47

CHAPTER - 9

THE FINDINGS
General
Certain

postulates

or

inferences

are

derived/arrived at the end of each chapter. Such

inferences

or

postulates

are

incorporated

and

abridged to arrive at the findings. The chapter wise

findings are given in subsequent paragraphs.
9.1

Findings from the Review of Literature

(Chapter:2).
(a)

The wide range of the knowledge pertaining

to vstuvidya are spread over vedas, upavedas,

vedngas, samhitas, stras, stras, itihsas,
purnas, specific vstu texts by various authors,
translated works, commentaries, compilations,
interpretations, research works.
(b)

Vstustra considers the planning, design,

technological
constructions.

aspects
It

and

integrates

methodology
the

orientations, aesthetics and artifacts.

of

aspects,
Vstu

48

constructions are done as per proper dimensions

and

proportions

with

the

intrinsic

rhythm,

grammar and aesthetics.

(c)

There are well-established procedures for

the identification of the need, crya-varaa,

selection of location and site, considerations of
various

alternatives

in

the

decision-making,

design, planning and execution.

(d)

The temples are classified in several ways

by various authors based on the plan shapes,

sizes, number of storeys, built forms, interiors,
decorations,

materials

of

construction,

magnitude and artifacts. The shapes of Kerala

temples are limited to the regular shapes of
square, rectangle, circular, octagonal, elliptical
and apsidal.

The numbers of storeys are

restricted to three though there are descriptions

in text upto 16 storeys.
(e)

There are wide ranges of flexibility in-built in

vstuvidya

in

the

concepts,

canons

and

49

principles in the planning, design and execution

affording uniqueness to temple rikovils.

The

forward

the

and

rearward

integration

of

elements is evident in temple constructions.

(f)The concepts and cannons on the designs of
various

elements

are

variant

in

different

textbooks, requiring further references.

The

facts given element wise, in tabular form provide

easier comprehension in a comprehensive way,
helping students and teachers.
9.2. Findings from the Chapter-3 (The Hindu
Temples - a glance).
(a)

The Hindu Temples are buildings built for

installing the presiding deity for worshipping

according to the stras by application of various
proportionate

measurements

and

standards.

The rikovil also known as prsda has unique

exteriors and interiors, which please the eyes
and souls of both gods and men.

It utilises

gainfully the energy, talent, skill and leisure of

50

the members of the community. Prsda is of

Aryan origin and Vimna of Drvidian origin.
Prsda

indicates

the

rikovil

around

the

garbhagha. Vimna indicates palatial building,

may be main rikovil, prkras or gopuras.
(b)

The temples served as places of worships and

also helped in developing the knowledge, skill

and sets of concepts and cannons for planning,
design, construction and maintenance.
(c)

Kerala temples differ from the temples of

other parts of India in few ways. The number of

storeys is limited to three. gamic and tantric
cannons and culture dictate the temple designs.
The plan shapes are restricted to few regular
shapes. The decorations are simple and few.
Only one ikhara with sloping roof is provided.
The interiors are scantly decorated. The locally
available

and

durable

materials

are

used.

Invariably finales are provided over the roof. The

garbhagha is small, mukhamandapa is optional,

51

ripita a must, upapta is optional and adhisna

a must.

Pranla and sopna are invariably

provided.
9.3. Findings from Chapter- 4 (The Structural
Spaces and Built Forms of Temple rikovils
of Kerala).
(a)

Evolution

of

structural

spaces

and

forms. Temples were built and were existing in

Kerala much before Christian era.

In the early

phase (800 - 1000 AD) the temples were built on

square, rectangle, circular and apsidal ground
plans. Both nirandhara and sandhara types were
in vogue. Sarvatobhadra type existed. In square
temples mukhamandapas were projecting out.
In circular and apsidal rikovils the space in front
of garbhagha served as mukhamandapa. The
decorations were with recesses, niches and
projections. During the middle phase (1001 to
1300

AD)

the

interior

arrangements

like

antarbhitti, garbhagha as miniature vimna,

52

garbhaghas having square shapes, except in

apsidal rikovils, and instalation of consorts of
main idol in the same rikovil. The construction
of mata rikovils gained importance.

