Third Year Sixth Semester CS6601 Distributed System 2 Mark With Answer

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UNIT-1
PART-A
1.Define distributed Systems.
Definition 1:A distributed system as one in which hardware or software
componentslocated at networked computers communicate and coordinate their
actions only by passing messages
Definition 2:.A collection of hardware and software systems that contain more
than one processing or storage element but appearing as a single coherent system
running under a loosely or tightly controlled regime is called Distributed
Computing. The computers in the distributed system do not share a memory
instead they pass messages asynchronously or synchronously between them. This
is a type of segmented or parallel computing that runs on a heterogeneous system.
2.What are the examples of Distributed System?
Web search, Massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs),Financial trading,
Cloud computing, Grid computing, Ubiquitous or pervasive computing
3.List the advantages and disadvantages of Distributed System.
Advantages
Economics
Speed
Inherent distribution
Reliability
Incremental growth
Resource sharing
Disadvantages
Heterogeneity
Openness
Failure handling
Quality of service
Security
4.What are the challenges in Distributed System?
Heterogeneity
Openness
Failure handling
Quality of service
Security
Transparency
Scalability
Concurrency
5.Show where Distributed System is applied?
Telecommunication networks:
telephone networks and cellular networks,
computer networks such as the Internet,
wireless sensor networks,
routing algorithms;
Network applications:
World wide web and peer-to-peer networks,

massively multiplayer online games and virtual reality communities,
distributed databases and distributed database management systems,
network file systems,
distributed information processing systems such as banking systems and
airline reservation systems;
Real-time process control:
aircraft control systems,
industrial control systems;
Parallel computation:
scientific computing, including cluster computing and grid computing and
various volunteer computing projects (see the list of distributed computing
projects),
distributed rendering in computer graphics.
6.Estimate how distributed system benefits resource sharing?
Resource sharing benefits by allowing the users to share hardware resources such
as printers, dataresources such as files, and resources with more specific
functionality such as search engines.pages not the disks and processors on which
they are implemented. Similarly, users think in terms of shared resources such as a
search engine or a currency converter, without regard for the server or servers that
provide these.
7.Define CSCW
Computer-supported cooperative working (CSCW), a group of users who
cooperate directly share resources such as documents ina small, closed group.
8.What is MMOG
Massively multiplayer online games is an online video game where very large
numbers of users interact through the Internet with a persistent virtual world.
Leading examples of such games include Sonys EverQuest II and EVE Online
from the Finnish company CCP Games.
9.Discuss the trends of Distributed System.
Pervasive networking and modern internet
Mobile and ubiquitous computing
Distributed in Multimedia system
Distributed computing as a utility.
10.Compare Centralized and Distributed System.
Centralized systems
Distributed System
Several jobs are done on a particular Jobs are distributed among several
CPU
processors. The processors are
interconnected by a computer
network.
They have shared memory and They have no global state (i.e No
shared variables.
shared memory and No shared
variables)
Global clock is present
No global clock
11.Generalize on Heterogeneity.
It means diversity of distributed system in terms of hardware, software,platform,
etc. Modern distributed system will likely to be operating with different hardware
devices, operating system,Network,programming language etc.
12.Explain the consequences faced by the designers in developing distributed
systems.
Refer challenges of distributed system(Q.No:4)
13.Define Ubiquitous computing.
Ubiquitous computing is the harnessing of many small, cheap
computationaldevices that are present in users physical environments, including
the home, office and even natural settings. A user interacts with the computer,
which can exist in many different forms, including laptop computers, tablets and
terminals in everyday objects such as a fridge or a pair of glasses.
14.Show how distributed System helps cloud computing
Cloud Computing is a specialized form of Distributed Computing.Cloud
Computing takes Distributed Computing to a utility stage, ubiquitous and
unmetered access to broadband Internet is the key to its success. In addition, better
standardization, portability and interoperability of its distributed components will
help move Cloud Computing to its full potential.Cloud Computing is all about
delivering services or applications in on demand environment with targeted goals
of achieving increased scalability and transparency, security, monitoring and
management.In cloud computing systems, services are delivered with transparency
not considering the physical implementation within the Cloud.
15.Illustrate the concept of concurrency.
Both services and applications provide resources that can be shared by clients in
adistributed system. There is therefore a possibility that several clients will attempt
toaccess a shared resource at the same time. The process that manages a shared
resource could take one client request at a time. But that approach limits
throughput. Therefore services and applications generally allow multiple client
requests to be processed concurrently.
16.What do you mean by transparency?
Transparency is defined as the concealment from the user and the
applicationprogrammer of the separation of components in a distributed system, so
that the system is perceived as a whole rather than as a collection of independent
components. Inter process communication is transparent at the application level,
Whereas invisible to the user level to maintain a single system view.
17.Develop the scenario howmight the clocks in two computers that are linked
by a local network be synchronized without reference to an external time
source?
Each computer in a distributed system has its own internal clock, which can be
used by local processes to obtain the value of the current time. Therefore two
processes running on different computers can each associate timestamps with their
events.In a distributed system the problem takes on more complexity because a
global time is not easily known. The most used clock synchronization solution on
the Internet is the Network Time Protocol (NTP) which is a layered client-server
architecture based on UDP message passing. Lamport timestamps and vector
clocks are concepts of the logical clocks in distributed systems.
18.Define downloaded code
A CGI program runs at the server. Sometimes the designers of webservices require
some service-related code to run inside the browser, at the users computer. In
particular, code written in Javascriptis often downloaded with a web page
containing a form, in order to provide better-quality interaction with the user than
that supported by HTMLs standard widgets.
19.Classify the security challenges faced by the distributed systems.
Denial of service attacks: It is a category of security problem is that a user may
wish to disrupt a service for some reason. This can be achieved by bombarding the
service with such a large number of pointless requests that the serious users are
unable to use it. This is called a denial of service attack.
Security of mobile code: Mobile code needs to be handled with care. Consider
someone who receives an executable program as an electronic mail attachment: the
possible effects of running the program are unpredictable;
20.State the features in fault tolerance
Detecting failure
Masking failure
Tolerating failure
Recovery from failure
Redundancy
UNIT-II
Two-Mark questions
1.What are the difficulties and threats in distributed system?
Widely varying modes of use: The component parts of systems are subject to
widevariations in workload for example, some web pages are accessed several
million times a day. Some parts of a system may be disconnected, or poorly
connected some of the time for example, when mobile computers are included in
a system. Some applications have special requirements for high communication
bandwidth and low latency for example, multimedia applications.
Wide range of system environments: A distributed system must accommodate
heterogeneous hardware, operating systems and networks. The networks may
differ widely in performance wireless networks operate at a fraction of the speed
of local networks. Systems of widely differing scales, ranging from tens of
computers to millions of computers, must be supported.
Internal problems: Non-synchronized clocks, conflicting data updates and many

