulf Coast and in the lower
Rio Grande Valley. Unlike other cormorant species,
it tolerates human activities. In the 1960s, their
numbers declined as a result of coastal development
and pesticide use, but they have recovered in recent
years. The nest is a platform of sticks lined with
leaves, grass, and seaweed, cemented with guano.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in coastal marshes, swamps,
and inland reservoirs from southeastern Texas and
western Louisiana to Tierra del Fuego in South
America; found in a wide variety
of wetlands in fresh, brackish,
dull orange
or saltwater.Winters close
base to bill
inshore in protected bays,
inlets, estuaries,
and lagoons.
VOICE Series
of low, pig-like
grunts; croaks
in alarm.
In North America, the large, hawk-like Crested

Caracara is only found locally in Texas, southern
Arizona, and central Florida.The Crested Caracara
is monogamous and territorial. Known locally as
the Mexican Buzzard, the Crested Caracara is
a member of the family Falconidae (falcons)
not Accipitridae (hawks).
OCCURRENCE Common in Central and South
America. Breeds and winters in open areas ranging
from desert to grassland with scattered tall trees;
around agricultural land; dumps and slaughterhouses.
VOICE Adults disturbed at nest emit cackles, hollow
rattles, and high-pitched screams;
nestlings utter high-pitched
screams and raspy swee-swee calls.
dark bars on
white breast
and nape
ADULT
ADULT
Length 24in (61cm)
Family Accipitridae
Wingspan 314ft (1m)
Species Rostrhamus sociabilis
Family Accipitridae
Wingspan 4ft (1.2m)
Species Chondrohierax uncinatus
Snail Kite
Hook-billed Kite
Formerly known as the Everglade Kite, this bird

is found only in peninsular Florida, where it was
discovered in 1844. They are nomadic, following
the apple snail and breeding in colonies when the
snails are abundant. The males may breed with
several females in one season, but sequentially,
rather than all at one time.
long
OCCURRENCE In Florida, found locally, pointed
bill
year-round, in inland freshwater
marshes and along shallow lakes.
Outside North America
widespread in water habitats,
including roadside ditches
near towns.
VOICE Grating cackle
given by both sexes:
ka-ka-ka-ka-ka-ka or
a harsh krrrr, variations
of nasal, sheep-like
bright
bleating k-a-a-a-a-aorange
feet
a-a, while being
harassed or when
begging for food.
This kite occurs in tropical America from Mexico

all the way south to Argentina, but in the US it
is found only in the Rio Grande Valley of
southeastern Texas, where fewer than 60 pairs
have nested since the late 1960s. The Hookedbilled Kite is long-tailed, and broad at its wing tips.
It is mostly seen flying in the morning and is
rarely spotted later in the day.
OCCURRENCE Breeds
wings
broad at
and winters only in the
tip
Rio Grande Valley of
extreme southern Texas;
breeds in riverine scrub
and woodlands.
VOICE Rapid rattle;
kekekekekekekeke highest
in the middle.
FEMALE
barred
underparts
MALE
Length 18in (46cm)
447
RARE SPECIES
Family Accipitridae
Species Parabuteo unicinctus
Family Accipitridae
Species Asturina nitida
Harriss Hawk
Gray Hawk
Named by the renowned ornithologist John James

Audubon in honor of his friend and patron,
Edward Harris, Harriss Hawks nest in social units,
unlike other American birds of prey. These groups
engage in cooperative hunting: members take turns
leading the chase to wear down their prey and
share in the kill. This bird is popular with falconers.
OCCURRENCE Forages and breeds year-round
in semi-open desert scrub, savanna, grassland, and
wetland containing scattered large trees and cacti.
Occasionally appears in suburban areas.
Essentially a Central and South American
species with a restricted range north of
the Rio Grande.
VOICE Main territorial alarm
call a prolonged, harsh
growl lasting about
3 seconds; also
chirps, croaks,
and screams.
The elegant Gray Hawk is found from Mexico

south to Argentina, but in North America is
only seen in southwestern Texas and southeastern
Arizona. The Gray Hawks breeding system
can include trios, one female and two males, all
of whom cooperate with chick rearing. About
100 pairs exist in the US, but their numbers are
stable and possibly even increasing. Cottonwood
and mesquite woodlands are key to their survival.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in riverine
woodlands of mesquite and
cottonwoods, especially along
streams in the Gila River
(Arizona) and Rio Grande
(Texas) drainages. Little
information exists about
its winter habitats.
VOICE High-pitched
whistled alarm, creee,
rising and descending.
rufous
shoulders
ADULT
yellow legs
and feet
black tail with

white tip
Family Accipitridae
ADULT
Species Buteo brachyurus
Family Accipitridae
Species Buteo albicaudatus
Short-tailed Hawk
White-tailed Hawk
In North America this species is found only in

peninsular Florida, where it numbers only about
500 individuals. Like some other hawks, it has light
and dark forms, the latter the more common one.
This hawk is not easy to spot, as it seldom perches
in the open and soars quite high. Its habitat is
dwindling, and population studies are needed
to learn more about its status and its future.
OCCURRENCE Found in woodlands, flooded
upland habitats, savanna, prairies, and open country.
Nests in cypress or bay swamps with closed
canopy; winters where mangrove forest meets tidal
sawgrass marsh, in wet prairies, also in
suburban areas with forest tracts.
VOICE High-pitched cat-like
keeea call; also a variety
of keee calls.
The White-tailed Hawks distribution in the US is

limited to southeastern Texas. An easily identifiable
hawk, it is gray above, has a striking white breast,
reddish shoulder patches, and black-banded white
tail. Unlike other hawks, the adults outer flight
feathers extend noticeably beyond the tail when
perched. It is a versatile forager, capturing prey by
soaring, hovering, or by still-hunting from a perch.
It likes to hunt at the edges of river basins.
OCCURRENCE Found in Texas in savannah,
prairie, grasslands, lightly grazed pastures, open
woodlands, and woody understory with yucca,
mesquite, and thorny shrubs. Widespread in
South America.
VOICE Series of scream-like calls raa kad-ik kad-ik
kad-ik kad-ik.
dark brown
head and
white chin
dark gray
facial pattern
broad black
tail band
ADULT
(LIGHT FORM)
Length 1512 1712 in (3944cm) Wingspan 3339in (83100cm)
448
ADULT
wing broad
at base and
pointed at tip
RARE SPECIES
Family Accipitridae
Species Buteo albonotatus
Family Accipitridae
Species Buteo regalis
Zone-tailed Hawk
Ferruginous Hawk
Widely distributed in Mexico, Central, and

South America, the Zone-tailed Hawks range
barely reaches the Southwest. In Arizona, it shares
the same riparian woodlands as the Common
Black-hawk, but their behavior is quite different.
Zone-tailed Hawks join kettles of high-flying
Turkey Vultures, which they resemble to the point
of mimicry. Using the vultures as a sort of decoy,
the hawks spot live prey, then dive to catch it.
OCCURRENCE Nests in lowland riverine
woodlands in Arizona, in pine
and mixed woodlands at higher
elevations in Texas and New
Mexico. A migrant in the US,
but largely resident from Central
America south
to Paraguay.
long wings
VOICE Harsh
barred
flight
scream, 1-syllable
feathers
kreeee, or
2-syllable
kreeee-arr.
An inhabitant of open country, the Ferruginous

Hawk is the largest North American hawk. It is
a versatile nester, building its nest on cliffs, nearly
level ground, trees, or man-made structures. Its
numbers are threatened by its preference for
prairie dog habitat, which is declining because of
human encroachment, shooting, and pesticide use.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in low-elevation grasslands
interrupted by cliffs or isolated trees in western
North America; winters in the southwestern
US and Mexico.
VOICE Screaming Kree-aa or
kaah, kaah during courtship;
quieter, lower-pitched,
longer alarm call.
white
undertail
ADULT
(LIGHT FORM)
ADULT
Family Gruidae
relatively long
pointed wings
Wingspan 4412 ft (1. 21.4m)
Species Grus americana
Family Charadriidae
Species Charadrius montanus
Whooping Crane
Mountain Plover
The majestic Whooping Crane is one of the most

compelling success stories of the US Endangered
Species Act.The species has rebounded from just
a few dozen birds in the mid-20th century to
hundreds of individuals in the early 21st.
However, it still remains in a critical state because
it reproduces slowly in a restricted range. More
intervention measures are
required to help this fragile
species continue its recovery.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in
marshy country with scattered
ponds and prairies in a restricted
region of Canada; winters in
coastal estuaries in Texas; uses
marshland and agricultural
fields during migration.
VOICE Piercing and
trumpeting, kerloo! and
kerleeyew; bugling calls
during courtship dances.
Unlike many other North American shorebirds,

this rather plain-looking plover is rarely found near
water. Unusually wary, the Mountain Plover often
faces away from danger and squats motionless on
the ground, disappearing into the landscape and
earning it the nickname of Prairie Ghost. It is
declining, and endangered because of habitat loss
from overgrazing and pesticides.
OCCURRENCE Patchily distributed in westcentral
North America. Breeds in dry, flat, short grass
prairies, semi-desert areas with sparse vegetation;
winters south to Mexico.
VOICE Generally silent; flight
call grating kirrp; wintering birds
in flight give short kip call;
courtship song rolling,
drawled, whistled
wee-wee.
tancolored
overall
ADULT
(BREEDING)
larger than
Sandhill Crane
ADULT
Length 4 412 ft (1.21.4m)
Length 812 912 in (2 124cm)
449
RARE SPECIES
Family Scolopacidae
Species Numenius americanus
Family Scolopacidae
Species Calidris ferruginea
Long-billed Curlew
Curlew Sandpiper
This large curlew has the southernmost breeding and

northernmost wintering ranges of the four North
American species of curlew. It is also one of nine bird
species that are endemic to the grasslands of the Great
Plains. It is remarkably tame on its wintering grounds.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in prairies, short grass
and mixed-grass habitats of the Great Basin and
Great Plains. Some stragglers occur in Florida,
most birds winter in California, Texas, and Mexico.
VOICE Flight call a 2-note cur-LUoo, often
accompanied by rapid qui-pi-pi-pi-pi; flight
song haunting
head less
whistles, trills
patterned
werr-EEEer.
than adult
The Curlew Sandpiper, a medium-sized Eurasian

sandpiper, breeds in northern Siberia. It can be
confused with the Dunlin and Stilt Sandpiper
in nonbreeding plumage. It is slimmer than
the Dunlin, with longer wings, neck, legs, and bill,
and differs from the Stilt Sandpiper by its shorter
legs and faint white eyebrow.
OCCURRENCE Rare, but regular migrant along
the Atlantic Coast; accidental elsewhere. Found in
a variety of habitats, including beaches, coastal
mudflats, impoundments, and lake margins.
VOICE Flight call a characteristic, musical, trilled,
or rolled chrreep, dropping in the middle.
long,
decurved
bill
JUVENILE
bill slightly
shorter than
in adult
barred wing
feathers
JUVENILE
black
legs
Family Laridae
Species Larus thayeri
Family Laridae
Species Rhodostethia rosea
Thayers Gull
Rosss Gull
The status of Thayers Gull as a species is puzzling.

It was described in 1915, then was considered
to be a subspecies of the Herring Gull, but in
the 1970s was treated as a full species because
of differences between the two. Many authorities
now consider the Thayers Gull to be a subspecies
of the Iceland Gull. It is difficult to identify when
seen together with the Herring and Iceland Gulls.
OCCURRENCE Nests on cliff ledges of fjords in the
High Canadian Arctic.Winter movements are
unclear; occurs mainly along the Pacific Coast, but
also across the interior and along the East Coast.
VOICE Mewing squeals, like kee-yow; calls more
on breeding grounds than on wintering grounds.
Named for the great British Polar explorer, James

Clark Ross, this species is unmistakable in adult
breeding plumage. Dove-gray upperparts, pale-pink
underparts, red legs, small black bill, and black collar,
make it an elegant and beautiful-looking bird. In
winter it lacks the distinctive black neck ring and
the delicate pink blush on the underside may be
more muted.
OCCURRENCE Siberian breeder found along the
north coast of Alaska in fall; breeds along Hudson
Bay in Canada; winter strays found across Canada
and in northeastern and northwestern US.
VOICE Rarely heard in winter; a tern-like
kik-kik-kik on the breeding grounds.
black
necklace
reddish purple
eye-ring
ADULT
(BREEDING)
ADULT
(SUMMER)
red legs
Length 2212 25in (57 64cm)
450
rosy
underparts
RARE SPECIES
Family Laridae
Species Sterna anaethetus
Family Laridae
Species Sterna fuscatus
Bridled Tern
Sooty Tern
Compared with other terns, the Bridled Tern

has darker, browner upperparts, and in strong
subtropical light its underparts appear shaded,
giving the bird an overall dark look. When
perched, breast and shoulders stand out pure white.
Note the long white line, or bridle, tapering above
each eye, and the black legs and bill, with no hint
of red. It first bred in the Florida Keys in 1987,
and has nested there occasionally since then. It
spends most of its life at sea.
OCCURRENCE Nests in the West Indies and
Bahamas, irregularly in Florida. Regular, but
mostly far offshore in the Gulf of Mexico.
VOICE Rising, whistled wheeep call; also
barking wup, wup; vocal at colonies.
white
Except when nesting, the Sooty Tern spends most

of its life flying over the tropical and subtropical
oceans of the world. After fledging, the young do
not return to land for six to eight years.The Sooty
Terns plumage is not particularly waterproof so
the bird rarely settles on the water. It sometimes
perches on floating debris or even on sea turtles.
OCCURRENCE A large colony breeds at the
Dry Tortugas, off the Florida Keys. Small numbers
breed along the coast of Texas and near the mouth
of the Mississippi River. In summer, found in the
Gulf Stream north to Virginia.
VOICE Distinctive nasal call: wide-a-wake,
wide-a-wake has given it the vernacular name
of Wideawake Tern. Vocal throughout
year, particularly when breeding.
supercilium
forked
tail
ADULT
(BREEDING)
black
upperparts
ADULT
(BREEDING)
Family Laridae
Species Anous stolidus
Length 14 1712 in (36 45cm)
Family Laridae
Species Anous minutus
Brown Noddy
Black Noddy
The Brown Noddy resembles a typical tern species

but with the colors reversed, its pale gray forehead
and crown contrasting with its dark body. Noddies
nest on rocks and islands in tropical waters around
the world. Its only breeding ground in North
America is a few miles off the Florida Keys. It is
very tame and shows little fear of humans, hence
its scientific name, Anous stolidus, which is Latin
for foolish and slow-witted.
OCCURRENCE Only nesting site in the US is at
Dry Tortugas, off the Florida Keys; during summer
occurs offshore in Gulf of Mexico, as far north as
the Outer Banks, North Carolina.
VOICE Variety of crow-like caw or kark calls
given around nesting colonies;
otherwise silent.
This species is the rarest and has the most

restricted occurrence of any tern that regularly
occurs in North America. Since 1962 small
numbers of nonbreeding Black Noddies have
been seen nearly annually in the Brown Noddy
colony of the Dry Tortugas, off the Florida Keys.
The Black Noddy is slightly smaller than the
Brown Noddy, and has a thinner bill, black
upperparts and a white forehead.
OCCURRENCE Subtropical and tropical seas;
pelagic away from breeding colonies; regular at
Dry Tortugas, but does not breed; accidental
along Texas coast.
VOICE High-pitched caw or kark calls when
breeding; otherwise silent.
white forehead
ADULT
very dark
brown
upperparts
black
upperparts
ADULT
Length 1512 1712in (40 45cm) Wingspan 3033in (7785cm)
Length 14 1512in (35 40cm)
451
RARE SPECIES
Species Stercorarius skua
Species Stercorarius maccormicki
Great Skua
South Polar Skua
The Great Skua can be distinguished from the

South Polar Skua by its heavier streaking and
usually more reddish tones to its brown body.
Known in Scotland as the bonxie, a name with
Nordic origins, the Great Skua is closely related to
several species of southern skuas including the
Falkland Skua. The Great Skua is aggressive, and is
often seen harassing other birds, like Herring Gulls,
to make them disgorge their food.
OCCURRENCE Rare visitor, mostly in fall through
spring, to pelagic waters off the Atlantic Coast of
North America.
VOICE Rough, cackling rah-rah-rah at colonies.
strong,
Usually silent at sea.
Probably a regular visitor to US waters, the South

Polar Skua is a large, aggressive relative of the jaegers.
It pursues other seabirds to make them disgorge their
food, or battles for scraps behind fishing boats. It is
a severe threat to penguins on its breeding grounds,
roaming around their colonies and waiting to take
an egg or snatch a chick.The South Polar Skua
takes several years to mature, and stays at sea for
long periods until it reaches adulthood.
OCCURRENCE Spends southern winters offshore in
the North Atlantic and Pacific; breeds in the South
Shetland Islands and along the coast and islands
of the Antarctic Peninsula.
VOICE Deep gull-like
burbling; generally
silent at sea.
hooked
bill
mottled gray to
warm brown
plumage
dark nape
hooked
bill
ADULT
generally
unstreaked
parts
ADULT
Family Columbidae
Species Columba flavirostris
Length 21in (53cm)
Family Columbidae
Species Columba leucocephala
Red-billed Pigeon
White-crowned Pigeon
The only North American area where this

Mexican and Central American pigeon occurs is
riverine woodlands of southern Texas. Wine-red
below, bluish gray above, with yellow eyes and
a red eye-ring, it is unmistakable. It is similar in
size and posture to a Rock Pigeon but it has a
longer tail and a more slender body. In comparison
to a Band-tailed Pigeon, it appears heavier.
OCCURRENCE Prefers to perch in
tall trees above brushy understory
in wooded bottomlands of Texass
Rio Grande Valley.
bill
VOICE Long, high-pitched,
red
hoarse coooo followed by
at base
25 up, cup-a-coos.
Similar in size and shape to the Rock Pigeon,

the White-crowned Pigeon has a distinctive white
crown, slate-gray back, and slightly longer tail. In
addition, it is only found in the Florida Keys
and the southern tip of mainland Florida. It
occasionally feeds around hotels and in suburban
backyards. This strict frugivore is uncommon
in the United States.
OCCURRENCE Nests in both red and black
mangrove islands.Winters in seasonal deciduous
forests of the Florida Keys and
white
Everglades National Park. May
crown
travel some distance each day
to visit feeding sites.
VOICE Loud, deep coo-curra-coo,
repeated 58 times; also low,
purring growl.
ADULT
ADULT
452
RARE SPECIES
Family Columbidae
Species Leptotila verreauxi
Family Psittacidae
Species Aratinga holochlora
White-tipped Dove
Green Parakeet
The North American range of the White-tipped

Dove is restricted to southern Texas, but it is actually
a widespread species, occurring from Mexico
through Central and South America to Argentina.
A rather shy bird, the White-tipped Dove keeps out
of sight, foraging on the floor of mesquite and other
woodlands, but its distinctive, two- or three-syllable
mournful whistle is often heard.
OCCURRENCE Occurs in the US only in
southeastern Texas, where it breeds and winters in
dense woodlands of mesquite, Texas Ebony, and
Cedar Elm near rivers and
oxbow lakes.
VOICE Long, quavering
whwhoooo, which
sounds like
someone
blowing into
ADULT
an empty
bottle.
A native of Mexico, Central America, and

northern South America, this parakeet appeared in
southern Texas in the 1980s. Since then, numbers
have greatly increased, and are thought to have
reached 2,000. Some birds have scattered yellow,
orange, or red feathers on the head and breast.
OCCURRENCE Breeds and winters in urban and
suburban areas in Texas and Florida; prefers exotic
trees and shrubs. In Mexico and Central America,
occurs in evergreen and deciduous forests up
to 6,500 ft (2,000m).
VOICE High-pitched
screeches; also shrill
chattering when
in flocks.
all green
plumage
short
tail
Family Psittacidae
Species Amazona viridigenalis
Length 13in (33cm)
Family Cuculidae
Species Cocczyus minor
Red-crowned Parrot
Mangrove Cuckoo
Red-crowned Parrots are becoming increasingly

rare in their native range in northeastern Mexico
because of habitat destruction and their capture for
the pet trade. Ironically, the naturalized population
in California may now exceed in size that of the
native Mexican one. These parrots forage and roost
in flocks and often breed in loose nesting colonies.
OCCURRENCE Nonmigratory species, locally
common in southern California and uncommon
in southern Florida, southern Texas, and Puerto
Rico. Lives in deciduous tropical rainforests in
its native range.
VOICE Variety of loud squawks or blue hind
crown
shrieks; can mimic human speech
and other sounds.
The Mangrove Cuckoos solitary and secretive

behavior, as well as its preference for dense, nearly
inaccessible mangrove habitats, make it difficult
to study. This, combined with the continued
human development of mangroves in Florida
make the future of this cuckoo uncertain in
the US. Widespread in the Caribbean, and
from Mexico to Colombia.
OCCURRENCE Found in Florida, in coastal
areas from Tampa Bay southward
and in the Florida Keys, in
mangrove swamps, and
also locally in other
black
woodland habitats.
mask
VOICE Series of up
to 2 dozen harsh,
frog-like notes,
aarhm aarhm
aarrhmmm; also
fast coo coo coo.
red patch
on wings
ADULT
Length 12in (30cm)
ADULT
large, white
spots on
underside
of tail
453
RARE SPECIES
Family Cuculidae
Species Crotophaga ani
Family Cuculidae
Species Crotophaga sulcirostris
Smooth-billed Ani
Groove-billed Ani
The Smooth-billed Ani colonized southern

