Nile

THE NILE
THE NILE
Histories,
Cultures,
Myths
edited by
Haggai Erlich and Israel Gershoni
b o u l d e r
l o n d o n
Published in the United States of America in 2000 by

Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.
1800 30th Street, Boulder, Colorado 80301
www.rienner.com
and in the United Kingdom by
Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.
3 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8LU
2000 by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Nile: histories, cultures, myths / edited by Haggai Erlich and
Israel Gershoni.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 1-55587-672-2 (hc. : alk. paper)
1. Nile River ValleyCivilization.
DT115.N45 1999
962dc21
99-21066
CIP
British Cataloguing in Publication Data
A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book
is available from the British Library.
Printed and bound in the United States of America
The paper used in this publication meets the requirements

of the American National Standard for Permanence of
Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48-1984.
5 4 3 2 1
In memory of David Ayalon,

19141998
Contents
xi
xii
Acknowledgments
Map of the Nile Basin
Introduction
PART 1
2
3
4
5
6
PEOPLES AND IDENTITIES IN MEDIEVAL TIMES
The Spread of Islam and the Nubian Dam

David Ayalon
17
Ethiopias Alleged Control of the Nile

Richard Pankhurst
25
Consolidation of Christianity Around the Source

of the Blue Nile
Paul Henze
39
Did Jewish Influence Reach Ethiopia via the Nile?

Steven Kaplan
57
Arab Geographers, the Nile, and the History of

Bilad al-Sudan
Nehemia Levtzion
71
vii
viii
Contents
PART 2
THE NILE AS SEEN FROM A DISTANCE
7 Up the River or Down the River? An Afrocentrist Dilemma

Yaacov Shavit
8
9
10
11
Renaissance Geographical Literature and the Nile

Benjamin Arbel
105
The Legend of the Blue Nile in Europe

Emery van Donzel
121
The Gondar Utopia

Joachim Warmbold
131
The Nile as a Gateway for Missionary Activity in

Abyssinia
Uoldelul Chelati Dirar
139
PART 3
12
13
14
15
OLD WATERS, MODERN IDENTITIES
The Father of Rivers: The Nile in Ethiopian Literature

Bairu Tafla
153
Brothers Along the Nile: Egyptian Concepts of Race

and Ethnicity, 18951910
Eve Troutt Powell
171
Egypt, Ethiopia, and The Abyssinian Crisis, 19351936

Haggai Erlich
183
Geographers and Nationalism in Egypt: Huzayyin and the

Unity of the Nile Valley, 19451948
Israel Gershoni
199
PART 4
16
17
18
79
CONTEMPORARY VOICES
The Aswan High Dam and Revolutionary Symbolism

in Egypt
Yoram Meital
219
The Nile in Egyptian-Sudanese Relations, 19561995

Gabriel Warburg
227
Removing the Nubians: The Halfawis at Khashm al-Girba

Ismail H. Abdalla
235
Contents
19
20
ix
In Search of the Nile Waters, 19002000

Robert O. Collins
245
Conclusion: Historical Legacies and Present Concerns

269
Bibliography
The Contributors
Index
About the Book
273
291
295
305
Acknowledgments
The Nile: Histories, Cultures, Myths was first conceived as a conference

held at Tel Aviv University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in
May 1997. Our general ideato gather historians of Egypt, Sudan, and
Ethiopia to initiate an all-Nile scholarly dialoguewas approved by
friends and colleagues who joined the steering committee: Nehemia
Levtzion, Yoram Meital, Ehud R. Toledano, Gabriel Warburg, and Joachim
Warbold. We thank them all, and in particular Tami Sarfatti, the conference
coordinator, who personally made it a memorable event. We also want
to thank all those who sponsored the conference and this book: Yoram
Dinstein, then president of Tel Aviv University, Dan Amir, the rector, Marcello Daskal, the dean of humanities, Shulamit Volkov, head of the School
of History. Professor Levtzion of the Hebrew University, then heading the
Van Leer Jerusalem Institute, came forward with generous help, as did
Dror Zeevi, head of the Herzog Center for the Study of the Middle East
and Diplomacy, Ben Gurion University.
The conference was attended by forty scholars from Egypt, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Israel, Sudan, and the United States. All of them presented papers, each adding a new special dimension to our main all-regional, multicultural theme. Most papers were of the same quality and value as those
eighteen we had to select for this volume. It is with the deepest appreciation that we thank all the historians and friends who contributed to our
project. We also want to thank Rachel Yurman and Lydia Gosher for their
professional preparation of the manuscript, and Lynne Rienner and her
staff for seeing this volume to press with both pleasantness and efficiency.
H. E.
I. G.
xi
Ankara
Lesbos
L. Van
L. Tuz
Ardabil
Athens
Caspian Sea
T U R K E Y
GREECE
Tehran
Aegean Sea
Rhodes
Crete
SYRIA
CYPRUS
Beirut
I R A
Damascus
LEBANON
Baghdad
Mediterranean Sea
Esfahan
ISRAEL
Tel Aviv
Amman
Alexandria
Dead Se
I R A Q
Suez Canal
JORDAN
Suez
Cairo
Shiraz
KUWAIT
Persian
Gulf
S A U D I
Ni
L I B Y A
El - M i n y a
A R A B I A
le
BAHRAIN
R.
E G Y P T
Ad Dawhah
QATAR
Riyadh
Medina
As wa n
Abu Dhabi
U. A. E.
Lake
Nasser
Red Sea
Mecca
C H A D
Port Sudan
le
Ni
R.
At
S U D A N
ba
Khartoum
ra
Sala
Al Ghaydan
Asmara
Khashm
al-Girba
Sanaa
ERITREA
Y E M E N
A l Fa s h i r
Suqutra
Nile
White Nile
Blue
Mekele
DJIBOUTI
Djibouti
Dire Dawa
Addis Ababa
I N D I A N
ETHIOPIA
CENTRAL
AFRICAN
REPUBLIC
I
L
Juba
Lake Turkana
A
M
O
S
C O N G O
Mogadishu
Lake Albert
UGANDA
K E N Y A
The
Nile Basin
Lake
RWANDA
L. Kivu
Victoria
Nairobi
Kigali
Bukavu
M wa n z a
Bujumbura
B U R U N D I
Mombasa
Ta b o r a
Ka l e m i
T A N Z A N I A
Kananga
L. Tanganyika
Kamina
Lake
Mweru
Mbeya
L. Malawi
Ta n g a
Zanzibar Island
Dar es Salaam
O C E A N
Introduction
Haggai Erlich & Israel Gershoni
The Nile River is one water system, but it is not a homogenous geographical, climatic, or ecological unit. It originates in the broken highlands of Ethiopia, land of the Blue Nile, and in the vast areas of great
lakes and huge swamps of central Africa and southern Sudan, the lands of
the White Nile. The two rivers unite, then flow into the narrow valley of
Egypt, bringing life to humankind and society from their very incipience.
The Niles geographical versatility has always been the theater of human
diversity. Over centuries, the peoples living along the river shaped various cultures, practiced different religions, spoke many languages, and
made the Nile basin a vast symbolic space of countless experiences and
identities. The Nile was not only a reality of geography and waters but an
arena of multiple human concepts, myths, and discourses. It was the environment of intercultural dialogues, of the continuous interplay between
mutual recognition and denial, assimilation and rejection. The river was
one of the first human cognitive maps that interpreted the symbiosis of
ecology and life by molding it into concepts and images. It was one of the
earliest cradles in which humans coped with nature, a space in which experiences were organized and translated into ideas, practices, beliefs, and
orientations.
The Nile, as both the site of early beginnings as well as the space of
mysterious diversity, has captured the human imagination since the earliest civilizations have resided along its banks. The enigma of its sources,
the life it gave to barren areas, and the capricious nature of its vital flow
have produced endless speculation and legends. The realities and myths of
the river personified have been retold and reproduced from early ancient
times to the present.
1
Introduction
The geographical diversity of the Nile can be conveniently categorized and identified. In this volume we shall confine ourselves to the territories of Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan. For Egypt, the gift of the Nile,
the river was the source of life as well as the backbone connecting its
upper regions with the lower country. For Ethiopia, the Blue Nile, known
as the Abbay, was a huge gorge, disconnecting provinces and stealing
away precious waters. For Sudan, the midland, the river was both a bridge
and a barrier. Indeed, in its dual role as both bridge and barrier the Nile
also provided a shared context for the evolution of historical relations between these three regions.
By its natural cyclical rhythms and its ever imposing presence, the
Nile embodied continuity and harmony. Its physical forces shaped and influenced the nature of the riparian civilizations. Cultural forces, however,
worked in noncyclical rhythms to create multifaceted human transformations that, in their turn, produced the countless images of the Nile. Conceptualizing the river was often a matter of defining ones identity, of both
ones self and the other. Cultural representations of the Nile acquired different forms and contents and were multiplied continuously in space and
time. From ancient times to the medieval period, and then to the modern
and the contemporary eras, among the Egyptian delta, the Sudanese sudd,
and Ethiopias Lake Tana, the Nile always meant different things to different peoples. It often also managed to foil those who strived to unify it, to
render it one-dimensional, to mobilize it to serve a single identity or cause.
These included builders of ancient civilizations, disseminators of monotheistic religions, imperial conquerors, local modern nationalists, revolutionary visionaries, missionaries, scientists, travelers, distant romantic
admirers, Orientalist observers, and contemporary advocates of Afrocentrism. They, and others, tried in vain to create, by practice or by imagination, one Nile, one reality, one legend.
Our volume takes note of the concepts and representations molded by
proponents of monolithic unity. However, it is primarily devoted to reflecting the Niles rich diversity, to recording its many voices. Our Nile is
a heterogeneous entity, a polysystem of cultures, interpretations, representations, and dialogues. It is a world of varied symbolism with different,
often competing modes of memory, rituals, ceremonies, and artistic expressions, all describing the supposedly same Nile but creating different
portraits, reflecting human diversity in continuous change. In this spirit,
two interrelated themes seem to stand out. The first is that cultural, geographical, and historical barriers separated the Niles major cultures, underlining their distinctive identities but also hampering shared experience, mutual understanding, and cooperation. The second is that myth, mystery, and
misconceptions were magnified where direct communication lagged behind.
Introduction
The world of Nile symbolism is indeed imbued with hope and gratitude to nature, but also with anxiety, fear, and suspicion. Perhaps the last
episode of mystery, embodying the old anxieties, occurred in 1987. After
several years of drought in Ethiopia, the waters of Lake Nasser sank to an
unprecedented level. Production of electricity in the Aswan High Dams
station had to be halted, and predictions in Egypt and abroad were so
alarming that experts believed that the river was about to virtually dry up
due to climatic changes. Mother Nature, to be sure, soon sent the relief of
rain, but could people cope with such eventualities by emancipating themselves from their own inheritances of myths and misunderstandings?
Could the Egyptians, Sudanese, Ethiopians, and other children of the great
river join together in a common effort, build a better future for their rich
human diversity?
The literature on the Nile is vast and varied. Practically everything
published on the Niles countries, historical or artistic, scientific or fictitious, reflects the centrality of the river in their stories. However, academic
discussion of the Nile, its human ecology and history, has tended to be
fragmented, essentialist, and reductionist. It appears that too little has been
done to combine history, anthropology, political science, and strategic
studies to provide the multidimensional insights into the human story of
the greater Nile. Scholars and observers of Egypt tended, not unjustifiably,
to relate the river to the Middle East, to the land of Islam, to the Mediterranean. They neglected its southern section, the Niles backyard, almost
entirely. Historians of the Sudan linked it to Egypt, Islam, and Africa but
rarely discussed its Ethiopian relations. Ethiopianists, on their part, tended
to make their observations in the context of Ethiopias uniqueness, and
have begun only lately to relate them to the broader African context. They
seldom resorted to Ethiopias Oriental, Egyptian, Middle Eastern contexts.
Indeed, in the generation previous to todays these branches of knowledge
seemed to have drifted further apart. Perhaps this was partly due to contemporary politics. During the 1950s, both Emperor Haile Selassie and
President Gamal Abdel Nasser diverted their national orientations elsewhere. Emperor Selassie first opted to turn his back on an increasingly
revolutionary Middle East, finally breaking the sixteen-centuries-old institutionalized affiliation of Ethiopian Christianity with the Egyptian Coptic
Church in June 1959 and making African diplomacy his major sphere of
political interest. President Nasser broke away from the modern concept of
Nile Valley unity, which had motivated Egyptian nationalism from the late
nineteenth century, and reoriented his politics on Arab nationalism and the
regional politics of the Fertile Crescent and the Arab-Israeli conflict. Simultaneous structural changes in the academic world seemed to combine
and widen the gap. The emerging African studies departments of the 1960s
Introduction
embraced Ethiopian history, absorbing it in their very core. This Africanization of Ethiopian history was justified from every scholarly angle except for the resulting overmarginalization of the very vivid Eastern dimension of the countrys culture and foreign relations. Ethiopianists of the
previous generation were usually trained to link their findings to the general studies of sub-Saharan Africa, and far less to those of Egypt, Sudan,
the Red Sea Basin, and the Arab East. To a certain extent this was also the
rule for Egyptian and Sudanese historiographies. Here the academic paradigm to ignore the Ethiopian connection fostered during the 1950s was not
only convenient in terms of scholarly training and immediate political relevance, but it also seemed to echo the old Islamic tradition: Leave the
Ethiopians alone as long as they leave you alone. Silhouetted against this
background, our volume is an attempt to capture the gist of interrelations
in both their cultural and practical dimensions. The very convergence here
between scholars of Egypt, Sudan, Islam, and the Arabs on the one hand,
and of Ethiopianists, Africanists, and historians of Christianity and of
Ethiopian Judaism on the other, is an innovation in itself.
The idea behind the present volume could therefore be defined as reestablishing eye contact. As will be mentioned in some of the chapters,
local tradition on all sides worked to blur such contact. The emergence of
modern national identities and revolutionary ideas did little to demystify
old mutual concepts. However, a renewed endeavor to analyze both historical relevance and cultural attitudes will, hopefully, better clarify the
legacies of the past.
Our first chapter, The Spread of Islam and the Nubian Dam by
David Ayalon, focuses on a very significant military event of the seventh
century. As conquering Arab armies thrust forward from the Arabian
Peninsula, creating the basis for the Muslim world empire, they were, for
a very long time, checked only on the banks of the Nile at a point not far
from todays Aswan High Dam. The Nubians, a Christian people of military valor and skill, defeated the Muslims and were able to maintain their
power up to the thirteenth century. Egypt, as an Islamic state, was unable
to spread institutionalized Islam beyond the metaphoric Nubian Dam
prior to Muhammad Alis conquest of the Sudan during the 1820s. Ayalon
surveys the relevant Islamic literature and its readiness to admit failure. He
also analyzes the far-reaching consequences for both Islam and Egypt.
We were fortunate that David Ayalon, one of the greatest historians of
medieval and late medieval Islamic societies, contributed to our volume.
His chapter here is the last fruit of his unique scholarship. Ayalons observations underline a major theme in our book, that no single culture has
ever managed to disseminate itself throughout the entire Nile basin. Islam,
in its heyday, like earlier and later civilizations and systems from the early
Introduction
pharaohs to modern Western imperialists and contemporary national revolutionaries, was forced to cope with such barriers along the river.
Ayalon notes that the victory of the Christian Nubians was recognized
legally by Islam. Perhaps more important, and more clearly recognized by
Islamic tradition, was the ability of Christian Ethiopia to maintain its independence and check Islamic political influence from the direction of the
Red Sea. The fact that the Christian Ethiopian empire controlled the Blue
Nile region constituted another cultural barrier along the river. It was
bridged by the speculated assumption that Ethiopia was in a position to
threaten the very life of Egypt, a myth that agitates politics to this very
day. In the next chapter, Ethiopias Alleged Control of the Nile, Richard
Pankhurst demystifies this idea. He exhausts the relevant literature and
Ethiopian chronicles, discussing in detail the issue during Ethiopias
golden Solomonic period of 12701527, which corresponded to Egypts
golden age under the Mamluks, 12501517. Pankhurst concludes that no
concrete effort had been undertaken by the Ethiopian emperors to interfere
with the flow of the river, but the myth influenced Ethiopian-Egyptian medieval and early modern multifaceted relations for centuries. Pankhurst
also discusses the spread of the myth to Christian Europe and its treatment
and gradual demystification by later observers and scholars.
Paul Henze, in his chapter, Consolidation of Christianity Around the
Source of the Blue Nile, summarizes several local traditions and myths
related to the introduction of Christianity in this strategically vital area by
Mary and Christ themselves. He then analyzes the early spread of the
Ethiopian Church in the Blue Nile area during the thirteenth century, and
exemplifies its later processes of consolidation as reflected in the history
of the local monastery of Mertule Maryam, the home of Mary, established
in the fifteenth century. Henzes vivid narrative acquires a new dimension
in view of Ayalons Nubian Dam. The region of the Blue Nile was inhabited by pagans such as the Wayto, the Agaw, and the Gumuz peoples, who
fell under Ethiopias Christian emperors of the Solomonic period some six
centuries after Islam was halted near Aswan. What if Islam had defeated
the Nubians? What would have prevented the spread of the Islamic empire
across the Blue Nile? How different would our entire story be?
But the region of the Blue Nile fell to Ethiopia, and Ethiopian Christianity added a cultural, religious dimension to the ensuing EthiopianEgyptian politics. A collection of tales of the miracles of the Virgin Mary
was incorporated into Ethiopian literature by transmission through the
Egyptian Coptic Church and translated from Arabic into Ethiopic (Geez)
during the reign of Emperor Dawit (13881413). The latter, as we are told
by Pankhurst, fought with Egypts Mamluks who threatened to block the
Nile. According to the stories, the Virgin advised David, in response to his
Introduction
prayers, to block the river prior to his marching to meet the Egyptians in
the battlefield. When the Muslims witnessed the resulting low level of the
Nile in Egypt, they appealed to the emperor for peace. (A new version of
the Miracles of Mary was introduced into Ethiopia during the second half
of the nineteenth century, a period of renewed Ethio-Egyptian conflict.)
Another aspect of religious history gives Steve Kaplan an opportunity
to discuss the Ethiopian-Egyptian cultural connection. In his chapter, Did
Jewish Influence Reach Ethiopia via the Nile? Kaplan examines the
sources and literature of the Falashas origins, and criticizes the proponents of the Nilotic theory. Kaplan believes that Beta Israels Judaism
stemmed from the very culture and history of Christian Ethiopia and was
not the result of outside influences. He thus criticizes the Judaeocentric approach to Falasha history, as well as the ideas of Afrocentrists who perceive ancient Egypt to be the origin of integral African culture. Was the
Nile such a tremendous cultural gateway or, with all its dams, was it the
geographical home of a cultural variety interconnected primarily by myth
and blurred eye contact?
Nehemia Levtzion sheds new light on this central question. In his
Arab Geographers, the Nile, and the History of Bilad al-Sudan, Levtzion
examines the perceptions held by medieval Muslim scholars such as alIdrisi (twelfth century) and al-Bakri (eleventh century) of the rivers
sources. They combined Ptolomeys ancient theory about the sources in
Jabal al-Qamar (Mountains of the Moon) (mainly al-Idrisi) with their
knowledge of Western sub-Saharan Africa, and described a river that combined the Senegal, the Niger, the Shari, and Bahr al-Ghazal. It was only
in the fourteenth century, Levtzion asserts, that such imaginative descriptions of the Nile disappeared from Islamic geographic literature. His findings do indeed correspond with those of our previous contributors. Prior to
the Mamluk period in Egypt, only rarely did individual Muslims penetrate
beyond the Nubian Dam or cross Ethiopia. The entire region south of
Egypt was occasionally referred to by Muslims as the land of alhabasha, Ethiopia. They knew much more about the land of the Sudan
(the blacks) to the west and stretching to the Atlantic than about the peoples of the White and the Blue Niles (the latter, as mentioned earlier, came
under Christian rule in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries).
Up the River or Down the River? An Afrocentric Dilemma, by Yaacov Shavit, addresses the issue of cultural barriers, but it also introduces us
to a new world, that of images of the Nile as seen by distant outsiders.
Shavit provides a rich introductory description of the Niles ancient image
as the creator of Egypt and then addresses the rivers place as perceived by
todays Afrocentrists. Like Kaplan, he mentions Nile Valley Afrocentrism, the idea that the Nile River was, in ancient times, the cradle of one
homogenous, interdynamic African civilization, which in turn gave birth to
Introduction
a universal human culture. Shavit presents the dilemma inherent in the assumed African Nile dialectic: Was inner Africa the main source of down
the river influence, or was it up the river from the great Egyptians to
the inner Africans? Analyzing the importance of this argument for the
Afrocentric contemporary message, Shavit also attempts to refute its
scholarly premise. His arguments about Nile dams and barriers are indeed
much in line with a major theme of this volume.
Benjamin Arbel also discusses the Niles image as perceived by distant outsiders but takes us back in time from todays Afrocentrists to the
great early modern European cultural revolution. In Renaissance Geographical Literature and the Nile, he first succinctly summarizes the ancient and medieval European concepts of the great river, describing them
as religious and mythical. The legend of Prester John, for example, the fabled Christian Ethiopian anti-Islamic crusader, was spread in medieval Europe and blended with the image of the Nile as a mysterious godly creation. The Renaissance, Arbel contends, brought about a fundamental
change. Rediscovering the outside world while emancipating their own rational and scientific concepts, Europeans made the Nile a renewed subject
of scholarly curiosity. Travelers to Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia brought
home what became the modern discipline of geography and its branches,
such as the Portuguese Francisco Alvarezs sixteenth-century descriptions
of Lake Tana and the sources of the Blue Nile, which heralded the demystification of the blocking myth mentioned earlier by Pankhurst. The new
literature and cartography produced during the Renaissance in various European languages, says Arbel, constituted a revolution in the direction of
modern research.
The change in attitude toward science also created a whole new world
of mysteries, albeit scholarly ones. It heralded the nineteenth-century drive
to solve the riddle of the Niles sources, as well as the twentieth-century
drive to control its waters. Yet these modern mysteries, as discussed below,
could not do away with ancient and medieval legacies. For many, insiders
and outsiders alike, they would be recycled and blended to form renewed
mixtures of reality and myth. In The Legend of the Blue Nile in Europe,
Emery van Donzel returns to Pankhursts subject of Ethiopias alleged ability to block the Nile. He mentions some of its early Ethiopian and Egyptian
sources, then analyzes the history of this myth in Europe. Van Donzel traces
the early spread of the myth beginning in the second half of the fourteenth
century, surveying many late medieval accounts that describe the Europeans desire for aid in their struggle with Islam from a legendary Ethiopian
Prester John, and how it contributed to the notion that Egypt might be deprived of the Niles waters. In the spirit of Arbels chapter, van Donzel
moves to postRenaissance European sources. Here again, he provides a detailed tour through the literature, quoting travelers, missionaries, explorers,
Introduction
and geographers, completing the picture up to the late nineteenth century.