Many

temples of this period revealed the Drvida

traditions and fusion with Kerala traditions. The
elliptical plan shape was provided to rikovils
during this phase. During the late phase (1301
to 1800 AD) the emphasis got shifted to outside
the rikovil to gopuras, dvajas, balikkal puras
and ancillary constructions.

Copper sheeting

over timber roofs gained popularly. In the

modern phase (1801 to 2000) large number of
renovations and new constructions took place.
Use of cement concrete, reinforced cement
concrete, plaster of paris and other modern
materials came into existence.

Architecture of

prastra came into existence.

(b)

Antiquities

of

temple

rikovils.

The

antiquities of 7345 rikovils spread over seven

53

districts (Kasargod, Kannur, Kozhikode, Vayanad,

Malappuram,

Palakkad

and

Trissur)

could

be

obtained. It appears that maximum percentage of

temples was constructed between 200 to 600 years
back (55.2%). About 14% of rikovils are more than
1000 years old.

(c)

Horizontal

spaces

of

temples.

The

square rikovils are in majority followed by

rectangular and circular ones, apsidal rikovils
are few and so are the other shapes. The square
rikovils

have

mukhamandapas

square

garbhaghas

projecting

out.

In

and

circular

rikovils, the garbhaghas are mostly square and

rarely of circular shape.

Mukhamandapa are

adjusted with in rikovil itself in most of the

cases. Few cases of mukhamandapas projecting
out are also observed. Corridors are provided in
big rikovils, especially when there are upper
storeys.

Most of the apsidal rikovils have

garbhaghas of the same plan shape, yet,

54

square garbhaghas are also observed.

The

formulae for various ground plans are verified

with modern geometry and the percentages of
errors

are

found

to

be

negligibly

small

(maximum upto 0.56%).

(d) Vertical spaces. The effects of vertical spaces
come from the developments in Z axis over
horizontal spaces in X axis and Y axis. The
elements

considered

for

the

vertical

developments are foundation, addhra, upap

ta, padmapduka, adhisna, height of wall of
rikovil and their divisions, roof, finale, ceiling,
prastara and so on.

Most of the cannons are

based on the amakrama derived from the

prsda dandu, height from pduka to finale (both
inclusive), uttaradandu and wall height. Yoni
concepts are also prescribed in certain texts. Out
of 6435 rikovils which account for nearly 47% of
total numbers of temples in Kerala built as per
temple vstu, the maximum percentages are

55

single storeyed (88.3%), double storeyed coming

next (11.4 %) and three storeyed only 0.3%.
The levels at which ripitas installed are mostly
at the floor level. Variations are there with the
ripita at higher levels, lower levels or even at an
elevated

storey,

creating

variety

and

mouldings,

the

uniqueness.
(e)

Structural

forms.

The

projections, niches, openings, decorations of

various categories and the elevations constitute
the elements considered under structural forms
which give the looks, aesthetics, expressions of
the temple architecture, uniqueness to the
rikovils, the exquisiteness and grandeur. Many
of the elements constituting the structural forms
serve

as

contributing

secondary
towards

structural
stability,

members

strength

and

sustainability of the rikovils. The cannons given

in tabular form in very brief reveal the flexibility,
varieties

created

in

horizontal

and

vertical

56

spaces and forms. Amakrama is used for

proportioning

of

elements.

Aesthetics,

conveniences and beauty have their roles in the

development

of

structural

form

apart

from

amakrama. Wall decorations are progressive in

nature. Small rikovils have simple and few Wall
decorations

like

bhittikal,

ghaadvara

and

vedikas. As the rikovil sizes increase more

decorations are added progressively with out
clustering.

The Kerala temple architecture is

adopted for the decorations. It is simple, elegant

and expressive.
9.4. Findings from chapter- 5 ( Apsidal forms of
Kerala rikovils )
(a)

The knowledge about the apsidal form was

existent from 2nd century AD as observed from

archeological evidences. The basic ground plan
shape prescribed in most of the texts is a square
with semicircle at the back.

Mayamata only

indicates elongated square with elongation in

57

the length.