Florida in the early 1930s, then steadily declined
in the 1980s. It is a communal
upper mandible
breeder. Several females lay eggs in lacks grooves
the same nest. Their large bills
distinguish Smooth-billed Anis
from other all-black birds like
grackles or crows. They feed on
or near the ground on insects,
small vertebrates, and fruit.
OCCURRENCE Prefers
shrubby areas,
agricultural lands,
and hedges in
southern Florida.
Common in the West
Indies, Central, and
South America.
VOICE Main call is
a whiny, ascending
yaahnee.
Anis, members of the cuckoo family, have black

plumage, long tails, and high, narrow, blackish bills.
They always appear dishevelledas if their feathers
were about to fall off.Two of their toes point forward
and two backward.These social birds have an unusual
communal nesting behavior for cuckoos: several
females lay eggs in the same nest, and both males
and females share incubation duties.
high
OCCURRENCE Breeds from southern
blackish
bill
Texas and Mexico to Central and
South America.
VOICE Call a liquid Tee-ho,
accented on first syllable,
given in flight and when
perched, chorus like
when many birds
call together.
long
tail
ADULT
Family Strigidae
Species Micrathene whitneyi
Species Chordeiles acutipennis
Elf Owl
Lesser Nighthawk
The diminutive Elf Owl is perhaps the most

common bird of prey in the upland deserts of
the southwestern US. Being strictly nocturnal it
is more often heard than seen. Once heard, its
distinctive voice is easy to recognize. Elf Owls
defend their nests aggressively, and several birds
can get together to mob an intruder.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in southern Nevada, Arizona,
California, New Mexico, and Texas; also thorn scrub,
woodlands along rivers, and suburban areas.
VOICE Call is a loud chatter of 56 notes; also
trills and barks.
Well camouflaged when it rests on the ground

during daytime, the Lesser Nighthawk is an aerial
forager that is most active at dusk and dawn. It
swoops low over water, bush, and desert in pursuit
of insect prey, which it tracks with agile and
abrupt changes in direction. This species was
formerly known as the Trilling Nighthawk because
of its distinctive call, which distinguishes it
from the similar-looking, but different-sounding
Common Nighthawk (peent calls).
OCCURRENCE Breeds in desert, open scrub, and
along watercourses.
Occurs from the
white band
across
southern US to
wing tips
Central and
South America.
VOICE Low, trilled
whistle which lasts
up to 12 seconds
and resembles
the calls of some
species of toads.
no ear
tufts
thin
white
eyebrow
ADULT
MALE
Length 4 34 512in (1214cm)
454
RARE SPECIES
Species Nyctidromus albicollis
Species Phalaenoptilus nuttallii
Common Pauraque
Common Poorwill
The resident Common Pauraque reaches the

nothernmost part of its range in southern Texas.
It is possible to get quite close to pauraques
during the day, as they rely on their camouflage
for protection. Common Pauraques feed at night.
They perch in open locations and ambush
passing insects with sudden bursts of flight.
OCCURRENCE Found in open scrub, sparsely
wooded areas, and hedgerows; feeds over open
fields, forest clearings, and roads. Breeds from
southern Texas to Central and South America.
VOICE Strange, slurred, or buzzed pwheeerr
whistle; also various harsh-sounding calls.
The smallest North American nightjar, the

Common Poorwill has shorter wings than its
relatives, a stubbier tail, but a comparatively larger
head. It can go into a state of torpor, somewhat
similar to mammalian hibernation and
hummingbird torpor, remaining in this state
for several days, perhaps even weeks, during cold
weather or when food is unavailable. The male has
whitish corners to its tail, while the female is buffy.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in arid habitats from the
western US southward to Mexico. Winters in
northern Mexico.
VOICE Call low, whistled, purr-WHEEOO or
pooor-WEELLUP.
dark spots
on back
delicately mottled
brownish gray to
pale gray plumage
ADULT
ADULT
Family Trochilidae
Species Amazilia yucatanensis
Family Trochilidae
Species Archilochus alexandri
Buff-bellied Hummingbird
Black-chinned Hummingbird
A resident of the southeastern coast of Texas, the

Buff-bellied Hummingbird can be identified by its
large size, iridescent emerald body, and tawny belly. It
is locally common in gardens, where it is dominant
over other species of hummingbirds. Planted flowers
and feeders have helped this species expand its range.
It now winters from its breeding range eastward to
gardens along the Gulf Coast to Florida.
OCCURRENCE In the US, found in a variety of
lowland habitats with brushy vegetation, including
gardens, mesquite woodland edges; partial migrant.
VOICE Call hard, sharp tik,
often doubled or rolled
into series; chase call
buzzier and in fast
series; no welltawny belly
defined song,
usually mix of
slurred chip
MALE
notes.
The Black-chinned Hummingbird is widespread

in the western US, where it occurs in a variety
of habitats. It readily accepts sugar water at
birdfeeders. During courtship, the males perform
a distinctive dive display comprising several broad
arcs in addition to a short, back-and-forth shuttle
flight. The latter is accompanied by a droning
sound produced by the birds wings.
OCCURRENCE Widespread in scrub and
woodlands close to rivers and streams, irrigated
urban areas, and semi-arid scrub; also found in
drier habitats; forages away from breeding habitats
where nectar sources are found. Winters along
the Pacific Coast of Mexico
VOICE Call a soft, thick chic; fast, buzzy tsi-tsi-tsitsi-tsi-tsi-tsi-tsi is used to chase off other birds;
song soft, warbling, very rarely heard.
MALE
blackish
gorget
Length 4in (10cm)
Length 312 in (9cm)
455
RARE SPECIES
Family Alcedinidae
Species Chloroceryle americana
Family Alcedinidae
Species Megaceryle torquata
Green Kingfisher
Ringed Kingfisher
The smallest of the three species of North American

kingfishers, the Green Kingfisher can also be
distinguished by its proportionately longer bill and
conspicuous white collar. Females lack the rufous
breast of the male, and instead, have a necklace
of white spots. Like other kingfishers, the Green
Kingfisher dives from perches over water to
catch aquatic prey.
OCCURRENCE Breeds and winters near wooded
shorelines of lakes, ponds, and streams. Found in
South Texas, Arizona, and from Mexico all the
way to southern South America.
VOICE Staccato ticking call; also a harsh, buzzy
scold; quieter than other two North American
kingfishers.
The largest of the three North American kingfishers,

the Ringed Kingfisher is also easily identified by its
color. It perches on trees and branches over water.
Because of its shy nature this bird is difficult to
spot despite its bright colors. It flies off at the least
intrusion, but its loud rattle calls signal where it was.
Like other kingfishers it nests in a burrow, which it
digs in a muddy or sandy riverbank.
OCCURRENCE Found from the Rio Grande Valley
in southern Texas to southern South America.
Resident throughout range.
VOICE Loud rattle; also loud, double-syllabled
ktok-ktok in flight.
white collar
bronze-green
upperparts
long,
black bill
FEMALE
white chest band

between blue
breast and
chestnut belly
MALE
Length 812in (22cm)
Family Picidae
Species Melanerpes aurifrons
Length 16in (41cm)
Family Picidae
Species Picoides scalaris
Golden-fronted Woodpecker
Ladder-backed Woodpecker
Although the bright orange color of the nape is

more visible than the yellow forehead, this is what
gives this woodpecker its name. Males also have
a red crown patch; females do not. This species
occasionally interbreeds with the closely related
Red-bellied Woodpecker.
OCCURRENCE Southern Oklahoma and Texas,
Mexico and Central America,
south to
Nicaragua.
yellow
VOICE Call
forehead
a noisy, rolled
churr, closely
resembling
the calls of other
woodpeckers,
especially the
Red-bellied
Woodpecker,
but harsher;
drumming
rather short.
A bird of the Southwest, the Ladder-backed

Woodpecker has conspicuous black-and-white
barring on the back and black-and-white facial
pattern. Like many other North American
woodpeckers, males have a red crown. This resident
species uses cacti and trees both for breeding and
to forage for insects.
conspicuous
OCCURRENCE Breeds in
black-and-white
semi-desert scrub, wooded
facial pattern
canyons, and pineoak woodlands
from California
eastward to
Texas, and from
Mexico to
Nicaragua.
VOICE Two
main calls: a
short, sharp peek!,
and a whinny-like
rattle with many
notes that descend
in pitch at the end.
MALE
456
MALE
RARE SPECIES
Family Tyrannidae
Species Camptostoma imberbe
Family Tyrannidae
Species Sayornis nigricans
Northern Beardless-Tyrannulet
Black Phoebe
This tiny flycatcher is usually first detected by

its whistled calls. Once seen, it has a distinctive
tail-flipping motion, crested look, and vireo-like
foraging behavior. Unlike other flycatchers, it
lacks bristles at the base of its bill, hence the name
beardless. Tyrannulet refers to its diminutive size.
OCCURRENCE Riparian woodlands with
mesquite in southeastern Arizona and the lower
Rio Grande Valley in Texas. Resident from
Mexico to Costa Rica.
short,
stubby bill,
VOICE Calls are clear, piping, whistled
pale at
peeeuuu or peeut di-i-i-i; song is
base
a descending series of whistles
pee-pee-pee-pee.
North Americas only black-and-white Flycatcher,

this species is resident from California to Texas.
South of the US, the birds range extends to
Argentina. It commonly forages close to water.
Black Phoebes wag their tails like other phoebes,
and their calls are also phoebe-like whistles.
OCCURRENCE Breeds and winters in areas close
to water such as coastal cliffs, river banks, streams,
lakes, and ponds. Also fountains and cattle troughs.
VOICE A whistled phee-bee; also a simple tsip call;
tweedle-deedle-eek during courting or when chasing
rivals; song a tee-hee, tee-hoo or sisee, sitsew.
grayish
back
ADULT
ADULT
black legs
and feet
Length 412512in (11.514cm) Wingspan 7in (18cm)
Length 6in (15.5cm)
Family Tyrannidae
Family Tyrannidae
Species Sayornis saya
Species Pyrocephalus rubinus
Says Phoebe
Vermilion Flycatcher
Says Phoebe breeds farther north than any other

flycatcher in North America, reaching the Yukon and
Alaska. It is a common sight on ranches and farms
from early spring to late fall. Its contrasting dark cap
is conspicuous even at a distance as it perches on
bushes, boulders, or power lines, wagging its tail.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in dry, open, or semi-open
country, such as agricultural areas, desert canyons,
and sagebrush; breeds south of the US in Mexico.
VOICE Call a pee-ee or pee-ur; also a whistled churreep that may be integrated with a
chatter; primary song pit-see-eur
and pit-eet.
The most colorful North American flycatcher, this

species is a resident through most of its vast range,
which includes Mexico, Central America, and
South America south to Argentina. Only the
male is a vibrant red; the female is rather drab by
comparison. Breeding territories are defended
during spectacular flight displays accompanied
with stuttering vocalizations; intruders are chased
and if one fails to depart, a fight may ensue.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in riparian woodlands
with cottonwoods, willows, and sycamores.
VOICE Contact call peeent;
male song an excited p-p-pikzee, pit-a-zee, or ching-tinka-link.
fiery red head
and underparts
MALE
ADULT
rufous undertail
and lower belly
Length 7in (17.5cm)
457
RARE SPECIES
Family Tyrannidae
Species Pitangus sulphuratus
Family Tyrannidae
Species Tyrannus melancholicus
Great Kiskadee
Tropical Kingbird
The Great Kiskadee is named after its loud song,

which, together with its black mask, yellow belly,
large size, and habit of perching in the open, make
it quite a conspicuous bird. In Spanish it is called the
Benteveo, which means I see you well. Aggressive
in defense of its roundish nest, the Great Kiskadee
attacks birds of prey and snakes.
OCCURRENCE Local in Texas, in riverine
woodlands, shady plantations, thorn scrub, and
woodland edges. Resident.
VOICE Calls include loud
exclamatory reeee or weeer,
Chik-reee, and harsh Reep, or
ick; distinctive 3-syllable
song KIK-Chi-wee,or
Kiss-ka-dee, is most
common during
breeding season;
highly vocal
conspicuous
year-round.
Often found in residential areas, the Tropical

Kingbird occurs in southeastern Arizona (where it is
a migrant) and extreme southern Texas (where it is
resident). After the breeding season, young Tropical
Kingbirds disperse northward along the West Coast
to British Columbia.This species is widespread from
Mexico southward to Central and South America.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in open habitats of Arizona
and Texas. In its tropical range, occurs in a wide
variety of habitats, including pastureland, forest edges,
suburban areas, urban parks, and riparian corridors.
VOICE Typical Kingbird-like, loud, high-pitched
twittering calls, given all year and throughout the
day; song is a longer and more
tremulous version of the call.
ADULT
pale grayish
olive
upperparts
thick
bill
yellow belly
JUVENILE
Length 812 10in (2126 cm)
Family Tyrannidae
Species Tyrannus couchii
Family Tyrannidae
Species Tyrannus dominicensis
Couchs Kingbird
Gray Kingbird
Spencer Fullerton Baird described this bird in

1860 as Tyrannus melancholicus couchii, to honor the
famous ornithologist Elliott Coues. It is so similar
to the Tropical Kingbird that it was not until the
1980s that W. John Smith realized they were two
separate species that can easily be distinguished by
their different voices, especially the dawn song.
OCCURRENCE Range restricted to southern Texas
and eastern Mexico. Most Texas birds move south
to Mexico in winter; occasional in Florida.
VOICE Does not have twittering
calls of Tropical flycatcher; instead
they are dry peep followed by
rather jumbled series of notes,
increasing in tempo, tuwit,
tuwit, tuwit,
brownish
tuwitcheer.
At first sight the Gray Kingbird appears similar to the

widespread and familiar Eastern Kingbird, but careful
observation quickly shows its larger size, distinctly
longer bill, and paler, less contrasted plumage color
(largely grayish above, paler below).Vocalizations
are also somewhat different. A species of West Indian,
Central and South American distribution, it occurs
in the Southeast, especially in Florida.
OCCURRENCE Winters as far south as Colombia;
disperses north to New England and west to Texas
after nesting. Usually found near water, especially
mangroves, but also adapts to suburban areas in the
Florida Keys. Often occurs where
Mangrove Cuckoos are found.
VOICE A loud pe-cheeerrr,
rolled and descending
long
black
in pitch at the end.
bill
A strong vocalist.
gray wings
ADULT
458
deeply
notched
tail
Length 9in (23cm)
ADULT
RARE SPECIES
Family Tyrannidae
Species Myiarchus tyrannulus
Family Tyrannidae
Species Myiarchus cinerascens
Brown-crested Flycatcher
Ash-throated Flycatcher
The Brown-crested Flycatcher is the largest of the

three western Myiarchus species. It is slender-looking,
with a thick black bill, and a ragged, tan or brown
crest. In flight, the rufous outer tail feathers are
usually conspicuous. Although mostly insectivorous,
it will sometimes catch a hummingbird.This
late-spring migrant competes aggressively with other
tan,
birds, such as woodpeckers, for nest holes.
bushy
OCCURRENCE Occurs from Nevada
crest
to Texas; breeds in riparian woodlands.
Migrates south to Mexico
and Guatemala. Resident
populations from Honduras
to South America.
VOICE Call a loud huit,
often with a question
mark at the end.
Song a repetition of
either come-here or
whit-will-do heard
only at dawn.
Of the three western species of Myiarchus

flycatchers found in the US, this is the palest and
also the most widespread and ecologically versatile.
Desert scrub, mesquite woodland, riparian habitats
with cottonwoods, juniper shrublands, and saguaro
cactus are all places it chooses for breeding. Ashthroated Flycatchers, which are cavity-nesters, can
adapt to man-made structures including pipes, the
eaves of houses, and nest boxes.
relatively
smooth
OCCURRENCE Breeds in a
crest
variety of habitats at low to
medium elevations. Migrates
south to Mexico and
Central America.
Resident populations
from Mexico to
Costa Rica.
pale
VOICE Call
yellow
belly
a rolled whistle,
wheer, or
exclamatory
huit. Dawn
song a repetitious
ha-wheer or
ka-brick.
ADULT
ADULT
Family Vireonidae
Species Vireo atricapilla
Family Vireonidae
Species Vireo vicinior
Black-capped Vireo
Gray Vireo
The only vireo to show a sexually dimorphic

(different) plumage, the Black-capped Vireo is
restricted to the central southern US and Mexico.
Despite its broad white spectacles and red eye, it is
not easy to spot as it forages in dense shrubby
vegetation. It sings persistently from near the top of
bushes, often long into the day. Habitat changes and
Brown-headed Cowbird parasitism have caused
declines in the birds population.
OCCURRENCE Breeds only in the hill country of
central southern Texas and adjacent Mexico, casually
in Oklahoma.Winters on the foothill country of
western Mexico.
VOICE Calls are variable scolds; song an extensive
repertoire of trills, whistles, chips, and
red eye
squeaks, with individual variations.
A drab, inconspicuous vireo of the hot and arid

southwestern US, the Gray Vireo is reminiscent of
a miniature shrike in terms of posture and shape.
Found mainly in dense, shrubby vegetation such as
pinyon and juniper, it is most often detected by its
distinctive voice. In its restricted habitat, it can be
confused with other small gray birds such as
gnatcatchers, titmice, and the Bushtit.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in the hot and arid shrubby
scrublands of the southwestern US; short-distance
migrant. Winters mostly in Mexico, in similarly
arid areas.
hooked
bill
VOICE Varied calls, include
trills and chatters; song given
by male, harsh three- to fournote phrase.
broad white
spectacles
lead-gray
body
MALE
ADULT
Length 512in (14cm)
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
459
RARE SPECIES
Family Vireonidae
Species Vireo huttoni
Family Vireonidae
Species Vireo altiloquus
Huttons Vireo
Black-whiskered Vireo
This unobtrusive bird is geographically variable

and has about a dozen subspecies. One of them
comprises coastal populations from British Columbia
to Baja California; the second subspecies is found
from the Southwest to Central America.These
two isolated populations, widely separated by desert,
may actually represent different species.Very similar
in appearance to the Ruby-crowned Kinglet with
which it flocks in winter, Huttons Vireo is
distinguishable by its larger size and thicker bill.
OCCURRENCE Year-round resident in mixed
evergreen forests; prefers live oak woods. Breeds in
mixed oak-pine woodlands along the Pacific coast.
VOICE Varied calls include harsh
mewing and nasal, raspy spit;
males song a repetition of
a simple phrase.
This Caribbean breeder is restricted to mangrove

and hardwood forests along both coasts of southern
Florida. During migration (OctoberNovember) it
can also be found along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts.
Its restricted range and habitat and secretive habits
make this vireo difficult to spot. Its song, however,
is distinctive, with phrases ending on alternate
ascending and descending notes.
OCCURRENCE In the US, found in coastal Florida,
along the Atlantic coast south to the Keys, and along
the southern Gulf Coast.Winters south to South
America; breeds in the West Indies.
thin
VOICE Nasal mewing call; male
mustache
song a series of loud, clear one
to four note phrases with distinct
pauses between them.
white
wing bars
ADULT
pale
eye-ring
ADULT
Length 5in (13cm)
Family Corvidae
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Species Cyanocorax yncas
Length 612in (16cm)
Family Corvidae
Species Cyanocorax morio
Green Jay
Brown Jay
Known in southern Texas as the Rio Grande Jay,

this brightly colored species is common and
conspicuous. It will readily get food at birdfeeders,
but away from them it is rather secretive. Its varied
vocalizations, however, allow it to be located easily.
The Green Jay is a nonmigratory bird.
OCCURRENCE Lives in woodlands and thickets.
Occurs southward through Mexico, Central
America, and South America to Bolivia.
VOICE Sounds much like the Blue Jay; repeated
chah-chah-chah calls; also clicks and buzzes, and
mewing notes.
Both the very large Brown Jay and the colorful

Green Jay are hard to miss. Groups of three to six
Brown Jays can be heard calling long before they
are seen. In the US, they are found very locally
along the Rio Grande, in riparian woodlands.
Juveniles have bright yellow bare parts, which
fade as they become adults.
OCCURRENCE This bird is a resident of dense
woodlands from Texas (rare in the Upper Rio
Grande Valley) to Panama.
VOICE Makes loud, raucous screams, keee-uh!
or kaaah!, which are often repeated. Begins with
percussive popping sound at close range.
yellow
bill
dark brown
above
long,
bluish
gray tail
ADULT
1ST YEAR
460
RARE SPECIES
Family Corvidae
Species Aphelocoma californica
Family Corvidae
Species Aphelocoma coerulescens
Western Scrub-Jay
Florida Scrub-Jay
Easterners visiting the West Coast will immediately

notice the Western Scrub-Jay, which is common
(to abundant) in open areas, including evergreen
oak woodlands, riparian thickets, suburban areas,
even city parks. Unlike the familiar Blue Jay, they
will notice its lack of crest, whitish underparts,
facial mask, gray back, and slender appearance.
Like Blue Jays,Western Scrub-Jays are very vocal.
OCCURRENCE Widespread from sea level to
mid-elevations in western North America from
Washington State to Baja California, and from the
Pacific Coast to the hill country of central Texas.
VOICE Most common call a questioning, rising
rehnk?; other calls include a vaguely
robin-like quill, quill, and rattles.
Threatened by increasing habitat loss due to

development, the endemic and tame Florida
Scrub-Jay has been intensely studied by
ornithologists.Young birds stay with their parents
after fledging and help them raise their next brood,
a social system called cooperative breeding.The
Florida,Western, and Island Scrub-Jays used to be
considered to comprise one species, the Scrub-Jay.
OCCURRENCE Habitat restricted to chaparral-like
evergreen oak scrub, growing on sandy soil and
regularly kept open by fire. A highly sedentary bird.
VOICE Harsh and raspy call notes, krrrahh, as well
as a number of other vocalizations.
A. C. CALIFORNICA
(PACIFIC)
pale back
whitish
forehead
black
mask
rich blue wings

and tail
long,
blue tail
ADULT
Family Corvidae
Species Corvus imparatus
Family Corvidae
Species Corvus cryptoleucus
Tamaulipas Crow
Chihuahuan Raven
Barely larger than the Fish Crow and restricted to

southeastern Texas and northeastern Mexico, this
bird is easy to identify because it is the only species
of crow in this range. The Chihuahuan Raven,
which occurs near Brownsville in Texas, is huge
by comparison. Tamaulipas Crows have low voices,
long wings and tails, and glossy plumage.
OCCURRENCE Lowlands of northeastern Mexico;
winters (rarely) near Brownsville, Texas, especially
around the dump and the harbor.
VOICE Call a very low, nasal, frog-like croak,
sometimes doubled. Also a low-pitched whaah.
Smaller than the Common Raven but bigger than

the American Crow, the Chihuahuan Raven was
previously called the White-necked Raven.This
former name refers to the concealed white feathers
of its neck, which are sometimes visible in the birds
windswept environment. A highly gregarious and
vocal raven, it is often seen wheeling about in flocks
that may contain thousands of individuals.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in the southwestern US
and northern Mexico in grasslands, scrublands, and
deserts. Northerly populations winter in Mexico.
VOICE High-pitched croak; little variety in vocal
repertoire compared to the
Common Raven.
rather
thin bill
very glossy
plumage
concealed white base

of neck feathers
ADULT
long tail
ADULT
Wingspan 3ft 3in (1m)
461
RARE SPECIES
Family Paridae
Species Parus bicolor atricristatus
Family Remizidae
Species Auriparus flaviceps
Black-crested Titmouse
Verdin
Found only in Texas and Oklahoma in the US,

the Black-crested Titmouse is like a Tufted Titmouse
with a taller, and black, crest. Black-crested and
Tufted Titmice have largely non-overlapping ranges,
yet in a small area of Texas they occur together and
produce hybrids, a situation that suggests to some
ornithologists that they belong to one species.
Others disagree.The Black-crested Titmouse is
a bird of woodlands, including evergreen oaks.
OCCURRENCE Scrubby oak woodlands; frequents
feeders in winter. Sometimes reported as high as
6,000ft (2,000m) in mountain forests of
high
Mexico in the southern part of its range. blackish
crest
VOICE Call a pew-pew-pew (or peterpeter-peter) like that of the Tufted
Titmouse; other calls a rasping,
scolding jhree, jhree, jhree.
Common in the Southwest from California east to