The idea that Ethiopia could destroy Egypt by diverting the Nile, he
shows, remained intact and was recycled as a blend of mythical religious
messages and new scholarly findings. Among his various sources, van
Donzel mentions the writings of seventeenth-century Hiob Ludolf. This
German father of modern Ethiopian studies, he asserts, believed the
myth of blocking the Nile to be an example of wishful thinking.
The idea, however, that Ethiopia might destroy Egypt never died. It
remained as one element of an everlasting Islamic dichotomy of Ethiopia,
the polarized attitudes of which are discussed later by Haggai Erlich.
Joachim Warmbold provides a glimpse of European, Western Christian
concepts, also similarly polarized. At one end, the image of savagery was
to motivate missionaries, imperialists, and fascist aggressors. At the other
end, however, was the Ethiopian image of innocence, justice, and purity.
Warmbolds The Gondar Utopia is a fascinating reflection of a modern
version of Prester Johns image of Christian purity in medieval Europe.
Warmbold summarizes a novel by a late eighteenth-century German proponent of enlightenment and liberalism in which an Ethiopian prince who
learned tyrannical despotism while touring Germany was toppled at home
by a constitutional revolution (inspired by the neighborly Nubians). For
the author of this Ethiopian utopia, a new enlightened regime in Gondar
was to serve as a model for liberal Germans.
Uoldelul Chelati Dirar bases his contribution on the same European
amalgam of old myths and new modern scholarship. In his chapter, The
Nile as a Gateway for Missionary Activity in Abyssinia, he explains how
the paternalistically exoticized image of Ethiopias black, Semitic, Christian purity created in the minds of nineteenth-century European missionaries the idea that Abyssinia was the proper gateway for their all-African
enterprise. Moreover, the idea of the Abyssinian bridgehead enhanced and
recycled the old myth that the river Nile was the gateway to the entire continent beyond Ethiopia. Though the idea of Ethiopia as a missionary
springboard to the rest of Africa did not materialize, missionaries played
an important role in local modern transformations. The concept of the Nile
as a geographical corridor into Abyssinia ran headlong into the barriers
mentioned in our earlier chapters, and proved painfully futile. Yet the Nile
as a metaphor remained strongly engraved in peoples minds, and missionaries turned its discovery into a part of their spiritual legacy in spreading their word in remote lands. Their archives, says Uoldelul, are filled
with material attesting to their pioneering role in scholarly exploration, a
fact not really consonant with the mythical symbolism they continued to
attach to the Nile.
Bairu Tafla examines a rich variety of Ethiopian oral traditions, old and
modern texts, in his chapter, The Father of Rivers: The Nile in Ethiopian
Introduction
Literature. He asserts that the Blue Nile, or Abbay, our father in

Amharic (stemming from Abbawi, in the classical language of Geez,
meaning fatherly), was central in Ethiopias culture and history. The fact
was reflected in endless tales, proverbs, poems and novels, private names
and symbols. Together with Islam and the Red Sea, the river was the factor that turned Ethiopias foreign relations in the direction of the Middle
East. In analyzing this connection, however, Tafla, much like Kaplan,
Shavit, Uoldelul, and others, sees the Nile more as a conceptual bridge
than as a geographical channel of cultural exchanges. Relations with Egypt
were by far the most important factor. If the medieval Egyptians regarded
the lands to the south as al-habasha, medieval Ethiopians considered
Egyptians to be their only partners in sharing the great river. Tafla discusses the most important institution linking the two countries: the
Ethiopian Church, whose head, the abun, was an Egyptian Coptic bishop
from the fourth century to 1950. He also analyzes Ethiopias image of
Egypt, mentioning major turning points such as the 1876 war between the
armies of Emperor Yohannes and Egypts Khedive Ismail.
In his discussion Tafla moves from the traditional to the modern, and
from the external to the internal. The image of the Nile, he asserts, is also
a factor in Ethiopias developments. Not as important as in Egypt or
Sudan, the river was, nevertheless, Ethiopias father of riverspersonified, worshipped, loved, hated. The river, a huge gorge, was admired for
its natural might. But rather than uniting economy, culture, and peoples, it
was a major geographical obstacle dividing communities, depicted by
modern and contemporary Ethiopian intellectuals and authors as an arrogant thief of soil and cattle, a traitor that steals Ethiopias waters and divides her sons.
Flowing toward Egypt, the Nile acquires much different symbolic patterns, those of life and unity. In her chapter, Brothers Along the Nile:
Egyptian Concepts of Race and Ethnicity, 18951910, Eve Troutt Powell
examines an early stage in the evolution of Egyptian modern nationalism:
the definition by Egyptian intellectuals of their new modern identity via
the concept of Nile Valley unity, meaning Egypts embrace of the Sudan.
The British, whose Anglo-Egyptian army had conquered the Mahdiyya Islamic state in Sudan (18961898), opposed the idea of Egyptian-Sudanese
unity and, as Troutt Powell explains, mobilized the science of anthropology and ethnography to refute the Egyptian claim. They allowed a British
anthropologist to analyze the anatomy of soldiers of southern Egyptian origin to prove that they were decendants of ancient Egyptians, racially distinguished from fellow Sudanese. In rebuilding a racial scientific Nubian
Dam, the British colonialists were also aided by extensive ethnographic research conducted by their Lebanese agent Naum Shuqayr. The latter published a voluminous description (in Arabic) of Sudanese tribes, underlining
10
Introduction
their cultural uniqueness. But, according to Troutt Powell, the pioneers of

Egyptian nationalism, led by the luminary intellectual Ahmad Lutfi alSayyid, who viewed the common Egyptian-Sudanese history as one of
deprivation and a yearning for modern national citizenry, insisted on a
common Nile Valley human identity. The author ends on a critical note,
however, noting some similarity between Lutfi al-Sayyids ignoring of the
Sudaneses own voice and British paternalism.
In his chapter, Egypt, Ethiopia and The Abyssinian Crisis, 1935
1936, Haggai Erlich attempts to summarize the mutual images and concepts exposed by a traumatic watershed. The Ethiopian side is dealt with
quite briefly. Facing their destruction by Benito Mussolini in 1935, the
Ethiopians had little effort to spare for reflection on their traditional attitudes of suspicion and fear, which stemmed from a sixteenth-century traumatic Islamic conquest. The Egyptians, however, who experienced quite a
critical year in 1935 themselves, had ample time to discuss Ethiopia, primarily as the antithetical image of Mussolini. Erlich analyzes the Egyptian
perception of Ethiopia through what he describes as the three main components of the Egyptian soul: Islam, modern Egyptianism, and Arabism.
Each of those identities, he asserts, held a different image of Ethiopia,
each wavering between polarized concepts. Egypts debate on Ethiopia revealed a rich variety of nuances in 1935 and was indeed a discussion of
Egypts own identities and options. These attitudes, ranging from a radical
delegitimization of Ethiopia on one hand, to cordial friendliness on the
other, resurfaced and were recycled in later decades, continuing to shape
Egyptian Nile policy to this very day.
Israel Gershonis contribution, Geographers and Nationalism in
Egypt: Huzayyin and the Unity of the Nile Valley, 19451948, analyzes
the special role of geographers in the intellectual and scientific enhancement of national ideologies. He describes the role of Egyptian geographer
Sulayman Huzayyin, who devoted his career to shattering the Nubian Dam
barrier and providing evidence that the entire Nile Valley (differentiating
from the Nile heights of Ethiopia) was the home of one EgyptianSudanese nation. Gershoni describes Huzayyins important work to develop Egyptian geographical studies, and analyzes his dilemma in being
both a proponent of a nationalist ideology and a scholar of professional integrity. As a geographer, says Gershoni, Huzayyin combined his research
of the physical aspects of the Nile Valley with an analysis of ethnography,
culture, history, and contemporary politics, so as to provide a scholarly dimension to the central ideological premise of modern Egyptian nationalism. This aspect of his work culminated in 19451948, the period in which
the issue of Egyptian-Sudanese unity became a pivotal factor on the
Anglo-Egyptian agenda. Huzayyins conclusion, that Egypt would never
be able to separate itself from Sudan, and that Egyptian-Sudanese unity
Introduction
11
a matter of virtual existencewas inevitable, was indeed consonant with

the prevailing atmosphere in Egypt of the 1940s.
Within half a decade, however, a fundamental change took place. The
new revolutionary regime in Egypt began its historic reorientation away
from Egyptianism and the unity of the Nile Valley, toward Arabism and a
strategic focus on the Fertile Crescent and the Arabian Peninsula. In 1953
an Anglo-Egyptian treaty recognized Sudan as a separate entity embarking
on national independence. Robert Collins, in his chapter described below,
argues that Nasser initiated construction of the Aswan Dam as both a particular Egyptian solution to an all-Nile problem, as well as a political spectacle aimed at eternalizing his revolution. Yoram Meital does not enter the
hydropolitical sphere but delves deeply into the worlds of culture, myth,
and identity. In his chapter, The Aswan High Dam and Revolutionary
Symbolism in Egypt, he shows how the erection of the dam was closely
connected to shaping the regimes major objectives. The monumental enterprise was to become the foundation for a comprehensive economic
transformation, as well as a landmark on the revolutionary road to human
progress. Its construction was to be depicted as the embodiment of the
anti-imperialist struggle, the molding of a new, emancipated society. The
story of the dam and the symbolic aura built around it reflected the entire
revolution as perceived by Egypts new leadership. Meital analyzes the
metaphoric images of the dam as manifested in literature, art, music, and
other cultural fields. The Aswan Dam became a historical signpost, a site
commemorating the Nasserite phase in Egyptian history. Simultaneously
functional and symbolic, a magnified monument of eternal irreversible duration, it would remain not only a mere hydropolitical Egyptian solution
but also a legacy of revolutionary myth.
In The Nile in Egyptian-Sudanese Relations: 19561995, Gabriel
Warburg offers a succinct analysis that complements the chapters by Troutt
Powell, Gershoni, and Meital. The Nile, he says, was a major factor in
shaping the four stages of modern Egyptian-Sudanese relations. The first
was the pre-1955 period marked by Egyptian ideological consensus regarding unity with the Sudan. Warburg describes how the British used
their control of the Sudanese Nile to threaten the Egyptian nationalists in
order to thwart the idea of unity. The second stage, Warburg says, began in
1952 when the new revolutionary regime accepted Sudanese independence
and turned, in the very same spirit, to the building of the Aswan Dam. He
describes the tension between the states prior to their signature of the new
water agreement in 1959 and explains Sudanese policy against the background of internal political changes. Sadats return to Egyptianist, Nilocentrist concepts, and Sudans newly formed anti-Soviet policy, paved the
way for a third stage of near cordiality between the two countries beginning in the early 1970s. It was manifested by various agreements, most
12
Introduction
importantly their mutual efforts to cope with the Nile, culminating with the
start of construction of the Jungelei Canal in 1978. The fourth stage,
marked by an acute deterioration in relations, is the present situation. Beginning in the mid-1980s, Sudan re-embraced a radical Islam of the sort
that, a century earlier, had motivated its leadership and society during the
formative Mahdiyya era. Warburg describes the new anti-Egyptian spirit,
the deterioration of the situation in Christian southern Sudan, and the ensuing collapse of the Jungelei project, and warns that the tendency of the
Islamic radicals in Khartoum to threaten Egypt with the Nile waters might
prove counterproductive.
As part of the 1959 Egyptian-Sudanese agreement, some 50,000 inhabitants of the region to be covered by Lake Nasser were transferred to
Khashm al-Girba in eastern Sudan in 1964. There, in an area irrigated by
another new dam, they were to undergo profound transformations stemming
from revolutionary planning, changes that included the establishment of
twenty-two new villages, the generous distribution of good irrigated land,
and a new town called New Halfa. In Removing the Nubians: The Halfawis at Khashm al-Girba, Ismail Abdalla looks at the project from the
perspective of thirty years and considers it a complete failure. The revolutionaries of the 1960s wanted to build a new model of future society and
boost their newly regained national confidence, yet they ignored the wishes
of the people they led. In retrospect, he says, neither nature nor people were
ready to change that rapidly. Expectations of the water reservoir proved too
high, and the resettled Halfawis adhered to their old values and habits. Describing the multifaceted failure, Abdalla concludes that no changes, instituted from the top downward, can succeed without full consideration of the
people in question, their culture, and their long historical experience.
Abdallas chapter dwells on the dynamism between continuity and
change, humans and nature, ideas and realities, history and myth. It also
brings us back to our point of departure; the Nubians of Wadi Halfa, in
their seventh-century victory over the army of Islam, re-emphasized and
eternalized the human diversity of the Nile basin. Their fate is indeed a reflection of the vicissitudes of history and the inevitability of changethe
descendants of those ancient, invincible warriors who have become the
transferrable objects of modern revolution.
If all our chapters underlined human diversity, In Search of the Waters of the Nile, 19002000 by Robert Collins calls for unity of action; it
is a succinct but authoritative summary of the rivers twentieth-century
history of hydropolitics. The Nile basin, Collins determines, is a single
comprehensive hydrological system and should have been coped with as
such. But in this respect, the twentieth century has been a two-stage story.
This was primarily a British story during the first half of the century.
Though Egypt had controlled Sudan during the nineteenth century for
short periods, the British brought the two countries under the same rule in
Introduction
13
1898. By abolishing the Nubian Dam, they were in a position to create a

comprehensive hydraulic plan. Collins analyzes their failure, partly due to
lack of vision, proper technology (such as an attempt to dig a canal in
southern Sudan), and their strategic interest in preventing EgyptianSudanese unity. Collins says they were also overly reluctant in their approach to the Blue Nile, their relevant schemes foiled by Ethiopian procrastination, suspicion, and finally by the Ethiopian preference for
American expertise and interests. The Americans finally provided the best
comprehensive scheme for the entire Nile system in the 1950s, but it was
not to materialize for political reasons.
The second stage, Collins says, was primarily an Egyptian-Ethiopian
failure, beginning with the Nasserite revolution in Egypt and the ensuing
strategical decision to build the Aswan High Dam. The idea behind the dam
was to create both a political achievement and a water reservoir in Egyptiancontrolled territory. It necessitated an agreement with Sudan (1959) but resulted in ignoring Ethiopia and shelving the proper all-Nile hydraulic solution. Collins goes on to describe the Egyptian-Ethiopian diplomatic failure to
reach an understanding, as well as the failure of the renewed Egyptian-Sudanese effort to build the White Nile Canal in southern Sudan during the
1980s. To Collins, this has been a sad century of rivalry and ignorance, of the
failure of humankind to unite in order to tame nature, and he warns that the
leaders of the Nile communities must reach an understanding and work out a
comprehensive plan to tap the waters of the Nile, or face inevitable disasters.
The twenty chapters in this collection far from exhaust the subject.
Entire areas of major relevance are excluded. The entire scope of medieval
Egyptian and early modern Nile history is mentioned only indirectly. For
example, the Nile was probably more important to the Mamluks conceptualization of Egypt and its regional affiliation than to their Ottoman successors. If true, was this also because Ethiopia was strong and prosperous
during the days of the earlier period but weak and disunited during the
later one? Ethiopian history and concepts are discussed primarily in their
medieval and early modern contexts. But what of their twentieth-century
transformations? What of the Ethiopian-Egyptian religious dialogue, its Islamic and Christian dimensions, and their Nile legacies? What of Sudan,
presented here solely in its modern and contemporary perspective? What
of the Nile factor during the Mahdiyya formative period, during earlier Sudanese periods and cultures? What of other riparian histories and cultures,
their attachment to the great river, their relations with their close and distant neighbors upstream? What of the voices of peasants, nomads, fishermen, traders? What of women, their vision of Mother Nature, their concepts of the eternal river, their role in the histories and the myths?
Academically, we must admit to having attempted to open a single
door. Personally, we believe it is not for us to say how the barriers should
14
Introduction
be removed. Transferring the Nubians did not move the metaphoric dam,
nor did it bring neighbors closer together. Barriers of all sorts, we believe,
should be addressed and recognized in order to ensure, rather than combat,
diversity. Sober leaders and people of goodwill must establish eye contact
and continue the effort to turn diversity into a basis for recognition, cooperation, and mutual enrichment.
Part 1
Peoples and Identities

in Medieval Times
The Spread of Islam

and the Nubian Dam
David Ayalon
The Nile Valley forms an essential component of the lands of Islam in general and of their North African part in particular. Yet the Arabization and
Islamization of the portion that we now call Sudan has been slow and is
not yet completed. By far, the main reason for this phenomenon is that the
Arab thrust along the Nile in the very early decades of Islams existence
was checked by what I call the Nubian Dam, a term I shall explain further
on. For centuries that check was followed by an infiltration of nomads, not
all of them Arab or Muslim. Then came military attacks on Nubia from the
north, haphazard by the Ayyubids and much more determined by the Mamluks. The culmination of those attacks was that of Muhammad Ali, in the
early nineteenth century, which opened a new page in the history of Egypt
and its southern neighbors.
The study of the Nile Valley in early Islam should be conducted in
close connection with two major factors: its place within the Muslim expansion as a whole, and its place in the expansion within the African continent. Not long after its early thrust, Islam faced four major fronts: (1) the
Christian Byzantine front, especially in northern Syria, southeastern Anatolia, and northern Iraq (extended by a very important naval element in the
Mediterranean Sea); (2) the Central Asiatic front and its extensions; (3) the
Indian front; and (4) the African front.1
The most important fronts for quite a long time were the Christian
Byzantine and the mainly pagan Central Asiatic fronts. In a civilization
that relied more and more on slave armies, the Central Asiatic front proved
to be the most beneficial. From the Central Asiatic front the fair-skinned
Mamluk armies, which formed the backbone of Islams might, were recruited
for a very long period. The Byzantine front and its Christian continuators
17
18
Peoples and Identities in Medieval Times
were the most dangerous, with the largest and most threatening attacks
coming from that direction. The pagan Indian front, with its immense
human reservoir, was only marginal in the supply of Mamluks, and even
this only for quite a short period.
The African front is of the greatest interest within the subject of this
volume, and it includes, of course, the Nile Valley, which served as a huge
source of slaves and for a considerably longer period than the three other
fronts. The African front served both the civilian and the military markets,
and the contribution of its black soldiers, who served mainly in the infantry, was of the highest importance. However, because of the discrimination against the blacks in the armed forces, which was much greater
there than in civilian life, these soldiers have not received the attention and
tribute that they deserve. And, therefore, it is far more difficult to reconstruct the history, the functioning, and the inner working of the black
armies than for the white Mamluks. In this context it should be pointed out
that the black eunuchs belong to a different category.
This is the extent to which the whole African front, lying to the south
of Islams conquests, figures in the general panorama of that religions
military drive, particularly in the first three or four centuries of its existence. However, Egypt and the Nile Valley, which form an essential part of
the African front, figure in yet another formidable way during the earliest
part of that drive.
A most astounding feature of the military expansion of Islam shortly
after its birth was its swiftness. When it halted, the Arabs were already hundreds of miles away from their points of departure. This was the case with
their thrust against Byzantium, Central Asia, the Maghrib, and Spain. Furthermore, in all of those faraway fronts, the struggle continued. The only outstanding exception was the Arab advance along the Nile, where they were
brought to a lengthy standstill as soon as they tried to march beyond Egypt.
The absolutely unambiguous evidence and unanimous agreement of
the early Muslim sources is that the Arabs abrupt stop was caused solely
and exclusively by the superb military resistance of the Christian Nubians.
That is what I call the Nubian Dam. The array of those early sources includes the two most important chronicles of early Islam, al-Tabari (d.
926)2 and al-Yaqubi (d. 905);3 the two best extant books on the Muslim
conquests, al-Baladhuri (d. 892)4 and Ibn al-Atham al-Kufi (d. 926);5 the
most central encyclopedic work of al-Masudi (d. 956);6 and the two best
early sources dedicated specifically to Egypt, Ibn Abd al-Hakim (d. 871)7
and al-Kindi (d. 961).8
All of the above-cited sources attribute the Nubian success to their superior archery, of which I shall bring some examples. To this central factor
should be added the combination of the Nubians military prowess and
Christian zeal; their superior acquaintance of the terrain; the narrowness of
19
the front line that they had to defend; and, quite possibly, the series of
cataracts situated at their back, and other natural obstacles. What follows
is a sample from al-Baladhuris evidence.
The Nubians fought the Muslims very fiercely. When they encountered
them they showered them with arrows, until all of them were wounded
and they withdrew with many wounds and gouged eyes. Therefore, they
were called the marksmen of the eye. . . . A Muslim participant in the
fighting on that front said: I took part twice in the war against the Nubians during the reign of Umar b. al-Khattab, and I never saw a people
fiercer in war than they are. I saw repeatedly one of them saying to the
Muslim: Where would you like me to put my arrow into you? and
sometimes one of our brave youngsters would say jokingly in this
place, and would not miss the target. One day they went out against us
and met us in battle array. We wanted to decide the battle by launching a
single [concentrated] charge with our swords but we could not anticipate
them. They shot at us until [our] eyes were gone. A hundred and fifty
gouged eyes were counted. We said, therefore, that nothing is better than
making peace with these ones.9
Al-Masudi, in giving the account of the Muslim-Nubian fighting,