modes of hardware and software failure involving the individual system
components.
External threats: Attacks on data integrity and secrecy, denial of service attacks.
2. Classify the generations of distribute system
Baseline physical model

Early distributed systems
Internet-scale distributed systems
Contemporary distributed systems
Distributed systems of systems
3. What are the entities that communicate in distributed system?

The communication entities are Processes in distributed systems, Nodes in
Wireless sensor networks, Object in object oriented systems, Components in
component based technology systems and web services.
4. List the types of Communication paradigms.
Three types of communication paradigm:
Interprocess communication-refers to the relatively low-level support for
communication between processes in distributed systems, including messagepassing primitives
Remote invocation-represents the most common communication paradigm in
distributed systems, covering a range of techniques based on a two-way exchange
between communicating entities. Remote invocation includes Request-reply
protocol, Remote method invocation, Remote object Invocation.
Indirect communication-communication is indirect, through a third entity,
allowing a strong degree of decoupling between senders and receivers. Senders do
not need to know who they are sending to (space uncoupling). Senders and
receivers do not need to exist at the same time (time uncoupling). Indirect
communication includes Message queues, Group communication, Tuple space,
Distributed shared memory.
5. Define remote invocation
Remote invocation represents the most common communication paradigm in
distributed systems, covering a range of techniques based on a two-way exchange
between communicating entities in a distributed system(Requestreply protocol)
and resulting in the calling of a remote operation, procedure or method(RMI,RPC)
6. What are the request reply protocols?