Texas, this yellow-headed, gray-bodied little bird
moves constantly from shrub to shrub, inspecting
flowers and cobwebs in search of insects.Verdins
resemble chickadees and bushtits in behavior and
habitat preferences. Interestingly, however, the Verdin
is the only American species of a family that is
otherwise exclusively Eurasian and African in
distribution, the Remizidae (or Penduline Tits):
a fascinating evolutionary puzzle!
OCCURRENCE Thorn shrubs, mesquite woodlands,
and tamarisk groves in dry creek beds, desert
oases, and riverine corridors. Found in
northern Mexico besides the southern US.
VOICE Call a bright, simple beef,
emitted frequently as the bird
forages, all day long
and throughout
the year.
yellow
ADULT
head
white
forehead
ADULT
Family Aegithalidae
Species Psaltriparus minimus
Species Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus
Bushtit
Cactus Wren
For much of the year, Bushtits roam foothills and

valleys of the western US in flocks that usually
number just a few birds, but may occasionally
include hundreds. It is always on the move, foraging
for insects in the foliage of shrubs and small trees.
Even during the breeding season, when most other
perching birds become territorial, Bushtits retain
something of their social natureraising the young
communally, with both siblings and single adults
helping in the rearing.
OCCURRENCE Common in open woodlands and
shrublands, mainly on hillsides in summer; some
birds move down to lower elevations in the fall.
Also in cities and gardens.
VOICE Basic call a 23-part soft lisp, ps psss pit,
interspersed with hard spit and spick notes, like
little sparks.
tiny bill
The largest and most colorful species of North

American wren, the Cactus Wren is common and
conspicuous in the arid Southwest from California
east to Texas. As its name suggests, it prefers areas
with cactus, especially perhaps cholla, although
it also occurs in other dry habitats. Unlike some
other wrens, the Cactus Wren is easy to observe,
as it often perches in full view.
OCCURRENCE Lives in deserts and arid hillsides
with cacti, yucca, thorn shrubs, and mesquite
woodlands; also in suburban areas.
VOICE Call a loud chack; song a grating kchar
kchar kchar kchar, with a cluck-like quality;
sings repeatedly from top of cactus
or shrub, especially conspicuous
white eyebrow
in the morning.
MALE
mouse-gray
upperparts
long tail, barred

black-and-white
462
ADULT
RARE SPECIES
Species Salpinctes obsoletus
Species Catherpes mexicanus
Rock Wren
Canyon Wren
The Rock Wrens varied voice, echoing through

canyon walls, will usually reveal its owners presence.
Very active, hopping around rock faces, probing
crevices for insects, Rock Wrens have the habit of
bobbing and swaying when humans approach. A
fascinating behavior of Rock Wrens is to pave the
area in front of their nest entrance with a walkway
of pebbles, the purpose of which is unknown.
OCCURRENCE Widespread in the West (and from
Mexico to Costa Rica), in arid and rocky country
with cliffs and canyons; also quarries and rock piles.
Found from lowlands up to mountaintops
at 10,000ft (3,000m).
VOICE Call a sharp chkeer;
varied series of warbles, trills,
chatters, and repeated
chuwee chuwee,
teedee teedee.
Loud, musical, clear, the marvelous whistled song

of the Canyon Wren signals this shy birds presence
and often astonishes listeners by its tonal purity.
The singer, however, remains usually out of sight,
and it takes work to locate it. But the reward is
great: Canyon Wrens can walk up, down, or
sideways on rock walls, as they search tiny
crevices for insect prey.
OCCURRENCE Maintains year-round territory
on rocky hillsides, outcroppings, and vertical
rock-walled canyons. Sometimes nests in holes
in man-made structures.
VOICE Remarkable, musical series of 1015 loud,
ringing whistles, descending in pitch, gradually
slowing down, and ending
with several buzzes.
ADULT
white
throat
pale
yellowish
or buffy
ADULT
Length 6in (15cm)
Family Polioptilidae
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Species Polioptila melanura
Family Mimidae
Species Oreoscoptes montanus
Black-tailed Gnatcatcher
Sage Thrasher
Few birds favor the hot, low-elevation deserts of

the Southwest.Yet this is the Black-tailed
Gnatcatchers preferred habitat. This tiny bird
spends most of its time flitting about in the foliage
of shrubs, constantly flicking its long tail from side
to side. A monogamous bird, pairs defend their
territory aggressively throughout the year.
OCCURRENCE Thorn scrub, acacias, mesquite,
saguaro cactus, creosote bush, and dry riverbeds;
also bushy groves along waterways. Resident in
the southwestern US and northern Mexico.
VOICE Various scolding notes zhee-zhee-zhee, chihchih-chih, and chee-chee-chee; song, rarely
heard, soft tse-dee-dee-dee.
black
This plain-colored bird is the smallest of the

North American thrashers. Like several other
species of thrasher, it removes the eggs of the
parasitic Brown-headed Cowbird. The English
name for this bird, Sage Thrasher, correctly
describes its habitat in the West.
OCCURRENCE Prefers sagebrush habitat in
low-elevation, semi-arid valleys of the western
US. Winters from southwestern US to Mexico.
VOICE Song varies in duration: low, repeated, very
musical notes or phrases
that may blend together
in a melodious song.
thin
mustache
cap
long
tail
dusky, brownish
gray upperparts
ADULT
MALE
463
RARE SPECIES
Family Mimidae
Species Toxostoma longirostre
Family Mimidae
Species Toxostoma curvirostre
Long-billed Thrasher
Curve-billed Thrasher
In the US, this Mexican species is found only

in southern Texas, where the semi-arid thickets
and riverine habitats it favors have been largely
destroyed by land-clearing. If this habitat loss is
offset by an increase in invasive scrubland, and
if the thrasher moves into this new habitat, then
it will meet the range of the Brown Thrasher,
creating an interesting biological problem:
will they interbreed?
OCCURRENCE Lives in thick, scrubby
vegetation on mountain slopes up to around
3,300ft (1,100m), and in lowlands along the
Gulf of Mexico, commonly found in woodland
by streams. Sedentary.
VOICE Call a harsh tchek; song
a loud, harsh series of notes,
usually repeated 24 times
in succession.
The arid-country loving Curve-billed Thrasher is

somewhat unkempt looking, with a thick bill and
powerful legs. Less of a mimic than other thrashers,
it is nevertheless quite vocal, and its two-note
twit-twit call is a characteristic sound of the
southwestern semi-deserts.
OCCURRENCE In the US, the Curve-billed
Thrasher inhabits open, scrubby, arid to semi-arid
areas, where it is often found along edges between
brush and clearings. Its Mexican range
strong bill
extends south to Veracuz and
Oaxaca. It is largely resident
throughout its US and
Mexican range.
VOICE Two-note qwit-qweet;
song a series of clear,
warbled whistles broken
into distinct phrases;
some mimicry of
other species calls.
ADULT
ADULT
heavily streaked
underparts
Family Pycnonotidae
Species Pycnonotus jocosus
Family Muscicapidae
Species Oenanthe oenanthe
Red-whiskered Bulbul
Northern Wheatear
With its black head, large crest and red-and-white

cheeks, the Red-whiskered Bulbul is a striking
bird. The dark back contrasts with the white
underparts and reddish undertail feathers. This shy
species is often found in small groups, and is more
often heard than seen. The primary breeding
population in the US is restricted to the area
around and south of Miami.
OCCURRENCE Wooded parks, gardens, and suburbs
in Florida. Introduced from tropical and
tall
crest
subtropical Asia.
VOICE Call kinka-choo; song a choppy,
musical whistle.
Widely distributed in Eurasia, the Northern

Wheatear visits North America only during its brief
breeding seasonthe subspecies O. o. leucorhoa breeds
in the Northeast and O. o. oenanthe breeds in the
Northwest. Both North American populations
winter in sub-Saharan Africaoenanthe flies across
Asia, whereas leucorhoa crosses the Atlantic Ocean.
OCCURRENCE In North America, breeds in
rocky tundra at high latitudes; habitats are more
varied in Eurasia.
VOICE Multiple calls, a sharp tuc or
tek common; three types of
songsterritorial,
conversational, and
tan
perchedmixtures
throat
of sweet and harsh
and
notes; imitates
breast
other species.
dark back
ADULT
red-andwhite
cheek
white
underparts
464
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
Wingspan 10 34 in (27cm)
RARE SPECIES
Family Turdidae
Species Turdus grayi
Family Passeridae
Species Passer montanus
Clay-colored Robin
Eurasian Tree Sparrow
The Clay-colored Robin is indeed a clay-colored

bird. The upperparts are tawny-brown, darker than
the more sandy underparts; the throat is lightly
streaked. In good light, the eye looks pale orange.
A Mexican and Central American robin, the
Clay-colored Robin occurs in Texas, where it
is more often heard than seen.
OCCURRENCE Open areas and woodland edges in
the lower Rio Grande Valley of southeastern Texas.
VOICE Varied vocalizations including an upward
slurring note and 3-syllable kee-a-wee; song slow,
melodious, with repeated notes.
Introduced to the US in 1870, this sparrow has not

spread widely, unlike the House Sparrow. It occurs
locally in parts of Illinois and Missouri, generally in
parks, agricultural areas, and woodland edges, and
also occasionally near human dwellings. Unlike the
House Sparrow, both sexes of the Eurasian Tree
Sparrow look alike.
OCCURRENCE In North America, only found
locally in Missouri, Iowa, and Illinois. Favors
parks, farmyards, and residential neighborhoods.
VOICE Call notes tend to be dry and metallic:
chirp, chep; song consists of series of dry notes
interspersed with few more liquid ones.
orange
iris
white
necklace
ADULT
rufousbrown cap
light
streaks
on throat
ADULT
sandy gray
underparts
Family Fringillidae
Species Carduelis psaltria
Length 6in (15cm)
Family Fringillidae
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
Species Carduelis hornemanni
Lesser Goldfinch
Hoary Redpoll
A highly vocal bird, the Lesser Goldfinch is

common in gardens, suburbs, and farmlands, as well
as in its natural habitats of open fields and scrub.The
male has a brighter yellow breast and belly than the
female, as well as a black cap, which she lacks.
Nape and back color varies from black in Texas
and Mexico to green along the Pacific coast.
OCCURRENCE Breeds from California to Texas;
occurs south to Mexico in winter.
VOICE Call descending peeyee and 2-note tee-eee,
with second note higher; also rapid
dididit; song warbles and trills.
Distinctly white, fluffy-looking and with a stubby

bill, male Hoary Redpolls are much paler than
females. Where the smaller Common Redpoll
occurs in the same location as the Hoary Redpoll
the two species coexist but do not interbreed. The
Hoary Redpoll is a true Arctic bird.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in the High Arctic,
including the Canadian Arctic Archipelago; prefers
low trees of the open tundra; winters within the
boreal forest belt.
small pinkish
VOICE Flight calls dry zit-zitred patch
zit-zit and rattling chirr;
on forehead
also high too-ee call
while perched; song
series of rapid trills.
MALE
(PACIFIC COAST)
white wing
bar
lightly
streaked
breast
white
rump
FEMALE
whitish
belly
465
RARE SPECIES
Family Parulidae
Species Parula pitiayumi
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica chrysoparia
Tropical Parula
The Tropical Parula is widespread in tropical

America, but in the US is found only in southern
Texas.There, it occasionally interbreeds with
the Northern Parula, which is very close to
it in appearance. Their offspring are difficult
to identify, so that in southern Texas some
parula warblers cannot be identified to species.
OCCURRENCE Breeds from the southern edge
of the Hill Country to coastal Kleberg County
(Texas) southward to central Argentina. Much
local movement in the winter months.
VOICE Songs and calls very similar to those of
the Northern Parula.
Males of this strikingly beautiful warbler species

often sing throughout the day, from conspicuous
perches in oak-juniper woodlands.The
Golden-cheeked Warbler breeds only in
a restricted area of Texas, on and near the Edwards
Plateau. Habitat loss has made this already scarce
species even less common, and it has been listed
as an Endangered Species since 1990.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in extensive oak-juniper
forests mixed with hardwood trees like maple and
ash.Winters in high-elevation pine-oak woodlands.
VOICE Dry tsk call; song a variable series of
relatively low, buzzy notes, often ending on a high,
clear note zo zu zu zo zu zhray ZHEE; another
version ends at a lower pitch
ZOH zu ZO-ZOH zhray.
MALE
white wing
patch
dark mask
striking yellowand-black face

MALE
yellow
underparts
Family Parulidae
Species Dendroica kirtlandii
Length 5in (13cm)
Family Icteridae
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Species Icterus cucullatus
Kirtlands Warbler
Hooded Oriole
Named for a physician from Ohio, Kirtlands

Warbler is one of the rarest North American
songbirds. The suppression of fires and spread of
the parasitic Brown-headed Cowbird decreased
this warblers population to a low of 167 males in
1987, but successful conservation resulted in the
population reaching about 5,000 birds in 2007.
OCCURRENCE In northern Michigan, in dense,
low, 6- to 20-year-old Jack Pine stands on sandy
soil, regrowing after fires.
VOICE A strong chip; flight call a high interrupted,
zit; song a loud, low-pitched series of white
eye-ring
staccato chips, rising in pitch and
intensity and ending with
whistled phrase: tup-CHUPchup tup-CHEEP-cheep.
Tall palm trees of suburban and urban landscapes,

especially in California, have become favored
nesting sites for the Hooded Oriole.The increasing
number of palm trees and offerings of nectar
intended for hummingbirds have led to
the expansion of its range in California and the
southwestern US. By contrast, its numbers in
Texas have been shrinking, in part because of its
susceptibility to brood parasitism by Brown-headed
and Bronzed Cowbirds.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in open woodlands along
water courses, especially those with palm trees, in
Mexico, Belize, California, and the southwestern
US, and also in southern Texas. Winters in Mexico.
VOICE A harsh weeek call; song a weakly
long,
whined and rapid series of whistles
curved
bill
where notes often run together;
imitates other birds.
MALE
MALE
(BREEDING)
Length 6in (15cm)
466
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
bright
orange
RARE SPECIES
Family Icteridae
Species Icterus parisorum
Family Icteridae
Species Icterus graduacauda
Scotts Oriole
Audubons Oriole
This Orioles lemon-yellow plumage is unusual

among North American orioles, as most other
species are rather orange-colored. Scotts Oriole
lives in semi-arid and rocky slopes, a habitat
preference that earned it the names of Desert
Oriole and Mountain Oriole. Its loud, clear
song signals its presence from afar.
OCCURRENCE Breeds at mid-elevations in semiarid scrub on level ground or along slopes with
oak and pinyon. Winters in pine-oak woodlands of
Mexico. Individuals can wander widely: the species
has even been reported from New York City.
VOICE Call a sharp chek; song a musical series of
whistles tew-tew-treew, loud and ringing.
Because it is secretive and lives in dense vegetation,

Audubons Oriole remains little studied, and
estimates of its population in the US are few. It
was once thought to be declining, because of its
restricted habitat (mostly riverine thickets) along the
lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas, and because of
the negative impact of brood parasitism by the
Bronzed Cowbird. However, this oriole has recently
adapted to suburban areas and uses birdfeeders,
developments that may help its numbers to increase.
OCCURRENCE Woodlands, mesquite thickets, and
pine-oak woodlands of southeastern Texas, also parks
and gardens; more common in Mexico.
VOICE Low, slow whistle with slurred,
broken notes: heoo-heeooo-heeeww.
MALE
black hood
and back
ADULT
yellowish
back
blacktipped
tail
lemon-yellow
underparts
Family Icteridae
Species Icterus bullockii
Family Icteridae
Species Icterus gularis
Bullocks Oriole
Altamira Oriole
This oriole is the western counterpart of the

Baltimore in both behavior and habitat. The two
were considered to belong to a single species, the
Northern Oriole (L. galbula), because they
interbreed where they overlap in the Great Plains,
but recent studies suggest that they are actually
separate species. The Bullocks is more resistant to
brood parasites than other orioles, and either
punctures or removes cowbird eggs from its nest.
OCCURRENCE Prefers riverine woodlands with
willows and cottonwoods; also mixed hardwood
forests, mesquite woodland, and groves of fruit trees.
VOICE Varied string of one- and
two-part notes often mumbled
or slurred at the end.
The Altamira Oriole, a Central American species,

is now common in a restricted area of the Lower
Rio Grande Valley. This Texas population has
increased since its discovery in 1939. The largest
oriole in the US, it can occasionally be seen
at birdfeeders. The large size of its hanging nest
makes it a target for brood parasites such as
cowbirds, but whether the parasites are cared for
and fledged successfully
bright orange
remains unknown.
head
OCCURRENCE
Limited to riverine
woodlands along
the Rio Grande. In
Mexico and Central
America, occurs in a
variety of dry to moist
tropical woodlands.
VOICE Call harsh, nasal
drrike; song loud but
musical series of whistles
thoo-thoo-thoo-theeoo.
black back
and wings
MALE
ADULT
467
RARE SPECIES
Family Icteridae
Species Molothrus aeneus
Family Icteridae
Species Molothrus bonariensis
Bronzed Cowbird
Shiny Cowbird
The range of the Bronzed Cowbird has been

expanding in the US since it was first recorded in
the early 1900s. This could be the result of human
clearing of its native habitats, which are then
replaced with agricultural crops. A brood parasite,
it has been recorded as laying eggs in the nests of
about 80 bird species, with its young fledging from
about 30 of these. Females may work cooperatively
to identify and parasitize the nests of other birds.
OCCURRENCE Inhabits open fields, pastures,
scattered scrub, and suburban parks. Ranges from
Mexico to Panama and northern Colombia, in
the US occurs from California to Texas.
VOICE High and metallic with short
bright
notes, can be described as gug-gub-bubred
eye
tzee-pss-tzee.
The Shiny Cowbird is native to South America,

where it ranges south to Chile and Argentina.
It has only recently expanded its distribution to
Florida, presumably from the West Indies. Over
its vast range, the species is known to lay eggs in
the nests of about 200 other bird species, 80 of
which raise the cowbirds young as their own.
OCCURRENCE Found in open areas with
a mixture of woodlands; agricultural fields, and
rural and suburban parks, gardens, and backyards.
VOICE Low pitched, rambling series of soft
purr-purr-purr, interspersed with tee-tsss-tseeee
running higher to slurred finish.
MALE
MALE
(BREEDING)
long tail
Length 8 in (20cm)
Family Emberizidae
Species Amphispiza bilineata
Length 7in (18cm)
Family Emberizidae
Species Aimophila cassinii
Black-throated Sparrow
Cassins Sparrow
Because of a certain resemblance in their songs,

the Black-throated Sparrow has been called the
Song Sparrow of the desert. This bird is easy
to identify as it possesses a bold white eyebrow
in all plumages. The Black-throated Sparrow is
common within its western range, in a variety
of arid habitats containing cactus and mesquite.
OCCURRENCE Found in desert scrub of the
Great Basin east to Texas, south to Baja California
and central Mexico. Breeds locally in eastern
Washington state. Casual visitor to the Pacific
coast and the East.
VOICE Weak tink call; song consists of few
short, clear notes, followed
bold
white
by higher trill: tink tinkeyebrow
tink treeeeee, also ti-titink churrrrrrrrrrr.
Cassins Sparrow, named for the famous