goes as far as stating that the Nubians shoot from strange bows. The people of Hijaz and Yemen and the rest of the Arabs learned archery from
them. They are called by the Arabs the marksmen of the pupil of the
eye. 10 I do not accept or reject the assertion of al-Masudi about who
were the earliest teachers of the Arabs in the use of the bow, the main
weapon of the cavalryman, who formed the backbone of the armies in medieval Islam. What that assertion certainly proves is the immense impact
that the Nubian bow and its users, who brought them to a halt, made on
them. What might support al-Masudis claim is that the great ability of the
Nubians as archers was already recognized by the pharaonic Egyptians as
well as by the Meroites.11
What is particularly worth noting is that the account of the military
ability of the Nubians was sometimes accompanied in the Arab sources by
expressions quite similar to those that they used about the valor of the
Turks who top the list of peoples of military excellence among Islams adversaries.12 However, the Nubians were not allowed to join the topmost
Muslim units, especially after the creation of the Mamluk armies. Fairskinned Christians were enlisted in those armies even before the upsurge
in their numbers at a later time.
The basic difficulty in the study of the first two or two and a half centuries of the history of Islam is the paucity of the contemporary source material pertaining to that formative period. The information that has come
down to us through the eyes of later sources is, to no small extent, partisan,
20
especially when we consider that Islam developed and expanded through

internal adversities and struggles at least since the death of the prophet
Muhammad. However, there is nowadays a growing tendency among some
Islamicists to put much more stress on that obvious partisanship than is
warranted.
In my view, the correct way to study that difficult period is first to review the data that, by reasonable considerations, seem to be correct and reliable, and only afterward to relate to it the data that are more questionable. To the best of my conviction, the Nubian account is an excellent case
in point. What is so significant about the evidence of our sources is that it
is given by the Nubians enemies (evidence that is called so aptly in Arabic shahadat shahid min ahlihi [an evidence by a person of the people in
question]). This act carries a lot of weight for one cannot see any reason
for the Arabs to praise the Nubians so highly, along with their admission
of their own failure in the field of battle. At the same time it is a great tribute to the objectivity in this case of the Muslim sources, and it also enhances considerably the chances of the reliability of their accounts, at least
about the Muslim expansion in other fronts, and perhaps much more beyond that.13
Additional conclusions that emerge from the sources mentioned include the following:
1. The orders to advance in Egypt both southward along the Nile and
westward along the Mediterranean coast were given by Caliph Umar b.
al-Khattab (Umar I) (634644), and there is no indication that the caliph,
or the commanders on the spot, gave preference to one direction over the
other.
2. The concentrated attacks in the Nubian front were made by a no
lesser person than Amr b. al-As, the conqueror of Egypt, its first de
facto if not formal governor, and one of the greatest commanders of early
Islam. They lasted until his dismissal and replacement by another great
commander, Abdallah b. Sad in the reign of Caliph Uthman
(644656). For him it was easier to admit the military failure and sign
with the Nubians the famous treaty, where both sides were given a more
or less equal standing.
3. The awe and respect that the Muslims had for their Nubian adversaries are reflected in the fact that even a rather late Umayyad caliph,
Umar b. Abd al-Aziz (Umar II 717720), is said to have ratified the
Nubian-Muslim treaty out of fear for the safety of the Muslims (he ratified the peace treaty out of consideration for the Muslims and out of [a desire] to spare their lives). 14 This implies that in the capital of Islam the
memory of the feats of the Nubians was still alive and that the danger of
21
an attack by them was not considered to be a matter of the past even more
than half a century after the treaty signing.
The obvious question that arises is how the removal of the Nubian
Damhad it been carried out by the attacking Muslims and the march of
their armies into Nubia and beyondwould have affected the Muslims
more crucial advance along the Mediterranean coast in the direction of the
Maghrib and Spain. The answer is that the chances of weakening the Arab
thrust from Egypt westward were very great indeed, with all the negative
consequences for Islam resulting from that weakening. Although, as already stated, the fear of the Nubians was still quite considerable in the
reign of the Umayyad caliph Umar II, it must have diminished with the
march of time because of the decline of the Nubian military power and
also because there was not much to look for south of Aswan.
The treatment of Nubia by the Ayyubids, a few years after their coming to power in Egypt (1169), is most revealing. Saladin, the founder of
the Ayyubid dynasty in Egypt, who threw off his allegiance to his patron,
the Zangid Nur al-Din, at least actually, if not formally, feared the retaliation of that patron and looked for a place of refuge for himself and for his
family. His first choice fell on northern Nubia. It was conquered temporarily by his elder brother, Turanshah, in 1172. Speaking of the Ayyubid siege and capture of Ibrim, the major town in that area, Ibn al-Athir
said: [Ibrims] people were powerless in fighting the Muslim army, because they did not possess shields which could protect them from the arrows of the Muslims and from their other weapons. They therefore surrendered the town.15 The Ayyubids soon discovered the inadequacy of that
place as a safe and self-supporting shelter, and Turanshah moved in 1170
to the prosperous Yemen, where he established the south Arabian branch of
the Ayyubid dynasty, which was replaced in 1229 by the Rasulids.
The process of the decline of the Nubians military might from the
early seventh to the late twelfth centuries has still to be reconstructed. In
the seventh century the Nubian archery stopped the Muslims, whereas in
the twelfth century it was the Muslim archery that played a major role in
defeating the Nubians. The subjugation of Nubia was carried out by Sultan
Baybars I, who turned it into a vassal state.
Another factor that might contribute to the delay in conquering Nubia
from Egypt is mentioned by P. M. Holt, in his important chapter The
Nilotic Sudan. In a note to that article he says: It has been suggested (in
a private conversation) that the Arabs might have found it more convenient
to leave Nubia outside the Muslim empire, as a source of slaves, and especially eunuchs, since enslavement and mutilation within the frontier
were forbidden.16 What is certainly true about this suggestion is that the
Muslims did have a problem when they conquered lands that previously
22
served as a source of supply of slaves and eunuchs. However, we do not

know the extent of the flow into Egypt of either slaves or eunuchs originating from Nubia and its immediate neighborhood. There are some indications that they might have come from more western regions.17 Furthermore, although most of the eunuchs were imported, we know of castration,
and on no small scale, within the boundaries of Islam. Further study is
needed for establishing more precisely the weight of that factor.
Finally, a brief reference will be made to the very well-known evidence of al-Maqrizi (d. 1442) about the seventh-century treaty (the baqt)
with the Nubians. It would appear that later authors did not show much
readiness, certainly not enthusiasm, for relating the prowess and skill of
the Nubians in their fight against the armies of Islam. Already Yaqut (d.
1229), in his classical geographical dictionary, dilutes the unequivocal
statements of the early sources almost beyond recognition. In his entry
under Dunqula all he has to say is that the eye of one of the Muslim
leading fighters was hit.18 In his entry under Nuba he says about its inhabitants: They shoot with arrows from Arab bows. 19 But al-Maqrizi
goes much further than that. He simply wipes out any trace of the fighting
qualities of the Nubians in spite of the fact that he quotes two of the seven
early authors I mentioned, al-Baladhuri and al-Masudi. What is more,
from al-Maqrizis presentation one cannot understand at all why the Muslims accorded the Nubians such generous and quite unique terms.20 There
is no doubt that the cause of al-Maqrizis attitude was his strong antagonism to the Christians.
One reason, and certainly not the only one, for Islamicists ignoring or
greatly underestimating the evidence of the early Muslim sources about
the Nubians valorous resistance is their heavy reliance on al-Maqrizis evidence, which, considering its fullness and detailed character (especially
about the terms of the baqt), is justifiable in itself.
NOTES
This chapter summarizes my article The Nubian Dam, YSAI, vol. 12 (1989): pp.
372390 (reprinted in Islam and the Abode of War, London: Variorum Reprints,
1994), and of a passage in my Aspects of the Mamluk Phenomenon, part 1, in
Der Islam, vol. 53 (Berlin, 1976), especially pp. 201202 (reprinted in The Mamluk Military Society, London: Variorum Reprints, 1977).
1. Ayalon, Aspects, pp. 207204.
2. Al-Tabari, Tarikh, pp. 515, 2593.
3. Al-Yaqubi, Tarikh, pp. 4, 15180.
4. Al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan, pp. 6, 14237.
5. Quatremres translation into French of the Persian translation of Ibn alAthams Kitab al-Futuh in Mmoire sur la Nubie in Mmoires Gographiques
et Historiques sur lEgypte et sur quelques Contres Voisines, pp. 3941. Unfortunately, in the Hyderabad edition (19681975) of Ibn al-Athams work, the relevant
23
part is missing and is replaced with a summary of the Persian translation. However,
the very last lines of the original work in Arabic, which are essential for the thesis
presented here, were not lost (see Ayalon, The Nubian Dam, p. 381, n. 23).
6. Al-Masudi, Muraj, vol. 3, pp. 3, 1139.
7. Ibn Abd al-Hakim, Futuh Misr wa-Akhbaruha, pp. 23, 18170, 188,
609.
8. Al-Kindi, Kitab al-Wulat, p. 511, 12.
9. Al-Baladhuri, Futuh-al-Buldan.
10. Al-Masudi, Muruj, vol. 2, pp. 4, 8383.
11. Shinnie, Christian Nubia, pp. 564565. See also Adams, Nubia, p. 451.
12. Ayalon, The Nubian Dam, p. 383.
13. There is a tendency among some Islamicists to minimize the dimensions
and importance of the Muslim armys attempt to break through the Nubian front.
This is a mistaken approach. Within the framework of the present subject it would
be worthwhile to collect the views of the Islamicists who studied it and have them
comment. These views were by no means identical. As far as I know, however,
none of them goes as far as I do in stressing the significance of that armys setback
on that front, either in its general Islamic setting or in its more limited Nile Valley
setting.
14. Ayalon, The Nubian Dam, pp. 387388.
15. Ibn ad-Athar, al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh, p. 387.
16. Holt, The Nilotic Sultan, p. 328.
17. Al-Istakhri, Kitab Masalik wal-Mamalik, pp. 3941; al-Yaqubi, Kitab alBuldan, pp. 345, ll. 1119.
18. Yaqut, Mujam al-Buldan, p. 92.
19. Ibid., pp. 323, ll. 67. Thus Yaqut turns the whole story upside down. According to him it was the Arab bow and not the Nubian that figured so prominently
in that encounter!
20. Al-Maqrizi, al-Khitat, vol. 1, pp. 199, ll. 35202, l. 23.
Ethiopias Alleged
Control of the Nile
Richard Pankhurst
Si dice che il Soldan, re dellEgitto,

A quel Re di tributo e sta suggetto;
Perche in poter di lui del camino dritto
Levare il Nilo e dargli altro ricetto;
E per questo lasciar subito afflito
Di fame e tutto quel distretto.
Ludovico Ariosto, Orlando Furioso
Ethiopia and Egypt, linked but also divided by the Nile, 1 were in contact
since the dawn of history. They were mutually interdependent. Egypts
prosperity depended on Nile water and silt from Ethiopia, which occurred
mainly in the summer for agriculture. Christian Ethiopia depended on the
Coptic Church of Egypt, from where the Ethiopian abun (patriarch) was
selected. Egypt was thus dependent on Ethiopia for its material existence,
and Ethiopia was dependent on Egypt for its spiritual existence.
This mutual dependency was, however, unstable. The Nile flow varied
from year to year, for climatic reasons, whereas the abuns arrival depended on the vagaries of Egyptian efficiency and goodwill, which, after
the Arab conquest in the early seventh century, was problematic. One other
element entered the equation: Ethiopias supposed ability to control the
Nile flow and thereby pressurize Egypt. This assumed that Ethiopian
power was long a major international interest, creating pride for Ethiopians, fear for Egyptians, and hope and wonder for European Christendom.
FAILURE OF THE ETHIOPIAN RAINS AND THE NILE FLOOD
The first interruptions in Ethiopian rainfall are reported in the Masahaf

Senkesar, or synaxarium.2 Ethiopian wickedness is supposed to have
25
26
caused two droughts, when God restrained the heavens so that it could
not rain. This happened during the time of the Coptic patriarch Joseph
(831849) and again during the time of Patriarch Gabriel (11311149).3
Whether these droughts actually occurred, and influenced the amount of
water reaching Egypt, has still to be ascertained.
The question of the interruption in the Niles flow supposedly first
came to the fore in Egypt around 10891090, during the reign of Fatimid
sultan al-Mustansir. The subsequent Arab writer al-Makin reports that the
flood failed to reach Egypt, and the sultan accordingly sent Patriarch
Michael of Alexandria to Ethiopia with a request that the Ethiopians restore the stream, which they did. The Ethiopian monarchs name is not
given, but he was probably a member of the Zagwe dynasty. He reputedly
ordered a mound to be broken, whereupon the water in Egypt rose three
cubits in one night.4
This account, though written long afterward, was accepted by the
seventeenth-century German scholar Hiob Ludolf. He declares that alMakin, a creditable author and secretary to the rulers of Egypt, could not
possibly have invented such an incident, for had it been an untruth he
would have been in fear of being contracted. Ludolf also considered the
possible objection that the Niles failure might have happened naturally,
the river being dammed up by tree trunks, mud, and stones, driven by
force, and heaped together by the river in the narrow passage of the water.
He replied that such remarkable blockages rarely or never occurred in
large or violent Rivers and that if Nature could effect so much, what
might not be accomplishd by Art?5
The above argument is not, however, fully convincing. The Niles failure could have occurred for natural reasons other than those Ludolf mentioned. It could have been due to drought in the highlands, as reported earlier, or to vegetation growth in the Sudanese lowlands. It may also be
questioned whether Ethiopian rulers then possessed the technical ability to
construct a mound able to block the river.
BRUCES STORY ABOUT KING LALIBALA

AND SALTS COMMENT
The idea of diverting the Nile to pressurize Egypt is alleged to have developed two centuries later, during the reign of the Zagwe emperor Lalibala (11721212). This claim rests, however, on entirely uncorroborated
statements by the eighteenth-century Scottish explorer James Bruce. He
asserts that Lalibalas reign coincided with a great persecution in Egypt
of Christian masons, builders and hewers of stone. The monarch supposedly collected a prodigious number of them, with whom he attempted to
27
realize one of the favourite pretensions of the Abyssinians by turning

the Nile out of its course to stop it being the cause of the fertility of
Egypt. Recalling that Egypt was controlled by Muslims, enemies of Lalibalas religion, the Scotsman remarks that if it was in the power of man
to accomplish this undertaking, it could have fallen into no better hands
than those whom Lalibala gave it, for they had been driven from their native country by those Saracens who now were reaping the benefits of the
river in place of those they had forced to seek habitations far from the
benefit and pleasure afforded by its stream.6
Wishing to famish Egypt, Lalibala, according to Bruce, found, by
an exact survey and calculation, that there ran on the summit, or highest part of Ethiopia, several rivers which could be intercepted by mines.
Instead of flowing northward to the Nile, they could thus be directed into
the low country southward and not reach Egypt at all. 7 Elaborating on the
rivers supposed diversion, Bruce asserts that people of the country had
informed him that the king had actually intersect[ed] and carr[ied] into
the Indian Ocean, two very large rivers that had ever since flowed that
way. Lalibala, he claims, had also carried a level to Lake Zway, where
many rivers emptied themselves at the beginning of the rains and would
have effectually diverted the course of them all.8
This work was stopped, Bruce claims, by Lalibalas death. Signs of
the rulers activities, he asserts, could nevertheless be seen in his day. He
substantiates this statement by reference to the alleged observations of a
Shawan prince, Amha Iyasus, a young man of great understanding with
whom he had lived several months in the most intimate of friendship.
The chief assured him that Lalibalas earthworks were still visible and
were of a kind whose use could not be mistaken. The prince had himself often visited them.9 No such earthworks have, however, been seen by
any traveler, nor is there any visible sign that any river was ever reversed
to run into the sea. The diversion of even a stream from the Nile area to
the Indian Ocean would in fact have been virtually impossible. Bruce attempts elsewhere to explain why the alleged Lake Zway plan was abandoned. Contradicting his earlier statement that this was due to Lalibalas
death, he cites Amha Iyasus as offering an entirely different explanation.
The chief had reportedly stated that:
in a written account which he had seen in Shoa, it was said that this
prince [Lalibala] was not interrupted by death in his undertaking, but
[had been] persuaded by the monks, that if a greater quantity of water
was let down into the dry kingdoms of Hadea, Mara, and Adal, increasing in population every day, and even now, almost equal in power to
Abyssinia itself, these barren kingdoms would become the garden of the
world; and such a number of Saracens, dislodged from Egypt by the first
appearance of the Niles failing, would fly thither, that they would not
28
only withdraw those countries from their obedience, but be strong enough
to over-run the whole kingdom of Abyssinia.10
No Ethiopian written account, such as Amha Iyasus supposedly mentioned, has ever been reported; nor is any attempt to divert the Nile included in Lalibalas Gadl (Acts).11
Bruce also supports his statements about Lalibalas earthworks by reference to the early sixteenth-century Portuguese traveler Francisco Alvarez.12 He cites Alvarez as stating that the Portuguese ambassador
Roderigo de Lima, who had come to Ethiopia in 1520, had seen the remains of the kings vast works and had travelled in them for several
days.13 No mention of this is, however, given in the Portuguese narrative.14
Bruces story is thus a much flawed story: it contradicts itself and is
almost implausible. Yet it was accepted by the early nineteenth-century
British traveler Henry Salt, who asserts that Lalibala was very distinguished for a successful attempt to turn the course of the Nile. Salt
thought that this was also recorded in Arabian histories of Egypt around
1095. Not knowing when Lalibala lived, he confused the latters alleged
closure of the Nile with the entirely unconnected failure of the waters in
Egypt two centuries earlier.15 Though seemingly endorsing Bruces claims
about Lalibala, Salt also took up an almost contradictory position, for he
observes that the idea of diverting the river perhaps sprang from the ignorance of the times. His own view was that the only source of a river
over which Lalibala had any command was, in all probability, not the
Nile at all, but its tributary, the Takazze, which began near Lasta.16
We may conclude that Bruces uncorroborated assertions are unconvincing and that Salt was correct in asserting that Lalibala had no direct
control over the country through which the Nile flowed. There is in fact no
evidence that the monarch ever contemplated, let alone effected, any diversion of the river.
Ethiopian tradition, though silent on Lalibalas supposed attempt on
the Nile, claims that the last of the Zagwe rulers, Naakuto Laab (deposed
1270), wished to deflect the Takazze. In Gadl, written many centuries
later, he asserts that the Egyptians refused to pay their accustomed tribute
to Ethiopia, whereupon the monarch prayed that the flow of water to the
Nile be stopped for three years and seven months. God reportedly listened:
Egypt was struck by famine, and its population declined. The Egyptian
ruler then dispatched messages to the king, promising tribute and begging
him to resume the rivers flow.17
Two comments deserve to be made. First, it was the Takazze, not the
Nile, that was reportedly blocked. Second, there is no suggestion that the
king did anything beyond prayer.18
29
THE EMPERORS OF ETHIOPIAS GOLDEN ERA (12701540)
The idea of diverting the Nile, rather than the Takazze, apparently dates
from the reign of Emperor Amda Seyon (13121342). This was a period,
according to the Arab historian al-Maqrizi, when the Mamluk sultan of
Egypt, al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalaun, was in conflict with his Coptic
subjects and demolished several of their churches. The Ethiopian monarch,
who according to al-Maqrizis dating, was probably Amda-Seyon, reportedly dispatched an embassy to Egypt and threatened its ruler with diverting the Nile.19
The Ethiopian embassy apparently increased Egyptian awareness of
the significance of Ethiopias location at the source of the Nile. The Egyptian courtier Ibn Fadlallah al-Umari reports that the Abyssinians claimed
to be the guardians of the course of the Nile and furthered its regular
arrival out of respect for the Egyptian sultan.20
It should be emphasized that al-Maqrizis claim is only that AmdaSeyon threatened to block the Nile, not that he actually attempted to do so.
Al-Umaris assertion is likewise only that the Ethiopians considered
themselves guardians of the Nile and acted out of respect for the sultan,
not that they could in fact interfere with its flow, or had tried to do so.
Conflict with Egypt erupted during the reign of Amda-Seyons son,
Emperor Sayfa Arad (13421371), who assumed the role, as British
historian J. S. Trimingham says, of protector of the Patriarch of Alexandria.21 He made war, according to the Ethiopian royal chronicles, in
Upper Egypt,22 but, significantly, did not attempt to divert the Nile, presumably considering even a faraway campaign less arduous. The first
Ethiopian ruler alleged to have actually interfered with the Nile was Sayfa
Arads son, Emperor Dawit (r. 13801412), who was reportedly also in
conflict with the Egyptians. This is, however, not mentioned in the principal Ethiopian chronicles, but only in a little-known version. It claims that,
because of the imprisonment in Egypt of Patriarch Yohannes of Alexandria, Dawit held back the Nile waters. The Egyptian ruler responded by
sending the emperor important gifts. Peace was reportedly re-established
and the patriarch freed. 23 Support for the view that Dawit had in fact attempted to stop the Nile is expressed in several hagiographies, cited by
Tadesse Tamrat, who notes that they insist that one of Dawits strategies
was to divert the flow of the Nile.24 It should, however, be reiterated that
Dawits alleged Nile diversion does not figure in most of the chronicles, is
not mentioned in any Egyptian source, nor is there any archaeological evidence that it ever took place.
The idea that Ethiopian rulers could divert the Nile was subsequently
voiced during the reign of Emperor Yeshaq (14131430) by an Italian,
30
Pietro of Naples, who visited the country as envoy of the Duke of Berry.
Pietro was quoted as stating, in 1432, that if it pleased Prester John, the
Ethiopian ruler, the latter could make the river go in another part of the
country. The monarch had not done so, he added, because of many Christians living on the banks of the Nile.25 Pietro makes no reference to Emperor Dawits earlier supposed holding back of the river, which, had it
occurred, would doubtless have been mentioned. His report claims only
that the Ethiopian ruler had the power of diverting the Nile, and states expressly that he had refrained from so doing.
The Nile question reportedly came to the fore again during the reign
of Emperor Zara Yaqob (14341468), when the Copts in Egypt were
again persecuted and an important church destroyed. The patriarch of
Alexandria, Yohannes XI, appealed, according to the Ethiopian royal
chronicle and a text of the Taamra Maryam (Miracles of Mary), for support. 26 The emperor, according to an Egyptian source, sent the Egyptian
ruler, Sultan Jaqmaq, a strongly worded message that reached Cairo in November 1443. 27 Complaining of Egyptian repression, it drew the sultans
attention to the fact that the Nile rose within Ethiopia and that Zara
Yaqob had the power to divert it, and only refrained for fear of God and
in consideration of the sufferings a diversion would produce.28 Zara
Yaqobs threat, which is not made in either of the above-mentioned
Ethiopian texts, thus asserts only Ethiopias ability to divert the Nile. So
far from actually diverting it, the monarch is said to have deliberately refrained from doing so.
Support for the view that the Ethiopian ruler could control the Nile
flow was expressed in the following century, during the reign of Emperor
Lebna Dengel (15081540), by an Ethiopian monk, Abba Raphael. He told
the Venetian scholar Alessandro Zorzi, in 1522, that the Ethiopian
monarch could take the water of the Nile from the Muslims so that it did
not reach Cairo, but he would not do so because he feared that they
would ruin the churches and the Christian monks who are in Jerusalem
and those in Egypt of which there are many.29 Abba Raphaels claim, like
Zara Yaqobs threat, was thus qualified, in this case by fear of reprisal,
and shows that the Ethiopian ruler was not in fact interfering with the
river.
The above evidence shows that claims about Ethiopias supposed ability to control the Nile were made for seven rulers: Lalibala, Naakuto
Laab, Amda Seyon, Sayfa Arad, Dawit, Zara Yaqob, and Lebna Dengel. The evidence about the first, Lalibala, is too problematical to be considered seriously. Naakuto Laab reportedly did no more than pray, while
four other rulers, Amda-Seyon, Yeshaq, Zara Yaqob, and Lebna Dengel,
reportedly refrained from any action, either on account of scruples or expediency. Only one ruler, Dawit, is supposed to have actually blocked the
31
river, but evidence on this is far from conclusive. Threats were occasionally made but apparently never implemented. Claims of Ethiopias ability
to divert the Nile thus proved to be no more than roars of a paper lion.
EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVES
Ethio-Egyptian belief in the possibility of diverting the Nile duly percolated to Western Christendom. Many European Christians, preoccupied
with the Crusades, were predisposed to accept any story offering support
against the Saracens. The myth of Prester John, 30 a supposedly powerful
Eastern Christian ruler, seeking to fight with Islam on behalf of European
Christianity, was a popular early expression of the, Lets get someone
else to fight our wars for us, syndrome.
European pilgrims to the East returned with reports of the power and
wealth of Prester John. They spoke of his riches, the strength of his army,
and his ability to divert the Nile, to reduce their Muslim enemies in Egypt
to destitution. Such ideas, though today perhaps considered genocide, captured European imagination. Largely devoid of reality, they nevertheless
framed the opinions of the age.
Reports on Ethiopias supposed influence over the Nile began as early
as the reign of Emperor Amda-Seyon. Two Italians, Jacopo of Verona and
Niccola of Poggibonsi, traveled to Jerusalem in the 1330s and returned
with interesting reports. Jacopo claimed that Prester John was able to remove the Nile waters from the Egyptians.31 Niccola agreed that the sultan
feared Ethiopias control over the river and stood in awe of the Prester,
whom he considered the best lord in the world.32 This statement seems
to show that the ruler had never utilized his assumed power over the river.
The Nile story was taken up shortly afterward by a Frenchman,
Philippe of Mezires, who claimed that an Ethiopian rulerhe did not
specify who or whenhad deviated the river and caused a major Egyptian
famine. The Egyptians, he added, were so afraid of the Ethiopians that
they allowed them to pass through their territory free of tax.33 Variations
on this theme were published by a number of European travelers throughout the fifteenth century. They appear to have included Archbishop Giovanni, a cleric involved in the East,34 the French pilgrim Guillebert of Lannoy,35 and Anselmo Adorno, a man of Genoese descent who resided in
Bruges.36
Many people in Europe were soon convinced that the Ethiopians could
be mobilized to defeat the Saracens. This belief, Taddesse Tamrat observes, was seriously considered by the strategists of the later Crusades.37 The possibility of diverting the Nile was voiced at both the popular and governmental levels. Tuscan storyteller Andrea da Barberino
32
(13701432) made reference to it in his Guerin Meschino. 38 The Grand