Request-reply protocols represent a pattern on top of message passing and support
the two-way exchange of messages as encountered in client-server computing. In
particular, such protocols provide relatively low-level support for requesting the
execution of a remote operation, and also provide direct support for RPC and RMI
7. Design the roles and responsibilities of distributed systems.
The main goal of a distributed computing system is to connect users and resources
in a transparent, open, and scalable way. Ideally this arrangement is drastically
more fault tolerant and more powerful than many combinations of stand-alone
computer systems. Distributed systems replaced super computers by coordinating
action in many ordinary systems. The larger amount of data stored in a single
system , the longer it takes to access, and the heavier the load on the machine. This
couples with the larger number of people trying to access the system at one time
causes very poor access times. By splitting the data into logical sections and
spreading it around several machines, there is a need of only small amount of
indexing data to point people at the appropriate servers for their requirements.
8. What are the middleware layers?
The term middleware applies to a software layer that provides a programming
abstraction as well as masking the heterogeneity of the underlying networks,
hardware, operating systems and programming languages. Eg:CORBA, Java
Remote Method Invocation
9. Differentiate marshalling and unmarshalling.
Marshallingis the process of taking a collection of data items and assembling them
into a form suitable for transmission in a message. Unmarshallingis the process of
disassembling them on arrival to produce an equivalent collection of data items at
the destination. Thus marshaling consists of the translation of structured data items
andprimitive values into an external data representation. Similarly, unmarshalling
consists of the generation of primitive values from their external data
representation and the rebuilding of the data structures.
10 .Illustrate the Characteristics and application of Interprocess
communication.
Message passing between a pair of processes can be supported by two
messagecommunication operations, send and receive, defined in terms of
destinations and messages. To communicate, one process sends a message (a
sequence of bytes) to a destination and another process at the destination receives
the message. This activity involves the communication of data from the sending
process to the receiving process and may involve the synchronization of the two
processes. Application: UDP datagram communication, TCP stream
communication
11. Where remote object reference is applied?

When a client invokes a method in a remote object, an invocation message is sentto
the server process that hosts the remote object. This message needs to specify
which particular object is to have its method invoked. A remote object reference is
passed in the invocation message to specify which object is to be invoked
12. Evaluate on overlay networks.
An overlay network is a virtual network consisting of nodes and virtual links,
which sitson top of an underlying network (such as an IP network) and offers
something that is not otherwise provided:
A service that is tailored towards the needs of a class of application or a particular
higher-level service for example, multimedia content distribution;
More efficient operation in a given networked environment for example routing
in an ad hoc network;
An additional feature for example, multicast or secure communication.
13. Formulate why there is no explicit data typing in CORBA CDR?
The type of a data item is not given with the data representation in the message
ineither the CORBA CDR or the Sun XDR standard. This is because it is assumed
that the sender and recipient have common knowledge of the order and types of the
data items in a message. In particular, for RMI or RPC, each method invocation
passes arguments of particular types, and the result is a value of a particular type.
14. Classify the main arguments for adopting a super node approach in
Skype.
Super nodes are selected on demand based a range of criteria includingbandwidth
available, reachability (the machine must have a global IP address and not be
hidden behind a NAT-enabled router, for example) and availability (based on the
length of time that Skype has been running continuously on that node). The main
goal of super nodes is to perform the efficient search of the global index of users,
which is distributed across the super nodes. The search is orchestrated by the
clients chosen super node and involves an expanding search of other super nodes
until the specified user is found.
15. Describe Remote procedure call.
Remote Procedure Call (RPC) is a protocol that one program can use to request a
service from a program located in another computer in a network without having to
understand network details. (A procedure call is also sometimes known as a
function call or a subroutine call.)RPC uses the client/server model.
16. Classify the issues for the design of RPC.
The design issues of RPC are
The style of programming promoted by RPC programming with interfaces;