Philadelphia ornithologist John Cassin, is
drab-looking, even for an American sparrow. Its
modest appearance is made up for by its rather
spectacular flight displays, during which it emits
a whistled song. This sparrow is found in grasslands
interspersed with shrubs, and shows variations
in numbers in different years and localities.
OCCURRENCE Grasslands with shrubs, like
mesquite and cactus, from western Nebraska
to central Mexico; US populations mostly
winter in Mexico.
VOICE Calls high seeps and
chips, often in series; song seeeee sii-ii-i-i-i-i-i-i-i zee-zooo
zee-ZWAAAY, ending on
a questioning note.
scalloped
upperparts
ADULT
ADULT
Length 512in (14cm)
468
Length 6in (15cm)
Wingspan 9in (23cm)
RARE SPECIES
Family Emberizidae
Species Aimophila botterii
Family Emberizidae
Species Aimophila ruficeps
Botteris Sparrow
Rufous-crowned Sparrow
Of the nine or ten subspecies of Botteris Sparrow,

a species of the Mexican grasslands, two occur in
the US: A.b. texana is found in coastal southern Texas,
and A.b. arizonae in the Southwest. Botteris Sparrow
is usually difficult to spot, as its flees stealthily from
disturbance, and quickly hides itself out of sight.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in grasslands of southeastern
Arizona and southwestern New Mexico, and in
coastal prairies of southern Texas.Winters in Mexico.
VOICE Call a chip or double tsip; song starts
with stuttering, mechanical chips and ends in
an accelerating trill.
The Rufous-crowned Sparrow is a resident of dry

canyons and sparsely wooded hillsides across the
Southwest, locally up to 5,000ft (1,500m). It tends
to run and hide at the first sign of danger. For this
reason, it is often first detected by its unique
deeer call note, which it sometimes gives in
a laughter-like series.Visually it is similar to
the rarer Rufous-winged Sparrow, but has
very different calls, and lives in separate habitats.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in arid scrub and
low trees on hillsides and in canyons
in California, Colorado, Utah, Arizona,
rufous
crown
New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, and
Arkansas; also in Mexico.
VOICE Call a low, nasal deeer;
song a jumble of
chattering notes.
ADULT
dark brown, rusty,

and gray streaks
on upperparts
ADULT
Family Emberizidae
Species Pipilo chlorurus
Length 6in (15cm)
Family Emberizidae
Species Pipilo fuscus
Green-tailed Towhee
Canyon Towhee
This is North Americas most distinctive towhee,

with a rusty crown and green plumage, but it is
seldom seen. It tends to stay hidden on the ground
in dense cover, both in the breeding season and
on its wintering grounds. In winter it sometimes
emerges to feed on seeds on deserted, dusty roads,
but this bird is more likely to be heard scratching
about in the undergrowth than seen.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in a variety of brushy and
semi-open habitats of the western US and northern
Baja California.Winters along the USMexican
border southward to central Mexico.
VOICE Call a nasal mewing, rapid
chips in excitement; flight call
a high tzhreeee; song a slurred
whistle followed
by 12 trills.
Once included with the California Towhee as

a single species, the Canyon Towhee is a bird
of the arid Southwest, where it occurs in a wide
variety of bushy habitats. Its pale, sandy coloration
helps it to blend in with the grayish, dusty ground
on which it forages. The Canyon Towhee can be
distinguished from similarly-colored birds in
its range by its stubby, conical bill. Its rusty
undertail feathers are not always easy to see.
OCCURRENCE Lives in rocky hillside scrub,
desert grasslands, and suburban areas of the
southwestern US and central Mexico.
Largely resident, but some birds
undertake local movements.
VOICE Call a nasal cheemp; also
various clicking and lisping
notes; song a variable
slow trill.
ADULT
ADULT
rusty
undertail
feathers
bright, yellowgreen tail and

wing edgings
469
RARE SPECIES
Family Emberizidae
Species Sporophila torqueola
Family Emberizidae
Species Arremonops rufivirgatus
White-collared Seedeater
Olive Sparrow
As many as 40 species of Sporophila seedeaters

breed in tropical America, but the White-collared
Seedeater is the only species to breed as far north
as the US. These tiny birds feed on grass seeds.They
remain hidden in vegetation, and it is important
to know their calls in order to locate them.
While females are drab and tan colored, males
have a distinctive black-and-white plumage.
OCCURRENCE Weedy fields and marshy grasslands,
from southeastern Texas southward to Panama. In
Texas, restricted to the Rio Grande Valley between
Laredo and Zapata.
VOICE Calls a nasal wink! and wheer!;
song a sweet, goldfinch-like
series of whistles and trills.
The rather drab, shy Olive Sparrow spends most

of its time hopping around in the undergrowth of
dense woodlands and thorn scrub. This resident
of the Lower Rio Grande Valley can be heard
more than it is seen, although some individuals
appear at birdfeeders.
OCCURRENCE From southern Texas and
northwestern Mexico south locally to northwestern
Costa Rica, mostly in thorn scrub.
VOICE Dry chip call, also a drawn-out sreeeeee;
song a series of accelerating chips.
distinctive
head pattern
ADULT
dull olive
upperparts
brown
upperparts
tan or buffy
underparts
FEMALE
(BREEDING)
Length 412in (11cm)
Family Cardinalidae
Species Cardinalis sinuatus
Family Cardinalidae
Wingspan 8in (20cm)
Species Passerina versicolor
Pyrrhuloxia
Varied Bunting
The Pyro is the Southwests equivalent of the

Northern Cardinal, and was once known as
the Arizona Cardinal. The ranges of the two
species do overlap, and, although the two birds
share very similar habits and vocalizations, they
tolerate each others presence.
OCCURRENCE Desert scrub of southwestern US
and Mexico. Prefers drier, more upland habitats
than the Northern Cardinal, at elevations up
to 6,500ft (2000m).
VOICE Call a distinctive, dry, low chik, often
accelerating into chatter; song generally
higher, thinner, and less musical than
the Northern Cardinals.
The Varied Bunting is the only purple-and-red

songbird in North America. When seen in bright
light, males are a rich plum color with ruby-red
napes and sparkling, sapphire-blue foreheads and
rumps. The female, however, is the dullest member
of the family Cardinalidae. A Mexican species, the
Varied Bunting is localized and hard to find.
OCCURRENCE Breeds in desert scrub in
canyons and washes, and in thorn woodlands of
the southwestern US.
In winter, most migrate
to the coastal slopes
red nape
of Mexico.
VOICE Call
a sharp, dry,
rattling pik!;
MALE
song a
pleasant,
rambling,
and burry
warble.
long,
conspicuous
crest
MALE
red belly
blue
rump
470

T
HE LIST THAT FOLLOWS INCLUDES species
that occur rarely in eastern North

America (defined in this book as Canada
and the continental United States east of
the 100th Meridian). These species can
reach North America from Eurasia, Central
or South America, Africa, and even Oceania
and Antarctica. The US and Canada can
receive birds that drift off course, during
migration, from eastern Asia across the Pacific
Ocean, or from Europe across the Atlantic.
The occurrence of these vagrant species
is classified by the American Birding
Association, depending on their relative
COMMON NAME
frequency, and this terminology is followed

in the status column for each species.
Rare species are reported every year in
small numbers. Casual visitors have
been recorded at least a dozen times.
Accidental species have been recorded
no more than five times.
Because of biological, climatological, or
other factors, the status of vagrant species
is constantly changing. The ever greater
number of competent birdwatchers also
permits the regular, even annual, detection
of species that were once considered
rare or accidental.
SCIENTIFIC NAME
FAMILY NAME
STATUS
Pink-footed Goose
Anser brachyrhynchus
Anatidae
Accidental from Greenland, Iceland, or Europe to

eastern Canada
Lesser White-fronted Goose
Anser erythropus
Anatidae
Accidental from Eurasia to Alaska
Muscovy Duck
Cairina moschata
Anatidae
Rare from Mexico in southern Texas (also escapees)
Eurasian Wigeon
Anas penelope
Anatidae
Rare from Eurasia along East Coast of US
Garganey
Anas querquedula
Anatidae
Casual from Eurasia to eastern North America
Cinnamon Teal
Anas cyanoptera
Anatidae
Casual from West to eastern US
Tufted Duck
Aythya fuligula
Anatidae
Rare from Eurasia to eastern Canada; casual

in eastern US
Smew
Mergellus albellus
Anatidae
Accidental from Eurasia to eastern US
Pacific Loon
Gavia pacifica
Gaviidae
Casual from Arctic to East Coast
Yellow-billed Loon
Gavia adamsii
Gaviidae
Casual from Arctic to East Coast and Interior US
Pterodroma feae
Procellariidae
Rare from eastern Atlantic to East coast; accidental

to Nova Scotia
Jabiru mycteria
Ciconiidae
Casual to southern Texas from Central America
Phoenicopterus ruber
Phoenoicpteridae
Rare or casual from West Indies to Florida

and Texas
Masked Booby
Sula dactylatra
Sulidae
Breeds in Dry Tortugas; rare at sea, Gulf coast,

Atlantic coast, Florida to North Carolina
Phaethon lepturus
Phaethontidae
Rare visitor from tropical waters off Atlantic coast

north to North Carolina
Pluvialis fulva
Charadriidae
Casual from Alaska in the Northeast
Charadrius hiaticula
Charadriidae
Casual from high Canadian Arctic to East Coast
Lesser Sand Plover
Charadrius mongolus
Charadriidae
Rare visitor from Asia to West Alaska, Pacific coast,

and the East
Bar-tailed Godwit
Limosa lapponica
Scolopacidae
Casual from Alaska and Eurasia to East Coast
Black-tailed Godwit
Limosa limosa
Scolopacidae
Casual from Eurasia along Atlantic Coast
Calidris acuminata
Scolopacidae
Casual from eastern Russia to the East
Ruff
Philomachus pugnax
Scolopacidae
Rare visitor from Eurasia to East Coast
Wood Sandpiper
Tringa glareola
Scolopacidae
Accidental from Eurasia to East Coast
Red-necked Stint
Calidris ruficollis
Scolopacidae
Rare visitor from Siberia to both coasts in

summer and fall
Waterfowl
Loons
Petrels
Feas Petrel
Ibises and Herons

Jabiru
Flamingos
Greater Flamingo
Pelicans and Relatives
Plovers and Sandpipers
471

COMMON NAME
SCIENTIFIC NAME
FAMILY NAME
STATUS
Mew Gull
Larus canus
Laridae
Rare visitor from either Alaska or Europe to East

coast of Canada and US
California Gull
Larus californicus
Laridae
Casual from the West to East Coast
Slaty-backed Gull
Larus schistisagus
Laridae
Casual visitor from eastern Eurasia to the East
Ivory Gull
Pagophila eburnea
Laridae
Casual visitor from the Arctic to the East Coast;

also inland
Columbina talpacoti
Columbidae
Casual visitor from Mexico to southern Texas
Glaucidium brasilianum
Strigidae
Uncommon breeder from Mexico in

southern Texas
Stellula calliope
Trochilidae
Rare to casual visitor from the West to the East,

north to New England
Varied Thrush
Ixoreus naevius
Turdidae
Rare visitor from the West to the East, from

Canada to southeastern states
Mountain Bluebird
Sialia currucoides
Turdidae
Casual visitor from the West to the eastern states
Townsends Solitaire
Myadestes townsendi
Turdidae
Casual visitor from the West to eastern US
Black-throated Gray Warbler
Dendroica nigrescens
Parulidae
Townsends Warbler
Dendroica townsendi
Parulidae
Casual visitor from the Northwest to eastern US
Hermit Warbler
Dendroica occidentalis
Parulidae
MacGillivrays Warbler
Oporornis tolmiei
Parulidae
Icterus pectoralis
Icteridae
Uncommon in S Florida; introduced from

Central America
Contopus sordidulus
Tyrannidae
Rare to casual visitor from the West to the East
Piranga ludoviciana
Thraupidae
Gulls
Pigeons and Doves

Ruddy Ground-Dove
Owls
Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl
Hummingbirds
Calliope Hummingbird
Thrushes and allies
Wood-warblers
Blackbirds and Orioles

Spot-breasted Oriole
Flycatchers
Western Wood-pewee
Tanagers
Western Tanager
Cardinals and Grosbeaks

Black-headed Grosbeak
Pheucticus melanocephalus
Cardinalidae
Rare visitor from the West to the East
Lazuli Bunting
Passerina amoena
Cardinalidae
Casual visitor from the West to the East
McCowns Longspur
Calcarius mccownii
Emberizidae
Accidental from central Canada and US

to East Coast
Bairds Sparrow
Ammodramus bairdii
Emberizidae
Accidental from central Canada and US

to the East
Spotted Towhee
Pipilo maculatus
Emberizidae
Vireo flavoviridis
Vireonidae
Casual from Mexico to Gulf coast and central Texas
Melanerpes lewis
Picidae
Casual visitor from the West to the East
Chordeilis gundlachii
Caprimulgidae
Rare visitor from Bahamas and West Indies to

Florida Keys (breeds) and accidental along
mainland coast from Florida to North Carolina
American Sparrows
Vireos
Yellow-green Vireo
Woodpeckers
Lewiss Woodpecker
Nighthawks
Antillean Nighthawk
472
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
Many terms defined here are illustrated in the
general introduction (pp.1021).
adult A fully developed, sexually mature bird. It
is in its final plumage, which no longer changes
pattern with age and remains the same after
yearly molt, although it may change with season.
See also immature, juvenile.

aerie The nest of birds of prey, like eagles or
peregrine falcons, usually on a cliff, and often
used by the same pair of adult birds in
successive years.
alarm call A call made by a bird to signal
danger. Alarm calls are often short and urgent in
tone, and a few species use different calls to
signify the precise nature of the threat.
See also call.
Mutual preening between two

birds, the main purpose of which is to reduce
the instinctive aggression when birds come into
close contact. In the breeding season,
allopreening helps to strengthen the pair bond
between the male and female.
allopreening
See also preening.
migrant see vertical migrant

alula A small group of two to six feathers
projecting from a birds thumb, at the bend of
its wing that reduces turbulence when raised.
Audubon, John James (17851851) American
naturalist and wildlife illustrator, whose best
known work was his remarkable collection of
prints, Birds of North America.
axillary A term describing feathers at the base
of the underwing. Axillary feathers often form
small patches, with coloration differing from the
rest of the underwing.
barred With marks crossing the body, wing, or
tail; the opposite of streaked. See also streaks.
altitudinal
bastard wing see alula

beak see bill
bill A birds jaws. A bill
is made of bone, with

a hornlike outer covering of keratin.
bird of prey Any of the predatory birds in the
orders Falconiformes (eagles, hawks, falcons,
kites, buzzards, ospreys, and vultures) and
Strigiformes (owls). They are characterized by
their acute eyesight, powerful legs, strongly
hooked bill, and sharp talons. These birds,
particularly the Falconiformes, are also known
as raptors. See also talon, raptor.
body feather see contour feather
booming A sound produced by bitterns
and
some species of grouse. The booming of male
bitterns is a deep, resonant, hollow sound that
can carry for several miles. The booming of
male grouse is produced by wind from air
pouches in the sides of the birds neck.
brackish Containing a mixture of salt-water
and freshwater.
breeding plumage A general term for the
plumage worn by adult birds when they display
and form breeding pairs. It is usually (but not
always) worn in the spring and summer. See also
nonbreeding plumage.
brood (noun) The young
birds produced from

a single clutch of eggs and incubated together.
See also clutch. (verb) In birds, to sit on nestlings
to keep them warm. Brooding is usually carried
out by the adult female. See also incubate.
brood parasite A bird that lays its eggs in the
nest of other birds. Some brood parasites always
breed this way, while others do so only
occasionally.
brood patch An area of bare skin on the belly
of a parent bird, usually the female, that is richly
supplied with blood vessels and thus helps keep
the eggs warm during incubation. This area
loses its feathers in readiness for the breeding
season and is fully feathered at other times.
caged-bird A species of bird commonly kept
in captivity.
call A sound produced by the vocal apparatus
of a bird to communicate a variety of messages
to other birds. Calls are often highly
characteristic of individual species and can help
to locate and identify birds in the field. Most
bird calls are shorter and simpler than songs.
See also alarm call, booming, contact call, song.
A bony extension on a birds head.

leathery patch of skin that covers
the base of a birds bill. It is found only in a
few groups, including birds of prey, pigeons,
and parrots.
claw In birds, the nail that prolongs their toes.
cloaca An opening toward the rear of a birds
belly. It is present in both sexes and is used in
reproduction and excretion.
clutch The group of eggs in a single nest,
casque
cere A
usually laid by one female and incubated

together.
cock A term sometimes used to describe the
adult male in gamebirds and songbirds.
See also hen.
collar The area around a birds neck, which in
some species is a prominent feature of its
plumage pattern and can be used for
identification.
color form One of two or more clearly defined
plumage variations found in the same species.
Also known as a color morph or phase, a color
form may be restricted to part of a speciess range
or occur side by side with other color forms over
the entire range. Adults of different color forms
are able to interbreed, and these mixed pairings
can produce young of either form.
comb A fleshy growth of bare skin usually
above the eyes.
contact call A call made by a bird to give its
location as a means of staying in touch with
others of the same species. Contact calls are
used by birds in flocks and by breeding pairs.
Contact calls are crucial for nocturnal migrants.
See also call.
contour feather A general term for any feather
that covers the outer surface of a bird, including
its wings and tail. Contour feathers are also
known as body feathers, and help streamline
the bird.
cooperative breeding A breeding system in
which a pair of parent birds are helped in raising
their young by several other birds, which are
often related to them and may be young birds
from previous broods.
courtship display Ritualized, showy behavior
used in courtship by the male, and sometimes
by the female, involving plumage, sound (vocal
and non-vocal), and movements.
covert A small feather covering the base of a
birds flight feather. Together, coverts form a
well-defined feather tract on the wing or at the
base of the tail. See also feather tract.
creche A group of young birds of about the
same age, produced by different parents but
tightly packed together. One or more adults
guards the entire creche.
crepuscular Relating to the period just before
dawn, when many birds are active, especially
during courtship. When used in connection
with birds, the term is often used to refer to
both dawn and twilight.
crest A group of elongated feathers on top of a
birds head, which may be raised during
courtship or to indicate alarm.
crown The area on top of a birds head. It is
often a prominent plumage feature, with a
different color from the feathers on the rest of
the head.
dabble To feed in shallow water by sieving
water and obtain food through comblike filters
in the bill; used mostly for ducks (dabbling
ducks or dabblers).
decurved A term describing a birds bill that
curves downward from the forehead toward
the tip.
dimorphism see sexual dimorphism
display see courtship display, distraction display,
threat display
distraction display A display in which a bird
deliberately attempts to attract a predators

attention in order to lure it away from its nest
or nestlings.
diurnal Active during the day.
down feather A soft, fluffy feather, lacking the
system of barbs of contour or flight feathers,
that provides good insulation.Young birds are
covered by down feathers until they molt into
their first juvenile plumage. Adult birds have a
layer of down feathers under their contour
feathers. See also contour feather, juvenile.
drake An adult male duck. The adult female is
known as the duck.
drift The diversion of migrating birds from
their normal migration route by strong winds.
dynamic soaring see soaring
ear tuft A distinct tuft of feathers
on each side
of a birds forehead, with no connection to the
true ears, which can be raised as a visual signal.
Many owls have ear tufts.
echolocation A method of sensing nearby
objects using pulses of high-frequency sound.
Echoes bounce back from obstacles, enabling
the sender to build up a picture of its
surroundings.
eclipse plumage A female-like plumage worn
in some birds, especially waterfowl, by adult
males for a short period after the breeding
season is over. The eclipse plumage helps

camouflage them during their molt, when they
are flightless.
elevational migrant see vertical migrant
endemic A species (or subspecies) native
to a
particular geographic areasuch as an island, a
forest patch, a mountain, or state, or country
and found nowhere else.
escape An individual bird that has escaped
from a zoo or other collection to live in the
wild. See also exotic
eye-ring A ring of color, usually narrow and
well defined, around the eye of a bird.
eyestripe A stripe of color running as a line
through the eye of a bird.
eyrie see aerie
exotic A bird found
in a region from which it

is not native. Some of these are escapees, or
were originally, but now live as wild birds.
feather tract A well-defined area on a birds
skin where feathers grow, leaving patches of
bare skin inbetween.
edge In young birds, to leave the nest or
acquire the first complete set of flight feathers.
Known as fledglings, these birds may still remain
dependent on their parents for some time. See
also ight feather.
edging period
The average time taken by the

young of a species to fledge, timed from the
moment they hatch. Fledging periods in birds
range from 11 days in some small songbirds to
as long as 280 days in the Wandering Albatross.
edgling see edge

ight feather A collective
term for a birds

wing and tail feathers, used in flight. More
specifically, it refers to the largest feathers on
the outer part of the wing, the primaries and
secondaries.
forewing The front section of a birds wing,
including the primary coverts and secondary
coverts. See also hindwing.
gamebird Generally, any bird that is legally
hunted, including some doves and waterfowl.
This name is generally used for members of the
order Galliformes.
gular sac Also known as a gular pouch, it is a
large, fleshy, extendable sac just below the bill of
some birds, especially fish-eaters such as
pelicans. It forms part of the throat.
habitat The geographical and ecological area
where a particular organism usually lives.
hen A term sometimes used to describe the
adult female in gamebirds, especially grouse and
songbirds. See also cock.
hindwing The rear section of a birds spread
wing, including the secondary feathers,
especially when it has a distinctive color or
pattern. See also forewing.
hybrid The offspring produced when two
species, sometimes from different genera,
interbreed. Hybrids are usually rare in the wild.
Among birds, they are most frequent in
gamebirds and waterfowl, especially ducks.
Hybrid progeny may or may not be fertile.
immature In birds, an individual that is not
yet sexually mature or able to breed. Some
birds pass through a series of immature
plumages over several years before adopting
their first adult plumage and sexual maturity.
See also adult, juvenile.
incubate In birds, to sit
on eggs to keep them

warm, allowing the embryo inside to grow.
Incubation is often carried out by the female.
See also brood.
incubation period In birds, the period when a
parent incubates its eggs. It may not start until
the clutch is completed.
injury feigning see distraction display.
inner wing The inner part of the wing,
comprising the secondaries and rows of coverts