Master of Rhodes, John of Lastic, wrote to Charles VII of France about it
in 1448.39 Two years later, Alfonso of Aragon urged Emperor Zara Yaqob
to direct his attention to the Nile, which ran to Cairo.40 Fra Mauros
mappamondo (map of the world), completed in Venice in 1460, featured a
drawing of imaginary gates, with which the Prester could supposedly
block the river and deflect it into the Sudanese desert.41
European visitors to the East meanwhile continued to write of the possibility of diverting the river. Statements to this effect were made by the
Flemish author Joos van Ghistle, who declared that Ethiopians in the Holy
Land were therefore exempt from taxation and entitled to carry crosses;42
the Belgian, Georges Lengherand, of Mons, who affirmed that the Nile
flood took place by permission of the Prester;43 the Frenchman, Jehan
Thnaud, who agreed that it was because of the latters control of the Nile
that the sultan paid the Ethiopian ruler regular tribute; 44 and the German
pilgrim Arnold von Harff, who reported that Christian Abyssinians arrived
in Jerusalem with banners unfurled . . . into the Temple of Christ.45
Such ideas, in the early sixteenth century, reached the Portuguese,
then expanded into the East. They stirred the imagination in particular of
their famous governor of India, Affonso dAlbuquerque. He conceived the
ambition, around 1513, of piercing through a very small range of Ethiopian hills to divert the Nile into another bed and destroy irrigation in
the land of Cairo. To this end he requested his sovereign, Manoel I, to
send him workmen from Madeira, skilled in cutting rocks and digging irrigation trenches. Albuquerque was, however, soon recalled, and his Nile
plans were abandoned.46
Belief that the Nile could be diverted nevertheless continued to hold
sway throughout the early sixteenth century. It found expression in the
Italian poet Ludovico Ariostos epic Orlando Furioso of 1516, which reiterated that Prester John had the power to cut the river and reduce Cairo
and its neighborhood to famine.47
The arrival in Ethiopia of the Portuguese diplomatic mission in 1520,
and the publication in 1540 of Alvarezs report on it, represented an important development. It vastly expanded European knowledge of the country and led to its steady demystification. European interest in the diversion
of the Nile accordingly began to wane. Speculation tended thereafter to
focus more on Ethiopias military might, which Alvarez had witnessed,
than on the countrys reputed control over the river.48
European belief in Ethiopias supposed ability to divert the river nevertheless died slowly. It was voiced by two notable early seventeenthcentury travelers to the East. William Lithgow, a Scotsman, claimed, in
1616, that the Turkish sultan paid the ruler of Ethiopia an annual tax of
50,000 gold coins lest he impede and withdraw the course of Nylus, and
33
so bring Aegypt to desolation.49 A decade or so later, a Spaniard, Antonio of Castelon, likewise reiterated that the Ethiopian ruler had control
over the Nile, for which reason his subjects were exempt from taxation in
Turkish territory.50
The coming to Ethiopia of the Jesuits, and their discovery of the
source of the Nile in April 1618, was of major importance. 51 It removed
much of the mystery still surrounding both the Nile and the land in which
it flowed. This made the difficulty of diverting the river increasingly apparent. The new, postmedieval view was stated succinctly by a leading Jesuit writer, Baltazar Tellez. He emphatically declared that the Nile, with its
immense mass of water, could not be redirected over the vast area suggested, particularly as it was the site of steep and rugged mountains.52
Later in the century, the German scholar Hiob Ludolf was greatly intrigued with the question whether it be in the power of the Abyssine
Kings to divert the Course of the Nile, that it should not overflow Egypt.
He discussed the matter with his Ethiopian friend and informant, Abba
Gorgoreyos. Asked if he knew the story of Patriarch Michael of Alexandria
reportedly dispatched to Ethiopia over half a millennium earlier, Gorgoreyos replied in the negative. He stated, however, that he had heard
from persons of great Credit that not far from the Cataracts of the Nile,
all the Land toward the East was level, and that, but for a single mountain, the river would rather flow that way, than into Egypt.
Gorgoreyos believed that if this mountain were diggd through, a
thing to be done with pains and difficulty, the rivers course might be
turnd and carryd into the Red-Sea. This, he thought, was well known
to both the Turks and the Portuguese, and that it was for that reason that
the Ethiopian emperors had obtained advantageous Conditions from the
Saracens. Gorgoreyos added that it was said that an Ethiopian emperor
once had an intention to divert the Nile and had commanded his Subjects to undertake the Work but had been prevaild upon to desist at the
entreaty of the Egyptian Christians.53
Despite his admiration for Gorgoreyos, Ludolf accepted the latters
views on the Nile only reservedly. Probably influenced by the Jesuits, he
doubted the countrys ability to divert the river. He admitted that the question had perplexed him but was inclined to believe that the task of raising
a Mole or Dam of Stones required so much toyl and labour that it was
in no way agreeable to the nature of the Abessins. He felt moreover that
it was unlikely that so vast a River, so long accustomd to a declining and
headlong Course, could be diverted. He argued that, if the Ethiopian
monarch really controlled the Nile, he would have had all Egypt at his
Devotion, for the Turks would deny him nothing. Moreover, if the project had been practicable, he wondered why the Jesuits had not persuaded
the Ethiopians to make use of that Power which Nature had put into their
34
hands, and why they had not used Threats rather than Intreaties and
Bribes to obtain the facilities they enjoyed at the Red Sea ports by the
favor of their Turkish governor.54
Despite these reservations, the German scholar felt that the Nile diversion might be possible, not from the Ethiopian heartland, which lay
many Leagues distant from the Sea, but rather, as Gorgoreyos had suggested, from territory near the cataracts, namely, toward Sudan. Such action, he declared, was, however, no longer politically possible, for the
Ethiopian monarch had ceased ruling the areas where the river could be
redirected. Ludolf therefore concluded that what might have been done in
the past was no longer possible. It was not that the nature of the place
obstructed the rivers diversion but that the Emperor lacked the Power to
carry it out or had no inclination to do so. Were it were not for that, Ludolf could not think it either absurd or improbable that the Ethiopian
rivers might be conveyed through the sandy lowlands to the north and thus
produce a vast diminution of the Egyptian Stream. To do so, it would,
however, be necessary to employ skilful Artists to survey the area and
establish the places most proper to carry off the Water.55 Ludolf was the
last serious student of Ethiopia, prior to the modern era, to take the Nile
diversion seriously.
By the early eighteenth century the idea that the Ethiopians could divert the Nile was largely rejected in Europe. This is apparent in the writings of the French cleric Abba Joachim Le Grand. Writing in 1726, he declared that Abyssinia was most full of mountains, some so high that the
Alps were mere hills in comparison, while the Nile lay over a hundred
leagues from the Red Sea.56 After reviewing all available historical data,
he declared: We do not pretend that a canal cannot be dug from the Nile
to the Red-Sea, but the Abyssinians cannot do it.57
Belief in the possibility of diverting the Nile nevertheless lingered on
in Ethiopia. Early in the eighteenth century Emperor Takla Haymanot
(17061708), infuriated that a French ambassador, Lenoir du Roule, and
Murad, an Armenian trader, had been detained by the Muslim rulers of
Sennar, wrote a strong protest to the pasha of Cairo. In it he declared that
the detention violated the law of nations, and continued: We could very
soon repay you in kind if we were inclined to revenge the insult you have
offered to the man Murad on our part; the Nile would be sufficient to punish you, since God hath put in our power his foundation, his outlet, and his
increase, and that we can dispose of the same to do you harm.58
The Egyptian pasha was probably not impressed, for the belief that the
Ethiopians could divert the Nile had by then evaporated. Bruce was emphatic about this. Writing a little over half a century later, he declares that
no sensible man in Abyssinia believed that the diversion of the Nile was
35
possible, and few [believed] that it had ever been attempted.59 Such was
the travelers final judgment, and that of his generation.
CONCLUSION
The medieval belief that the rulers of Ethiopia could divert the waters of
the Nile, and thereby ruin Egypt, exercised a major and long-enduring influence over Ethiopians, Egyptians, and Europeans for half a millennium.
Threats were made, fears expressed, prayers uttered, hopes voiced, and
travelers tales published. The myth that the Nile had, or could, be redirected by the misnamed Prester John became a feature of Ethio-Egyptian
statecraft, a question of direct relevance to the Coptic Church, an item on
the agenda of Christian European diplomacy, and even, far away, a subject
of Italian creative literature.
There is, however, little evidence that the Ethiopians ever made plans
for the diversion of the Nile, let alone that they executed them. Variations
in the annual flow of water reaching Egypt were due to erratic rainfall in
the Ethiopian highlands rather than any action on the part of Ethiopias
rulers. One may even doubt whether changing the course of the Nile, however much desired, or feared, ever lay within the technological possibilities of the time.
NOTES
1. Following medieval practice and the writings of James Bruce, the term
Nile is used here for the Abbay, or Blue Nile, which supplies the bulk of the water
and silt reaching Egypt. The existence of the White Nile is irrelevant to the issues
discussed in this chapter.
2. On this text see Budge, The Book of the Saints, vol. 1, p. xi.
3. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 185186; vol. 3, 800801.
4. Al-Makin, Historia sarracenica, p. 358. See also Ludolf, New History,
p. 41; Perruchon, Vie de Lalibala, p. xxi; Le Grand, Voyage historique, pp. 215
216; Lobo, Voyage, p. 216; and Cerulli, Il volo, p. 36.
5. Ludolf, New History, pp. 4142. See also Cerulli, Il volo, p. 36.
6. Bruce, Travels, vol. 1, p. 529.
7. Ibid., p. 530.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid., p. 531.
10. Ibid., pp. 530531.
11. Perruchon, Vie de Lalibala.
13. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 531.
14. Beckingham and Huntingford, Prester John.
36
15. On Salts error, see also Perruchon, Vie de Lalibala, p. xxi.

16. Salt, A Voyage to Abyssinia, p. 473, n.
17. Rossini, Gli atti di re Naakueto Laab, Tipografia del Senato, Roma,
1943, pp. 110112, 228229.
18. Hecht, Ethiopia Threatens to Block the Nile, p. 5.
19. Quatremre, Mmoires gographiques et historiques sur lEgypte, p. 275.
See also Basset, Etudes, p. 434; and Trimingham, Islam, pp. 7071.
20. Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Ibn Fadl Allah Al-Umari, Masalik al-Absar fi
Mamalik al-Ansar, p. 30. See also Trimingham, Islam, p. 71.
21. Trimingham, Islam, p. 73.
22. Basset, Etudes, p. 94. See also Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia
12701527, 1972, p. 253.
23. Guidi, Due nuovi manoscritti della Cronaca Abbreviata di Abissinia, p.
360.
24. Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, p. 256.
25. Kammerer, La Mer Rouge, lAbyssinie et lArabie depuis lantiquit, p.
303. See also La Roncire, La Dcouverte, p. 110; and Cerulli, Il volo, p. 34.
26. Perruchon, Les Chroniques de Zara Yaeqob, pp. 5657, 88; Cerulli, Il
libro etiopico dei miracoli di Maria, pp. 124125.
28. Al-Sakhawi, Al-Tibr al Masbuk, pp. 4772; Wiet, Les Relations, pp.
124125; Cerulli, Il volo, p. 35; Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, p. 263, n.
29. Crawford, Ethiopian Itineraries, p. 145.
30. See for example Slessarey, Prester John; and Beckingham and Ullendorff,
The Hebrew Letters of Prester John.
31. Cerulli, Etiopi in Palestina, vol. 1, p. 117.
32. Ibid., 127.
33. Ibid., p. 156.
34. Ibid., pp. 205, 211.
35. La Roncire, La Dcouverte, p. 111; Cerulli, Etiopi in Palestina, pp.
218219, 221222; Cerulli, Il volo, p. 34.
36. Cerulli, Etiopi in Palestina, vol. 1, pp. 261263.
38. Cited in Cerulli, Il volo, pp. 3334.
39. Le Grand, Voyage historique, pp. 245246; Cerulli, Il volo, p. 3435.
See also Rossi, Storia della Marina, p. 125.
40. Cerulli, Il volo, p. 35.
41. Wiet, Les Relations, pp. 123, 1323; Cerulli, Il volo, p. 34. See also
maps in La Roncire; La Dcouverte; and Crawford, Ethiopian Itineraries, between pp. 20 and 21.
42. Cerulli, Etiopi in Palestina, vol. 1, pp. 293, 298.
43. Ibid., p. 286.
44. Ibid., pp. 357, 365.
45. Letts, The Pilgrimage of Arnolf von Harff, p. 178. See also Cerulli, Etiopi
in Palestina, vol. 1, pp. 371, 381.
46. De Birch, The Commentaries of the Great Dalbuquerque, pp. 36, 207. See
also Le Grand, Voyage historique, pp. 215216; Lobo, Voyage, pp. 216217; Beckingham and Huntingford, Prester John, p. 2; and Cerulli, Il volo, p. 36.
47. Cerulli, Il volo, p. 33.
48. Cerulli, Etiopi in Palestina, vol. 1, p. 416.
49. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 61, 75.
37
50. Ibid., pp. 61, 8081.

51. See discussion in Caraman, The Lost Empire, pp. 103109.
52. Le Grand, Voyage historique, pp. 216217; Lobo, Voyage, p. 217; Ludolf,
New History, p. 41. For Jesuit references to the Nile see Beccari, Rerum Aethiopicarum Scriptores Occidentales, p. 1250.
53. Ludolf, New History, p. 42.
54. Ibid., pp. 4243.
55. Ibid., pp. 4344.
56. Le Grand, Voyage historique, p. 216; Lobo, Voyage, p. 217; Cerulli, Il
volo, p. 36.
57. Le Grand, Voyage historique, pp. 216217; Lobo, Voyage, p. 217.
58. Le Grand, Voyage historique, p. 174; Lobo, Voyage, p. 185; Bruce, Travels, vol. 2, pp. 526527. See also Cerulli, Il volo, pp. 3637.
Consolidation of Christianity
Around the Source
of the Blue Nile
Paul Henze
LEGENDS
The Blue Nile has its source at Gish Abbay in the middle of Gojjam. Here
a sacred spring, which is said to flow from a pool under a nearby mountain, trickles out to form a small brook. The brook soon gathers enough
strength to become a small stream, the Wetet Abbay (the Milk Abbay),
which flows northward across the Gojjam plateau and into Lake Tana at a
place along the papyrus-edged shore south of the island of Deq. In the
rainy season the brown silt it carries colors the normally bluish water of
the lake for a great distance from the shore. According to tradition, the
river remains intact as it flows through the lake to its outflow at the northern edge of Bahr Dar. As it leaves the lake it passes a series of small islands. On one is the monastery of Debra Maryam. The river then flows for
several miles, relatively broad and smooth, to the Tisisat Falls. After tumbling spectacularly over a broad expanse of vertical ledges, it plunges into
a deep cleft so narrow that the Portuguese were able, relatively easily it
appears, to construct a stone bridge across it. Visitors still use it to walk up
to the hillside to view the falls. Racing out of this cleft into its ever deepening gorge, the Blue Nile flows first east, then south, and finally west,
circling the immense Gojjam plateau and gathering tributaries all the way.
After my first travels in the region more than a quarter century ago, I
wrote:
To judge by the legends linked to it, Ethiopian history has revolved
around Lake Tana. Emperor Menelik I, son of King Solomon and the
Queen of Sheba, is said to have come to the eastern shore of the lake
39
40
when he arrived in Ethiopia from Jerusalem bringing the countrys first

tabot [sacred tablet]. This tabot was allegedly kept for 600 years on the
island of Tana Cherqos before being transferred to Axum. . . . Legend
also has it that Frumentius, who brought Christianity to Ethiopia, found
his way to Lake Tana, established a church where Jewish rites had previously been observed, and was buried on Tana Cherqos. . . .
When did this lake really become Christian? Rather late, in comparison with most of northern Ethiopia, though one of the most diligent of
modern Ethiopian scholars has concluded that there seems to be no
doubt that a Christian community existed in the area before the end of the
Zagwe dynasty [i.e., before 1270].1 The body of Emperor YekunoAmlak (r. 127085), who restored the Solomonic line, is kept in the eqabet [treasury] of the Church of St. Stephen on [the island of] Daga, but
there is no tradition that this long stone church itself dates from that
time.2
When I visited the island monastery of Tana Cherqos on the eastern

shore of Lake Tana a few years ago, the monks took our party to admire
the monasterys most sacred feature: a large boulder with a broad, gently
curving top where they told us the Virgin Mary had rested on her way from
the Holy Land to Egypt. Like some of those on other islands of Tana, abbots at several Gojjam monasteries relate that they were founded by the
legendary Axumite twin kings, Abraha and Atsbaha. There is no reason to
believe that these entertaining myths can be anything but apocryphal. Nevertheless, they reveal a serious concern with legitimacy and demonstrate
the universal human preoccupation with roots.
In Axumite times and during the still little-understood period following the collapse of the great northern Ethiopian empire, the entire region
around Lake Tana and the upper Blue Nile was in all likelihood inhabited
by the pagan ancestors of the Wayto, who live by fishing and hunting from
their reed boats on the lake; by the Agaw, the dominant pre-Semitic people
of the Ethiopian highlands who survive in a substantial district (Agaw meder) in central Gojjam; and by the Gumuz, who live in the lower country to the east, the Metekel, extending all the way to the Sudan lowlands.
The Agaw, whose traditions cite Wag and Lasta as the region from which
they originally migrated outward, may have gradually pushed the Gumuz
westward during the late prehistoric period. The pagan kings of Gojjam
whom Ethiopian emperors fought from the late thirteenth century to the
beginning of the fifteenth were Agaw.
There are scraps of evidence that traders from the north were coming
into this region in Axumite times. Through the centuries, vague knowledge
of Judaism and Christianity must have filtered in. The Agaw seem to have
had a proclivity toward Judaism, and some, for example the Qemant,3 still
profess it. The whole issue of Falasha origins remains cloudy and controversial. It seems unlikely that any systematic Christian penetration began
Consolidation of Christianity Around the Blue Nile
41
before the thirteenth century. Christianization accelerated in the fourteenth

century during the reign of the great warrior king Amda-Seyon. There is
good reason to conclude that many of the island monasteries of Lake Tana
were established during this reign. He is said to have favored Debra
Mariam, and his son became abbot at Mandaba. Not long afterward the
great monasteries on the eastern edge of the Gojjam plateau within the
great bend of the Blue Nile were probably established: Dima, Debra Worq,
and Mertule Maryam. We know that Christian missionaries came into this
region with the armies of Emperor Amda-Seyon and his successors.
Christian influences also penetrated from the east across the Nile.4
INITIAL VISITS TO MERTULE MARYAM
I have visited all of these northeast Gojjam monasteries several times.