However, the apsidal rikovils

in

Kerala are basically square with semicircle at the

back. The detailed descriptions are very few in
textural works on the apsidal forms.
(b)

The percentage of apsidal rikovils in Kerala

is about 0.5. The total number of such rikovils

is around 30 out of which 28 are 'listed'.
rikovils

mentioned

in

published

works

Two
on

verification at site were found to be of square

plan shape.
(c)

Out of 28 apsidal rikovils, only two of them

are in the category of mahprsdas and are

three storeyed. Ten of them are two soreyed and
the rest 16 of them are single storeyed. Out of
28 apsidal rikovils, 13 of them are iva temples,
10 of them sta/Ayyappa temples and others
like Vmana, Sankaranryana, Subramania and
Devi temples put together account only five.
(d)

Maximum number of apsidal rikovils are in

Trissur and Malappuram districts (8 and 9

58

respectively).

Kasargod, Kannur, Kozhikode,

Vynad districts have 3, 2, 2, 2 apsidal rikovils

respectively.

Palghat and Kottayam districts

have one each. Most of the apsidal rikovils are

of very ancient and ancient origins.
stood for centuries.

They with

Five apsidal rikovils are

either renovated or being renovated.

(e)

The roof of the apsidal rikovil consists of

pitched roof over the square portion and half

right circular cone over the curved portion. The
roofing in curved cone portion with tiles is
difficult. Often, the apex is in polygonal shape.
Copper sheeting has no such difficulty.
(f)The axial symmetry in apsidal form exists only
about Y axis. There is no symmetry about X axis
and Z axis. The centre of gravity in the plan is
about 0.7 of the length of the side from the front
line. The

planning, design and construction

require special care.

59

(g)

The back portion being curved in plan the

bhittialankras

at

rear

corners

and

curved

portions need modifications.

(h)

The garbhaghas are mostly of the same

shape as of the rikovils. Yet, square shaped

garbhagha in apsidal rikovil also exist.
small

rikovils

do

not

have

Few

separate

garbhaghas and the walls of the rikovils merge

with the garbhaghas as ghanabhitti.
(i) The mukhamandapas are provided except in
very small rikovils within the rikovil itself.

In

very few cases tirthamandapas are provided in

addition to mukhamandapas projecting out side.
(j) Antarlas are provided except in small rikovils.
The walls of antarlas support the top storey in
many cases. There are two ktas and two stpis
invariably. In few cases one more kta between
the two main ktas is provided.
(k)

In the absence of textural descriptions in

detail on the designs and constructions of

60

apsidal rikovils, the rules applicable to square

and

circular

rikovil

(since

apsidal

is

combination) may be applied except in the plan

shapes and sizes with logical modifications
deemed necessary.
9.5. Chapter- 6. Findings from Case studies of
Apsidal rikovils.
Out of 28 apsidal rikovils listed, brief case
studies are carried out on 22 rikovils spread
over various regions of the state. Twenty-one
rikovils are considered for comparisons as one
is found to be a bit odd. The diagrams of plans
are prepared and presented to high light the
variations.

They

may

be

documentation on these rikovils.

temples

are

photographed

and

useful

as

Most of the
presented.

Discussions on over all observations are made.

Each case study has something special.

The

findings may be read in conjunction with the

61

details given in the case studies. The findings in

brief are given below:
(a)

Structural spaces. The plan spaces for all

rikovils are apsidal with three sides straight

with semicircle at the back of square.

The

elongation of the square in Y direction is absent.

The majority of prsda widths ranged from 3 kol
paria to 15 kol paria (alpaprsda). Only two
rikovils are found belonging to mahprsdas.
About 70.5% of prsdas belong to 3 to 7 kol
paria and 23.5 % belong to 12 to 15 kol paria.
About

81%

of

rikovils

have

separate

garbhaghas, others being small rikovils do not

have separate garbhaghas. About 95% of the
garbhaghas are of apsidal shape and 5% is of
square

garbhaghas.

garbhaghas

About

have either

71%

of

the

turavu or ceiling.

About 76% of rikovils have mukhamandapas

and are inside the rikovil.

In two cases

tirthamandapas projecting out have been found.

62

The presence of two antarlas is indicative of

higher storey.

The mere presence of one

antarlas is not indicative of upper storey.