(typically marginal, lesser, median, and greater
coverts).
introduced species A species that humans have
accidentally or deliberately brought into an area
where it does not normally occur.
iridescent plumage Plumage that shows
brilliant, luminous colors, which seem to
sparkle and change color when seen from
different angles.
irruption A sporadic mass movement of
animals outside their normal range. Irruptions
are usually short-lived and occur in response to
food shortage. Also called irruptive migration.
juvenile A term referring to the plumage worn
by a young bird at the time it makes its first
flight and until it begins its first molt. See also
adult, immature.
keratin A tough
but lightweight protein. In
473
GLOSSARY
birds, keratin is found in the claws, feathers, and
outer part of the bill.
kleptoparasite A bird that gets much of its
food by stealing it from other birds, usually by
following them in flight and forcing them to
disgorge their food.
lamellae Delicate, comblike structures on the
sides of the bill of some birds used for filtering
tiny food particles out of water.
leap-frog migration A pattern of migration in
which some populations of a species travel
much further than the other populations, by
leap-frogging over the area where these
sedentary (nonmigratory) birds are found.
See also migration.
lek An area, often small, used by males as a
communal display arena, where they show off
special plumage features accompanied by vocal
and non-vocal sounds, to attract females.
Females wait along the lek and select the male
or males that they will mate with.
lobed feet Feet with loose, fleshy lobes on the
toes, adapted for swimming.
lore A small area between a birds eye and the
base of its upper bill.
mandible The upper or lower part of a birds
bill, known as the upper or lower mandible
respectively.
mantle The loose term used to define the back
of a bird, between its neck and rump.
migrant A species that regularly moves between
geographical areas. Most migrants move on an
annual basis between a breeding area and a
wintering area. See also partial migrant, sedentary.
migration A journey to a different region,
following a well-defined route. See also leap-frog
migration, partial migrant, reverse migration,
sedentary, vertical migrant.
mobbing A type of defensive behavior in
which a group of birds gang up to harass a

predator, such as a bird of prey or an owl,
swooping repeatedly to drive it away.
molt In birds, to shed old feathers so that they
can be replaced. Molting enables birds to keep
their plumage in good condition, change their
level of insulation, and change their coloration
or markings so that they are ready to breed
or display.
monogamous Mating with a single partner,
either in a single breeding season or for life. See
also polygamous.
morph see color form
nape The back of the neck.
nestling A young bird still in the nest.
New World The Americas, from Alaska
to Cape
Horn, including the Caribbean and offshore
islands in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.
See also Old World.
nictitating membrane A transparent or
semiopaque third eyelid, which moves
sideways across the eye. Waterbirds often use
the membrane as an aid to vision when
swimming underwater.
nocturnal Active at night.
nomadic Being almost constantly on the move.
Birds of deserts, grasslands, and the coniferous
forests of the far north are commonly nomadic.
nonbreeding plumage The plumage worn
by adult birds outside the breeding season. In
many species, particularly in temperate regions,
it is also known as winter plumage. See also
breeding plumage.
nonmigrant see sedentary
nonpasserine Any bird that
is not a member
of the order Passeriformes (or passerines). See
also passerine.
oil gland Also called the preen gland, a gland at
the base of a birds tail that secretes oils that are
spread over the feathers for waterproofing them
during preening.
Old World Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australasia.
See also New World.
orbital ring A thin, bare, fleshy ring around
the eye, sometimes with a distinctive color. See
also eye-ring.
outer wing The
outer half of the wing,

comprising the primaries, their coverts, and the
alula (the thumb).
partial migrant A species in which some
populations migrate while others are sedentary.
This situation is common in broadly distributed
species that experience a wide range of climatic
conditions. See also migration, sedentary.
passerine A bird belonging to the vast order
Passeriformes (the passerines). This group
contains more species than all other orders of
birds combined. Passerines are also called
songbirds or perching birds.
See also nonpasserine.
pelagic Relating to the open ocean. Pelagic
birds spend most of their life at sea and only
come to land to nest.
phase see color form
474
polygamous Mating with two or more

partners during the course of a single breeding
season. See also monogamous.
population A group of individual birds of the
same species living in a geographically and
ecologically circumscribed area.
preening Routine behavior by which birds
keep their feathers in good condition. A bird
grasps a feather at its base and then nibbles
upward toward the tip, and repeats the process
with different feathers. This helps smooth and
clean the plumage. Birds often also smear oil
from their preen gland onto their feathers at the
same time. See also allopreening.
primary feather One of the large outer wing
feathers, growing from the digits of a birds
hand. See also secondary feather.
race see subspecies
range A term to indicate
the geographical
distribution of a species or population
raptor A general name for birds belonging to
the order Falconiformes, often used
interchangeablely with bird of prey.
See also bird of prey.
ratite A member of an ancient group of
flightless birds that includes the ostrich,
cassowaries, emus, rheas, and kiwis. In the past,
the group was larger and more diverse.
resident see sedentary
reverse migration A phenomenon
that occurs
when birds from a migratory species mistakenly
travel in the opposite direction from normal,
causing birds to turn up in places far outside
their normal range. See also migration.
roost A place where birds sleep, either at night
or by day.
rump The area between a birds back and the
base of its upper tail coverts. In many species,
the rump is a different color from the rest of the
plumage and can be a useful diagnostic
character for identification.
sally A feeding technique (sallying), used
especially by tyrant flycatchers, in which a bird
makes a short flight from a perch to catch an
insect, often in midair, followed by a return to a
perch, often the same one.
salt gland A gland located in a depression of
the skull, just above the eye of some birds,
particularly seabirds. This enables them to
extract the fluids they need from saltwater and
then expel the excess salts through the nostrils.
scapular Any one of a group of feathers on the
shoulder, forming a more or less oval patch on
each side of the back, at the base of the wing.
scrape A simple nest that consists of a shallow
depression in the ground, which may be
unlined or lined with material such as feathers,
bits of grass, or pebbles.
secondary feather One of the row of long,
stiff feathers along the rear edge of a birds wing,
between the body and the primary feathers at
the wingtip. See also primary feather.
sedentary Having a settled lifestyle that
involves little or no geographic movement.
Sedentary birds are also said to be resident or
nonmigratory. See also migration.
semipalmated The condition in which two or
more of the toes are partially joined by an
incomplete membrane at their base.
sexual dimorphism The occurrence of physical
differences between males and females. In birds,
the most common differences are in size and
plumage.
shorebird Also known as a wader, any member
of several families in the order Charadriiformes,
including plovers, sandpipers, godwits, snipe,
avocets, stilts, oystercatchers, and curlews. Not
all species actually wade in water and some live
in dry habitats.
soaring In birds, flight without flapping of the
wings. A soaring bird stays at the same height or
gains height. Updraft soaring is a type of soaring
in which a bird benefits from rising currents
that form at cliffs or along mountain ridges.
Seabirds are expert at dynamic soaring,
repeatedly diving into the troughs between
waves and then using the rising air deflected off
the waves to wheel back up into the air.
song A vocal performance by a bird, usually
the adult male, to attract and impress a potential
mate, advertise ownership of a territory, or drive
away rival birds. Songs are often highly
characteristic of individual species and can be a
major aid in locating and identifying birds in
the field. See also call.
songbird A general term used to describe a
member of the suborder Passeri (or oscines), a
subdivision of the largest order of birds, the
Passeriformes (passerines).
species A group of similar organisms that are
capable of breeding among themselves in the
wild and producing fertile offspring that
resemble themselves, but that do not interbreed
in the wild with individuals of another similar

group, are called a species. See also subspecies,
superspecies.
speculum A
colorful patch on the wing of a

duck, formed by the secondary feathers. See also
secondary feather.
spur A sharply pointed, clawlike structure
at the back of the leg of some birds, like the
Wild Turkey.
staging ground A stopover area where migrant
birds regularly pause while on migration, to rest
and feed.
stoop A near-vertical and often very fast dive
made by falcons and some other birds of prey
when chasing prey in the air or on the ground.
streaks Marks that run lengthwise on feathers;
opposite of bars.
subspecies When species show geographical
variation in color, voice, or other characters,
these differentiated populations are recognized
by ornithologists as subspecies (formerly also
called races). See also species.
superspecies Closely related species that have
different geographical ranges. See also species
syrinx A modified section of a birds trachea
(windpipe), equivalent to the voicebox in
humans, that enables birds to call and sing.
talon One of the sharp, hooked claws of a
bird of prey.
territory An area that is defended by an animal,
or a group of animals, against other members of
the same species. Territories often include useful
resources, such as good breeding sites or feeding
areas, which help a male attract a mate.
tertial Any one of a small group of feathers,
sometimes long and obvious, at the base of the
wing adjacent to the inner secondaries.
thermal A rising bubble or column of warm
air over land that soaring birds can use to gain
height with little effort. See also soaring.
threat display A form of defense in which a
bird adopts certain postures, sometimes
accompanied by loud calls, to drive away a rival
or a potential predator.
trachea The breathing tube in animals, also
known as the windpipe.
tubenose A general term used to describe
members of the order Procellariiformes,
including albatrosses, petrels, and shearwaters;
their nostrils form two tubes on the upper
mandible.
underwing The underside of a birds wing,
usually visible only in flight or when a bird is
preening, displaying, or swimming.
upperwing The upper surface of a birds wing
clearly exposed in flight but often mostly
hidden when the bird is perched.
vagrant A bird that has strayed far from its
normal range. Usually, vagrants are longdistance migrants that have been blown off
course by storms, have overshot their intended
destination due to strong winds, or have
become disoriented.
vent Also called the crissum, the undertail
feathers between the lower belly feathers and
tail feathers, which in some species are
differently colored from either belly or tail
feathers. Can be helpful in identification.
vertical migrant A species that migrates up and
down mountains, usually in response to changes
in the weather or food supply. See also migration.
wader see shorebird.
waterfowl A collective
term for members

of the family Anatidae, including ducks, geese,
and swans.
wattle A bare, fleshy growth that hangs loosely
below the bill in some birds. It is often brightly
colored, and may play a part in courtship.
wildfowl see waterfowl
Wilson, Alexander (17661813)
A
contemporary of J.J. Audubon, Wilsons seminal
American Ornithology marks the start of
scientific ornithology in the US.
wingbar A line or bar of color across the upper
surface of a birds wing.Wingbars can often be
seen when a bird is on the ground or perched and
its wings are in the closed position, but they are
normally much more obvious in flight.Wingbars
may be single or in groups of two or more.
wingspan The distance across a birds
outstretched wings and back, from one wingtip
to the other.
INDEX
INDEX
A
Acadian Flycatcher 275
Accipiter
cooperii 130
gentilis 131
striatus 129
Accipitridae 12337,
4479
Actitis macularia 172
adaptation 12
Aechmophorus
clarkii 446
occidentalis 446
Aegithalidae 462
Aegolius
acadicus 246
funereus 245
Agelaius phoeniceus 396
Aimophila
aestivalis 433
botterii 469
cassinii 468
ruficeps 469
Aix sponsa 44
Ajaia ajaja 94
Alaudidae 313
Alca torda 220
Alcedinidae 258, 456
Alcidae 21722
Alder Flycatcher 277
Alle alle 217
Altamira Oriole 467
Amazilia yucatanensis 455
Amazona viridigenalis 453
American Avocet 153
American Bittern 95
American Black Duck 47
American Coot 147
American Crow 296
American Golden
Plover 154
American Goldfinch 346
American Kestrel 118
American Oystercatcher
151
American Pipit 342
American Redstart 377
American Robin 340
american sparrows 406
American Three-toed
Woodpecker 266
American Tree Sparrow
427
American White Pelican
109
American Wigeon 46
American Woodcock 161
Ammodramus
bairdii 472
caudacutus 423
henslowii 425
leconteii 424
maritimus 421
nelsoni 422
savannarum 426
Amphispiza bilineata 468
Anas
acuta 52
americana 46
clypeata 51
crecca 53
cyanoptera 471
discors 50
fulvigula 49
penelope 471
platyrhynchos 48
querquedula 471
rubripes 47
strepera 45
Anatidae 3572,
4445, 471
anatomy 12-13
Anhinga anhinga 114
Anhingidae 114
Ani,
Groove-billed 454
Smooth-billed 454
Anous
minutus 451
stolidus 451
Anser
albifrons 36
caerulescens 37
Anser contd.
brachyrhynchus 471
erythropus 471
rossii 38
Anseriformes 3572
Anthus
rubescens 342
spragueii 343
Antillean Nighthawk 472
Aphelocoma
californica 461
coerulescens 461
Apodidae 254
Apodiformes 2546
Aquila chrysaetos 137
Aramidae 149
Aramus guarauna 149
Aratinga holochlora 453
Archilochus
alexandri 455
colubris 255
Arctic Tern 209
Ardea
alba 102
herodias 101
Ardeidae 95106
Arenaria interpres 174
Arremonops rufivirgatus 470
Ash-throated Flycatcher
459
Asio
flammeus 248
otus 247
Asturina nitida 448
Athene cunicularia 244
Atlantic Puffin 222
Audubons Oriole 467
Audubons Shearwater
445
auks 150
Auriparus flaviceps 462
Avocet, American 153
Aythya
affinis 58
americana 55
collaris 56
fuligula 471
marila 57
valisineria 54
B
Bachmans Sparrow 433
Bairds Sandpiper 181
Bairds Sparrow 472
Bald Eagle 127
Baltimore Oriole 394
Band-rumped StormPetrel 445
Bank Swallow 306
Barn Owl 237
Barn Swallow 310
Barred Owl 241
Barrows Goldeneye 68
Bar-tailed Godwit 471
Bartramia longicauda 168
Bay-breasted Warbler 364
Beardless-Tyrannulet,
Northern 457
Bells Vireo 287
Belted Kingfisher 258
Bewicks Wren 319
Bicknells Thrush 336
Bicolor atricristatus 462
birds of prey 115
Bittern,
American 95
Least 96
Black Guillemot 221
Black Noddy 451
Black Phoebe 457
Black Rail 140
Black Scoter 64
Black Skimmer 213
Black Tern 212
Black Vulture 117
Black-and-white Warbler
376
Black-backed
Woodpecker 267
Black-bellied Plover 155
Black-bellied WhistlingDuck 444
Black-billed Cuckoo 233
Black-billed Magpie 295

Blackbird,
Brewers 398
Red-winged 396
Rusty 397
Yellow-headed 404
blackbirds 392
Blackburnian Warbler 365
Black-capped Chickadee
303
Black-capped Petrel 445
Black-capped Vireo 459
Black-chinned
Hummingbird 455
Black-crested Titmouse
462
Black-crowned
Night-Heron 97
Black-headed Grosbeak
472
Black-headed Gull 196
Black-legged Kittiwake
202
Black-necked Stilt 152
Blackpoll Warbler 363
Black-tailed Gnatcatcher
463
Black-tailed Godwit 471
Black-throated Blue
Warbler 369
Black-throated Gray
Warbler 472
Black-throated Green
Warbler 371
Black-throated Sparrow
468
Black-whiskered Vireo 460
Blue Grosbeak 440
Blue Jay 294
Bluebird,
Eastern 333
Mountain 472
bluebirds 332
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher
323
Blue-headed Vireo 289
Blue-winged Teal 50
Blue-winged Warbler 356
Boat-tailed Grackle 401
Bobolink 405
Bobwhite, Northern 24
Bohemian Waxwing 300
Bombycilla
cedrorum 301
garrulus 300
Bombycillidae 3001
Bonapartes Gull 197
Bonasa umbellus 26
Booby,
Brown 446
Masked 471
Boreal Chickadee 304
Boreal Owl 245
Botaurus lentiginosus 95
Botteris Sparrow 469
Brant 41
Branta
bernicla 41
canadensis 39
hutchinsii 40
breeding 17
Brewers Blackbird 398
Bridled Tern 451
Broad-winged Hawk
133
Bronzed Cowbird 468
Brown Booby 446
Brown Creeper 327
Brown Jay 460
Brown Noddy 451
Brown Pelican 110
Brown Thrasher 330
Brown-crested
Flycatcher 459
Brown-headed Cowbird
395
Brown-headed Nuthatch
325
Bubo virginianus 240
Bubulcus ibis 100
Bucephala
albeola 66
clangula 67
islandica 68
Buff-bellied
Hummingbird 455
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
186
Bufflehead 66
Bulbul, Red-whiskered
464
Bullocks Oriole 467
Bunting,
Indigo 441
Lark 411
Lazuli 472
Painted 442
Snow 410
Varied 470
Burrowing Owl 244
Bushtit 462
Buteo
albicaudatus 448
albonotatus 449
brachyurus 448
jamaicensis 135
lagopus 136
lineatus 132
platypterus 133
regalis 449
swainsoni 134
Butorides virescens 99
C
Cackling Goose 40
Cactus Wren 462
Cairina moschata 471
Calamospiza melanocorys
411
Calcarius
lapponicus 407
mccownii 472
ornatus 409
pictus 408
Calidris
acuminata 471
alba 176
alpina 184
bairdii 181
canutus 175
ferruginea 450
fuscicollis 180
himantopus 185
maritima 183
mauri 178
melanotos 182
minutilla 179
pusilla 177
ruficollis 471
California Gull 472
Calliope Hummingbird
472
Callipepla squamata 444
Calonectris diomedea 78
Camptostoma imberbe 457
Campylorhynchus
brunneicapillus 462
Canachites canadensis 27
Canada Goose 39
Canada Warbler 390
Canvasback 54
Canyon Towhee 469
Canyon Wren 463
Cape May Warbler 368
Caprimulgidae 25052,
4545, 472
Caprimulgiformes
25052
Caprimulgus
carolinensis 251
vociferus 252
Caracara cheriway 447
Caracara, Crested 447
Cardinal, Northern 439
Cardinalidae 43742,
470, 472
Cardinalis
cardinalis 439
sinuatus 470
cardinals 406
Carduelis
flammea 347
hornemanni 465
pinus 345
psaltria 465
tristis 346
Carolina Chickadee 302
Carolina Wren 320

Carpodacus
mexicanus 349
purpureus 348
Caspian Tern 204
Cassins Sparrow 468
Catbird, Gray 328
catbirds 316
Cathartes aura 116
Cathartidae 1167
Catharus
bicknelli 336
fuscescens 334
guttatus 338
minimus 335
ustulatus 337
Catherpes mexicanus 463
Catoptrophorus
semipalmatus 173
Cattle Egret 100
Cave Swallow 312
Cedar Waxwing 301
Cepphus grylle 221
Certhia americana 327
Certhiidae 327
Cerulean Warbler 367
Chachalaca, Plain 444
Chaetura pelagica 255
Charadriidae 15460,
449, 471
Charadriiformes
151222
Charadrius
alexandrinus 160
hiaticula 471
melodus 159
mongolus 471
montanus 449
semipalmatus 156
vociferus 158
wilsonia 157
Chat, Yellow-breasted
391
Chestnut-collared
Longspur 409
Chestnut-sided Warbler
361
Chickadee,
Black-capped 303
Boreal 304
Carolina 302
chikadees 299
Chihuahuan Raven
461
Chimney Swift 255
Chipping Sparrow 428
Chlidonias niger 212
Chloroceryle americana 456
Chondestes grammacus 432
Chondrohierax uncinatus
447
Chordeiles
acutipennis 454
gundlachii 472
minor 250
Chuck-wills-widow 251
Ciconiidae 90, 471
Ciconiiformes 90106
Cinnamon Teal 471
Circus cyaneus 128
Cistothorus
palustris 318
platensis 317
Clangula hyemalis 65
Clapper Rail 141
Clarks Grebe 446
classification 11
Clay-colored Robin
465
Clay-colored Sparrow
430
Cliff Swallow 311
Coccyzus
americanus 234
erythropthalmus 233
minor 453
Colaptes auratus 268
Colinus virginianus 24
Collared-Dove, Eurasian
225
Columba
flavirostris 452
leucocephala 452
livia 224
475
INDEX
Columbidae 2249,
4523, 472
Columbiformes 2249
Columbina
inca 228
passerina 229
talpacoti 472
Common Eider 60
Common Goldeneye 67
Common Grackle 399
Common Ground-Dove
229
Common Loon 75
Common Merganser 70
Common Moorhen 146
Common Murre 219
Common Nighthawk 250
Common Pauraque 455
Common Poorwill 455
Common Raven 298
Common Redpoll 347
471
Common Tern 208
Common Yellowthroat 387
Connecticut Warbler 385
Contopus
cooperi 272
sordidulus 472
virens 273
convergence 11
Coopers Hawk 130
Coot, American 147
Coraciiformes 258
Coragyps atratus 117
Cormorant,
Double-crested 112
Great 113
Neotropic 447
Corvidae 2938, 4601
Corvus
brachyrhynchos 296
corax 298
cryptoleucus 461
imparatus 461
ossifragus 297
Corys Shearwater 78
Coturnicops noveboracensis
139
Couchs Kingbird 458
courtship 16
Cowbird,
Bronzed 468
Brown-headed 395
Shiny 468
Cracidae 444
Crane,
Sandhill 148
Whooping 449
cranes 138
Creeper, Brown 327
Crested Caracara 447
Crossbill,
Red 351
White-winged 352
Crotophaga
ani 454
sulcirostris 454
Crow,
American 296
Fish 297
Tamaulipas 461
crows 283
Cuckoo,
Black-billed 233
Mangrove 453
Yellow-billed 234
cuckoos 232
Cuculidae 2324, 4512
Cuculiformes 2335
Curlew, Long-billed 450
Curlew Sandpiper 450
Curve-billed Thrasher
464
Cyanocitta cristata 294
Cyanocorax
morio 460
yncas 460
Cygnus
buccinator 444
columbianus 43
olor 42
D
Dark-eyed Junco 419
Dendrocygna
autumnalis 444
bicolor 35
476
Dendroica
caerulescens 369
castanea 364
cerulea 367
chrysoparia 466
coronata 370
discolor 373
dominica 372
fusca 365
kirtlandii 466
magnolia 366
nigrescens 472
occidentalis 472
palmarum 375
pensylvanica 361
petechia 362
pinus 374
striata 363
tigrina 368
townsendi 472
virens 371
Dickcissel 437
displays 16
Dolichonyx oryzivorus
405
Double-crested
Cormorant 112
Dove,
Inca 228
Mourning 226
White-tipped 453
White-winged 227
doves 223
Dovekie 217
Dowitcher,
Long-billed 164
Short-billed 163
Downy Woodpecker 263
Dryocopus pileatus 269
Duck,
American Black 47
Harlequin 61
Long-tailed 65
Masked 445
Mottled 49
Muscovy 471
Ring-necked 56
Ruddy 72
Tufted 471
Wood 44
Dumetella carolinensis 328
Dunlin 184
E
Eagle,
Bald 127
Golden 137
Eared Grebe 88
Eastern Bluebird 333
Eastern Kingbird 281
Eastern Meadowlark 402
Eastern Phoebe 271
Eastern Screech-Owl
238
Eastern Towhee 434
Eastern Wood-pewee
273
Egret,
Cattle 100
Great 102
Reddish 103
Snowy 106
Egretta
caerulea 105
rufescens 103
thula 106
tricolor 104
Eider,
Common 60
King 59
Elanoides forficatus 124
Elanus leucurus 125
Elf Owl 454
Emberizidae 40734,
46870, 472
Empidonax
alnorum 277
flaviventris 274
minimus 278
traillii 276
virescens 275
Eremophila alpestris 313
Eudocimus albus 91
Euphagus
carolinus 397
cyanocephalus 399
Eurasian Collared-Dove
225
Eurasian Tree Sparrow 465