They continue to be active centers of Ethiopian religious life. Their manuscript libraries have still not been thoroughly studied. Because of its location and the remains of a large European-style stone building reliably attributed to Empress Eleni, Mertule Maryam is physically the most
impressive. Eleni was a Hadiya princess who married Emperor Zara
Yaqob, outlived him for the better part of a half century, and played an
important role in Ethiopian political life during the reigns of Emperors
Baeda Maryam and Lebna Dengel.
Mertule Maryam has seldom been visited and never systematically
studied. However, what is known of its history, and what can be reasonably presumed, makes it an appropriate focus for discussion of the consolidation of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the upper Blue Nile region.
The monastery is located in the northeastern part of Gojjam in a region
called Nebese or Enebese. It crowns a sizable hill around which a substantial country town of perhaps 1,500 inhabitants clusters, primarily on
the north and west side of the hill. To the east, cultivated fields that belonged to the monastery stretch over gently sloping landscape to the edge
of the main Nile gorge. 5 An ancient trail leads down into the gorge here
and across the Nile into Amhara Saynt over the Daga Ford. Farther north a
bridge attributed to the Portuguese used to carry a trail into Begemder.
Long broken, it is appropriately called the Sabbara Dildi. 6 The region of
Nebese has apparently been thickly settled for centuries and is interlaced
with trails that are still in daily use. Except in isolated locations along
gorge sides, there is no original forest left. There are no large villages.
Small groups of farmsteads dot the entire region.
I first attempted to visit Mertule Maryam in the early 1970s when I
lived in Ethiopia. I was successful in reaching Dima and Debra Worq and
visited several country churches along the way but was unable to reach
42
Mertule Maryam because of rain and lack of time.7 Seventeen years later,
in February 1989, I finally reached Mertule Maryam with a party of
Ethiopian officials and friends. In the interim a road from Bichena to Mota
and on to Bahr Dar had been completed. We covered the distance from
Addis Ababa all the way to Debra Worq in a day, stayed in a friendly traditional inn there overnight, visited the monastery atop its hilltop (hence
the name, The Mountain of Gold), and drove onward the next morning.
When we reached the roadside town of Gundawein, we learned that a side
road had recently been completed from there to Mertule Maryam by a Norwegian reforestation project. It led us easily over a rolling landscape of
yellow stubblefields and through fords across small streams for about 30
kilometers.
We had a sense of entering a medieval painting as we neared the town,
for it is surrounded by a considerable growth of trees, and beyond rises the
monastery hill. Crossing the broad red-earth marketplace, we were able to
follow a track up to the monastery gate. There we were welcomed by the
tall young abbot in a deep burgundy velvet robe, Memhir Habte Mikael
Tadesse. He was happy to lead us on a tour of his establishment.
The great stone ruin at the east end of the compound caught our eyes
as soon as we came within the walls. It was impressive beyond all our expectations. Several sections of stone wall rose to a height of almost 10 meters. Two tall, intact arches were edged with beautiful floral-pattern carvings. There were other arches, doors, and windows that were framed in
smooth-cut blocks, some with scroll and scallop ornamentation. There
were three bays in the great ruin, which the abbot called a church, but our
doubts were aroused by ends of wooden beams protruding from walls that
had obviously supported a second story. Windows in the back (east) wall
gave a hint of a third story. The structure looked more like a palace than a
church. There also appeared to be two or three fireplaces framed with
carved stone edging and topped with mantels, one with a striking sun design. But it was hard to be sure, for great piles of fallen stones had accumulated on the floor of the ruins. In places the debris was at least a meter
and a half deep. It was impossible to determine what kind of floor the
building had originally had and whether paving or tile remained. We saw
no crosses, no inscriptions.
The memhir then led us to the nearby large round church, the principal one of the monastery. It smelled pleasantly of incense from recent services. Its sactuary (maqdas) walls were covered with good-quality paintings. One side had apparently been painted in the eighteenth century, the
other in the early nineteenth. Outside, not far southeast of the round
church, we were taken to a place where a hole more than a meter deep had
been dug. Less than half a meter below the present surface, a corner of old
foundations had been exposedseveral narrow tiers of finely cut stone
43
totaling over half a meter in height with scroll designs resembling some of
those at Day Giyorgis in Jirru in northern Shoa. 8 We first speculated that
the huge ruined building had originally extended into the area occupied by
the round church and that stones from it had been used in construction of
the later church. Or had there been another structure here built of cut
stones? The corner faced out toward the southeast, away from the ruins.
We asked Memhir Habte Mikael about the history of the monastery.
He said a church had first been built in the reign of the twin kings, Abraha
and Atsbaha (fourth century A. D.). It became a gadam (monastery) in the
fourteenth century. He said it possessed twelve tabots. The south end of
the great ruined building was crudely roofed with tin and used as an eqabet. At the abbots beckoning, monks unlocked a rough door and brought
out a succession of icons, manuscripts, crosses, and vestments for us to admire, of which the most spectacular was an enormous blue velvet robe said
to have belonged to Ahmad Gragn, the Muslim ruler of Adal who ravished
the Ethiopian highlands in the early sixteenth century. The abbot did not
know how the monastery had gained possession of it.
Memhir Habte Mikael led us to a new building on the north side of the
compound and explained that it was not yet finished but was intended as
a museum. It had been started several years before, but no work had been
done for two years because crops in the region had been poor and people
could not contribute money for it. He said they planned to move all their
treasures into it, have it connected to electricity, and hoped to attract
tourists. Habte Mikael told us he was a native of the region, had been educated at Mertule Maryam, and had never traveled any farther than Bahr
Dar. He appeared younger than the majority of the monks we saw at the
monastery and impressed us as remarkably enterprising. It was encouraging to see the Ethiopian Orthodox Church putting this kind of man in
charge of an ancient monastery. We were due in Bahr Dar that evening, so
we left in the early afternoon with our curiosity whetted but far from satisfied. It was clear that Mertule Maryam deserved much further study.
MERTULE MARYAM IN 1993 AND 1995
The opportunity to investigate Mertule Maryam more extensively followed

after the fall of the Derg and the opening up of travel in the Ethiopian
north. In November and December 1993 Stanislaw Chojnacki and I organized a small party of foreigners and Ethiopians for a three-week journey
to investigate churches and monasteries in Wag, Tigray, Lasta, and Gaynt.
Time was short when we finally crossed the Chinese Road and reached
Bahr Dar after spending a day exploring the monastery of Tara Gadam and
the cave of Washa Andreas in the forested hills above Addis Zemen. We
44
were determined in the next two days to spend as much time as we could
at Mertule Maryam. The road from Bahr Dar was in good condition, and
it was apparent as we traveled that the crops had grown well this year.
Everywhere people were stacking and threshing teff, wheat, and barley.
We reached the monastery town at four in the afternoon and took austere
rooms at the Abraha Atsbaha Hotel.
Memhir Habte Mikael Tadesse was still in charge of the monastery
and came down to the hotel to welcome us. He told us that they had gathered money to complete the new eqabet/museum and their treasures had
been moved in from their cramped room at the south end of the great ruin.
He escorted us up to the monastery and took us for a long walk in splendid evening light along the outer periphery of the walls on the southern
and eastern side of the compound. The slopes here encompassed a vast
area of ruins that also extended along the crest of the hill to the east. The
walls of several roofless, large Lasta-style, two-story round stone houses
rose in several places. Whatever the history of the present town on the
north side of the monastery hill may be, it is clear that in earlier times
there was a very substantial settlement to the south and east, now almost
entirely abandoned. Some of the structures had been built with mortar. On
the hilltop a number of buildings, some inhabited by nuns and hermits,
contained cut stones that looked as if they had been taken from the large
ruined building inside the monastery walls. As the sun began to set, we
came back into the monastery precincts through the south gate. Memhir
Habte Mikael assured us everything would be ready for us to examine in
the eqabet at 7:30 the following morning.
We were up at dawn on December 8, drank tea in the bar where a photograph of Haile Selassie hung on the wall, and drove up to the monastery
past houses where women were fanning hearth fires for breakfast. The
morning qedasse (mass) was still in progress when we walked through the
monastery gate, but the memhir was waiting. He had the new building
opened and told us we were free to examine everything in it. The monk in
charge was eager to be helpful and allowed us to photograph as we wished.
We made a preliminary assessment of the icons, crosses, manuscripts, vestments of many kinds, various other kinds of church paraphernalia, and some
objects that had belonged to various kings and princes and had been donated
by them, including some portraits. Only the vestments and ceremonial umbrellas were hung; icons, crosses, and manuscripts were stacked in piles. It
was impossible to make anything like a complete inventory in the limited
time we had, but we gained a good enough impression of the monasterys
holdings to know that a longer return stay would be rewarding.9
During our next visit in January 1995, we had the good luck of arriving
at the time of the greatest feast of the year, Tir Maryam. We planned the
visit to be able to do a more systematic investigation of the ecclesiastical
45
and historical material preserved in the monastery as well as to examine

and measure the great ruin more thoroughly than we had done before, remaining over a period of four days. Memhir Habte Maryam Tadesse was
no longer at Mertule Maryam, however. He had been called to serve in the
patriarchate in Addis Ababa. His replacement was another young monk,
Eserunan (Chief Teacher) Haile Maryam Tagale. There was an aura of holiness about him, but he seemed less sure of his authority than Habte
Maryam had been.
We found ourselves in the kind of situation so often encountered at
Ethiopian religious establishments. Our letters from the bishop of Gojjam
in Debra Marqos carried little weight. Historic monasteries often feel independent of central authority. We were told we could not examine manuscripts or take photographs. Then we were requested to pay 500 birr to see
anything. Fortunately Bahru Zewde, then director of the Institute of
Ethiopian Studies at Addis Ababa University, had joined our party. He set
about negotiating, stressing the value to the Institute of Ethiopian Studies
of having an accurate record of the monasterys holdings.10 Meanwhile we
visited the lively Saturday market with sellers and buyers filling the vast
marketplace. Thousands of people were streaming into the town, mostly on
foot, some on horses, mules, and donkeys, from all directions, not only to
the market, but for Sundays festivities. Many hermits and beggars were
also in evidence. At the end of the afternoon Bahru came to tell us that he
had reached an agreement with the monastery: for a payment of 200 birr
we would be allowed to spend as much time as we wished in the eqabet
and to take pictures and notes without restriction. Our party rushed to
record inscriptions and photograph.11
Sunday provided a rewarding climax to the whole visit. The night service was coming to an end when we came into the monastery compound
shortly after sunrise. Monks and pilgrims were dozing under the old cedars
in the yard, roused periodically by hermits making their own impromptu
sermons. We spent the first part of the morning examining and measuring
the ruined building and for the first time crawled into the interior of the
old eqabet, a narrow warren of walls and shelves extending upward three
stories. At midmorning the priest in charge of the eqabet/museum opened
a locked chest and brought out several manuscripts we had not yet seen.
There were two Tamre Maryams with excellent illustrations, two fifteenthcentury manuscripts in bad condition, an Orit (Old Testament), and a Book
of Henoch noteworthy only for its harag.12 A pile of loose parchment
sheets contained three very fine illustrations from a magic book. We photographed and described these treasures and then moved to the round
church to photograph its paintings. It was now empty but still heavy with
the odor of incense from the nights service. Shortly before noon the
monastery burst into life.
46
A procession formed to take the tabot to a tabal (sacred spring) at the

edge of town. Priests, monks, nuns, and hermits joined in, followed by pilgrims. Drums throbbed, rhythmic chanting rose in intensity and was punctuated by bursts of ululations of the women. Imbyltas (horns) sounded as
the procession proceeded down the hill, across the marketplace, and off
into a maze of side streets, gathering enormous numbers of people along
the way. After services at the tabal, the tabot returned in the afternoon
with a crowd of more than 10,000 accompanying it. Joyous cheers rose at
each stop or turn of the procession, drums were beaten with continually
greater intensity, jesters in baboon pelts and monkey tails cavorted as the
multitude made its way back up the hill. We raced ahead and climbed to
the balcony of the eqabet/museum to watch the return of the tabot to the
church. Boys climbed high into the trees for a better view. Surges of ululation and drumming reverberated from the walls of the great ruin.
Ethiopian flags fluttered in the breeze. It was as magnificent a medieval
scene as I have witnessed in Ethiopiacenturies away from the concerns
of politicians in Addis Ababa!
Not long after the tabot was back in the church, our party was invited
to come to the senbet (Sabbath meeting house) outside the compound
walls on the north for the concluding feast of the day. More than 200 special guests were gathered in the long hall, men seated along low tables on
the right side, women in their traditional finery on the left. Our party was
brought to a raised platform on the left in front, while the abbot, the senior
monks, and high-ranking guests were seated on the platform opposite.
Waiters brought in huge trays of injera (pancake bread) and brindo (raw
beef); qay wat was ladled out of large casseroles. Tej was poured for most
of the guests, but there was also bottled beer for those who preferred it.
The trays kept being refilled throughout the banquet. Food that remained
would be distributed to the enormous horde of beggars and cripples waiting outside the senbet when the festivities were finished.
There were speeches. The monasterys historian recounted its founding
by Abraha and Atsbaha. At the same time, with the peculiar illogic characteristic of much traditional Ethiopian Church history, he related that Christ
himself, when a young man, had served here as a priest. Christ asked that
the monastery be made especially sacred to the memory of his mother, so it
was called Mertule MaryamHome of Mary.13 The memhir and a visiting
monk made short speeches and then I was asked to speak on behalf of our
party. I praised Ethiopia, peace, the beauty of Gojjam, the importance of the
monastery for preserving treasures and traditions, and thanked the monks for
their hospitality. Our Addis Ababa University graduate student assistant
translated. There was great applause. He then gave a summary of Professor
Chojnackis life in Ethiopia and devotion to study of Ethiopian art. More applause. There were blessings by the memhir as the banquet came to an end.
47
The next morning we drove back to Gundawein and from there to a

country school at Eneseqol, where we left our vehicle in the care of a
group of four friendly young teachers and set out on a long trek into the
Goncha Gorge to visit the monasteries of Wafa Yesus and Getisemani, both
of them perhaps older than Mertule Maryam. In spite of the account of its
founding, other monasteries in this region claim seniority over Mertule
Maryam, and there has apparently always been rivalry among all of
them.14 I will now summarize what little seems to be known of the history
of Mertule Maryam.
HISTORY AND TRADITIONS OF MERTULE MARYAM

FROM TRAVELERS ACCOUNTS
Mertule Maryam has been rarely visited, and few travelers have left a
record of their visits. The first European to have seen it appears to be the
Portuguese Pero de Covilhao to whom Father Francisco Alvarez, who did
not go to see it himself, attributes his brief reference to it.15 A hundred
years later the Portuguese Jesuit Manoel dAlmeida visited the site and left
an extensive description in his Historia geral de Ethiopia a Alta ou
Abassia.16 James Bruce did not travel in this part of Gojjam. The first modern-era traveler to visit Mertule Maryam was the Englishman, C. T. Beke,
who came upon the site unexpectedly in 1842 and was so impressed with
the ruins that he presented a paper to the Society of Antiquaries on return
to London.17 The Italian Guida dellAfrica Orientale Africana has a brief
reference:
From Dibo continue westward . . . and arrive at Martula Mariam, altitude
2750 m, famous for the ruins of a church built by the Roman Jesuit P.
Bruno Bruni during the time of Susenios, and for other buildings of that
period or a little later. It was built using materials from a rock church that
had been possibly built by Egyptians for Empress Elena, the widow of
Baeda Mariam. Todays church of Mariam has interesting pictures.18
The French Minister in Addis Ababa in the early 1920s, M. de Coppet,

published an account of a visit at that time, which is among the meager
sources on Mertule Maryam that the Englishman Stephen Bell was able to
find twenty-five years ago. The explorer, C. F. Rey, who did not actually
see the monastery, attributes the rebuilding of it for Emperor Susenyos in
the sixteenth century to Pero Paez (Pais), the Spanish missionary in Portuguese service, and summarizes Bekes account:
Dr. Beke discovered there an edifice, the walls of which were in a perfect
state, built of stone in the form of a Roman cross. The interior was
48
adorned with carvings of freestone of exquisite workmanship, as fresh

and sharp as if recently executed. The current tradition was that the work
had been executed in the early 15th century before the arrival of the Portuguese, and even before the Muslim invasion.19
The British consul at Dangila, Major Cheesman, likewise did not visit
the monastery but passed near it:
We passed Martola Mariam, with its ancient ruined church on a hill, said
to be the oldest in Gojjam, contemporary with, but a little later than, the
Cathedral at Axum. I did not interrupt our journey to see it, as my face
was turned toward the Abbay, but it has been visited by Europeans from
time to time and I have seen photographs of some fine sculptures on the
stone walls which suggest that they were the work of the Portuguese.20
The great modern specialist in Ethiopian medieval history, Tadesse