For

small rikovils, the antarla may be considered

as merged with the external wall. Two rikovils,
are three storeyed, 10 are two storeyed (47%)
and the balance 9 (43%) are single storeyd. The
wall heights of single storeyed rikovils vary
from 140 to 180 cm. The wall heights of higher
storeys appear to be 0.5th to 0.8th times of the
lower storeys indicating reductions in heights at
higher storeys.

The ripitas are placed at the

same level of the rikovils in 12 rikovils, 8 at

higher levels and one at lower level.

Texts do

not mention the levels and yet, variations are

found to exist.
sopnas.

Nineteen rikovils, are having

One small rikovil and another one

with the ripita below the floor level do not have

sopnas.

There are 14 sopnas with straight

flights, three from the sides and two having the

63

combination of flights from the sides up in the

top of upapta and then straight going to the
rikovil.

Texts refer to the straight flights and

from the sides only. The combination is a ground

reality. The pranlas are placed on the Northern
wall for all rikovils whether facing East or West.
There is only one rikovil

having doors in all

directions. There are three rikovils which have

two doors and second door faces the extra deity.
Ghanadvras are provided in the positions where
doors do not exist in the respective cardinal
direction. The door sizes vary from 56 to 106 cm
in width and 125 to 212 cm in height. The width:
height ratio is very near to 1:2. The amkrama
is not found existing in very small rikovils,
where the convenience may be taken as the
logic.

In bigger rikovils, the amakrama is

nearly valid.
(b)

Structural forms.

Padmapduka

is an

optional element. It is found only in one rikovil.

64

Upapta is also an optional element. Only five

rikovils are having upaptas. The projections of
upapta are found to be around 40 cm in four
cases. In one case the projection is 165 cm and
it serves as a covered verandah. Most of the
rikovils

(90%)

have

the

adhisnas

of

pancavarga type (pduka, jagati, kumuda, gala

and pati).

Only one small rikovil has trivarga

type and in one case, it

has pancavarga plus

valaru and kapota over the top pati. The heights

of adhisnas vary from 36 to 140 cm. The off
sets vary from 6 to 40 cm approximately.

The

proportioning of the heights and projection of the

sub parts of the adhisnas also vary. Almost all
rikovils have vedikas around rikovil, mostly
with six divisions.
separate

vedikas

Few big temples have

for

the

projecting

bhittialankras. The bhittialankras are simple,

progressive and as per texts.

The projections

vary from 1/8th to the full width of the exterior

65

walls. The bhittialankras apart from aesthetics

strengthen the walls. In 48% of the rikovils gr
vas and 48% of the rikovils valaru and kapota
are provided.

Grvas help in attaining height

and valaru, kapota apart from aesthetics provide

additional

space

for

accommodating

the

members of the ceilings. The roofs are of timber

with tiles or copper sheet coverings in most of
the cases.

Combination of tiles and copper

sheeting are also found. RCC roofs are found in

19% of rikovils, which are found in renovated
rikovils.

It appears that Vstu experts and

tantris are amenable to the use of modern

materials.

Out of 21 rikovils three have no

stpis. The number of finales varies. There are

one stpi each (24%), two stpis (5%) and three
stpis (57%) found on rikovils. Almost all
rikovil roofs have elegant nsikas except the
nsikas provided in RCC roof. About 48% of
temples have vikambhas with level plates and

66

blaktas. Apart from architectural beauty these

members provide supports to the overhangs of
the rafters. In 4 rikovils wooden trellise works
out side the outer walls were found which
function as protection to the murals and serve as
dpamla and alankra.

The trellise works also

support the overhangs of rafters as secondary

function.
(c)

Construction

materials.

Most

of

the

temples (95%) have granite adhisnas and

parts below. The walls are of laterite in most of
the rikovils and few are of brick constructions.
About 24% of main doors are also found to be of
granite.

Bhittialankras are provided with the

same materials used for walls.

Sopnas and

prnalas are found to be of granite.

Roofing

materials are of copper plates (66%), or tiles

(15%). RCC (19%) roofs were found in renovated
ones. Ceilings are provided with timber. Turavus
are provided by corbelling of stones/bricks. Only

67

time tested, strong and durable materials are

used in the constructions of rikovils. RCC has
been a new trend.