Eurasian Wigeon 471
European Starling 331
Evening Grosbeak 353
evolution 10
extinction 11
F
Falco
columbarius 119
mexicanus 121
peregrinus 122
rusticolus 120
sparverius 118
Falcon,
Peregrine 122
Prairie 121
Falconidae 11822, 447
Falconiformes 11637
Feas Petrel 471
feathers 13
feet 12
Ferruginous Hawk 449
Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl
472
Field Sparrow 429
Finch,
House 349
Purple 348
finches 434
Fish Crow 297
Flamingo, Greater 471
Flicker, Northern 268
Florida Scrub-Jay 461
Flycatcher,
Acadian 275
Alder 277
Ash-throated 459
Brown-crested 459
Great Crested 282
Least 278
Olive-sided 272
Scissor-tailed 280
Vermilion 457
Willow 276
Yellow-bellied 274
flycatchers 270
Forsters Tern 210
Fox Sparrow 412
Franklins Gull 199
Fratercula arctica 222
Fregata magnificens 108
Fregatidae 108
Frigatebird, Magnificent
108
Fringillidae 34553, 465
Fulica americana 147
Fulmar, Northern 77
Fulmarus glacialis 77
Fulvous Whistling-Duck
35
G
Gadwall 45
Galliformes 2433
Gallinago gallinago 162
Gallinula chloropus 146
Gallinule, Purple 145
gamebirds 23
Gannet, Northern 111
Garganey 471
Gavia
adamsii 471
immer 75
pacifica 471
stellata 74
Gaviidae 745, 471
Gaviiformes 745
Geococcyx californianus
235
Geothlypis trichas 387
Glaucidium brasilianum
472
Glaucous Gull 192
Glossy Ibis 92
Gnatcatcher,
Black-tailed 463
Blue-gray 323
gnatcatchers 316
Godwit,
Bar-tailed 471
Black-tailed 471
Hudsonian 165
Marbled 166
Golden Eagle 137
466
Golden-crowned Kinglet
314
Goldeneye,
Barrows 68
Common 67
Golden-fronted
Woodpecker 456
Golden Plover,
American 154
Pacific 472
Golden-winged Warbler
355
Goldfinch,
American 346
Lesser 465
Goose,
Cackling 40
Canada 39
Greater Whitefronted 36
Lesser White-fronted
471
Pink-footed 471
Rosss 38
Snow 37
Goshawk, Northern 131
Grackle,
Boat-tailed 401
Common 399
Great-tailed 400
Grasshopper Sparrow
426
Gray Catbird 328
Gray Hawk 448
Gray Jay 293
Gray Kingbird 458
Gray Partridge 32
Gray Vireo 459
Gray-cheeked Thrush
335
Great Black-backed Gull
191
Great Blue Heron 101
Great Cormorant 113
Great Crested Flycatcher
282
Great Egret 102
Great Gray Owl 242
Great Horned Owl 240
Great Kiskadee 458
Great Skua 452
Greater Flamingo 471
Greater Prairie Chicken
29
Greater Roadrunner 235
Greater Scaup 57
Greater Shearwater 81
Greater White-fronted
Goose 36
Greater Yellowlegs 169
Great-tailed Grackle
400
Grebe,
Clarks 446
Eared 88
Horned 87
Least 446
Pied-Billed 85
Red-necked 86
Western 446
grebes 84
Green Heron 99
Green Jay 460
Green Kingfisher 456
Green Parakeet 453
Green-tailed Towhee 469
Green-winged Teal 53
Groove-billed Ani 454
Grosbeak,
Black-headed 472
Blue 440
Evening 353
Pine 350
Rose-breasted 438
Ground-Dove,
Common 229
Ruddy 472
Grouse,
Ruffed 26
Sharp-tailed 28
Spruce 27
Gruidae 148, 449
Gruiformes 13949
Grus
americana 449
canadensis 148
Guillemot, Black 221
Gull,
Black-headed 196
Bonapartes 197
Gull contd.
California 472
Franklins 199
Glaucous 192
Great Black-backed
191
Herring 194
Iceland 193
Ivory 472
Laughing 198
Lesser Black-backed
195
Little 200
Mew 472
Ring-billed 190
Rosss 450
Sabines 201
Slaty-backed 472
Thayers 450
Gull-billed Tern 203
gulls 150
Gyrfalcon 120
H
Haematopodidae 151
Haematopus palliatus 151
Hairy Woodpecker 264
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
127
Harlequin Duck 61
Harrier, Northern 128
Harriss Hawk 448
Harriss Sparrow 416
Hawk,
Broad-winged 133
Coopers 130
Ferruginous 449
Gray 448
Harriss 448
Red-shouldered 132
Red-tailed 135
Rough-legged 136
Sharp-shinned 129
Short-tailed 448
Swainsons 134
White-tailed 448
Zone-tailed 449
Helmitheros vermivorum
379
Henslows Sparrow 425
Hermit Thrush 338
Hermit Warbler 472
Heron,
Great Blue 101
Green 99
Little Blue 105
Tricolored 104
herons 89
Herring Gull 194
Hesperiphona vespertina
353
Himantopus himantopus
152
Hirundinidae 30612
Hirundo rustica 310
Histrionicus histrionicus 61
Hoary Redpoll 465
Hooded Merganser 69
Hooded Oriole 466
Hooded Warbler 388
Hook-billed Kite 447
Horned Grebe 87
Horned Lark 313
House Finch 349
House Sparrow 341
House Wren 322
Hudsonian Godwit 165
Hummingbird,
Black-chinned 454
Buff-bellied 454
Calliope 470
Ruby-throated 255
Rufous 256
hummingbirds 253
Huttons Vireo 460
Hydrobatidae 823, 445
Hylocichla mustelina 339
I
Ibis,
Glossy 92
White 91
White-faced 93
ibises 89
Iceland Gull 193
Icteria virens 391
INDEX
Icteridae 393405,
4668, 472
Icterus
bullockii 467
cucullatus 466
galbula 394
graduacauda 467
gularis 467
parisorum 467
pectoralis 472
spurius 393
Ictinia mississippiensis 126
identification 20
Inca Dove 228
Indigo Bunting 441
Ivory Gull 472
Ixobrychus exilis 96
Ixoreus naevius 472
J
Jabiru 471
Jabiru mycteria 471
Jaeger,
Long-tailed 216
Parasitic 215
Pomarine 214
Jay,
Blue 294
Brown 460
Gray 293
Green 460
jays 283
Junco, Dark-eyed 419
Junco hyemalis 419
K
Kentucky Warbler 384
Kestrel, American 118
Killdeer 158
King Eider 59
King Rail 142
Kingbird,
Couchs 458
Eastern 281
Gray 458
Tropical 458
Western 279
Kingfisher,
Belted 259
Green 456
Ringed 456
kingfishers 257
Kinglet,
Golden-crowned 314
Ruby-crowned 315
kinglets 299
Kirtlands Warbler 466
Kiskadee, Great 458
Kite,
Hook-billed 447
Mississippi 126
Snail 447
Swallow-tailed 124
White-tailed 125
Kittiwake, Black-legged
202
Knot, Red 175
L
Ladder-backed
Woodpecker 456
Lagopus
lagopus 31
muta 30
Laniidae 2845
Lanius
excubitor 285
ludovicianus 284
Lapland Longspur 407
Laridae 190213,
4501, 472
Lark Bunting 411
Lark Sparrow 432
Lark, Horned 313
larks 299
Larus
argentatus 194
atricilla 198
californicus 472
canus 472
delawarensis 190
fuscus 195
glaucoides 193
hyperboreus 192
marinus 191
minutus 200
Larus contd.
philadelphia 197
pipixcan 199
ridibundus 196
schistisagus 472
thayeri 450
Laterallus jamaicensis 140
Laughing Gull 198
Lazuli Bunting 472
Le Contes Sparrow 424
Leachs Storm-Petrel 83
Least Bittern 96
Least Flycatcher 278
Least Grebe 446
Least Sandpiper 179
Least Tern 211
legs 12
Leptotila verreauxi 453
Lesser Black-backed Gull
195
Lesser Goldfinch 465
Lesser Nighthawk 454
Lesser Sand Plover 471
Lesser Scaup 58
Lesser White-fronted
Goose 471
Lesser Yellowlegs 170
Lewiss Woodpecker
472
Limnodromus
griseus 163
scolopaceus 164
Limnothlypis swainsonii
380
Limosa
fedoa 166
haemastica 165
lapponica 471
limosa 471
Limpkin 149
Lincolns Sparrow 414
Little Blue Heron 105
Little Gull 200
Loggerhead Shrike 284
Long-billed Curlew 450
Long-billed Dowitcher
164
Long-billed Thrasher
464
Long-eared Owl 248
Longspur,
Chestnut-collared
409
Lapland 407
McCowns 472
Smiths 408
longspurs 406
Long-tailed Duck 65
Long-tailed Jaeger 216
Loon,
Common 75
Pacific 471
Red-throated 74
Yellow-billed 471
loons 73
Lophodytes cucullatus 69
Louisiana Waterthrush
383
Loxia
curvirostra 351
leucoptera 352
M
Macgillivrays Warbler 472
Magnificent Frigatebird
108
Magnolia Warbler 366
Magpie, Black-billed 295
Mallard 48
Mangrove Cuckoo 453
Manx Shearwater 79
Marbled Godwit 166
Marsh Wren 318
Martin, Purple 308
Masked Booby 471
Masked Duck 445
McCowns Longspur 472
Meadowlark,
Eastern 402
Western 403
Megaceryle
alcyon 258
torquata 456
Melanerpes
aurifrons 456
carolinus 261
erythrocephalus 260
lewis 472
Melanitta
fusca 63
nigra 64
perspicillata 62
Meleagris gallopavo 25
Melospiza
georgiana 415
lincolnii 414
melodia 413
Merganser,
Common 70
Hooded 69
Red-breasted 71
Mergellus albellus 471
Mergus
merganser 70
serrator 71
Merlin 119
Mew Gull 472
Micrathene whitneyi 454
migration 14
Mimidae 32830, 4634
Mimus polyglottos 329
Mississippi Kite 126
Mniotilta varia 376
Mockingbird, Northern
329
Molothrus
aeneus 468
ater 395
bonariensis 468
Monk Parakeet 231
Moorhen, Common 146
Morus bassanus 111
Motacillidae 3423
Mottled Duck 49
Mountain Bluebird 472
Mountain Plover 449
Mourning Dove 226
Mourning Warbler 386
Murre,
Common 219
Thick-billed 218
Muscicapidae 464
Muscovy Duck 471
Mute Swan 42
Myadestes townsendi 472
Mycteria americana 90
Myiarchus
cinerascens 459
crinitus 282
tyrannulus 459
Myiopsitta monachus 231
N
Nashville Warbler 359
Nelsons Sharp-tailed
Sparrow 422
Neotropic Cormorant 447
Nighthawk,
Antillean 472
Common 250
Lesser 454
nighthawks 249
Night-Heron,
Black-crowned 97
Yellow-crowned 98
nightjars 249
Noddy,
Black 451
Brown 451
Nomonyx dominicus 445
Northern BeardlessTyrannulet 457
Northern Bobwhite 24
Northern Cardinal 439
Northern Flicker 268
Northern Fulmar 77
Northern Gannet 111
Northern Goshawk 131
Northern Harrier 128
Northern Hawk Owl 243
Northern Mockingbird
329
Northern Parula 360
Northern Pintail 52
Northern Roughwinged Swallow 309
Northern Saw-whet
Owl 246
Northern Shoveler 51
Northern Shrike 285
Northern Waterthrush
382
Northern Wheatear 464
Numenius
americanus 450
phaeopus 167
Nuthatch,
Brown-headed 324
Red-breasted 325
White-breasted 326
nuthatches 316
Nyctanassa violacea 98
Nyctea scandiaca 239
Nycticorax nycticorax 97
Nyctidromus albicollis 455
O
Oceanites oceanicus 82
Oceanodroma
castro 445
leucorhoa 83
Odontophoridae 24, 444
Oenanthe oenanthe 464
Olive Sparrow 470
Olive-sided Flycatcher
272
Oporornis
agilis 385
formosus 384
philadelphia 386
tolmiei 472
Orange-crowned Warbler
358
Orchard Oriole 393
Oreoscoptes montanus 463
Oriole,
Altamira 467
Audubons 467
Baltimore 394
Bullocks 467
Hooded 466
Orchard 393
Scotts 467
Spot-breasted 472
orioles 392
Ortalis vetula 444
Osprey 123
Otus asio 238
Ovenbird 381
Owl,
Barn 237
Barred 241
Boreal 245
Burrowing 244
Elf 453
Great Gray 242
Great Horned 240
Long-eared 247
Northern Hawk 243
Northern Saw-whet
246
Short-eared 248
Snowy 239
owls 236
Oxyura jamaicensis 72
Oystercatcher, American
151
P
471
Pacific Loon 471
Pagophila eburnea 472
Painted Bunting 442
Palm Warbler 375
Pandion haliaetus 123
Parabuteo unicinctus 448
Parakeet,
Green 453
Monk 231
parakeets 230
Parasitic Jaeger 215
Paridae 3025, 462
Parrot, Red-crowned
453
parrots 230
Partridge, Gray 32
Parula
americana 360
pitiayumi 466
Parula,
Northern 360
Tropical 466
Parulidae 35591, 466,
472
Parus
atricapillus 303
bicolor 305
carolinensis 302
hudsonicus 304
Passer
domesticus 341
montanus 465
Passerculus sandwichensis
420
Passerella iliaca 412
Passeridae 341, 465
Passeriformes 271442
Passerina
amoena 472
caerulea 440
ciris 442
cyanea 441
versicolor 470
Pauraque, Common 455
Pectoral Sandpiper 182
Pelecanidae 10910
Pelecaniformes 10814
Pelecanus
erythrorhynchos 109
occidentalis 110
Pelican,
American White 109
Brown 110
pelicans 107
Perdix perdix 32
Peregrine Falcon 122
Perisoreus canadensis 293
Petrel,
Black-capped 445
Feas 471
Petrochelidon
fulva 312
pyrrhonata 311
Phaethon lepturus 471
Phaethontidae 471
Phalacrocoracidae 1123,
447
Phalacrocorax
auritus 112
brasilianus 447
carbo 113
Phalaenoptilus nuttallii 455
Phalarope,
Red 189
Red-necked 188
Wilsons 187
Phalaropus
fulicarius 189
lobatus 188
tricolor 187
Phasianidae 2533
Phasianus colchicus 33
Pheasant, Ring-necked 33
Pheucticus
ludovicianus 438
melanocephalus 472
Philadelphia Vireo 291
Philomachus pugnax 471
Phoebe,
Black 457
Eastern 271
Says 457
Phoenicopterus ruber 471
Phoenoicpteridae 471
Pica hudsonia 295
Picidae 2609, 456, 472
Piciformes 2608
Picoides
arcticus 267
borealis 265
pubescens 263
scalaris 456
tridactylus dorsalis 266
villosus 264
Pied-billed Grebe 85
Pigeon,
Red-billed 452
Rock 224
White-crowned 452
pigeons 223
Pileated Woodpecker 269
Pine Grosbeak 350
Pine Siskin 345
Pine Warbler 374
Pinicola enucleator 350
Pink-footed Goose 471
Pintail, Northern 52
Pipilo
chlorurus 469
fuscus 469
maculatus 472
rythrophthalmus 434
Piping Plover 159
Pipit,
American 342
Spragues 343
pipits 332
Piranga
ludoviciana 472
olivacea 436
rubra 435
477
INDEX
Pitangus sulphuratus 458
Plain Chachalaca 444
Plectrophenax nivalis 410
Plegadis
chihi 93
falcinellus 92
Plover,
Black-bellied 155
Common Ringed
471
Lesser Sand 471
Mountain 449
Piping 159
Semipalmated 156
Snowy 160
Wilsons 157
Pluvialis
dominica 154
fulva 471
squatarola 155
Podicepedidae 858, 446
Podicipediformes 858
Podiceps
auritus 87
grisegena 86
nigricollis 88
Podilymbus podiceps 85
Polioptila
caerulea 323
melanura 463
Polioptilidae 316, 463
Pomarine Jaeger 214
Pooecetes gramineus 431
Poorwill, Common 455
Porphyrula martinica 145
Porzana carolina 144
Prairie Chicken, Greater
29
Prairie Falcon 121
Prairie Warbler 373
Procellariidae 7781,
445, 471
Procellariiformes 7783
Progne subis 308
Prothonotary Warbler
378
Protonotaria citrea 378
Psaltriparus minimus 462
Psittacidae 231, 453
Psittaciformes 231
Ptarmigan,
Rock 30
Willow 31
Pterodroma
feae 471
hasitata 445
Puffin, Atlantic 222
Puffinus
gravis 81
griseus 80
lherminieri 445
puffinus 79
Purple Finch 348
Purple Gallinule 145
Purple Martin 308
Purple Sandpiper 183
Pycnonotidae 464
Pycnonotus jocosus 464
Pygmy-Owl,
Ferruginous 472
Pyrocephalus rubinus 457
Pyrrhuloxia 470
Q
Quail, Scaled 444
Quiscalus
major 401
mexicanus 400
quiscula 399
R
Rail,
Black 140
Clapper 141
King 142
Virginia 143
Yellow 139
rails 138
Rallidae 13947
Rallus
elegans 142
limicola 143
longirostris 141
Raven,
Chihuahuan 461
Common 298
Razorbill 220
478
Recurvirostra americana
153
Recurvirostridae 1523
Red Crossbill 351
Red Knot 175
Red Phalarope 189
Red-bellied Woodpecker
261
Red-billed Pigeon 452
Red-breasted Merganser
71
Red-breasted Nuthatch
325
Red-cockaded
Woodpecker 265
Red-crowned Parrot 453
Red-eyed Vireo 292
260
Red-necked Grebe 86
Red-necked Phalarope
188
Red-necked Stint 471
Red-shouldered Hawk
132
Red-tailed Hawk 135
Red-throated Loon 74
Red-whiskered Bulbul
464
Red-winged Blackbird
396
Reddish Egret 103
Redhead 55
Redpoll,
Common 347
Hoary 465
Redstart, American 377
Reguliidae 3145
Regulus
calendula 315
satrapa 314
Remizidae 462
Rhodostethia rosea 450
Ring-billed Gull 190
Ring-necked Duck 56
Ring-necked Pheasant
33
Ringed Kingfisher 456
Riparia riparia 306
Rissa tridactyla 202
Roadrunner, Greater
235
Robin,
American 340
Clay-colored 465
Rock Pigeon 224
Rock Ptarmigan 30
Rock Wren 463
Roseate Spoonbill 94
Roseate Tern 207
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
438
Rosss Goose 38
Rosss Gull 450
Rostrhamus sociabilis 447
Rough-legged Hawk
136
Royal Tern 206
Ruby-crowned Kinglet
315
Ruby-throated
Hummingbird 255
Ruddy Duck 72
Ruddy Ground-Dove
472
Ruddy Turnstone 174
Ruff 471
Ruffed Grouse 26
Rufous Hummingbird
257
Rufous-crowned
Sparrow 469
Rusty Blackbird 397
Rynchops niger 213
S
Sabines Gull 201
Sage Thrasher 463
Salpinctes obsoletus 463
Saltmarsh Sharp-tailed
Sparrow 423
Sanderling 176
Sandhill Crane 148
Sandpiper,
Bairds 181
Buff-breasted 186
Curlew 450
Least 179
Sandpiper contd.
Pectoral 182
Purple 183
Semipalmated 177
Sharp-tailed 471
Solitary 171
Spotted 172
Stilt 185
Upland 168
Western 178
White-rumped 180
Wood 471
Sandwich Tern 205
Sapsucker, Yellow-bellied
262
Savannah Sparrow 420
Says Phoebe 457
Sayornis
nigricans 457
phoebe 271
saya 457
Scaled Quail 444
Scarlet Tanager 436
Scaup,
Greater 57
Lesser 58
Scissor-tailed Flycatcher
280
Scolopacidae 16189,
450, 471
Scolopax minor 161
Scoter,
Black 64
Surf 62
White-winged 63
Scotts Oriole 467
Screech-Owl, Eastern
238
Scrub-Jay,
Florida 461
Western 461
Seaside Sparrow 421
Sedge Wren 317
Seedeater, White-collared
470
Seiurus
aurocapillus 381
motacilla 383
noveboracensis 382
Selasphorus rufus 256
Semipalmated Plover 156
Semipalmated Sandpiper
177
Setophaga ruticilla 377
Sharp-shinned Hawk
129
Sharp-tailed Grouse 28
471
Shearwater,
Audubons 445
Corys 78
Greater 81
Manx 79
Sooty 80
Shiny Cowbird 468
shorebirds 150
Short-billed Dowitcher
163
Short-eared Owl 248
Short-tailed Hawk 448
Shoveler, Northern 51
Shrike,
Loggerhead 284
Northern 285
shrikes 283
Sialia
currucoides 472
sialis 333
Siskin, Pine 345
Sitta
canadensis 325
carolinensis 326
pusilla 324
Sittidae 3245
Skimmer, Black 213
Skua,
Great 452
South Polar 452
Slaty-backed Gull 472
Smew 471
Smiths Longspur 408
Smooth-billed Ani 454
Snail Kite 447
Snipe, Wilsons 162
Snow Bunting 410
Snow Goose 37
Snowy Egret 106
Snowy Owl 239
Snowy Plover 160