The call semantics associated with RPC;
The key issue of transparency and how it relates to remoteprocedure calls.
17. Distinguish RMI and RPC.
The main difference between the two is the approach or paradigm used. RMI uses
an object oriented paradigm where the user needs to know the object and the
method of the object he needs to invoke. In comparison, RPC isnt object oriented
and doesnt deal with objects. Rather, it calls specific subroutines that are already
established.
RPC handles the complexities involved with passing the call from the local to the
remote computer. RMI does the very same thing; handling the complexities of
passing along the invocation from the local to the remote computer. But instead of
passing a procedural call, RMI passes a reference to the object and the method that
is being called.
Summary:
1.RMI is object oriented while RPC isnt
2.RPC is C bases while RMI is Java only
3.RMI invokes methods while RPC invokes functions
4.RPC is antiquated while RMI is the future
18. Discuss the design issues of RMI.
The design issues of RMI are
Programming with interfaces;
The call semantics associated with RMI;
The key issue of transparency.
The object model
The distributed object model
Garbage collection
Remote object reference
19. Explain on shared memory approach.
Indirect communication paradigms offer an abstractionof shared memory. Two
approaches of shared memory are:
Distributed Shared Memory-Distributed shared memory (DSM) is an
abstraction used for sharing data between computers that do not share physical
memory. Processes access DSM by reads and updates to what appears to be
ordinary memory within their address space.
Tuple space-In this approach, processes communicate indirectly by placing
tuples in a tuple space, from which other processes can read or remove them.
Tuples do not have an address but are accessed by pattern matching on content
(content-addressable memory)
20. Show how will you make use of message queues
Message queues is an important category of indirect communication systems.
Message queues provide a point-to-point service using the concept of a message
queue as an indirection, thus achieving the desired properties of space and time
uncoupling. They are point-to-point in that the sender places the message into a
queue, and it is then removed by a single process. Message queues are also referred
to as Message-Oriented Middleware
21. What is EJB?
EJB is an extension of RMI. Enterprise JavaBeans (EJB) is a comprehensive
technology that provides the infrastructure for building enterprise-level server-side
distributed Java components. The EJB technology provides a distributed
component architecture that integrates several enterprise-level requirements such
as distribution, transactions, security, messaging, persistence, and connectivity to
mainframes and Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems. When compared
with other distributed component technologies such as Java RMI and CORBA, the
EJB architecture hides most the underlying system-level semantics that are typical
of distributed component applications, such as instance management, object
pooling, multiple threading, and connection pooling.
22. Give the use of proxy in RMI .
The role of a proxy in RMI is to make remote method invocation transparent
toclients by behaving like a local object to the invoker; but instead of executing an
invocation, it forwards it in a message to a remote object. It hides the details of the
remote object reference, the marshalling of arguments, unmarshalling of results
and sending and receiving of messages from the client.
UNIT-III
Two marks questions
1.Define Peer to peer system.
Peer-to-peer systems represent a paradigm for the construction of distributed
systemsand applications in which data and computational resources are contributed
by many hosts on the Internet, all of which participate in the provision of a uniform
service. Peer-to-peer applications have been used to provide file sharing, web
caching, information distribution and other services, exploiting the resources of
tens of thousands of machines across the Internet.
2.Classify the characteristics of Peer to peer system.
Peer-to-peer systems share these characteristics:

Their design ensures that each user contributes resources to the system.
Although they may differ in the resources that they contribute, all the nodes
in apeer-to-peer system have the same functional capabilities and
responsibilities.
Their correct operation does not depend on the existence of any
centrallyadministered systems.
They can be designed to offer a limited degree of anonymity to the providers
andusers of resources.
A key issue for their efficient operation is the choice of an algorithm for
theplacement of data across many hosts and subsequent access to it in a
manner thatbalances the workload and ensures availability without adding
undue overheads.
3. Discuss how IP and overlay routing for peer-to-peer applications differ
from each other?
IP Routing
1.IPv4
is
limited
addressablenodes.
to
32
2.Loads on routers are determined by

network topology and associated traffic
patterns.
IP
routing
tables
are
updatedasynchronously
Network connectivity failure. nfoldreplication is costly.
Each IP address maps to exactly
onetarget node.
Addressing is only secure when allnodes
are trusted.
Anonymity for theowners of addresses
is not
achievable.
Overlay Routing
Peer-to-peer systems can address more
objects. The GUID namespace is very
large and flat (>2128), allowing it to be
much more fully occupied.
Object locations can be randomized and
hence traffic patterns are divorced from
the network topology.
Routing tables can be updated
synchronously or asynchronously
Routes and object references can be
replicated n-fold, ensuring tolerance of n
failures of nodes or connections.
Messages can be routed to the nearest
replica of a target object.
Security can be achieved even in
environments with limited trust
A limited degree of anonymity can be
provided
4. Classify the functional and nonfunctional requirements of peer to peer