Tamrat, did not include Mertule Maryam in his travels in search of historically interesting manuscripts in the 1960s, though he found significant
material at Dima and Debra Worq. No other Ethiopian scholars are known
to have done any research in this far northeastern corner of Gojjam.
Stephen Bell, then working at the Institute of Ethiopian Studies at Addis
Ababa University, trekked to Mertule Maryam in 1967 and was told by an
official of the Ethiopian Ministry of Culture of plans to do some elementary protective work to preserve the ruin from further deterioration. It was
never undertaken.
The intrepid Englishwoman, Diana Spencer, who explored so many
ecclesiastical sites in Wollo and Gojjam in the late 1960s and early 1970s,
stopped at Mertule Maryam en route to the Goncha Gorge in January 1973
during the celebrations of Tir Maryam but seems to have been shown only
a small portion of its treasures.21
Stephen Bell gave a paper summarizing his observations and researches relating to Mertule Maryam at the Eighth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies in Addis Ababa in 1984. Drawing primarily on
dAlmeida and Beke, he attempted an outline of the history of the
monastery.22 Until further research has been done, it will be difficult either
to confirm, supplement, or alter many of the tentative conclusions he
reached, though some seem to me debatable. What follows is an attempt to
summarize what may be known of the monasterys history, drawing on
Bells researches and other sources.
The first church at Mertule Maryam is attributed to Empress Eleni, a
favorite wife of Emperor Zara Yaqob (r. 14341468), whom he married
about 1445. A princess from the kingdom of Hadiya in the south, she was
one of those extraordinarily talented and politically astute women who appear in Ethiopian history every century or so. The chronicler of Zara
Yaqobs reign says of her:
49
She was accomplished in everything: in front of God, by practicing righteousness and having strong faith; by praying and receiving Holy Communion; as regards worldly matters she was accomplished in the preparation of food, in her familiarity with books, in her knowledge of the law,
and in her understanding of the affairs of state.23
She was neither the mother of Zara Yakobs son and successor,
Baeda Maryam, nor did she marry him (as some accounts say). The complex court intrigues of the time resulted in the death of Baeda Maryams
own mother about 1462 and several years of alienation from his father.
The two, however, became reconciled, and Zara Yakob designated Baeda
Maryam his successor before his death in 1468. Having no mother himself,
Baeda Maryam gave Eleni the title of queen mother and apparently relied
on her support and advice. She occupied this position of great influence
throughout the reign of Baeda Maryam [14681478], and apparently gathered a huge political patronage in the whole kingdom.24 During the confused period following Baeda Maryams death, she was for a time eclipsed
but soon reasserted herself and apparently lived beyond the first decade of
the sixteenth century, participating in affairs of state during the minority of
Emperor Lebna Dengel (15081540).
Baeda Maryam felt a special attachment to the monastery of Atronsa
Maryam in Amhara Saynt, endowed it, and was buried there.25 Empress
Eleni had a stronger orientation toward Gojjam. Alvarez reports that the
kingdom of Gojjam belonged to her and that when she decided to build a
church at Mertule Maryam she ordered Pero de Covilhao to come there to
advise on the construction of its altar.26 He says she was buried there. He
gives no date, but reports: There was great rumour and talk at the Court
about the death of Queen Elena. They said that since she had died all of
them had died great and small, and that while she lived, all lived and were
defended and protected; and she was father and mother of all.27
When did Empress Eleni decide to build the church at Mertule
Maryam? Was there already a monastic establishment there? Did Eleni
have only a church built, or perhaps also a palace? Did she reside there?
On the basis of available information, these questions can only be speculated upon. Bell dates the completion of Elenis edifice about 1510. This
seems late, but construction may, of course, have been started considerably
earlier and taken several years. We do not know when Covilhao went
there. 28 In any event the first building had a short life, for according to
dAlmeida it was destroyed by Ahmad Gragn at the end of the 1520s or
early 1530s, rebuilt at least in part at the initiative of Lebna Dengel or his
successor Galawdewos (r. 15401559), and again ravaged by Oromos in
the 1560s.
It then seems to have remained largely a ruin for half a century but
must have retained its sacred standing and probably continued to shelter a
50
monastic community. DAlmeida reports that the hill was all clothed and
peopled by so many cedars and wild olives that they cover it entirely and
number over two thousand.
The emperor Susenyos (16071632) decided to rebuild itperhaps
out of respect for the memory of Eleni but also because he was first offered the crown at Mertule Maryam in 1604. Susenyos had an adventurous
life, having been captured when young by the Oromo and then released.
He had to fight his way to the throne. He decided to ally himself with the
Portuguese and accepted conversion to Catholicism, which resulted in
enormous domestic tension and eventually brought about his downfall.
After Mertule Maryam was rebuilt, he encouraged the Jesuits to establish
themselves there, which they did in 1627. 29 Perhaps, as the Guida states,
the rebuilding was undertaken by the Jesuit Bruni. Or did Pero Pais also
have a part in it? The Jesuits cannot have enjoyed the place long, for
Susenyos abdicated five years after they are said to have been established
in Mertule Maryam in favor of his son, Fasilidas, who expelled the Jesuits
and re-established traditional Ethiopian Orthodoxy. Mertule Maryam reverted to the control of the Orthodox Church.
The next two centuries are a blank in the monasterys history. Further
research in chronicles may be revealing, though so far no historical material on the monastery itself has come to light at Mertule Maryam. Archaeology seems more promising as a means of shedding light on the entire
history of Mertule Maryam and on life in the region. Professional examination of the ruins themselves and probes in the entire monastery area
might produce valuable information.
A CHALLENGE FOR ARCHAEOLOGISTS
The survival of ancient cedars and olives in church groves and the existence of occasional stands of what appear to be original forest in isolated
locations in northeast Gojjam provide evidence that a thousand years ago
the area must have been heavily forested.30 DAlmeidas reference to more
than 2,000 cedars and olives on the hill on which Mertule Maryam is located does not match the situation today, though there are still perhaps 150
old trees in and around the monastery compound. Some may be several
hundred years old, but many no longer appear healthy. DAlmeidas statement that trees were originally planted around the monastery seems improbable. There is little evidence of deliberate planting of trees around
Ethiopian churches and monasteries. For the most part they are survivors of
original forests and where enough trees are left, they replant themselves.
We know that medieval Christian missionaries often chose pagan forest glades, especially on hilltops, for churches in order to give the new
51
Christian faith the benefit of continuity. The pagan beliefs they aimed to
supplant centered around nature worship and animistic practices. For example, the people of a district were described as worshipping the rocks,
trees, or rivers. They did not know God except very few [among them].
They lived by eating, drinking, and committing adultery all their lives.31
Many accounts in chronicles attest to hilltop locations of secular and
religious authority, for example: Tekla Haymanot came to a hill called
Bilat. This was the headquarters of the sorcerers and here they sacrificed
the blood of cows and goats. . . . There lived their king and the witch-doctors, the diviners, and all the men of magic worshipped him.32
Thus, these energetic Christian missionaries cleverly attracted the inhabitants of an area to new kinds of ceremonies at sacred places with
which they were already familiar. Like that of Debra Worq, the hill on
which Mertule Maryam was established is prominent and visible from afar.
It would seem to be the kind of place where early inhabitants of the region
might have gathered. A hilltop site such as this may have been a fortified
strongpoint before it became a primitive religious site and then a
monastery. Elementary archaeological investigation should be able to determine whether it was occupied earlier than the fourteenth century for
secular or religious purposes.
Why did Eleni choose the site for her church and/or residence? Perhaps she wished to have a site with no past, one attributed only to herself.
Possible, but it seems more likely that an existing monastic community or
country church would have drawn her attention to the location. No traditions of a previous church have come to light, however. All the monks tell
us is that the site was chosen by Christ, that he served there, and that the
monastery was originally established by Abraha and Atsbaha. These claims
are so common throughout the region that they cannot be given any particular weight for Mertule Maryam. On the other hand, the tradition that
Mertule Maryam became a gadam in the fourteenth century supports a hypothesis that there might have been a religious establishment there before
Elenis time. Yet, this tradition may be merely an invention to support a
claim of antiquity as great or greater than Debra Worq and Dima.33 The extensive manuscript libraries said to exist at both these monasteries have
never been thoroughly studied. There may be materials in them that would
shed light on Mertule Maryam.
While greatest interest attaches to the enormous ruined building at
Mertule Maryam, other parts of the compound might also repay exploratory excavation and reveal foundations of earlier structures, even
comparatively primitive ones. But it is at the great ruin that even the most
elementary and preliminary archaeological investigation could produce information most easily. How were the foundations constructed? What do
they reveal of construction techniques? Was the early seventeeth-century
52
building reconstructed on the foundations of the earlier one? Is there a difference in construction techniques between the original structure and the reconstruction of the time of Emperor Susenyos? Is there evidence in
the present ruin of incorporation of parts from the first? Is all the present
ornamentation from the second buildingor was some reused from the
original?
There are many other questions about building techniqueswho were
the builders: Egyptians, Portuguese, Italians? Do the stone-cutting methods provide evidence? What kinds of tools were used? What is the nature
of the mortar? What does the ornamentation reveal? There is beautiful
stone carving and a great variety of designs. But there is no conventional
Christian symbolism in any of them. No inscriptions have been found.
Much of the ornamental carving consists of scrolls and floral patterns.
There is also the intriguing row of figures high on the west side of the central hall. They do not seem to have religious character, nor do they readily
reflect a direct relationship to known ornamental figures in Mediterranean
countries. Is there evidence of a connection to ornamentation and statuary
from India, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Byzantine monuments in Turkey, or
from Armenia or Georgia?
Then there is the question whether the great ruin was actually a church.
The fact that it is traditionally referred to as a church is weighty. But the
building itself has little immediate resemblance to a church. At least half
of it is missing, of course. The entire western side is gone, much of it apparently used in construction of the present large round church. Would a
systematic examination of the stones used in the round church reveal those
that were probably taken from the ruined building? There are also other cut
stones in the rectangular church at the west end of the monastery compound
built at Haile Selassies instigation as well as in buildings outside the walls
of the monastery compound. Perhaps inscriptions or a stonecutters or
masons marks could be discovered on some of them.
If the great ruin were indeed a church, it might have been of the classic ancient basilica stylerectangular, with a relatively low two-sided
sloping roof in an east-west direction. It is very difficult to envision what
sort of roof the original building might have had. What is clear is that the
building had at least a second story, perhaps even a third. Existing windows on the east and south side and remains of wooden rafters protruding
from the west wall of the largest room, some still a meter or more in
length, are evidence of that. But there is no evidence of stairs. Were there
stairs in the destroyed section of the building, or would more careful investigation of the existing ruin discover evidence that there were wooden
stairways?
Carefully cut wooden beams still exist in considerable numbers. There
are well-preserved lintels above many windows and doors. They should be
53
examined for tool marks and cutting techniques. Dendrochronological

methods could provide information about the time when the wood was
cut.34 The same is true of pollen analysis. Pollen analysis in many parts of
the world is now providing reliable information about forest cover, domestication of crops, changes in agriculture and food use, and climate
changes. It is beginning to be relevant to the study of pre-Axumite and Axumite civilization.
Some tentative answers to many of the most elementary questions
about Mertule Maryam would in all likelihood be provided by a small
team of archaeologists working for at least a period of a few weeks. On the
basis of preliminary work, plans and priorities for more systematic investigation could then be made. The first task would probably be to remove
sections of the great quantities of fallen stones and other debris, examining everything for remains of pottery, metal, coins,35 and wooden remains.
A modicum of elementary excavation would make it possible to determine what kind of floor the building had and whether it was all on the
same level. Were there underground passages? Was anyonesuch as Empress Eleniburied here? The floor might give evidence of internal partitions that are no longer visible. The ruin already shows evidence of division into separate rooms that seems unlikely for a church but much more
likely for a palace or an administrative building. A palace might, of course,
have had a chapel. A lady as pious as Eleni is reported to have been would
probably have had a private chapel. Covilhao was brought to Mertule
Maryam to advise on the construction of an altar. Was it in the present
ruin, or at another location?
One of the best indications of sophisticated construction techniques is
the presence of well-designed drainage outlets at several points in the
walls. These should be compared with similar features of buildings in
areas where the builders may have come from. The intriguing incipient excavation not far southeast of the round church should be extended. The
foundations exposed there appear to extend far toward both the north and
the west. Further digging would not be difficult.
Unfortunately, medieval archaeology has not yet aroused much interest among Ethiopians or foreigners concerned with the country. The attraction of finding primate and human remains that shed light on the origins of humankind in Ethiopia is too great. So is the prospect of
uncovering more about the development of agriculture and civilization, the
origins of Axum, and the history of this first great Ethiopian empire. Paleontology and Axum will doubtless continue to be the priorities for archaeologists in Ethiopia. It is impossible to argue that they should not be. But
we must also hope that a few archaeologists and historians will be tempted
to learn more about the medieval period, including all aspects of life at the
time: religion, politics, daily life.
54
Far too little is known about the extension and consolidation of Axumite rule over the center and south of the country and the related process
of Christianization. Too little is known of the influence of outsiders on
Ethiopian life during this and earlier periods, not only Europeans and people from the eastern Mediterranean but influences from as far away as Persia and India. Who carved the spectacular churches of Lalibela? The rockhewn churches there show a remarkable ornamental, though nonfunctional,
adherence to the most important features of Axumite architecture, but
there is also evidence of foreign influence. The churches of Lalibela are
at least four centuries earlier than the present ruins of the great building
at Mertule Maryam, but given the conservatism of Ethiopian civilization,
some continuity would not be surprising.
Archaeological investigation at Mertule Maryam would have to be approved by the religious authorities in Addis Ababa and in Gojjam and be
undertaken with careful attention to the sensitivities of the resident clergy.
Our experience at the monastery in recent years gives reason to believe
that with diplomacy and sensitivity, work could begin and proceed with
both the permission and cooperation of the abbot and the monks. They are
unlikely to have objections to tasks such as extension of the digging that
has already taken place near the round church or in clearing of the debris
from the ruin and stabilization of walls. They would probably have little
concern about excavations outside the walls to the south and east, an area
of substantial population sometime in the past. Modest monetary contributions to the maintenance and operation of the monastery would undoubtedly have a positive impact. If the entire undertaking were presented as
primarily an effort to preserve the site and honor the memory of those who
have devoted their lives to it in the pastEmpress Eleni as well as generations of abbots, priests, and monksit is likely that archaeological investigation could proceed successfully for several years. The results would
in all likelihood shed light on the late medieval and early modern history
of the entire upper Blue Nile region.
NOTES
2. Henze, Ethiopian Journeys, pp. 256257.
3. Gamst, The Qemant.
4. Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, is by far the most substantial source
on its subject available in English. See especially pp. 189205.
5. Although the monasterys lands must have been taken from it as a result of
the Dergs 1975 land reform, in 1995 the monks spoke of the land as belonging
to them. Perhaps local authorities have restored it since the fall of the Derg. In any
event, proclamations from distant Addis Ababa have not necessarily been implemented in remote rural regions such as this.
55
6. For descriptions see Cheesman, Lake Tana and the Blue Nile, pp. 268272.
7. See Henze, The Land of the Blue Nile, in Ethiopian Journeys, pp. 236268.
8. Tiered foundations are a familiar feature of Axumite buildings in northern
Ethiopia dating back to the pre-Christian era. At Day Giyorgis, on the top of the
amba (flat-topped mountain) above the Monastery of Zena Marqos (Debra Besrat),
are the foundations of a large rectangular building of uncertain date discovered by
Stanislaw Chojnacki in the 1960s. He described it in Day Giyorgis, pp. 4352.
9. During the last hour we spent in the eqabet we came upon a large, comparatively well-preserved icon divided into twelve panels illustrating episodes in
Christs life. Professor Chojnacki initially judged it to be a previously unknown
work of the famous Venetian, Nicolo Brancaleon, who lived in Ethiopia from about
1480 until the 1520s. Subsequent study of the inscriptions on back of this icon has
revealed it to be the work of a presumed Ethiopian student of Brancaleon by the
name of Afnin, hitherto unknown. The inscriptions include information about his
genealogy, which indicates Afnin may have been of Agaw ancestry.
10. Bahru Zewde also countered the monks reluctance to have their treasures
photographed and registered for fear thieves might be alerted to them (definitely a
problem for the churches and monasteries in Ethiopia) by reminding them that if
things were indeed stolen, photographs could provide authorities attempting to recover them with firm identification.
11. We concluded later that our cool initial reception must have stemmed in
part from the fact that the abbot and monks were preoccupied with preparations for
the great annual feast of the Virgin.
12. Tamre Maryam is The Miracles of the Virgin Mary, a popular Ethiopian
theme; harag is the geometric and floral ornamentation on the top, and sometimes
on the sides, of manuscript pages.
13. Some local people explained the name as Merto la Maryam, the Best for
Mary. The historians explanation seems more likely.
14. During our 1993 visit, the memhir at Debra Worq scoffed at Mertule
Maryams claims to great antiquity, asserting that his monastery is much older.
15. Alvarez, The Prester John of the Indies, pp. 458459.
16. Translated extracts are contained in Beckingham and Huntingford, Some
Records of Ethiopia, pp. 102107. Pero Pais (Paez) has a brief mention in his Historia da Etiopia, p. 93.
17. Archaeologia, vol. 32, London, 1847, pp. 3857.
18. Guida, Consoziazione Turisticta Italiano, Milano, 1938, p. 375 (translated
by author).
19. Rey, In the Country of the Blue Nile, p. 81.
20. Cheesman, Lake Tana and the Blue Nile, p. 268.
21. Spencer, Travels in Gojjam: St. Luke Icons and Brancaleon Rediscovered, pp. 201220.
22. Bell, The Ruins of Mertule Maryam, pp. 125129.
23. As cited by Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, p. 288.
24. Ibid., p. 289.
25. Pankhurst, The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp. 4148.
26. Alvarez, The Prester John of the Indies, p. 459.
27. Ibid., p. 434. If Alvarez is reporting something he experienced personally,
Eleni may have lived beyond 1520.
28. Pero de Covilhao left Portugal in 1487 and came to Ethiopia by way of
India in 1490. He was still there in the early 1520s. Alvarez, The Prester John of the
Indies, pp. 369376, recounts his adventuresome life and high status in Ethiopia.
56
29. Pankhurst, The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles, pp. 9497.

30. The largest stand of what appears to be undisturbed original cedar forest I
have seen in the region is located in the upper Goncha Gorge above the monastery
of Wafa Yesus. Immense cedars rise here to a height of at least 25 meters and some
are a meter or more in diameter. This forest includes many other native trees and
bushes and is said to harbor many wild animals. There are also small stands of old
forest near the lake called Bahr Giyorgis between Eneseqol and the gorge.
31. Gadla Filipos, p. 175, as cited in Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia,
p. 179.
32. As cited from a passage from Budge, The Life and Miracles of Takla Haymanot, in Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, p. 179.
33. Although both maintain that their monasteries were originally founded by
Abraha and Atsbaha, monks at Dima say their monastery was established as a
gadam during the reign of Emperor Amda-Seyon (13141344). Those at Debra
Worq claim their gadam status dates from the reign of Emperor Dawit I (1382
1411).
34. Unfortunately no work in this rapidly developing archaeological field has
yet been done in Ethiopia, so there is no base data for comparison. There is ample
ancient wood throughout Ethiopia, going back to Debra Damo and Axumite sites in
the north, to tempt dendrochronologists to begin work.
35. DAlmeida states that Empress Eleni originally sent for workmen from
Egypt and that this could not have been done had they not been given very large
payments and a great reward, for the work shows that they were masters of their
craft (Beckingham and Huntington, Some Records, as cited, p. 103). How were
they paid and rewarded? Were coins used, silver, or gold?
Did Jewish Influence Reach

Ethiopia via the Nile?
Steven Kaplan
The question of how and when (and some would say, if) Jewish influences
reached Ethiopia has been the subject of scholarly discussion for decades.
Researchers interested in the provenance of the Hebraic-Israelite elements
in Ethiopian Christianity and in the origins of the Beta Israel (Falasha)
have offered a variety of explanations for their presence in Ethiopia. While
some argue that southern Arabia is the most probable source of Jewish influences, others claim the materials at hand provide no evidence of direct
contact and may merely be the proof of imitatio Veteris Testamenti.1 Until
recently, the possibility that Judaism or Jews reached Ethiopia from Egypt
via the Nile has been supported by comparatively few scholars, among
them Philoxene Luzzato, Louis Marcus, Abraham Epstein, and Itzhak Ben
Zvi. (The distinguished Ethiopianist, Ignazio Guidi, at one time supported
this view but later changed his mind.) In the past two decades, however, a
number of authors, particularly those engaged in the study of the Beta Israel, have contended that the Nile was the most probable and important
source for Jewish influences in Ethiopia.
In this chapter I examine the theory that Jewish influences reached
Ethiopia via the Nile from several perspectives. The evidence for this theory will be presented and critiqued, and I will demonstrate that it is arguably the most problematic of all the explanations for the presence of
Jewish elements in Ethiopia. Additionally I will clarify some of the theoretical and methodological underpinnings of the Nilotic theory, particularly among scholars interested in the Falasha origins question. Finally,
these Israelocentric Nilotic theories will be compared with the far betterknown Afrocentric ideas of scholars such as Cheikh Anta Diop and Martin Bernal.
57
58
EGYPT
The claim for Nilotic origins of Ethiopian Judaism(s) can be stated briefly
as follows: Egypt, as is well known, was already in pre-exile times the site
of a diaspora Jewish community. In the Second Temple period (536
B . C . A . D . 70) this community thrived and represented one of the premier
centers of Hellenistic Judaism. The Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible,
the Septuagint, which served as the basis for the Geez version, was the
product of Egyptian, particularly Alexandrian, Jewry. Given the geographic proximity of Egypt to Ethiopia, it seems reasonable to suggest that
Jews following the path of the Nile could have made their way to its
sources in Ethiopia. Significantly, perhaps, the traditional areas of Beta Israel settlement were in regions near the sources of the Blue Nile. Certain
cultural phenomena would also appear to link Egyptian Jewry to the Beta
Israel. Of particular interest in this respect is the Jewish military garrison
that existed between the seventh and fifth centuries B.C. on the island of
Elephantine, near present-day Aswan. The religious practice of this Egyptian community was in several ways similar to that of the Beta Israel, most
notably its inclusion of a sacrificial cult conducted by priests. Finally, it
should also be noted that some of the Beta Israels own traditions mention
Egypt as their country of origin.
At least with regard to some of its minor points, the Egyptian theory
can be shown to be based on misunderstandings. Thus, for example, the
fact that the Geez version of the Old Testament is based primarily on a
Greek original is of limited significance once it is recalled that it is not the
Greek but rather the Aramaic and Hebrew borrowings that appear to reveal
a distinctly Jewish element.2 In a similar fashion, while the hypothesis of
a Nile route for Jewish influences would appear at first glance to explain
the Beta Israels presence in the Lake Tana region, it does not account for
the introduction of Judaic-Israelite characteristics into early Ethiopian
(Aksumite) Christian culture. Is this to be seen as the product of a different stream of Judaism, or are we to believe that Jewish elements reached
Aksum from the Lake Tana region?
ELEPHANTINE
Of even greater concern than the general claim of Egyptian influence are
the questions that must be raised concerning the alleged ties between Elephantine and Ethiopia, which lie at the heart of most arguments for an
Egyptian source for Ethiopian Hebraisms, including, most recently, those of
David Kessler and Graham Hancock.3 The Jewish community of Elephantine was established sometime in the seventh century B.C. and survived for
59
approximately 250 years. The site it occupied, an island in the Nile at the
first cataract, the traditional southern border of Egypt, was of considerable
strategic importance throughout its history. The Elephantine garrison came
to the attention of scholars at the beginning of the twentieth century with
the discovery and subsequent publication of a large collection of Aramaic
papyri, which detailed the essentials of the communitys life.4 Unfortunately, no external sources on the Jews of Elephantine have been discovered to date, and our knowledge of the communitys history and religious
life remains incomplete.
Because there is no direct evidence of an ancient connection between
the Jews of Elephantine and those of Ethiopia, proponents of this theory
have relied on the indirect evidence of geographical proximity and shared
religious practice to support their case. With regard to the former, relatively little attempt has been made to develop a detailed migration theory.
Even the most diehard diffusionists have recognized that cultural parallels
do not themselves prove contact, hence the silence of scholars on this matter is more than a little troubling. Although we would certainly not claim
that either the 800-mile overland journey from Aswan to Aksum or the far
longer journey via the Nile to the Lake Tana region is an impossible endeavor, we would welcome further discussion of the precise route, timing,
and motive.
In this context, it is particularly distressing to note the tendency of
some authors to minimize the difficulties they confront not by a more detailed explication of their theories but by the geographical equivalent of a
sleight of hand. Elephantine island is, as we have noted, located near
Aswan. To speak of it as being located on the border of Egypt and the
(modern) Sudan is both inaccurate by almost 200 miles and misleading.5
In a similar fashion, while it is certainly correct to locate Elephantine on the
border of what the ancients called Ethiopia, that is, the area south of
Egypt, too casual a use of this term is merely confusing. Thus, while it is
true that some residents of Elephantine knew an Ethiopian language and
that certain garrisons fled to Ethiopia, neither report should be taken to
refer to Aksum or Ethiopia in its present connotation.6 To treat such sources
as if they refer to the Aksumite kingdom of Ethiopia without elaboration
and justification is somewhat akin to treating all ancient and medieval references to India as unambiguously pointing to the Asian subcontinent.
Turning to the claim that the Beta Israel and the Jews of Elephantine
shared a religious culture, here, too, considerable difficulties can be shown to
exist. To begin with, it is not at all clear how one can demonstrate a historical link between a little-known group that disappeared long before the Christian Era and a community whose religious system can only be documented
beginning in the fifteenth century. (We shall return to this point at the end of
the chapter, when we consider the view of history that characterizes these
60
works.) Leaving these historical difficulties aside for the moment, it must
be admitted that an Elephantine could explain some features of Beta Israel
religious life. The Elephantine and Beta Israel communities are almost
unique among Jewish groups in their practice of sacrificial ritual outside
the land of Israel. Even here, however, it must be admitted that important
differences also exist. While the Jews of Elephantine performed their sacrifices in a temple, the Beta Israel performed theirs in the open air.7 While
both, therefore, used the term masgid to describe sacred places, the Beta
Israels was a prayer house, the Jews of Elephantines a site of sacrifices.
These similarities must be viewed with some caution. Indeed, one of
the things that all of the authors who support a Nilotic matrix for the arrival of Jewish influences to Ethiopia have in common is their willingness
to draw far-reaching conclusions on the basis of scant evidence. In several
instances a single fact taken in isolation is called upon to support a complete chronological framework. Hancock, for example, writes: Since the
Falashas themselves still practised sacrifice in Ethiopia. . . . their ancestors
must have converted to Judaism at a time when it was still acceptable for
those far away from the centralized national sanctuary to practise local
sacrifice. This would suggest that the conversion took place before King
Josiahs ban.8 He is silent as to how they acquired the Torah (whose importance he admits), much less later apocryphal works. He similarly views
the fact that they do not celebrate Hanukah but is silent as to how they
came to possess Maccabbees among their religious books. (One of the
more amusing moments in a book full of overblown prose is Hancocks
discovery that the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple was properly
known as Hanukkah.)9
In fact, when a careful comparison is made between the religious life
of the two communities, differences can be shown to outweigh similarities.
The attitudes toward the Sabbath presented by the two communities are,
for example, a study in contrast. Although the Elephantine papyri contain
no explicit mention of Sabbath observance in that community, it should
probably be accepted that the Jews of Elephantine were aware of and commemorated the day.10 If, however, as some experts contend, this day was
honored more in the breach than in the observance [at Elephantine]11 it
is hard to see how this community could have been the source of Ethiopian
Christian devotion today, much less the Beta Israels extremely strict celebration. 12 Moreover, the Beta Israels rules concerning the Sabbath, as
well as many other features of their religious life, were strongly influenced
by the Book of Jubilees, a work composed in the middle of the second century B.C., long after the Elephantine community had ceased to exist.13
Nor is this the only major difference between the two communities.
The Aramaic texts found at Elephantine are in a dialect quite different from
that of the loanwords in Geez.14 Supporters of the Elephantine connection
61
to the Beta Israel have, moreover, discreetly ignored the clear evidence
that the Jews of the military garrison were not strict monotheists. While
there can be little question that Yahu (Yahweh or YHWH), the God of
heaven, was the primary focus of religious attention for the Jewish garrison, proof also exists that other gods were rendered homage as well. Particularly striking in this context is the decision of the Elephantine communitys leader, Jedaniah b. Gemariah, to distribute a portion of the moneys
collected for YHWH to the deities Anathbethel and Eshembethel.15 Needless to say, neither of these gods nor any gods like them (unless we wish to
argue for a precursor of Christian Trinitarianism) are found among the
Jewish influences that reached Ethiopia.
Finally, a word must be said about the religious literature of Elephantine. No copy of the Pentateuch was found at this community, nor is it
likely they possessed one. It is hardly likely they would have appealed to
Jerusalem for help in rebuilding their temple, as they had been aware of
the Deuteronomic prohibition of sacrifice outside Jerusalem. It is difficult,
therefore, to see how the Jews of Elephantine who almost certainly did not
possess a complete Pentateuch much less a Bible can be depicted as the religious forebears of the Orit-, or Torah-centered, Beta Israel. The situation
with regard to later biblical books as well as such apocryphal works as
Enoch and Jubilees is even more striking. None of these works could have
reached Ethiopia through the Elephantine community.
In summary, nothing in the recently published literature provides any
reason to dissent from Edward Ullendorffs succinct summary published
almost three decades ago: Such aspects of Elephantine religious life as
emerge in the papyri are in sharp contrast to the entire cast of religious expression among the Falashas in particular and the Judaizing trends of the
Abyssinian Church in general.16
MERO
Until comparatively recently, proponents of a Nilotic origin for Ethiopian