Solitaire, Townsends 472
Solitary Sandpiper 171
Somateria
mollissima 60
spectabilis 59
Song Sparrow 413
Sooty Shearwater 80
Sooty Tern 451
Sora 144
South Polar Skua 452
Sparrow,
American Tree 427
Bachmans 433
Bairds 472
Black-throated 468
Botteris 469
Cassins 468
Chipping 428
Clay-colored 430
Eurasian Tree 465
Field 429
Fox 412
Grasshopper 426
Harriss 416
Henslows 425
House 341
Lark 432
Le Contes 424
Lincolns 414
Nelsons Sharp-tailed
422
Olive 470
Rufous-crowned 469
Saltmarsh Sharptailed 423
Savannah 422
Seaside 421
Song 413
Swamp 415
Vesper 431
White-crowned 417
White-throated 418
Sphyrapicus varius 262
Spiza americana 437
Spizella
arborea 427
pallida 43
passerina 428
pusilla 429
Spoonbill, Roseate 94
Sporophila torqueola 470
Spot-breasted Oriole 472
Spotted Sandpiper 172
Spotted Towhee 472
Spragues Pipit 343
Spruce Grouse 27
Starling, European 331
Stelgidopteryx serripennis
309
Stellula calliope 472
Stercorariidae 2146,
452
Stercorarius
longicaudus 216
maccormicki 452
parasiticus 215
pomarinus 214
skua 452
Sterna
anaethetus 451
antillarum 211
caspia 204
dougallii 207
forsteri 210
fuscatus 451
hirundo 208
maxima 206
nilotica 203
paradisaea 209
sandvicensis 205
Stilt Sandpiper 185
Stilt, Black-necked 152
Stint, Red-necked 471
Stork, Wood 90
Storm-Petrel,
Band-rumped 445
Leachs 83
Wilsons 82
Streptopelia decaocto 225
Strigidae 23848, 454,
472
Strigiformes 23748
Strix
nebulosa 242
varia 241
Sturnella
magna 402
neglecta 403
Sturnidae 331
Sturnus vulgaris 331
Sula
dactylatra 471
leucogaster 446
Sulidae 111, 446, 471
Summer Tanager 435
Surf Scoter 62
Surnia ulula 243
Swainsons Hawk 134
Swainsons Thrush 337
Swainsons Warbler 380
Swallow,
Bank 306
Barn 310
Cave 312
Cliff 311
Northern Roughwinged 309
Tree 307
swallows 299
Swallow-tailed Kite
124
Swamp Sparrow 415
Swan,
Mute 42
Trumpeter 444
Tundra 43
Swift, Chimney 255
swifts 254
Sylviidae 323
T
Tachybaptus dominicus
446
Tachycineta bicolor 307
Tamaulipas Crow 461
Tanager,
Scarlet 436
Summer 435
Western 472
tanagers 406
Teal,
Blue-winged 50
Cinnamon 471
Green-winged 53
Tennessee Warbler 357
Tern,
Arctic 209
Black 212
Bridled 451
Caspian 204
Common 208
Forsters 210
Gull-billed 203
Least 211
Roseate 207
Royal 206
Sandwich 205
Sooty 451
Thayers Gull 450
Thick-billed Murre 218
Thrasher,
Brown 330
Curve-billed 464
Long-billed 464
Sage 463
Thraupidae 4356, 472
Threskiornithidae 914
Thrush,
Bicknells 336
Gray-cheeked 335
Hermit 338
Swainsons 337
Varied 472
Wood 339
thrushes 332
Thryomanes bewickii 319
Thryothorus ludovicianus
320
titmice 299
Titmouse,
Black-crested 462
Tufted 305
Towhee,
Canyon 469
Eastern 434
Green-tailed 469
Spotted 472
Townsends Solitaire 472
Townsends Warbler 472
Toxostoma
curvirostre 464
longirostre 464
rufum 330
treecreepers 316
Tree Swallow 307
Tricolored Heron 104
INDEX
Tringa
flavipes 170
glareola 471
melanoleuca 169
solitaria 171
Trochilidae 2556, 455,
472
Troglodytes
aedon 322
troglodytes 321
Troglodytidae 31722,
4623
Tropical Kingbird 458
Tropical Parula 466
Tropicbird, White-tailed
471
Trumpeter Swan 444
Tryngites subruficollis
186
tubenoses 76
Tufted Duck 471
Tufted Titmouse 305
Tundra Swan 43
Turdidae 33310, 465,
472
Turdus
grayi 465
migratorius 340
Turkey Vulture 116
Turkey, Wild 25
Turnstone, Ruddy 174
Tympanuchus
cupido 29
phasianellus 28
Tyrannidae 27182,
4579, 472
Tyrannus
couchii 458
dominicensis 458
forficatus 280
melancholicus 458
tyrannus 281
verticalis 279
Tyto alba 237
Tytonidae 237
U
Upland Sandpiper 168
Uria
aalge 219
lomvia 218
V
Varied Bunting 470
Varied Thrush 472
Veery 334
Verdin 462
Vermilion Flycatcher 457
Vermivora
celata 358
chrysoptera 355
peregrina 357
pinus 356
ruficapilla 359
Vesper Sparrow 431
Vireo
altiloquus 460
atricapilla 459
bellii 287
flavifrons 288
flavoviridis 472
gilvus 290
griseus 286
huttoni 460
olivaceus 292
philadelphicus 291
solitarius 289
vicinior 459
Vireo,
Bells 287
Black-capped 459
Black-whiskered 460
Blue-headed 289
Gray 459
Huttons 460
Philadelphia 291
Red-eyed 292
Warbling 290
White-eyed 286
Yellow-green 472
Yellow-throated 288
Vireonidae 28692,
45960, 472
vireos 283
Virginia Rail 143
Vulture,
Black 117
Turkey 116
W
Warbler,
Bay-breasted 364
Black-and-white 376
Blackburnian 365
Blackpoll 363
Black-throated Blue
369
Black-throated Gray
472
Black-throated Green
371
Blue-winged 356
Canada 390
Cape May 368
Cerulean 367
Chestnut-sided 361
Connecticut 385
Warbler contd.
Golden-cheeked 466
Golden-winged 355
Hermit 472
Hooded 388
Kentucky 384
Kirtlands 466
Macgillivrays 472
Magnolia 366
Mourning 386
Nashville 359
Orange-crowned 358
Palm 375
Pine 374
Prairie 373
Prothonotary 378
Swainsons 380
Tennessee 357
Townsends 472
Wilsons 389
Worm-eating 379
Yellow 362
Yellow-rumped 370
Yellow-throated 372
Warbling Vireo 290
waterfowl 34
Waterthrush,
Louisiana 383
Northern 382
Waxwing,
Bohemian 300
Cedar 301
waxwings 299
Western Grebe 446
Western Kingbird 279
Western Meadowlark 403
Western Sandpiper 178
Western Scrub-Jay 461
Western Tanager 472
Western Wood-pewee
472
Wheatear, Northern 464
Whimbrel 167
Whip-poor-will 252
Whistling-Duck,
Black-bellied 444
Fulvous 35
White Ibis 91
White-breasted
Nuthatch 326
White-collared Seedeater
470
White-crowned Pigeon
452
White-crowned Sparrow
417
White-eyed Vireo 286
White-faced Ibis 93
White-rumped
Sandpiper 180
White-tailed Hawk
448
White-tailed Kite 125
471
White-throated Sparrow
418
White-tipped Dove 453
White-winged Crossbill
352
White-winged Dove
227
White-winged Scoter
63
Whooping Crane 449
Wigeon,
American 46
Eurasian 471
Wild Turkey 25
Willet 173
Willow Flycatcher 276
Willow Ptarmigan 31
Wilsons Phalarope 187
Wilsons Plover 157
Wilsons Snipe 162
Wilsons Storm-Petrel
82
Wilsons Warbler 389
Wilsonia
canadensis 390
citrina 388
pusilla 389
wings 13
Winter Wren 321
Wood Duck 44
Wood Sandpiper 471
Wood Stork 90
Wood Thrush 339
Woodcock, American
161
Woodpecker,
American Three-toed
266
Black-backed 267
Downy 263
Golden-fronted 456
Hairy 264
Ladder-backed 456
Lewiss 472
Pileated 269
Red-bellied 261
Red-cockaded 265
Red-headed 260
woodpeckers 259
Wood-pewee,
Eastern 273
Western 472
wood-warblers 354
Worm-eating Warbler
379
Wren,
Bewicks 319
Cactus 462
Canyon 463
Wren contd.
Carolina 320
House 322
Marsh 318
Rock 463
Sedge 317
Winter 321
wrens 316
X
Xanthocephalus
xanthocephalus 404
Xema sabini 203
Y
Yellow Rail 139
Yellow Warbler 362
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher
274
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
262
Yellow-billed Cuckoo
234
Yellow-billed Loon 471
Yellow-breasted Chat
391
Yellow-crowned
Night-Heron 98
Yellow-green Vireo 472
Yellow-headed Blackbird
404
Yellow-rumped Warbler
370
Yellow-throated Vireo
288
Yellow-throated Warbler
372
Yellowlegs,
Greater 169
Lesser 170
Yellowthroat, Common
387
Z
Zenaida
asiatica 227
macroura 226
Zone-tailed Hawk
449
Zonotrichia
albicollis 418
leucophrys 417
querula 416
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dorling Kindersley would like to thank the following people for their
help in compiling this book: Lucy Baker, Rachel Booth, Kim Bryan, Arti
Finn, Peter Frances, Lynn Hassett, Riccie Janus, Megan Jones, Maxine Lea,
Ruth ORourke, Himanshi Sharma, Catherine Thomas,Yen-Mai Tsang.
Producing such a comprehensive book would be impossible without the