middle ware systems.
Functional requirements :
The function of peer-to-peer middleware is to simplify theconstruction of
services that are implemented across many hosts in a widely
distributednetwork.
Enable clients to locate and communicate with anyindividual resource made
available to a service
The ability to addnew resources and to remove them at will and to add hosts
to the service and removethem.
should offer a simpleprogramming interface to application programmers
Non-Functional requirements:
Global scalability
Load balancing
Optimization for local interactions between neighbouring peers
Accommodating to highly dynamic host availability
Security of data in an environment with heterogeneous trust
Anonymity, deniability and resistance to censorship
5.Illustrate what is the use of routing overlay?
Routing overlay takes responsibility for locating nodes and objects. The routing
overlay ensures that any node can access any object by routing eachrequest
through a sequence of nodes, exploiting knowledge at each of them to locate the
destination object.
The main task of a routing overlay is the following:
Routing of requests to objects
Insertion of objects
Deletion of objects
Node addition and removal
6.Define pastry.
Pastry is themessage routing infrastructure. All the nodes and objects that can be
accessed through Pastry are assigned 128-bit GUIDs. For nodes, these are
computed by applying a secure hash function.An objects GUID is computed from
all or part of the state of the object using a function that delivers a value that is,
with very high probability, unique. Distributed Hash Table(DHT) is used to
generate the GUID from the objects value
7.Differentiate Structured and unstructured peer-to-peer systems.
Structured P-to-P system
Unstructured P-to-P system
1.Guaranteed to locate objects and can Self-organizing and naturally resilient to
offer time and complexity bounds on

this operation;
relatively low message overhead.
2.Need
to
maintain
often
complexoverlay structures, which can
be difficult and costly to achieve,
especially in highly dynamic
environments.
node failure.
Probabilistic and hence cannot offer

absolute guarantees on locating objects;
prone to excessive messaging overhead
which can affect scalability
8.Classify the modules available in file system.
9.Express in diagram the file attributes record structure.
10.What are the requirements of distributed file system (or) Give the design
issues of Distributed file system?
Transparency
Concurrent file updates
File replication
Hardware and operating system heterogeneity
Fault tolerance
Consistency
Security
Efficiency
11.Explain the working of Andrew File system.

The design of the Andrew File System (henceforth abbreviated AFS) reflects an
intention to support information sharing on a large scale by minimizing clientserver communication. This is achieved by transferring whole files
between server and client computers and caching them at clients until the server
receives a more up-to-date version.
12.What do you mean by cache consistency and how it is achieved in AFS?
Cache consistency means ensuring that the cached copies of files are up-to-date
when files may
be updated by several clients.In AFS it achieved by Callback promise mechanism
in which a token issued by the Vice server that is the custodian of the file,
guaranteeingthat it will notify the Venus process when any other client modifies
the file. Callback promises are stored with the cached files on the workstation disks
and have two states: valid or cancelled. When a server performs a request to update
a file it notifies all of the Venus processes to which it has issued callback promises
by sending a callback to each a callback is a remote procedure call from a server to
a Venus process. When the Venus process receives a callback, it sets the callback
promise token for the relevant file to cancelled.
13. What are venus and vice processes ?
AFS is implemented as two software components that exist as UNIX processes
called Viceand Venus. Vice is the name given to the server software that runs as a
user-level UNIX process in each server computer, and Venus is a user-level
process that runs in each client computer andcorresponds to the client module in
abstract model. Venus manages the cache,removing the least recently used files
when a new file is acquired from a server to make the required space if the
partition is full. The Vice servers accept requests only in terms of fids. Venus
translates the pathnames supplied by clients into fids using a step-by-step lookup to
obtain the information from the file directories held
in the Vice servers.
14.Develop How does AFS deal with the risk that callback messages may be
lost?
Callbacks must be renewed before an open if a time T (typically on the order of a
few minutes) has elapsed since thefile was cached without communication from
the server. This is to deal with possible communication failures, which can result in
the loss of callback messages.
15.Define URI, URL and URN.
Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs) is used to identify resources on the Web, and
other Internet
resources such as electronic mailboxes
Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is often used for URIs that provide location
information andspecify the method for accessing the resource. URLs are efficient
identifiers for accessing resources
Uniform Resource Names (URNs) are URIs that are used as pure resource names
rather than locators. The URI distinguishes that message from any other email
message. But it does not provide the messages address in any store, so a lookup
operation is needed to find it.
16.List out the goals of Global Naming Service(GNS)?
To handle an essentially arbitrary number of names and to serve an arbitrary
number
of administrative organizations
A long lifetime
High availability
Fault isolation
Tolerance of mistrust
17.How will you make use of name space and DNS?
A name space is the collection of all valid names recognized by a particular
service. The DNS name space has a hierarchic structure: a domain name consists
of one ormore strings called name components or labels, separated by the delimiter
.. There isno delimiter at the beginning or end of a domain name, although the
root of the DNS name space is sometimes referred to as . for administrative
purposes.
18.Formulate how caching helps a name services availability?
In DNS and other name services, client name resolution software and
serversmaintain a cache of the results of previous name resolutions. Caching is key
to a name services performance and assists in maintaining the availability of both
the name service and other services in spite of name server crashes. Its role in
enhancing response times by saving communication with name servers is clear.
Caching can be used to eliminate high-level name servers the root server, in
particular from the navigation path, allowing resolution to proceed despite some
server failures.Caching by client name resolvers is widely applied in name services
and is particularly successful because naming data are changed relatively rarely.
19.Define LDAP.
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), in which a DUA accesses X.500
directory services directly over TCP/IP instead of the upper layers of the
ISOprotocol stack. LDAP also simplifies the interface to X.500 in other ways: for
example, it provides a relatively simple API and it replaces ASN.1 encoding with
textual encoding. LDAP has been widely adopted, particularly for intranet
directoryservices. It provides secure access to directory data through
authentication.
20.Demonstrate the use of name cache?
To increase the performance of name service
To reduce overall system overhead
Unit-4
Part-A
1.Define clock screw and clock drift.
The difference between the readings of any twoclocks is called their skew.A
clocks driftrate is the change in the offset (difference in reading) between the
clock and a nominal perfect reference clock per unit of time measured by the
reference clock.
2.Describe How will you synchronize physical clock?
Physical clock can be synchronizedby any one of the two methods. It is necessary
to synchronize theprocesses clocks, Ci, with an authoritative, external source of
time. This is externalsynchronization. And if the clocks Ciare synchronized with
one another to a known degree of accuracy, then the interval between two events
occurring at different computers at their local clocks are measured, even though
they are not necessarily synchronized to an external source of time. This is internal
synchronization.
3.What is Network time protocol?
The Network Time Protocol (NTP0 defines an architecture for atime service and a
protocol to distribute time information over the Internet. The aim of NTP is as
follows:
To provide a service enabling clients across the Internet to be synchronized
accurately to UTC
To provide a reliable service that can survive lengthy losses of connectivity
To enable clients to resynchronize sufficiently frequently to offset the rates
of drift
found in most computers
To provide protection against interference with the time service, whether
malicious
or accidental
4.Explain why is computer clock synchronization necessary
Clock synchronization is important to maintain theconsistency of distributed data
(the use of timestamps to serialize transactions), to check the authenticity of a
request sent to a server and to eliminate the processing of duplicate updates.
5.Define distributed mutual exclusion with its requirements.
In a distributed environment if a collection ofprocesses share a resource or
collection of resources, then distributed mutual exclusion is required to prevent
interference and ensure consistency when accessing the resources.
6. Define global state.
It is harder to collect the state of the collection of processes, There emerged an
agree on a time at which each process would record its state the result would be
an actual global state of the system.
7.Define cut and its types.
A cut of the systems execution is a subsetof its global history that is a union of
prefixes of process histories:
The set of events is called the frontier of the cut:

There are two types of cuts : Consistent cut and inconsistent cut. A cut is said to be
inconsistent if it shows an effect without cause, that is receipt of a message M is
included where as sending of M is not included in the cut. A cut is said to be
consistent if it includes both the sending and receipt of M and also sending of M
without including receipt of M also said to be consistent cut because receipt of M
is not assured.
8.Show what is the use of transaction?
A transaction defines a sequence of server operations that is guarenteed by the

server to atomic in the presence of multiple clients server crashes. The goal of
transactions is to ensure that all of the objects are manged by a server remain in a
consistent state when they are accessed by multiple transactions and in the
presence of server crahses.Transactions deal with crash failures of process and
omission failures in communication.
9.Formulate the ACID properties.
ACID represent the properties of transactions:
Atomicity : a transaction must be all or nothing.
Consistency : a transaction takes the system from one consistent state to another
consistent state.
Isolation
Durability
10.Illustrate what is concurrency control? Give its use.
Each server manages a set of objects and is responsible for ensuring that they
remainconsistent when accessed by concurrent transactions. Therefore, each server
is responsible for applying concurrency control to its own objects. The members of
a collection of servers of distributed transactions are jointly responsible for
ensuring that they are performed in a serially equivalent manner.
11.Show how will you make use of nested transaction? What are its rules?
Nested transaction allow transactions to be composed of other transactions. The
outermost transaction in a set of nested transaction is called the top-level
transaction. Transactions other than the top-level transaction are called
subtransaction.
Rules of Nested Transaction:
A transaction may commit or abort only after its child transactions have
completed.
When a sub transaction completes, it makes an independent decision either
to commit provisionally or to abort.
When a parent aborts, all of its sub transactions are aborted.
When a subtransaction aborts, the parent can decide whether to abort or not.
12.Define deadlock and starvation state.
A deadlock wouldinvolve two or more of the processes becoming stuck
indefinitely while attempting to enter or exit the critical section. starvation: the
indefinite postponement of entry for a process that has requested it.The absence of
starvation is a fairness condition. Another fairness issue is the order in which
processes enter the critical section.
13.What is multi version time stamp ordering?
In multi-version timestamp ordering a list of old committed versions as well as