Judaisms paid little attention to the Nubian kingdoms of Napata and
Mero. The lack of any consensus that Judaism had influenced these kingdoms apparently removed them from the theories of most writers. In recent
years, however, several authors, most notably the British Jewish community leader and philanthropist David Kessler, have sought to place this region at the center of the debate on Falasha origins.
Kessler argues that, contrary to the generally held scholarly view, the
queen of Sheba came not from an ancient southern Arabian kingdom or
even as Ethiopian legend would have it from Aksum, but rather from the
ancient Kush.17 This, he notes, is the opinion of the first-century A.D. Jewish
62
historian Josephus Flavius, and it can also be supported by a variety of

other sources. Indeed, as other scholars have noted, the products brought
to Jerusalem by the queen could easily be claimed to support an African
rather than an Arabian locale for the queen. By moving the queen (in
Kesslers view she is actually a queen mother of the Nubian king) to this
African kingdom, he apparently hopes to solve some of the geographical
difficulties alluded to above.
Several crucial difficulties, however, can be shown to exist with this
theory. First and foremost, serious questions must be raised as to what
Kushitic kingdom the queen could possibly have come from. The kingdom, which had its first capital at Napata and later was centered to the
south at Mero, only substantially established itself in the ninth century.
Prior to this period, there is little evidence that the Kushitic dynasty had
even made an impact on Egypt and could thus have scarcely engaged in
more wide-ranging diplomatic activities.18 Yet, even the rise of Napata
commenced approximately a century and a half after the time of Solomon.
It is therefore difficult to accept Kesslers claim that it is possible that she
[the queen of Sheba] belonged to the royal family of Mero,19 even if we
understand Mero in its broadest sense, that is, the Napatan (later
Mero(tic) kingdom of Kush.
Kessler is, of course, not totally unaware of these chronological difficulties and offers a solution: the queen actually came in the time of King
Hezekiah! 20 Kesslers suggestion is rather typical of another of the most
troubling trends among supporters of the Nilotic theory. In the search for a
solution that fits the authors already-formulated hypothesis, a wholesale
rewriting of history is undertaken. New difficulties that arise as a consequence are, of course, ignored. In this particular case, Kessler, in an attempt to preserve the queens Merotic origins, argues that a later author
seeking to add glory and importance to his narrative transported the queen
from the court of Hezekiah to that of Solomon. This is, he notes, merely
one more example of the common phenomenon whereby famous events
are attached to famous names. What he does not explain is why the same
author, rather than identifying the queen with the well-known kingdom of
Kush, names her as the mysterious queen of Sheba. Would not a biblical
author seeking to link famous events with famous names identify the
queen with a famous kingdom? Are we to assume that the biblical author
chose to preserve this event by misidentifying both the protagonists and
misdating it by more than two and a half centuries? Kessler would apparently answer in the affirmative, although it is not always clear how seriously he himself takes this argument. He writes, Whether the queens
journey took place in the tenth century or the eighth is less important than
the event itself.21 Certainly the difference is crucial if he wishes to argue
for the queens Merotic origins!
63
A further question must, of course, be raised regarding this narrative.

Even if we were to concede, for the sake of argument, that the queen of
Sheba may have come from Nubia, of what relevance is this to the problem of the Jewish influences on Aksumite Ethiopia? Neither biblical version of the Sheba story claims that she accepted the religion of King
Solomon. Indeed, the idea that the queens visit resulted in a religious revolution in her kingdom appears only in the Kebra Nagast. Here and elsewhere Kesslers attitude toward this work is perplexing. Where it appears
to support his arguments, he treats this late and legendary work with exaggerated seriousness as to its historical value. Elsewhere he chooses to
ignore that the Kebra Nagasts basic premisethat the queen came from
Aksum or that her son brought the Ark of the Covenantdoes not support
his theories. Consider, for example, Kesslers statement, that seen
through the eyes of an Ethiopian-Christian or Jewthe notion that the
queen of Sheba was a Sabaen, who returned to Arabia after visiting
Solomon, would destroy the whole foundation on which his history was
built and would deprive the Kebra Nagast of its authority. 22 The result
(not that this is a concern of a historian) would of course be no less destructive if Sabaen and Arabia were replaced by Nubian and
Mero. For seen through the eyes of an Ethiopian Christian or Jew, the
notion that the queen of Sheba was a Nubian, who returned to Mero after
visiting Solomon, would also destroy the whole foundation on which his
history was built and would deprive the Kebra Nagast of its authority.
Surely, this hardly counts as a conclusive argument in support of his theory. Indeed, using this logic, the historian of Christianity would have little choice but to accept that Jesus was in fact the Son of God, for to do
otherwise would destroy the whole foundation on which Christian history
was based and would deprive the New Testament of its authority. As we
shall discuss in somewhat greater detail below, this willingness to pay lip
service to local myths, when convenient for the authors arguments, and
grant them a historical status most scholars would refuse them, is another
of the striking characteristics of the Nilotic theory.
Thus, whatever ones opinion of Kesslers success in proving that the
queen who visited Solomon (Hezekiah) was the queen or queen mother of
Mero, the episode appears to be of little significance in explaining the
source of Jewish influences in Ethiopia. It is not even clear that he has
demonstrated how (or if) Jewish influences reached Nubia.
Even if we were to accept for the sake of argument Kesslers suggestion that Jewish influences reached Nubia in the time of Hezekiah (eighth
century B.C.), there is no reason to assume that it survived there for centuries. This theory finds no support in the mass of archaeological evidence
uncovered in ancient Nubia, where the excavation of numerous royal
tombs, cities, and temples has failed to uncover a single Judaized ruler.
64
Nor do any of the biblical references (Old or New Testament) offer any indication that Jews ruled in Kush.
For his part, Kessler seems to put great stock in the New Testament
story (Acts 8) of the Ethiopian eunuch who visited Jerusalem and was converted by St. Phillip to Christianity. Although this story is often cited as a
legendary account of how Christianity reached Ethiopia, Kessler views it
as yet further evidence of Ethiopian (i.e., Merotic) Judaism. The eunuch,
he argues, was himself a Jew. But the structure of his argument is revealing. At first he is suitably cautious: It has been suggested that he [the eunuch] might have longed to the class of God-fearers, Gentile adherents of
Judaism who did not or could not have become actual proselytes. A mere
thirteen lines later, he has moved on: It is clear that while he [the eunuch]
left his home an adherent to Judaism [the qualifications and hesitations
have dropped away], he returned as a Christian convert. It is unlikely that
he lived in religious isolation or that he was not part of a larger Jewish
community.23 Not only have the doubts been wiped away, but the eunuch
is no longer an individual semiconvert but a member of a large community. Although the intervening lines have not provided any new evidence,
they have neatly succeeded in eliminating the 800 or more years that separate Hezekiah and the suggested arrival of Jewish influences in Ethiopia.
METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The limits of this chapter do not permit me to fully explore all the fallacies and weak points of the Nilotic theory. It should be noted, however,
that none of the versions of this theory have garnered much support from
the scientific community at large. It is doubtful if the authors in question
would be much troubled by this. Kessler and Hancock both revel in
their position as outsiders, although one suspects that the former at least
would have appreciated a more favorable reception from the Ethiopianist
community.
It is their outsider status that perhaps best explains some of the
methodological curiosities found in their works. Scholars of African history who read these works cannot help but feel that they have been thrown
into something of a time warp, for supporters of the Nilotic theory can be
said to have embraced wholeheartedly two of the cardinal elements of
long-discredited European depictions of Africa: (1) diffusionismAfrican
civilizations are best understood in terms of external influences, and (2)
ahistoricitythere is little or no history of Africans but only that of outsiders in Africa. Indeed, they can in many ways been seen to be echoing
Hugh Trevor-Ropers notorious dictum, Perhaps in the future there will
be some African history to teach. But at present there is none: there is only
65
the history of Europeans [and we might add Israelites] in Africa. The rest
is largely . . . darkness. And darkness is not the subject of history.24
Kessler and Hancock, perhaps unwittingly, join Trevor-Roper in viewing African (in their case Ethiopian) history as primarily the result of outside influences. Kessler, for example, is an unabashed diffusionist, writing,
We must also recognize that there is a tendency to underrate the significance of the impact of ancient Egypt and of Nubia and Meroe, which lay
within Egypts cultural and religious sphere on the development of the
Horn of Africa. The importance of the Nile Valley and the Red Sea as
channels of communication and, in general, the nature of the spread of
ideas from one centre of civilization to another, deserve greater attention.
Yet, despite Kesslers call for great attention to the spread of ideas from
one centre . . . to another, what interests him is not the interaction between two centers of civilization, but rather the influence of what he
clearly views as a non-African civilization on an African people. Ethiopian
influences upon the wider world garner nary a mention in his work. Even
the admittedly African kingdoms of Nubia are of interest to him only insofar as they were conduits of an external influenceJudaismto
Ethiopia.25
Hancock, for his part, seems oblivious to the richness of the Ethiopian
past and views the arrival of the Ark of the Covenant as the definitive
event in Ethiopian cultural history. Indeed, so great was its impact in his
view that later influences, even the coming of Christianity, were absorbed
only externally and on the surface. Writing on Ethiopian Christian ritual he
notes, Despite a thin and superficial Christian veneer, the central role of
the tabotat [arks] in the ceremonies that I had witnessed . . . were all phenomena lifted straight out of the most distant and recondite past (emphasis added).26
Hancocks final statement, lifted straight out of the most distant and
recondite past, leads us directly to his ahistorical depiction of Ethiopia.
Writing elsewhere about Ethiopian Christian practice he notes, With a
shiver of excitement I realized that there was nothing in the scene unfolding around meabsolutely nothing at allthat belonged to the twentieth
century A.D. I might just as easily have been a witness to the arcane rituals of the tenth century B.C.27 Kessler, for his part, has little trouble convincing himself that Beta Israel ritual (with the possible exception of
monasticism) can be traced from Second Temple Judaism in an unbroken
sequence from their first arrival in the highlands of Ethiopia.
The ahistorical nature of Ethiopian religious life is of importance to
these scholars not merely for its dramatic value but also as a crucial
methodological tool in their expositions. It is this assumption of static unchanging archaic form of practice that permits these scholars to transform
similarities between Ethiopian practice and that of Qumran, Alexandria,
66
and Elephantine into influences.28 Only if it is assumed that either

Ethiopian Christian practice or Beta Israel practice or both, as they existed
only a few decades ago, have remained unchanged for thousands of years
are we justified in viewing similarities between modern customs and those
dating two millennia earlier or more as clear proof of continuous cultural
influence.
Despite the Trevor-Roperian features of the Nilotic theory, it has often
received a surprisingly positive reception from members of different
Ethiopian communities. Indeed, far from being dismissed as Europocentric/Judaeocentric depictions of the Ethiopian past, the books in question
have frequently been welcomed and discussed with enthusiasm. One need
not look far for an explanation of this situation. Nilotic theorists draw
heavily on popular folk models, traditions, and myths in constructing their
works. Indeed, while never wholeheartedly accepting these popular views,
they pay them due homage. Thus, they offer the reader a rare opportunity
to partake of two worlds: to hold on to cherished national or ethnic myths
while also making claims to academic-scientific credibility.
Although both Kessler and Hancock (and particularly the former)
would probably reject the comparison, these Judaeocentric approaches to
Ethiopian cultural history have more than a little in common with the
Afrocentrism of such writers as Cheikh Anta Diop and most recently Martin Bernal.29 Bernal and Diop also enjoy their role as academic outsiders,
adopt highly diffusionist perspectives, and believe that the importance of
Egypt as a center of civilization has been underestimated. (Indeed, Kessler
concludes his volume by suggesting that Jewish influences reached West
Africa and Central Africa via the Ethiopia-Mero axis.) Diop and Bernal,
like Kessler, see those scholars who in the present and past have adopted
views other than their own as causing harm to the peoples in question, to
the quest for historical truth, and as being motivated by other than pure
scientific motives.30 Finally, all four authors base much of their reconstruction on what most scholars would consider to be dubious linguistic
evidence or mythological material and place a paramount emphasis on origins in the definition of a peoples identity.
In this context, therefore, it is appropriate to Mary R. Lefkowitz, one
of Bernals harshest critics, to apply her words to Nilotic theorists: Even
if a myth helps people to gain confidence, it will also teach them simultaneously that facts can be manufactured or misreported to serve a political
[or humanitarian] purpose; that origins are the only measure of value . . .
[and] that the true knowledge of customs, language, and literature is unimportant for understanding the nature of a culture.31
In the final analysis, recent supporters of the view that Jewish influences reached Ethiopia via the Nile have contributed little that is new to
the debate on this subject. Nor have they attempted to contend with or
67
refute the numerous objections raised to this theory in the past. They have
succeeded, however, in reminding us that popular mythic views of history
have a life of their own and rarely rely on scientific support for either their
survival or revival.
POSTSCRIPT: THE BETA ISRAEL (FALASHA)

AND THE LAKE TANA REGION
Although Hancock and Kessler have succeeded in capturing the imagination of much of the public, recent research by scholars far better versed in
the complexities of Ethiopian history has produced a picture radically different and far more complex than that suggested by Nilotic theorists.32 Although there is clear evidence of Jewish influences on Ethiopian culture, it
does not appear to predate the first centuries of the Common Era, nor is
there any reason to conclude that Egypt was the primary cradle for such
influences. The Red Sea and the Judaized communities of southern Arabia
remain the most probable sources for early Jewish elements in Ethiopian
culture.
In a similar fashion there does not appear to be any basis for depicting
the Beta Israel as the direct descendants of those who brought Judaism to
Ethiopia. From a cultural perspective there appears to be little question
that the Beta Israel must be understood as the product of processes that
took place in the regions around Lake Tana between the fourteenth and
sixteenth centuries. During this period a number of inchoate groups of
ayhud living around the source of the Nile coalesced into the people
known as the Falasha.33 Their emergence as a distinctive people was the
result of a variety of political, economic, and ideological factors. The rise
of the so-called Solomonic dynasty in the last decades of the thirteenth
century and its subsequent expansion throughout the Ethiopian highlands
placed the ayhud of the Lake Tana region, as well as many other hitherto
autonomous groups, under unprecedented pressure.34 From the early fourteenth century onward, a gradual process of disenfranchisement took place
that eventually deprived many of the Beta Israel of their rights to own inheritable land. Denied this crucial economic asset, they pursued a number
of strategies to retain their economic viability. While some doubtless identified themselves with the dominant Christian landholders, others either
departed for peripheral areas where competition for land was limited, or
accepted the reduced status of tenant farmers. In both the latter cases, they
probably began to supplement their income by pursuing crafts such as
smithing, pottery, and weaving. Thus, the vague religious and regional
bases for their identification were supplemented and further defined by an
occupational-economic distinction.35
68
At the same time, revolutionary changes in their religious ideology,

practice, and institutions resulted in the development of a far more clearly
defined and articulated religious system. Both the Beta Israels oral traditions and the testimony of their literature offer strong evidence that crucial
components in their religious system developed no earlier than the fourteenth or fifteenth century. Beta Israel accounts of their history trace virtually all major elements of their religion to the influence of the originally
Christian monks, Abba Sabra and Sagga Amlak. Monasticism, purity laws,
holidays, literary works, and the prayer liturgy are just a few of the features credited to these cultural heroes. While doubtless a somewhat idealized and condensed view of their role, it finds support in other sources.36
Although the reconstruction briefly outlined above has in recent years
enjoyed broad acceptance in scholarly circles, its wider impact and penetration of public awareness have been limited. By de-mythologizing rather
than re-mythologizing the Ethiopian past, its proponents have offered little to capture the public fancy. They have, however, offered a reconstruction that is historical, based on primary sources rather than speculation,
and that places Ethiopia at the center of Ethiopian history.
NOTES
1. For a survey of the vast literature on this subject see Kaplan, The Beta Israel, pp. 2732.
2. Ullendorff, Ethiopia and the Bible, pp. 120125; Polotsky, Aramaic,
Syriac, Geez, pp. 110.
3. Kessler, The Falashas, pp. 4147; Hancock, The Sign and the Seal, pp.
424446. See also Waldman, The Jews of Ethiopia, p. 10. Luzzato, Marcus, and
Epstein all wrote prior to the discovery of the Elephantine papyri.
4. Porten, Archives from Elephantine; Vincent, La Religion des judoarmens dElephantine; Cowley, Aramaic Papyri of the Fifth Century B.C.
5. Waldman, The Jews of Ethiopia, p. 10.
6. Baron, The Social and Religious History of the Jewish People, p. 588. It
should also be noted that neither of these reports can be demonstrated to refer to
the Jewish garrison.
7. Lifchitz, Un sacrifice chez les Falachas, Juifs dAbyssinie, pp. 16123.
8. Hancock, The Sign and the Seal, p. 407.
9. Ibid., p. 134.
10. Porten, Archives from Elephantine, pp. 126128.
11. Ibid., p. 10. It is strange to find Kessler, p. 42, quoting this passage with
approval given his claim that Elephantine practice was remarkably reminiscent
of that of the Beta Israel.
12. Leslau, Falasha Anthology, p. xxxii: The day celebrated in the strictest
manner is the Sabbath.
13. On the dating of Jubilees see Vanderkam, Textual and Historical Studies
in the Book of Jubilees, pp. 207285. On the decline of the Elephantine garrison,
see Porten, Archives from Elephantine, pp. 296301.
69
14. Personal communication, Professor Edward Ullendorff, August 1990.