Use of time tested, strong

and durable materials may be one of the reasons

for the long life of rikovils.
9.6 Findings from Chapter- 7 (Presentation of
Data, Analysis and Inferences).
The findings are grouped under the different
headings.
9.6.1 Interviews

with

tantries

and

vstu

experts.
There are number of common information
from tantries and Vstu experts. The findings
are clubbed together to avoid over lapping
and repetitions.

The weighted averages are

adopted in the findings. The findings are:

(a)

The percentages of rikovils with Viu, iva

and akti pratitas are very nearly equal,

28%, 26% and 32%. Others account for 14%
indicating

existence

of

no

separate

cult.

68

However, tantris expressed the views that the

circular rikovils are dominated by iva and
apsidal rikovils by iva and asta.
(b) The weighted averages of 7345 rikovils
(Table 4.1) and 2837 rikovils (Table 7.2)
indicates that 14% of rikovils are more than
1000 years old, 36% between 500 and 1000
years old, 39% less than 500 years old. The
antiquity of about 11% of temples is unknown.
The indication is that majority of the temples
are five or more centuries old.
(c)

The weighted averages of the plan shapes

of 7226 rikovils (Table 4.12), 2837 (Table

7.3.2) and 3251 (Table 7.4.1) are found to be
(i) square 76.8%, (ii) rectangle 11.4%, (iii)
circle 11.1%, (iv) apsidal 0.5% and others
0.2%.

Ngara type (square and rectangles)

dominate with (about 88%).

(circle) about 11%.
1%.

Vesara type

Other types are hardly

69

(d) The weighted average of 2837 rikovils and

3251 rikovils (information from tantris and
vstu

experts)

regarding

the

shape

of

garbhaghas are (i) square 98.3%, (ii) apsidal

0.5% and (iii) only 0.2% are different from
these.
(e)

The weighted averages of 6435 rikovils

(table 4.12) and 2837 rikovils (Table 7.2.4)

workout to be (i) single storeyed 86.3%, (ii)
two storeyed 13.4% and (iii) only 0.3% three
storeyed.
(f)The bhittialankras are progressive in nature
from simple bhithikkal to complex alankras
according to the sizes of the rikovils.
(g) The main reasons found for the long life of
rikovil by the two groups in common are:
accurate

designs,

adherence

to

Vstu

principles, peculiar plan shapes, gradual and

careful constructions, proper proportioning,
use of strong materials, strong constructions

70

and timely repairs. Some more reasons given

which evoke thinking are radha in every
aspect, the stalamahtmya, belief of devotees,
routine worships, festivals and the protections
given by prkras.
(h) The principles adopted in the planning,
design and construction are based on the
Vstusastra, the tradition, local practices, guru
upadsa and logic. However, the desire of the
owner, the capabilities of the ilpins and the
culture of the society also play dominant roles
in the temple architecture.
(i) The influences of other states in the structural
spaces and forms of Kerala
limited

to

borders

of

Tamil

rikovils are
Nadu

and

Karnataka. The influences are in the form of

garbhagha, ikhara and alankras.
Vstu

experts

are

in

favour

of

Many
certain

adoptions with in principles of Vstusstra and

gamas.

71

(j) The general state of maintenance of rikovils

has been graded as, poor, fair, good and very
good in the order of ranking, Temples with
poor income are generally ignored.
(k)

The plan shapes and spaces provide the

base for the structural spaces and forms. The

styles in pure and combinations reflect the
culture and form of worship.
(l) The

peculiarities

basically

the

of
plan

apsidal
shape,

rikovils
the

are
three

dimensional aspects, alankras, predominantly

same

shaped

garbhaghas,

difficulties

in

construction, lack of axial symmetries in the

vertical and lateral directions and dominated
by iva and asta pratitas (case studies
confirm these peculiarities)
9.7 Findings

from

the

Interviews

with

Engineers.
(a)

Engineers

expressed

thoughtful

and

pragmatic views, yet showed reverences to the

72

concepts and principles of vstusastra, especially

in the case of temple rikovils.
(b)

There

are

definite

relations

with

the

horizontal shapes, structural spaces and forms of

rikovils, which contribute to the durability of
temple rikovils.
(c)

The scientific designs based on the suitable

shapes and spacial structures, gradual and

strong construction, high quality control, close
supervision, use of strong materials, use of time
tested preservatives, periodic maintenance and
repairs contribute towards the durability of
rikovils. The location and selection of site have
bearing on the durability.