tentative versions is kept for each object. This list represents the history of the
values of the object. The benefit of using multiple versions is that read operations
that arrive too late need not be rejected.
14.Formulate the need for atomic commit protocol.
The atomicity property of transactionsrequires that when a distributed transaction
comes to an end, either all of its operationsare carried out or none of them. In the
case of a distributed transaction, the client has requested operations at more than
one server. A transaction comes to an end when the client requests that it be
committed or aborted. A simple way to complete the transaction in an atomic
manner is for the coordinator to communicate the commit or abort request to all of
the participants in the transaction and to keep on repeating the request until all of
them have acknowledged that they have carried it out.
15.Define the two phase commit protocol.
The two-phase commit protocol is designed to allow any participant to abort itspart
of a transaction. Due to the requirement for atomicity, if one part of a transaction is
aborted, then the whole transaction must be aborted. In the first phase of the
protocol, each participant votes for the transaction to be committed or aborted.In
the second phase of the protocol, every participant in the transaction carries out the
joint decision. If any one participant votes to abort, then the decision must be to
abort the transaction. If all the participants vote to commit, then the decision is to
commit the transaction.
16.What are the task of recovery manager.
The tasks of a recovery manager are:
to save objects in permanent storage (in a recovery file) for committed
transactions;
to restore the servers objects after a crash;
to reorganize the recovery file to improve the performance of recovery;
to reclaim storage space (in the recovery file).
17.Analyze and list the need for transaction status and intentions list entries in
a recovery file?
18.DefineLinearizability and sequential consistency.

There are various correctness criteria forreplicated objects. The most strictly
correct systems are linearizable, and this property is called linearizability.A
replicated shared object service is said to be linearizable if for any executionthere
is some interleaving of the series of operations issued by all the clients that
satisfiesthe following two criteria:
The interleaved sequence of operations meets the specification of a (single)
correct copy of the objects.
The order of operations in the interleaving is consistent with the real times at
which the operations occurred in the actual execution.
19. Define sequential consistency.
A weaker correctness condition is sequential consistency, which captures an
essential requirement concerning the order in which requests are processed without
appealing to real time.
A replicated shared object service is said to be sequentially consistent if for any
execution there is some interleaving of the series of operations issued by all the
clientsthat satisfies the following two criteria:
The interleaved sequence of operations meets the specification of a (single)
correct copy of the objects.
The order of operations in the interleaving is consistent with the program order in
which each individual client executed them.
20.Summarize on coda file system.
Constant Data Availability(CODA) is distributed file system. The aim was to
provide users with the benefits of a shared file repository but to allow them to rely
entirely on local resources when the repository is partially or totally inaccessible.
In addition to these aims, Coda retains the original goals of AFS with regard to
scalability and the emulation of UNIX file semantics.
21. What are the requirements of Mutual Exclusion?
ME1: (safety) At most one process may execute in the critical section
(CS) at a time.
ME2: (liveness) Requests to enter and exit the critical section eventually
succeed.
ME3: (ordering) If one request to enter the CS happened-before another,
then entry to the CS is granted in that order.
UNIT-V
Two Mark questions
1. Define Process Migration and Process management.
Process migration deals with the movement of a process from its current
location to the processor to which it has been assigned.
Process management involves the activities aimed at defining a process
establishing responsibilities, evaluating process performance, identifying
and opportunities or improvement
2. Classify the desirable features of good process migration mechanism.
Transparency
Minimal Interference
Minimal Residual Dependencies
Efficiency
Robustness
Communication between coprocesses of a job
3. What are the advantages of process migration?
Reducing average response time of processes
Speeding up individual jobs
Gaining higher throughput
Utilizing resources effectively
Reducing network traffic
Improving system reliability
Improving system security
4. Define thread.
A thread is the entity within a process that can be scheduled for execution.
All threads of a process share its virtual address space and system
resources.It is a basic unit of CPU utilization used for improving a system
performance through parallelism.
5. List the advantages of thread.
Overheads involved in creating a new process is more than creating a
new thread.
Context switching between threads is cheaper than processes due to
their same address space.
Threads allow parallelism to be combined with sequential execution
and blocking system calls.
Resource sharing can be achieved more efficiently and naturally
between threads due to same address space.
6. What are the sub activities involved in process migration?
Freezing the process on its source node and restarting it on its
destination node.
Transferring the processs address space from its source node to its
destination node.
Forwarding massages meant for the migrant process.
Handling communication between cooperating processes that have
been separated
as a result of process migration.
7. Design how process migration be done in heterogeneous system?
All the concerned data must be translated from the source CPU format
to the destination CPU format before it can be executed on the
destination node.
A heterogeneous system having n CPU types must have n(n-1) pieces
of translation software.
Handles problem of different data representations such as characters,
integers and floating-point numbers.
8. List the models for organizing threads.
Dispatcher-workers model
Team model
Pipeline model
9. Analyze how signal handling is done?