research and observations of hundreds of field and museum ornithologists
and birdwatchers. The Editor-in-Chief would like to name four who have
been especially inspirational and supportive over the years: the late Paul
Groudet, the late Ernst Mayr, Patricia Stryker Joseph, and Helen Hays.
In addition, we acknowledge Birds of North America Online, edited by Alan
Poole, a joint project of the American Ornithologists Union and Cornells
Laboratory of Ornithology, and The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist
of the Birds of the World, revised and enlarged 3rd edition, edited by Edward
C. Dickinson and published by the Princeton University Press, as invaluable
sources of information on the birds of North America.
The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind
permission to reproduce their photographs:
Almost without exception, the birds featured in the profiles in this book
were photographed in the wild.
(Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-centre; f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top)
Alamy Images: AfriPics.com 11cra; Derrick Alderman 18cl; Juniors
Bildachiv 13tr; blickwinkel 19cr; Nora Bowers 254t; Bruce Coleman Inc.
14tr, 19br; Gay Bumgarner 18bc; Nancy Camel 19clb; Redmond Durrell
15cb; Elvele Images Ltd. 18-19cb; David Hosking 13fcrb; Don Kates 16cla;
William Leaman 334cr; Rick & Nora Bowers 9tc, 360bl, 435fbl, 466tl; Rolf
Nussbaumer 16clb; Peter Arnold, Inc. 16cl; Renee Morris 443c; Stock
Connection Blue 13cr; tbkmedia.de 16-17c; Ardea: Ian Beames 11cr; Peter
Steyn 82ca; Jim Zipp 274cr, 274tc, 276fcr, 319tc; Doug Backlund: 12-13ca,
26cb, 29cla, 29crb, 40crb, 120cra, 120tc, 122fbl, 129crb, 134bl, 135cra, 140bl,
144tr, 240fbl; Steve Baldwin 230b; The Barn Owl Centre, UK: 236cla;
Giff Beaton: 361bl, 363fbl, 364tr, 365fbl, 374bl; Corbis: Frank Burek 112;
Tim Davis 2-3; Joe McDonald 14cla; David A. Northcott 112; Mike
Danzenbaker: 77bl, 78bl, 79fbl, 80bl, 80fbl, 81ca, 82bl, 82fbl, 83bl, 83cra,
83fbl, 218cla, 231fbl, 233bl, 234bl, 251bl, 252ca, 252tl, 254bl, 272cb, 369tc,
397tc, 407fbl, 408tc, 409bl, 410bc, 445br, 447br, 453br, 453tr; Greg &
Yvonne Dean / WorldWildlifeImages.com: 250bl, 455tl; Dorling
Kindersley: Robin Chittenden 70tr; Chris Gomersall Photography 30crb,
30tr, 48ca, 48crb, 48tr, 51crb, 56bl, 67crb, 79ca, 79tr, 81bl, 102crb, 111crb,
118fbl, 119ca, 119crb, 121fbl, 123cra, 123tc, 129fbl, 172bl, 174crb, 175crb,
183bc, 194cra, 196ca, 203bl, 203fbl, 205bl, 205cra, 207ca, 207crb, 207fbl,
209cb, 218bl, 218fbl, 219bl, 219cla, 219cra, 220bl, 220cra, 221crb, 222crb,
222tc, 224cra, 243fbl, 298tl, 331tc, 341cra, 341tc, 416fbl, 437fbl, 445tl; David
Tipling Photo Library 50ca, 57cr, 57cra, 66bl, 70tc, 71bl, 72tc, 74bl, 75bl,
86tc, 87fbl, 88fbl, 123crb, 154cla, 184cla, 191cl, 191cra, 191fbl, 194cl, 195cra,
195fbl, 200cl, 224cla, 313tc; Mark Hamblin 52ca, 57cla, 74ca (1), 113cra,
237cra, 239bl, 239fbl, 244bl, 247bl, 248cra, 464br; Chris Knights 71crb; Mike
Lane 30cla, 30cra, 31bl, 33tc, 45ca, 57tr, 58bl, 62fbl, 65cla, 68fbl, 72tr, 87ca,
111cra, 166bl, 176cla, 177fbl, 182tc, 183tr, 196tr, 197fbl, 200fbl, 207bl, 207tc,
208ca, 209fbl, 210fbl, 211fbl, 214bl, 215bl, 216cra, 216crb, 220crb, 221ca,
222ca, 297bl, 298ca, 452tl; Gordon Langsbury 111tr, 156cra, 157fbl, 158fbl,
159fbl, 168tc, 171bl, 172cla, 185tr; Gordon Langsgury 100cla; Tim Loseby
52crb, 189crb, 347cla; George McCarthy 28bl, 31crb, 33tr, 97ca, 98fbl,
100cra, 174cla, 195bc, 214fbl, 215ca, 216bl, 235bl; Natural History Museum,
London 10cla, 12cl; Kim Taylor 74tr, 222tr; Roger Tidman 42ca, 42tc, 43fbl,
44ca, 53tr, 61ca, 65bl, 67ca, 70fbl, 72ca, 86fbl, 92ca, 93fbl, 111cla, 165bl, 174tr,
177tc, 179fbl, 183tl, 188bl, 188ca, 189ca, 189tr, 191tc, 203ca, 203crb, 205ca,
205fbl, 208crb, 214cra, 215fbl, 216fbl, 217bl, 217ca, 221fbl, 221tc, 225ca,
226fbl, 331cla, 410cla, 410tc; Ray Tipper 154bl; Steve Young 45tc, 53cr,
57crb, 57tc, 65cra, 65tr, 67tc, 67tr, 68bl, 69bl, 70bl, 71ca, 71tc, 79tc, 83crb,
83tc, 113tc, 184tc, 191crb, 195cla, 196bl, 196cla, 197bl, 198cla, 199bl,
200cra, 200crb, 200tl, 208tc, 208tr, 214tc, 222fbl, 321ca, 322bl, 410cra;
479
INDEX
Dudley Edmondson: 23cra, 28fbl, 28tr, 29cra, 29fbl, 31cla, 33bl, 37cra,
37crb, 37tl, 38fbl, 41fbl, 88ca, 88tc, 95cb, 103cla, 105cla, 109cla, 110bl, 110cla,
110tr, 114tc, 118bl, 119bl, 120fbl, 121ca, 122bl, 123fbl, 127ca, 127cb, 127cla,
127tc, 129cla, 129cra, 129tc, 130bl, 131crb, 134cla, 134cra, 135crb, 137fbl,
144crb, 148crb, 152ca, 153crb, 160ca, 167fbl, 173crb, 181tc, 190tr, 199crb,
212crb, 213crb, 238fbl, 242tl, 243cb, 245cla, 245cra, 246bl, 250crb, 263bc,
281crb, 294ca, 317crb, 333crb, 378bc, 396crb, 405bl, 411ca, 412cra, 427fbl,
428cra, 449br, 461tl; Tom Ennis: 182bl, 186ca; Hanne & Jens Eriksen:
111bl, 125crb, 154fbl, 167crb, 191bl, 195bl, 204tc, 217crb, 217tc, 451tl; Neil
Fletcher: 35cb, 36bc, 36cla, 37cla, 39tc, 43ca, 43cra, 45tr, 46fbl, 48fbl, 49fbl,
52fbl, 52tr, 54fbl, 54tc, 55crb, 55tr, 225crb, 331cra, 341crb; David Hosking
78fbl, 445bl; FLPA: Goetz Eichhorn/ Foto Natura 75fbl; John Hawkins
17cla; S Jonasson 76cra; Daphne Kinzler 17tr; S & D & K Maslowski 18br;
Winfried Wisniewski / Foto Natura 17cr; Tui De Roy / Minden Pictures
17ca; Roger Tidman 76tc; Joe Fuhrman: 167ca, 168fbl, 360crb; Getty
Images: Marc Moritsch 14-15b; Nancy Nehring / Photodisc 112; Brad
Sharp 18c; Paul E. Tessier / Photodisc 25tr; Bob Glover: 200tc; Melvin
Grey: 49crb, 50crb, 89bc, 89cra, 91crb, 95fbl, 96ca, 96tr, 97fbl, 98ca, 98cra,
99bl, 99crb, 100crb, 101cla, 101fbl, 103fbl, 104cra, 105bl, 105crb, 119cra,
120cla, 124cla, 124crb, 130crb, 131fbl, 132bl, 133bl, 135cla, 145bl, 145ca,
145crb, 146bl, 146fbl, 147cra, 147fbl, 155tr, 156fbl, 157cla, 157crb, 157tr,
158bl, 159bl, 160cra, 160crb, 160tr, 175bl, 175ca, 176cra, 205tr, 206crb, 206tr,
221bl, 237crb, 296cra, 301tc, 348bc, 396fcla, 396fcra, 452tr; Tom Grey 80cr,
95cra, 116crb, 125tl, 147crb, 190bl, 204crb, 225bl, 226ca, 227bl, 402bl, 403cla,
403cra; Josef Hlasek: 188crb; Barry Hughes: 219crb; Arto Juvonen:
32tc, 78ca, 78crb, 78tc, 113crb, 135bl, 136cra; Kevin T. Karlson: 26cla, 27fbl,
27tc, 63bl, 64ca, 64crb, 103tc, 120crb, 133cla, 133tc, 151cla, 163cr, 163cra,
163crb, 163tl, 165ca, 165cra, 166fbl, 186tc, 220ca, 280crb, 297crb, 366fbl,
373tc, 420cla, 431bl, 448bl; Mike Lane: Mike Lane 228bl, 229bl; Barry
Mansell: 34c; Garth McElroy: 9clb, 15cl, 44fbl, 47crb, 59fbl, 59tr, 61bl,
62bl, 63tc, 64bl, 64tc, 65ca, 65fbl, 66tc, 67fbl, 68cla, 69crb, 75tc, 86bl, 87bl,
87tc, 88bl, 88cla, 90bl, 90fbl, 91bl, 91fbl, 92bl, 92crb, 93bl, 95bl, 96bl, 97bl,
97tr, 98bl, 99cla, 99fbl, 100bl, 100fbl, 101tc, 102bl, 102ca, 106cra, 106fbl,
106tc, 112crb, 112cr, 112tl, 114bl, 140fbl, 141bl, 142bl, 143cra, 143crb, 144bl,
148fbl, 151cra, 151fbl, 155cra, 156cla, 156crb, 158ca, 159cla, 159crb, 161ca,
161fbl, 162bl, 162cr, 162fbl, 162tc, 163ca, 163fbl, 164bl, 164fbl, 164tr, 165crb,
165tc, 168crb, 169bl, 169ca, 169cra, 169crb, 169fbl, 170cra, 170fbl, 171crb,
171fbl, 172cra, 173ca, 173cra, 173fbl, 174bl, 176crb, 176tr, 177cb, 179tl,
180bl, 180crb, 180tc, 181ca, 181fbl, 189tc, 190ca, 193ca, 193cla, 193cra,
193crb, 196fbl, 197cra, 198crb, 200bl, 211ca, 211crb, 211tc, 229ca, 232cra,
233crb, 237bl, 241cr, 244crb, 246crb, 247cla, 248bc, 248tc, 255cla, 255tc,
266cb, 266cla, 266cra, 267bl, 271crb, 271tc, 274bl, 275bl, 276bl, 278cla,
278crb, 281ca, 290crb, 292bc, 293cla, 293cra, 293crb, 300bl, 300cla, 300cra,
300tc, 301bl, 301cla, 301fbl, 303crb, 304bl, 304ca, 304crb, 305ca, 306bl,
307ca, 307crb, 309cra, 310bl, 311bl, 311ca, 311crb, 312bl, 313cr, 314crb,
316cr, 316tr, 320crb, 321bl, 323tc, 326cra, 326crb, 327br, 327cra, 328cb,
328crb, 330br, 332b, 333ca, 333cra, 334bl, 334cb, 334tc, 335fbl, 336ca, 336crb,
337bl, 337cb, 337crb, 338bl, 338cb, 338cra, 339bl, 340crb, 340tc, 342cra,
343bl, 344tr, 345crb, 346cra, 346tc, 347bc, 348cb, 348cra, 348tc, 349fbl, 350bl,
350cra, 350crb, 351cr, 351fbl, 352cra, 352crb, 352fbl, 352tc, 353bc, 353ca,
359bc, 360cra, 361cra, 361crb, 361tc, 363bl, 363cra, 363tc, 364crb, 365cla,
366cla, 366crb, 366tc, 367bl, 367fbl, 369crb, 372bl, 373cra, 373fbl, 374bc,
376cb, 376cra, 376fbl, 377fbl, 381ca, 381crb, 382crb, 382fbl, 383crb, 383fbl,
384fbl, 386crb, 387cra, 387crb, 390cb, 390fbl, 391bl, 393fbl, 394crb, 396bl,
396fbl, 397crb, 397tr, 398fbl, 399bc, 400tr, 402fbl, 403fbl, 404fbl, 405crb,
405tc, 411bl, 411fbl, 412crb, 412fbl, 413bc, 413cra, 413fbl, 414ca, 415bl,
415tc, 416bl, 418cla, 418crb, 418tc, 419cra, 420bl, 421crb, 422bc, 422tc,
425bl, 426ca, 427cra, 428crb, 428fbl, 428tc, 429bl, 429crb, 430ca, 430fbl,
431ca, 434bl, 434ca, 434crb, 438cra, 438fbl, 439crb, 441bc, 462tr, 463tr, 467tl,
469tr; Ian Montgomery / Birdway.com.au: 108tr; Arthur Morris/
Birds As Art: 207tr; Bob Moul: 87cla, 158crb, 286crb, 339crb, 386bl, 387tc,
399cla, 447tr; Alan Murphy: 8clb, 9tr, 23cl, 72bl, 85ca, 103crb, 107tr, 125fbl,
126ca, 126cra, 126crb, 128fbl, 138tr, 141cla, 141crb, 151bl, 151crb, 223b,
232b, 232cl, 234crb, 235cr, 249tr, 253b, 253clb, 257b, 258bl, 258br, 259l,
262fbl, 270tr, 275cb, 288cb, 288crb, 299ca, 302fbl, 303ca, 354b, 355bl, 356fbl,
358bl, 362cla, 371fbl, 378bl, 389fbl, 392b, 429cra, 429tr, 435bl, 436cra,
436crb, 444tr, 460br, 466tr, 467tr; Tomi Muukonen: 45crb, 73cl, 86tr, 128tr,
136cla, 136fbl, 194tl, 196crb, 201bl, 202cla, 202crb, 208fbl, 209ca, 210bl,
407crb, 410crb, 464bl; naturepl.com: Vincent Munier 10-11c; Tom Vezo
17br; NHPA / Photoshot: Bill Coster 84bc, 150b; Kevin Schafer 76cb;
Wayne Nicholas: 148bl, 449bl; Judd Patterson: 22, 102fbl, 105tc, 106bl,
107bc, 108cb, 108cra, 108tl, 132fbl, 133bc, 133cra, 281bl, 283cra, 458br; E. J.
Peiker: 56cb, 168bl; EJ Peiker: 8ca, 35ca, 35crb, 35fbl, 37bl, 38cra, 42fcra,
42tr, 44bl, 44tc, 46bl, 46cb, 47ca, 50bl, 50fbl, 50tc, 51bl, 53bl, 53cla, 53cra,
53fbl, 54bl, 54ca, 54crb, 54tr, 55ca, 55cb, 55fbl, 55tc, 56crb, 56fbl, 57bl, 57fbl,
58ca, 58crb, 68crb, 69fbl, 69tc, 71fbl, 73tr, 75cr, 89cl, 92fbl, 92tc, 93cra,
101cra, 102cra, 110fcla, 112cra, 113bl, 114fbl, 118ca, 118cla, 127fbl, 132cra,
133fbl, 134fbl, 136bl, 146tc, 152crb, 153ca, 153cra, 154cra, 154crb, 157bl,
159cra, 160bl, 164tc, 167bl, 172crb, 174cr, 185cr, 192crb, 202bl, 202cra, 206tc,
210tr, 218cb, 226bc, 227crb, 238cla, 238tc, 240cra, 241fbl, 242fbl, 243bl,
247fbl, 255bl, 255crb, 255fbl, 259br, 261fbl, 262cb, 279cb, 280bl, 280cra,
280tc, 282fbl, 286cra, 294cb, 295crb, 300fbl, 301cra, 315c, 315crb, 316br,
322br, 331bl, 345bl, 346tr, 348fbl, 349crb, 349tr, 351bl, 357bl, 358cla, 362crb,
362fbl, 368fbl, 369bl, 370tr, 375bl, 391br, 392tr, 393crb, 395tr, 400bc, 400tc,
402tc, 404bc, 406br, 406cl, 432ca, 436tr, 438bc, 439bl, 442cla, 444bl, 457tr,
458bl, 459tr, 461br, 470bl, 470tr; Jari Peltomki: 24bl, 31tc, 32cra, 36ca,
37fbl, 39fbl, 59crb, 65crb, 73bc, 115bc, 123bl, 127bl, 137ca, 137cra, 137crb,
145fbl, 146cla, 146cra, 146crb, 147bl, 184bl, 185bl, 209crb, 224crb, 237b,
242cb, 285crb, 306cra, 306crb, 344cla, 407cra, 450tr; Photolibrary: Tim
Zurowski 319fcr; David Plummer: 456tl; Mike Read: 77crb, 122crb;
Robert Royse: 26fbl, 27cla, 30bl, 31cra, 39crb, 63ca, 141cra, 141fbl, 142ca,
142crb, 143bl, 167cra, 169cla, 170ca, 175tr, 180ca, 187fbl, 192fbl, 193fbl,
204ca, 204tr, 206fbl, 233cra, 234fbl, 256ca, 265cra, 265tc, 278cra, 296fbl,
297ca, 302ca, 303fbl, 317bl, 318bl, 319cra, 321fbl, 322tc, 332ca, 355fbl, 372fbl,
385crb, 385tr, 386cla, 387bl, 408cra, 408crb, 410tr, 411crb, 419bl, 422bl,
424ca, 424crb, 426bl, 426fbl, 427bl, 429ca, 430crb, 436ca, 441bl, 442bl, 446tr,
450br, 468bl, 468br, 470br; Chris Schenk: 65fcla; Bill Schmoker: 39bl,
40ca, 42bl, 43tc, 74fbl, 77fbl, 77tr, 80ca, 80crb, 80tr, 81crb, 82crb, 82tc, 88crb,
95ca, 96fbl, 121crb, 135tc, 137bl, 186crb, 254fbl, 284ca, 329fbl; Brian E.
Small: 1c, 8cr, 8cra, 8crb, 8-9ca, 9cr, 11fcra, 24fbl, 24tc, 24tr, 25bl, 26bl, 27bl,
27cra, 28crb, 29bl, 29tr, 30fbl, 31fbl, 32fbl, 35bl, 36fbl, 39ca, 40fbl, 41bl, 42fbl,
43bl, 45bl, 46ca, 46tc, 47bl, 49tc, 52bl, 52tc, 55bl, 56ca, 56tc, 58fbl, 58tc, 60bl,
61fbl, 62tc, 63tr, 64fbl, 66ca, 66fbl, 69ca, 74ca, 84tr, 85bl, 90ca, 90cra, 91cla,
91cra, 94cra, 96tc, 101bl, 103bl, 103cra, 104bl, 104cla, 104tc, 105cra, 106cla,
108bl, 109bl, 109cra, 109fbl, 110cra, 110fbl, 111fbl, 114cra, 114crb, 116bl,
480
116ca, 116tc, 117bl, 117br, 117cra, 117fbl, 117tc, 124fbl, 125bl, 125cra, 126bl,
127cra, 128ca, 129bl, 130cra, 132bc, 139ca, 139crb, 140ca, 140crb, 141ca,
142fbl, 143fbl, 144fbl, 145cra, 148c, 148cla, 149ca, 149fbl, 154tc, 155bl,
155fbl, 155tc, 159tc, 166ca, 166tc, 170bl, 170cla, 171ca, 172ca, 175tc, 176bl,
176fbl, 177bl, 177ca, 178ca, 178cra, 178fbl, 179tr, 180fbl, 187bl, 188tl, 189bl,
190cra, 192bl, 193bl, 194fbl, 198bl, 198ca, 198cra, 199fbl, 199tr, 201ca, 202fbl,
204bl, 204fbl, 206bl, 206ca, 206cra, 208bl, 209bl, 210ca, 211bl, 212ca, 213ca,
224bl, 224fbl, 226bl, 226tc, 227ca, 231crb, 233fbl, 234ca, 234cra, 235ca,
235fbl, 238cra, 240bl, 240cla, 241ca, 241cra, 242bl, 242cra, 243cla, 243cra,
244cra, 246fbl, 248fbl, 249cl, 250fbl, 251fbl, 252crb, 252fbl, 254crb, 256bc,
256bl, 256fbl, 257tr, 258cra, 258tr, 259cra, 260bc, 260cra, 261bl, 261br,
261cla, 261cra, 262bl, 262cla, 262cra, 263bl, 263fbl, 264cb, 264cla, 264cra,
265bl, 265crb, 265fbl, 267cb, 268ca, 268cb, 268cra, 268fcla, 269cla, 269crb,
271bl, 271cb, 271fbl, 272bl, 272ca, 273bl, 273cb, 273cra, 273fbl, 274fbl, 275ca,
275fbl, 276cra, 276fbl, 277bl, 277ca, 277crb, 277fbl, 278bl, 278fbl, 279fbl,
281cra, 281fbl, 282bl, 282br, 282ca, 283cl, 284bl, 284crb, 285bl, 286bl, 287bl,
287crb, 287fbl, 288bl, 288ca, 288fbl, 289bl, 289ca, 289crb, 289fbl, 290bl,
290cra, 291bl, 291ca, 291crb, 292ca, 292fbl, 292bl, 293fbl, 293tc, 294bl,
294fbl, 301crb, 302cb, 305bl, 305crb, 305fbl, 306ca, 307fbl, 308cra, 309crb,
309fbl, 310ca, 313bl, 313fbl, 313tr, 314bl, 314cra, 315cla, 315fbl, 317cra,
318crb, 318fbl, 319crb, 319fbl, 320bl, 320cra, 323bl, 323ca, 323fbl, 324bl,
324cra, 324crb, 324fbl, 325bl, 325cra, 325fbl, 325tc, 326bl, 326cla, 326fbl,
327bl, 327fbl, 328ca, 328fbl, 329bl, 329ca, 329crb, 329tc, 330bl, 330fbl, 331fbl,
333bl, 333fbl, 333tr, 334bc, 334fbl, 335bl, 335ca, 336bl, 337cra, 337fbl, 337tc,
338bc, 338cla, 338fbl, 338tc, 339cra, 339fbl, 340bl, 341bl, 341fbl, 342bl, 342tc,
343cra, 343crb, 345ca, 345fbl, 346bc, 346bl, 346cla, 347cra, 347fbl, 349bl,
350cla, 350fbl, 350tc, 351ca, 351cra, 351tl, 352bl, 353bl, 353fbl, 354tr, 355cla,
355cra, 355crb, 356bc, 356bl, 356cla, 356cra, 357cra, 357fbl, 357tc, 358crb,
359bl, 359fbl, 359tr, 360cla, 362bl, 362cra, 363crb, 364bl, 364ca, 364tc, 365bl,
365tr, 366bl, 366tr, 367ca, 367crb, 367tc, 367tr, 368bl, 368cra, 368crb, 368tc,
369ca, 370bl, 370cla, 370fbl, 371bl, 371cra, 371crb, 371tc, 372ca, 372crb,
373bl, 373crb, 374ca, 374cla, 374cra, 374tc, 375bc, 375cla, 375fbl, 376bl,
376cla, 377cra, 377tc, 378cla, 378cra, 378fbl, 378bl, 379ca, 379crb, 380bl,
380ca, 380crb, 380fbl, 381bl, 381fbl, 382bl, 382ca, 383bl, 383ca, 384ca,
384cra, 385bl, 385ca, 385fbl, 386tc, 386tr, 387fbl, 388bl, 388ca, 388fbl, 389ca,
389tc, 390tc, 391ca, 391fbl, 391tc, 393bl, 393cla, 393cra, 393tr, 394cla, 394cra,
394fbl, 394tc, 395bl, 395fbl, 395tc, 396cra, 397bl, 398bl, 398crb, 399bl, 399ca,
399cra, 399fbl, 400bl, 400ca, 400fbl, 401bl, 401cra, 401fbl, 402cra, 402crb,
403bc, 403bl, 404cra, 404tc, 405cla, 405cra, 405fbl, 406tr, 409bc, 409cla,
409cra, 409fbl, 411tr, 412bl, 412cl, 413bl, 413tc, 414bl, 414crb, 414fbl, 415cra,
415crb, 415fbl, 416cra, 417cla, 417crb, 417fbl, 417tc, 418cra, 418fbl, 419cl,
419crb, 419fcla, 419tc, 420fbl, 420tc, 421bl, 421fbl, 421tc, 421tr, 422crb,
422fbl, 423bl, 423cra, 423fbl, 424bl, 424fbl, 425bc, 425ca, 425fbl, 426cra,
428cla, 429fbl, 431cra, 432tc, 433bl, 433cra, 433crb, 433fbl, 434cra, 434fbl,
435ca, 435cla, 435cra, 435crb, 435tr, 436bl, 436fbl, 437bl, 437ca, 437cr,
437crb, 437tr, 438bl, 438cl, 438cla, 438tc, 439cla, 439cra, 439fbl, 439tc, 440bc,
440bl, 440cla, 440fbl, 440tr, 441cla, 441fbl, 441tc, 441tr, 442bc, 442cra, 442fbl,
442tr, 444br, 444tl, 446tl, 447bl, 448br, 448tl, 448tr, 449tl, 450bl, 450tl, 451br,
452br, 453bl, 453tl, 454bl, 454br, 454tl, 454tr, 455bl, 455br, 455tr, 456bl,
456br, 456tr, 457bl, 457br, 457tl, 458tl, 458tr, 459bl, 459br, 459tl, 460bl, 460tl,
460tr, 461tr, 462bl, 462br, 462tl, 463bl, 464tl, 464tr, 465tl, 466br, 467br, 468tl,
468tr, 469br, 469tl; Michelle Lynn St.Sauveur: 161crb; Bob Steele: 8c,
8fcrb, 9ca, 13cb, 25cla, 25fbl, 26ca, 32bl, 33fbl, 36cra, 37tc, 38bl, 38cla, 38crb,
40tc, 40tr, 41crb, 43crb, 44tr, 45fbl, 46crb, 47fbl, 48tc, 49bl, 49fcrb, 50tr, 51fbl,
58tr, 62crb, 62tr, 66crb, 68tc, 69tr, 75tr, 77cla, 85crb, 85tc, 90crb, 93cla, 93tr,
94bl, 94ca, 96cb, 97crb, 100tc, 104crb, 108fbl, 109tc, 110crb, 112fbl, 114ca,
118crb, 118tr, 119fbl, 124bl, 128cra, 130ca, 130fbl, 131bl, 132cla, 132tc,
134bc, 134ca, 134tr, 135fbl, 136crb, 138br, 138c, 139bl, 143cla, 144ca, 144tc,
147cla, 148cra, 149bl, 149cr, 149crb, 152cra, 152tc, 153cla, 155ca, 156tc,
160cr, 160fbl, 161bl, 162bc, 163bl, 164ca, 164crb, 166crb, 168ca, 170crb,
171tc, 172fbl, 173bl, 173tc, 177bc, 178bl, 178crb, 178tr, 179bl, 179ca, 179crb,
181bl, 181crb, 182bc, 182ca, 182fbl, 183bl, 183fbl, 184cra, 184fbl, 185bc,
185ca, 185fbl, 186bl, 186fbl, 187ca, 187crb, 187tl, 187tr, 188fbl, 188tr, 189fbl,
190cla, 190crb, 190fbl, 190tc, 192cla, 192cra, 192tc, 192tr, 194bl, 194crb,
194tc, 197cla, 197tc, 198fbl, 199ca, 201cla, 201crb, 203tc, 210crb, 210tc,
212bl, 212tc, 213tc, 214bc, 214cla, 216tc, 218cra, 219fbl, 220fbl, 222bl, 228ca,
228cb, 228crb, 229crb, 229tl, 235cb, 236tr, 237fbl, 238bl, 239cra, 239tc, 240cb,
241bl, 244cla, 245bl, 245fbl, 246cra, 246tc, 247crb, 249b, 250ca, 251ca, 252bl,
253tr, 255cra, 256cla, 256cr, 263ca, 263tr, 264bl, 264fbl, 266bl, 267cla, 267cra,
270b, 271cra, 272crb, 272fbl, 273cr, 274crb, 279bl, 279ca, 279cra, 279crb,
280fbl, 283b, 284cra, 284fbl, 285fbl, 285tc, 286fbl, 287ca, 290fbl, 290tc,
291fbl, 292crb, 294crb, 295bl, 295ca, 296bl, 296ca, 296crb, 297fbl, 298bl,
298crb, 298fbl, 299b, 302bl, 302crb, 303bl, 304fbl, 306fbl, 307bl, 307cra,
307tr, 308crb, 308tc, 309bl, 309tc, 310crb, 310tc, 311tc, 313br, 313cla, 314fbl,
314tc, 315bl, 315tr, 317fbl, 318cra, 319bl, 319ca, 320fbl, 320tc, 322cra, 323crb,
325crb, 330ca, 331fcla, 332cra, 335crb, 340cla, 340cra, 342crb, 342fbl, 343fbl,
344b, 345cb, 346fbl, 347cl, 347tc, 348bl, 349cla, 349cra, 353cra, 354cl, 357cla,
357crb, 358cra, 358fbl, 359cla, 361cla, 361fbl, 362tc, 363cla, 364fbl, 365cb,
365crb, 370c, 370cra, 370crb, 374fbl, 376crb, 377bc, 377cla, 384bl, 384crb,
385fbl, 388crb, 388tc, 389bl, 389cb, 389crb, 390bl, 390ca, 390crb, 392crb,
394bl, 395crb, 396cla, 396tr, 397cla, 397fbl, 398cra, 398tc, 401crb, 401tc,
404bl, 404cla, 406bl, 407bl, 408bl, 409tc, 411cra, 412cla, 412tc, 413cl, 416cla,
416crb, 416tc, 417bl, 418bl, 420crb, 420tr, 422crb, 426crb, 427cla, 427crb,
427tc, 428bl, 430bl, 431bc, 431fbl, 432bc, 433cla, 440tc, 446bl, 446br, 449tr,
451bl, 451tr, 463br, 463tl, 465bl, 466bl, 467bl, 469bl; Matthew Studebaker:
356tc; Andy & Gill Swash: 77c, 93crb, 94crb, 98cb, 99cra, 109crb, 112bl,
445tl; Peter Sweber: 38tc, 49ca, 62ca, 63fbl, 104fbl, 105fbl, 110tc; Markus
Varesvuo: 4-5c, 12-13bl, 23b, 30ca, 32crb, 33cra, 33fbr, 34cra, 36crb, 42crb,
51ca, 51cb, 51tr, 59ca, 59tc, 60fbl, 61cb, 61crb, 61tc, 63crb, 67bl, 68ca, 70ca,
70crb, 74crb, 75ca, 75cb, 84cl, 86ca, 86crb, 87crb, 122cla, 128bl, 128crb,
131cra, 131tr, 136ca, 136tr, 183ca, 184crb, 189cb, 215crb, 215tc, 219tc,
239crb, 247cra, 248bl, 285cra, 300crb, 321crb, 331crb, 347bl, 351crb, 407cla,
407tc, 408fbl, 465br, 465tr; Jim Culbertson 461bl; Robert L. Pitman 79bl;
Rick & Nora Bowers 311fbl, 312ca, 312crb; Harold Stiver 81fbl, 445tr; Cal
Vornberger: 435cr; Peter S Weber: 24crb, 25crb, 99tr, 101ca, 106crb,
238crb, 245crb, 250tr, 251crb, 260cla, 262fcla, 263tc, 269bl; David Welling:
452bl; Ian Whetton: 79crb; Roger Wilmshurst: 120bl, 122cra, 126fbl; Lee
Zieger: 124tr, 230cla, 470tl
Jacket images: Front: Corbis: Gary Carter. Back: Garth McElroy: cr, cra
(breeding female), crb; Brian E. Small: tr; Bob Steele: c. Spine: Corbis:
Gary Carter.
All other images Dorling Kindersley
For further information see: www.dkimages.com

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Content previously published in Birds of North America

the ULtIMAte PhOtOGRAPhIC GUIde

LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH,

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Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved

DK books are available at special discounts when

HOW THIS BOOK WORKS

ANATOMY AND FLIGHT

COURTSHIP AND MATING

STORKS, IBISES, AND HERONS

PELICANS AND RELATIVES

RAILS AND CRANES

SHOREBIRDS, GULLS, AND

PIGEONS AND DOVES

PARAKEETS AND PARROTS

CUCKOOS AND RELATIVES

SWIFTS AND HUMMINGBIRDS

SHRIKES, VIREOS, JAYS,

ORIOLES AND BLACKBIRDS

ith its eastern and western volumes, Birds of North America

EASTERN AND WESTERN REGIONS

The only hummingbird species

HOW THIS BOOK WORKS

HOW THIS BOOK WORKS

his guide covers about 550 Eastern North American

The species are organized conventionally by

ORIOLES & BLACKBIRDS

These strictly parasitic

BLACKBIRDS & GRACKLES

ORIOLES AND BLACKBIRDS

The common name of the

Illustrations show the

Conveys the main features

black tail with

A description of the species

The type of nest and its usual

How, where, and what the

Meadowlarks occur in both North and South

The magnificently colored

he Baltimore Orioles brilliant colors are familiar to many

Length is tip of tail to tip of

The social unit the species is

Length 810in (2026cm)

Wingspan 1012in (2630cm

The length of life, in years,

The conservation status of the

See panel, left. The occurrence

HOW THIS BOOK WORKS

The top band of each

Species Parula pitiayumi

Species Dendroica chrysoparia

The Tropical Parula is widespread in tropical

Males of this strikingly beautiful warbler species

Over 100 less common birds

striking yellowand-black face

Length 412 in (11cm)

Wingspan 614in (16cm)