Prkaras provide

protection to rikovils.
(d)

The special geometry, reduction of plan

sizes and heights at higher storeys bringing the

higher mass at the base, axial symmetries and
strong

foundation

contribute

towards

sustainability and stability of rikovils.

the

73

(e)

Divergent

views

were

expressed

by

engineers on the modernilisation in the planning,

design,

construction,

methodology
selection.

in
Few

project

construction
felt

that

management,
and

the

procedures are to be continued.

material

time-tested
Others are in

favour of changing with the technological age

and modernisation.
(f)

The engineers projected strong views on the

integration of vstu concepts, cannons, principles
and practices with modern engineering and
technology. The temple rikovils are to be built
with the aim of nearly zero maintenance. They
felt the need to train the traditional artisans in
the

state

of

art

of

temple

constructions/

maintenance.

9.8 Findings

from

Discussions.

the

Site

Visits

and

74

(a)

There is strong need to document the

temples including structural details.

(b)

Varieties

in

the

rikovils

are

attained

through variations in the horizontal and vertical

spaces and forms through the flexibility offered
in the designs and constructions.
(c)

Gajapsta

rikovils

represent

the

combination of Ngara and Vesara traditions and

combination of satva and raja gunas.
(d)

There is a need to unify and standardise the

many types of kols, preferably to the kisku ( 24

Angulas, 72 cm in length).
(e)

The varieties brought uniqueness to each

temple rikovil.

Yet, among the diversities the

unity in the concepts, principles and expressions

prevailed.
(f)

The points emerged during site visits and

discussions may read in connection with the
findings to know the range of views and varieties
on ground.

75

9.9

Findings

from

the

Engineering

Discussions.
The engineering discussions add new dimensions
in the approach to the study.
under

the

headings

of

The discussion

structural

spaces,

structural forms, and materials of constructions,

factors contributing towards the sustainability,
strength, stability and durability of rikovils,
structural characteristics of apsidal rikovils and
strengthening measures against seismic effects
bring out the engineering visions and foresights
of the ancient vstu experts.

There are vstu

concepts and principles, which coincide with the

modern engineering.

It appears that certain

concepts of vstu are deductive and inductive as

they are interrelated. All discussions have their
own relevance. Certain common findings are
given below:
(a)

The structural spaces, both horizontal and

vertical

through

regular

shapes,

spaces,

76

proportioning,
symmetries,

sequential
strong

base

supports,
and

axial

foundations,

strengthening by lateral supports and secondary

elements contribute substantially towards the
strength, stability, sustainability and durability of
rikovils.
(b)

Selection and use of time tested strong and

durable materials, gradual constructions, high

quality control, use of preservatives, timely
maintenance

and

repairs,

proper

up

keep,

constructional details avoiding irregularities and

projections individually and in combinations help
in the long life of rikovils.
(c)

The elements of the form apart from

providing architectural and aesthetic beauty and

creating uniqueness in several cases serve as
secondary

structural

members

providing

strength, stability and sustainability to rikovils.

(d)

The concepts and principles of designs and

constructions to resist wind load and seismic

77

effects

are

inherent

in

the

designs

and

constructions of rikovils.
(e)

The apsidal rikovils have all of the above

features except the symmetries of the axes

about the orthogonal directions.
(f)The system processes (sub system and system)
and integration of the elements into the whole
are evident in the design and construction of
rikovils.

Pre-engineering

the

whole

programmes of design and construction requires

special mentions.
(g)

The vstustra and vstu experts are more

or less amenable to the adoption of new

technologies, methodologies, practices, project
management and work methods with in the
frame work of the vstu concepts cannons,
principles and practices. Engineering need to be
integrated into the system and evolve unified
approach

to

the

planning,

design

and

construction with improved accuracy, speed

78

economy and splendor. It needs full appreciation

for what has been done in the past by our
ancestors.