Create a separate exception handler thread in each process.
Assign each thread its own private global variables for signaling
conditions.
10. Explain how thread scheduling is classified?
Priority assignment facility
Flexibility to vary quantum size dynamically
Handoff scheduling
Affinity scheduling
11. Distinguish static versus dynamic load balancing algorithm.
Static load balancing
Dynamic load balancing
Use only information about the
React to the system state that
average behavior of the system,
changes dynamically.
ignoring the current state of the
system.
Simpler because no need to maintain More
complex
and process system state information. algorithms.
Do not react to the current system
state.
than
static
React to the current system state.
12. Rank the issues in designing the load balancing algorithm.

Load estimation policy- to estimate workload of a node
Process transfer policy- decides to execute locally/remotely
State information exchange policy-Exchange state information among
nodes
Location policy-determines the transfer location
Priority assignment policy-determines the priority to execute
processes
Migration limiting policy-total number of times a process can migrate
13. Assess on the issues in designing the load sharing approaches.
Load sharing algorithms do not attempt to balance the average workload

on all the nodes of the system, rather they only attempt to ensure that no
node is idle when a node is heavily loaded.
The priority assignment policies and migration limiting policies
14. Give the techniques and methodologies for scheduling process of a
distributed system.
No a prior knowledge about the processes
Dynamic in nature
Quick decision making capability
Balanced system performance and scheduling overhead
Stability
Scalability
Fault tolerance
Fairness of service
15. What is Thread pool?
Thread pool consists of a number of threads in a pool where they await
work. This is slightly faster to service a request with an existing thread than
create a new thread. This allows the number of threads in the application to
be bound to the size of the pool.
16. Discuss the goals achieved by task assignment approach.
Minimization of IPC costs
Quick turnaround time for the complete process
A high degree of parallelism
Efficient usage of system resources
17. Point out the priority assignment rules.
Selfish -Local processes are given higher priority than remote
processes.
Altruistic- Remote processes are given higher priority than local
processes.
Intermediate- The priority of processes depends on the number of
local processes and the number of remote processes at the concerned
node.
18. List out location policies?
Threshold method
Shortestmethod
Biddingmethod
Pairingmethod
19. Discuss the migration limiting policies.
A decision about the total no. of times a process should be allowed to
migrate.
Two migration-limiting policies:
o Uncontrolled
o Controlled
20. Generalize state information exchange policies.
Periodic broadcast
Broadcast when state changes
On- demand exchange
Exchange by polling

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Cseitquestions.blogspot.

World wide web and peer-to-peer networks,

Internal problems: Non-synchronized clocks, conflicting data updates and many

Baseline physical model

3. What are the entities that communicate in distributed system?

6. What are the request reply protocols?

11. Where remote object reference is applied?

The style of programming promoted by RPC programming with interfaces;

Peer-to-peer systems share these characteristics:

2.Loads on routers are determined by

4. Classify the functional and nonfunctional requirements of peer to peer

offer time and complexity bounds on

Probabilistic and hence cannot offer

8.Classify the modules available in file system.

9.Express in diagram the file attributes record structure.

11.Explain the working of Andrew File system.

The set of events is called the frontier of the cut:

A transaction defines a sequence of server operations that is guarenteed by the

In multi-version timestamp ordering a list of old committed versions as well as

18.DefineLinearizability and sequential consistency.

9. Analyze how signal handling is done?

React to the current system state.

12. Rank the issues in designing the load balancing algorithm.

Load sharing algorithms do not attempt to balance the average workload

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