15. Porten, Archives from Elephantine, p. 163.
16. Ullendorff, Ethiopia and the Bible, pp. 1617.
17. Kessler, The Falashas, pp. 2457. The possibility that the queen was of
African origin has also been raised by Isaac and Felder, Reflections on the Origins of Ethiopian Civilization, pp. 7183. No attempt, however, is made in their
paper to associate the queen with either Judaic influences in Ethiopia or more
specifically the Beta Israel.
18. Adams, Nubia: A Corridor to Africa, 249259.
19. Kessler, The Falashas, p. 40.
20. Ibid., pp. 3447.
21. Ibid., p. 37.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid., pp. 49, 50.
24. The statement was originally made during a series of lectures at the University of Sussex transmitted by BBC Television. For an illuminating discussion
see Fuglestead, The Trevor-Roper Trap or the Imperialism of History, an Essay,
pp. 309326.
25. Kessler, The Falashas, p. xvi. For a telling critique of such diffusionist approaches to the study of religion see Sharpe, Comparative Religion: A History, p.
174: The ease with which historical links could occasionally be demonstrated was
an open invitation to certain enthusiastic scholars to extend these chains of evidence by means of free hypothesis, and to suggest, on inadequate evidence, that all
civilizationor in this case, religionhad originated in some temporarily fashionable corner of the world. See also Blaut, The Colonizers Model of the World:
Geographical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History.
26. Hancock, The Sign and the Seal, pp. 267268.
27. Ibid., pp. 263, 267268.
28. See Kaplan, The Origins of the Beta Israel: Five Methodological Cautions, pp. 4147, for a more detailed discussion of this point.
29. Diop, The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality; Bernal, Black
Athena.
30. Kessler, The Falashas, p. xx: I have found myself under a strong obligation to enter this argument because I deemed it necessary to try to mitigate the
damage which could be done to the Falashas reputation and the cause of historical
truth as well as to their own pride in the origins. . . . An obligation surely rests on
those who have regard for Ethiopian Jewish studies to proclaim the historical truth
as we see it.
31. Lefkowitz, Ancient History, Modern Myths, p. 22.
32. Abbink, The Enigma of Beta Israel Ethnogenesis: An Ethnohistorical
Study, pp. 397450; Shelemay, Music; Kaplan, Beta Israel.
33. Ayhud literally means Jews but is generally used to refer to Christian
heretics and other political or religious deviants. Falasha appears to be derived
from either the Geez falasawi (a landless person) or falasyan (a monk). See
Kaplan, Beta Israel, pp. 6573.
34. For a masterful survey of this period see Tamrat, Church and State in
Ethiopia.
35. Quirin, The Evolution of the Ethiopian Jews.
36. Ibid., pp. 6572; Shelemay, Music; Kaplan, Beta Israel.
Arab Geographers,
the Nile, and the History
of Bilad al-Sudan
Nehemia Levtzion
Dedicated to the memory of the late J. F. P. Hopkins

of Cambridge University, with whom I edited
Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History,
in which the Nile features so prominently
The sources of the Nile were a riddle for humanity until the middle of the
nineteenth century. This chapter investigates what the Arab geographers
knew or theorized concerning the Nile, its sources, and its course. We meet
information about the Nile in texts that deal with sub-Saharan Africa,
known in the sources as Bilad al-Sudan. This part of Africa was better
known to the Arabs than the lands south of Egypt.
The Arab geographers adopted Ptolemys theory of astronomical geography about the sources of the Nile in the Jabal al-Qamar (Mountains
of the Moon). Surat al-Ard of al-Khuwarizmi (died sometime after 846) is
an adaptation to Arabic of Ptolemys Geography. But al-Khuwarizmi was
able to add names of places (like Alwa, Zaghawa, Fezzan, and Dunqula)
that represent the new geographical knowledge of the Arabs:
There are two round lakes. Into the first pour five rivers from the Mountain of the Moon. Five rivers also issue from the Mountain of the Moon
into the second lake. [All these rivers finally unite in a single lake called
the Little Lake.] From the Little Lake issues a great river which is the Nil
of Egypt. It passes through the land of the Sudan, and Alwa and Zaghawa and Fezzan and the Nuba, and passes through Dunqula, the city of
Nuba.1
71
72
In the tenth and eleventh centuries the knowledge of the Arabs about the
countries south of the Sahara expanded, based on the direct observation of
military commanders, travelers, and traders.
Ibn al-Faqih, writing shortly after 903, begins with Ptolemys theory:
Some people say that the Nil issues beyond the equator from two lakes.
. . . It flows around the land of the Habasha, and then it passes between
Bahr al-Qulzum and the desert, to flow on and to pour itself at Dimyat into
the Mediterranean. But he soon adds information based on direct observation: Abul-Khattab [d. 761] related that al-Mushtari b. al-Aswad said:
I have raided the land of Anbiya twenty times from al-Sus al-Aqsa, and I
have seen there the Nil. Between the river and the salty sea is a dune of
sand and the Nil emerges from beneath it.2
The raids of Abul-Khattab were from Morocco to the Sahara, and the
evidence suggests that as early as the middle of the eighth century, the
Arabs had some idea about a system of rivers south of the Sahara, which
they identified as the Nile.
Writing in 1067, a work of descriptive geography, based on information gathered from travelers and traders, al-Bakri refers to the major river
of West Africa as the Nile. The town of Takrur, which was located in Futa
Toro, in present-day Senegal, was situated on the Nil.3 In Sila, close to
Takrur, in the Nil, where it adjoins their country, an animal is found living in the water, which resembles the elephant in the size of its body as
well as its snout and tusks. This was undoubtedly a hippopotamus, which
as al-Bakri described, goes to pasture on land, but then seeks its abode
in the Nil.4 The Nile described in those two references was undoubtedly
the Senegal River as it approached the Atlantic Ocean.
Al-Bakris informants were acquainted with the routes from Ghana to
the sources of the gold in the south. From the town of Yarisna, on the Nile,
African merchants exported gold to other countries. On the opposite side
of the Nile were the two kingdoms of Do and Malal.5 These were undoubtedly Malinke principalities, predecessors of Mali, and the Nile in
question was undoubtedly the upper reaches of the Niger River, where the
Bure goldfields seem to have been opened about that time. It should be
noted, however, that the Upper Senegal and the Upper Niger Rivers are not
very far apart, close enough to confuse them as being one river. When alBakri referred again to the Nile, it was in his description of the bend of the
Niger River, at Tiraqqa, which must have been not far from where Timbuktu developed later:
At a place called Ras al-Ma you meet the Nil coming out of the land of
the Sudan. One of its banks is inhabited by tribes of Muslim Berbers,
called Madasa, and opposite them, on the other bank, live pagan Sudan.
Then you go from there six stages along the Nil to the town of Tiraqqa.
Arab Geographers, the Nile, and Bilad al-Sudan
73
. . . From Tiraqqa the Nil turns towards the south into the land of the
Sudan.6
Al-Bakri seems to have had quite an accurate idea of the course of the
Niger at that point, in its flow to the northeast to the farthest point of penetration into the Sahara, the land of the nomad Berbers, where it turned to
the southeast back into the land of the Sudan.
Al-Idrisi, writing in 1145, goes back to Ptolemys theory, first presented by al-Khuwarizmi. Arguments concerning the reliability of the information provided al-Bakri and al-Idrisi touched on one of the more important issues in the history of Bilad al-Sudan, namely the location of the
capital of Ghana. According to al-Bakri, the capital was in the Sahel, far
away from any river. Its people obtained water from wells.7 Al-Idrisi, on
the other hand, located Ghana astride the Nile.8 Historians suggested that
the capital of Ghana was relocated, perhaps as a result of the Almoravids
intervention during the period in between the writing of al-Bakri and
al-Idrisi.
But our argument is that al-Idrisis location of Ghana on the Nile was
simply a geographical aberration, a result of his adherence to the theory of
Ptolemy. Al-Idrisi followed Ptolemy in assuming that all of the southern
lands are in an arid torrid zone, where life depended completely on the
river. Here is al-Idrisis description of the town of Bilaq in the land of the
Nuba: There is no rain at all in the town of Bilaq, nor in all the other regions of the Sudan. . . . They have no rain or mercy from God nor succor
other than the inundation of the Nil, on which they rely for agriculture.9
No town could have therefore existed away from the river, and alIdrisi placed all the towns of Bilad al-Sudan, including the capital of
Ghana, on the Nile. The Nile of al-Idrisi was indeed a very strange river
that meandered in order to pass through all the towns of the region. AlIdrisi imagined Ghana as situated on a river surrounded by a terrible
desert. He described the route from Ghana to Mali as being over dunes
and deep sands where there is no water.10 As we know well, this route
was in plain savannah country, which a traveler like Ibn Battuta found safe
and easy.
Al-Idrisi followed al-Khuwarizmi in the account of the sources of the
Nile in Jabal al-Qamar, from where a number of springs come in and out
of a series of lakes. Al-Idrisi had new information concerning the last lake:
This lake is just beyond the equator, and touching it. In the lowest part of
this lake in which the rivers collect, a mountain protrudes, splitting the
main part of the lake into two, and extending from the lake to the northeast. One of the branches of the Nil flows along this mountain on the
western side. This is the Nil of Bilad al-Sudan, on which most of the
towns are situated. The second branch of the Nil comes out of the lake on
74
the eastern rift of the mountain, and flows to the north, through the country of the Nuba and the country of Egypt.11
Al-Idrisi produced an answer to the existence of two Niles, which split

in the lake, onethe Nil of Egyptthat flows to the north, and the
otherthe Nil of Bilad al-Sudan, on which most of their towns are situated. Ibn Said, writing sometime after 1269, added that the Nile flows
past Ghana and Takrur into the Atlantic Ocean.12
Ibn Said named the great lake where the Nile splits as Lake Kuri. An
elaborated Ptolemys theory is being collated with concrete evidence from
an informant, a certain Ibn Fatima who traveled extensively in Africa. In
connection with Lake Kuri, Ibn Said quoted Ibn Fatima as saying: I have
never met anyone who has seen its southern side. It is navigated only by
the people of Kanim and their neighbors, such as we encountered on the
northern side.13 Ibn Saids Lake Kuri was therefore Lake Chad, on the
northeastern corner of which was Kanim.
Ibn Said fitted another piece of concrete evidence into the elaborated
theory when he described not two but three Niles coming out of his Lake
Kuri. In addition to the Nile of Egypt and the Nile of Ghana he also
recorded the Nil of Maqdishu.14 Writing half a century after Ibn Said
and relying on him, though without acknowledgment, al-Dimashqi (d.
1327) was more specific concerning a river that flows towards the east
then bends towards the south and is the river of Maqdishu of the Zanj,
which pours itself into the Southern Sea.15 Zanj is the term used by the
Arabs for the black people of East Africa, and the Southern Sea is the
designation of the Indian Ocean. Hence, the third river was undoubtedly
the Juba River of Somalia.
Al-Dimashqi departed from earlier geographers by reserving the name
Nile for the true Nile only, saying, the river of the Nuba, otherwise called
the Nil. 16 He referred to the two other Niles as rivers only. But the
Nile that cuts across Bilad al-Sudan resembles the Nil in its rise and fall
and the manner of the tilling of its lands.17
The Nile of Bilad al-Sudan was in fact a creation of the Arab geographers, who gathered pieces of information from traders and travelers and
put them together. They made one long river out of several rivers that flow
in the region immediately south of the Sahara, between the Atlantic Ocean
and the Nile itself. These rivers are the Senegal, the Niger, the Shari, Bahr
al-Arab, and Bahr al-Ghazal. Some of these rivers flow from west to east
and others from east to west. Al-Idrisi, and all those who followed him,
made the long river flow from east to west, perhaps because they were
aware that a river poured itself into the Atlantic Ocean.
But Ibn Battuta made the river flow in the other direction, from west
to east. The reason was that Ibn Battuta, who visited Bilad al-Sudan in
Arab Geographers, the Nile, and Bilad al-Sudan
75
1352 and 1353, sailed on the Niger River from Timbuktu to Gao and was
able to ascertain its direction. From Gao he believed that the Nile continues to flow to the same direction, until it descends to the Country of the
Nuba, who are Christians, then to Dunqula. . . . Then it descends to the
cataracts, which are the last district of the Sudan (meaning of the blacks)
and the beginning of the district of Aswan of Upper Egypt.18
Ibn Battuta still considered the major river of Bilad al-Sudan to be
part of the Nile system. Those who made this river flow from east to west
had to make the two or three Niles split in a lake. But, for Ibn Battuta, who
believed that the river continued in the direction that he saw, namely from
west to east, the two Niles became one. The origin of the Egyptian Nile,
according to Ibn Battuta, was therefore somewhere south of ancient Mali.
No more information on the Nile came from West Africa after the
fourteenth century. Thus, our exploration of the Nile came to an end, together with the examination of a fascinating venture in following the
Arabs discovery of Bilad al-Sudan, a collation of theory, myth, and eyewitness evidence.
NOTES
1. Abu Jafar Muhammad b. Musa al-Khuwarizmi, Surat al-ard, edited by
Hans von Mzik, Vienna, 1926, pp. 106107, also in N. Levtzion and J. F. P. Hopkins, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History, Cambridge, 1981,
p. 9 (referred to in the following notes as Corpus).
2. Abu Bakr Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Hamadhani Ibn al-Faqih, Mukhtasar
kitab al-buldan, edited by M. J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1885, p. 64, also in Corpus, p. 27.
3. Abu Ubayd Abd Allah b. Abd al-Aziz al-Bakri, Kitab al-masalik walmamalik, edited by Baron MacGuckin de Slane, Leiden, 1911, p. 172, also in Corpus, p. 77.
4. Ibid., p. 173, also in Corpus, p. 78.
5. Ibid., pp. 177178, also in Corpus, p. 82.
6. Ibid., pp. 180181, also in Corpus, pp. 8485.
8. Abu Abd Allah Muhammad b. Muhammad al-Sharif al-Idrisi, Nuzhat almushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq, edited by R. Dozy and M. J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1866,
p. 6, also in Corpus, p. 109.
12. Ali b. Musa Ibn Said al-Maghribi, Kitab bast al-ard fil-tul wal-ard,
edited by J. Vernet Gines, Tetuan, 1958, p. 23, also in Corpus, 184.
14. Ibid., pp. 2728, also in Corpus, pp. 187188.
15. Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah Muhammad b. Ali Talib al-Ansari alDimashqi, Nukhbat al-dahr fi ajaib al-barr wal-bahr, edited by M. A. F. Mehren,
St. Petersburg, 1866, p. 89, also in Corpus, p. 206.
76

18. Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Battuta, Tuhfat al-nuzzar fi
gharaib al-amsar wa-jaib al-asfar, edited by Defremery and Sanguinetti, Paris,
1858, pp. 395396, also in Corpus, pp. 287288.
Part 2
The Nile
as Seen from a Distance
Up the River
or Down the River?
An Afrocentrist Dilemma
Yaacov Shavit
The nature of the Nile Valley and the Nile Rivers function as a unifying
factor for Egypt, Sudan, and the rest of Africa are a major subject in the
Afrocentric world view and historiography.1 The writings of the Afrocentric
pan-Negroid school, especially those of the prominent Sengalese scholar
Cheikh Anta Diop and his disciples, reveal, in my view, the inner dilemma
of the Afrocentric view and its historical reconstruction.2 The argument
over who has seniority in the Nile ValleyNubia or Egyptis a subject in
itself, which I will not address here. Our question is why was it necessary
to choose at all? If Africa is described as a racial and cultural unity, of
which Egypt is an indivisible part,3 why is it important to ask who has seniorityEgypt, Nubia, or equatorial Africa and its many nations?
My aim here is not to touch on the question of Africas cultural homogeneity. My sole intention is to suppose that the classical view that the
river Nile was responsible for the uniqueness of ancient Egypt as a physical and cultural entity, different in nature from the rest of Africa.
THE ADORATION OF THE NILE
Hail to thee, O Nile, that issues from the earth

and comes to keep Egypt alive! . . .
He that waters the meadows which He created . . .
He that makes to drink the desert . . .
He who makes barley and brings emmer into being . . .
He who brings grass into being for the cattle . . .
79
80
The Nile as Seen from a Distance
He who makes every beloved tree to grow . . .

O, Nile, verdant art thou, who makes man and cattle to live.4
The ancient Egyptians considered the flow of the Nile River from south
to north to be the normal natural course of any river. A victory stele was
erected for Thutmose I (15041492 B.C.) at Tombos, just north of the third
cataract, in which the king boasts of his northern frontier at the Euphrates
that inverted (or: circling) water which goes downstream in going upstream (or that circling water which flows north [= downstream] in flowing south). This curious designation reflects Egyptian amazement at a river
which, unlike the Nile, flows towards the south.5
But what was most important to the ancient Egyptians were the functions of the Nile as the cultivator of Egypt, primarily its northern region
(Lower Egypt). The ancient Egyptian name for this land, Kmt, the black
one, emphasized the singular nature of Lower Egypt compared to other
regions and the major contribution of the Nile in creating and preserving
this singularity.6 The myth of the resurrection of the god Osiris is deeply
rooted in the Nile, the natural force that fertilized the land of Egypt. It is
Osiris who built canals with floodgates and regulators to prevent the Nile
from overflowing the neighboring countryside and turning it into a
marsh.7 Osiris was regarded as the power of the moon, which produced
the Nile-flood and therefore all the fertility in Egypt.8 The Book of Making the Spirit of Osiris (or The Spirit Burial), for example, says: Hail,
Osiris. . . . Hp[y] (the Nile) appeareth by the command of thy mouth.
Making men and women to live on the fluxes which come from thy members, making every field to flourish.9
The significance of the river is manifested in the cosmogony of
Pharaoh Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) of Amarna (13531335 B.C.), in The
Great Hymn to the Aten:
You made Hapy (hpy) (the Nile God) in dat (the Netherworld).
You bring him [as flood waters] when you will,
To nourish the people.
You made a heavenly Hapy [i.e. rain] descend for them.10
According to this cosmogonical picture, there is one Nile in heaven that
brings rain to strange nations, and another Nile on earth that issues from
the underworld for Egypt alone.11 Indeed, all the various cosmogonical
systems in ancient Egypt shared the perception of overwhelming importance ascribed to the Nile and its annual flooding.12 The Nile occupied an
important position in Egyptian culture; it influenced the development of
mathematics, geography, and the calendar; Egyptian geometry advanced
Up the River or Down the River?
81
due to the practice of land measurement because the overflow of the Nile
caused the boundary of each persons land to disappear.13 The most important event in Egyptian life was the annual flooding of the Nile, the inundation period, which coincided closely with the helical rising of Sirius
the Dog, the brightest star in the earths hemisphere just before dawn. 14
Many wall paintings reveal the different functions of the Nile in religion,
fishing, and trade.15 In no other African religion had a river such status and
function in its myths of creation.16
Classical writers from Herodotus to Diodorus Siculus and Strabo, as
well as Jewish writers from Philo of Alexandria to the sages, carried on
this tradition, recognizing and praising the Niles contribution to Egypts
unique nature. When Herodotus wrote the famous words Egypt is the gift
of the Nile, he was referring to the thick mud and black soil of the Delta
brought by the river from Ethiopia, stressing the uniqueness of Lower
Egypt. What is Egypt but a river valley, which the water floods? Strabo
asks rhetorically (1.2.25). Egypt is a land rich in plains, with deep soil,17
wrote Philo of Alexandria, very productive of all that human nature
needs, and particularly of corn. For the river of this country, in the height
of summer, when other streams, whether winter torrents or spring-fed, are
said to dwindle, rises and overflows, and its flood makes a lake of the
fields which need no rain but every year bear a plenty of crop of good produce of every kind (Philo, De vita Mosis, 1.56 and see also 114118).18
According to Karl Butzer, the roots of Egypts agricultural system
must be sought in both Africa and Asia, from among a wide array of economic traditions.19 Domesticated animals, for example, gradually expanded into Egypt from Asia. However, Egypts agriculture and system of
food production, which finally appeared in northern Egypt shortly before
5000 B.C., were indigenous in character.
Thus we find that all of the ancient and classical sources shared the
view that the Nile was the major factor in the creation and flourishing of
ancient Egyptian civilization and the main force behind its distinct and
unique charactera view shared by modern historians. I too am focusing
on the river, following the classical sources and emphasizing its dominant
role in shaping Egyptian culture (and, in part, the Kushite culture as well),
very different from the inner-African cultures that supposedly had contacts
other than trading various kinds of goods such as gold, slaves, and ivory.
Yet none of all these sources, be they of ancient Egypt, classical antiquity, or the Hellenistic-Roman period, mentions anything about the Nile
as a water route between the Nile Valley (Nubia and Egypt) and inner
Africa, nor do any Egyptian records in our possession describe the Nile as
Egypts route to sub-Saharan equatorial Africa. Egyptian records and ship
logs reveal the importance of the Nile in unifing Egypt; the Egyptian kings
82
(and their Ptolemaic successors) made regular river trips from temple to
temple, but nothing is said about frequent trips up the river from Upper
Egypt to Sudanthe gateway to inner Africa. The main function of the
river was the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt: It was the Nile, and
traffic upon it, that was in time to permit the creation of a great Egyptian
kingdom.20
The Nile could hardly replace the desert caravan routes through the Sahara because the southern part of the Nile provides neither good water nor
land routes. Not only were travelers forced to bypass the six cataracts between central Sudan and southern Egypt,21 they also had to bypass the river
valley. As a result the Middle Nile was actually a backwater, even though
light boats (made of papyrus), used for fishing and transporting goods,
could be easily carried from one place to another over land, thus bypassing
the cataracts. Stronger and larger boats and ships, carrying heavy commodities, sailed primarily to and from the sea on the northern part of the
river.22 Early in the sixth dynasty (22912323 B.C.) the governor of Upper
Egypt, Weni, excavated five canals to overcome part of the natural obstacles,23 and in the eighth year of Sesostris III (1870 B. C.), the period in
which Lower Nubia was subjugated, a canal 150 cubits long, 20 cubits
wide, and 15 cubits deep had been constructed at the cataract at Aswan.24
If this is so, then the Nile, as a means of communication, barely
served as a connecting link between Egypt and the Sudan, while the Lower
Nile permitted contact and interaction between Lower and Upper Egypt
and Lower and Upper Nubia, serving as a major factor in the unification
and centralization of the land and its kingdom.25 One had to leave the
water route and later return to the river several times, and afterward continue over land farther south through Sudan to the interior of Africa. There
was no easy way into the heart of Africa from the Nile Valley. The Egyptians used donkeys on caravan routes to carry on the long-distance trade
with the south. But there is no mention of donkeys making their way into
the heart of Africa, and the journey there and back, off the track of desert
roads, must have been based entirely on porters.26
Egypt could also use the sea route to Punt (Somali) and from there
reach the inner continent. Several autobiographical accounts exist of organized expeditions to the south: the Weny expedition to Nubia and farther
south during the sixth dynasty; and the sixth-dynasty Harkhuf expedition,
which traveled to Punt through Hammamat and the Red Sea.27
It was not the Nile, provider of water and alluvial soil, creator of the
natural environment for the genesis and evolution of a unique civilization,
that served as a route and corridor between equatorial Africa, the Nile Valley, and the Mediterranean. It was not the river as a water route that
created a long and intensive movement of migration, cultural diffusion,
83
and cultural transmission between the Nile Valley and Africa. It was not
the the movement up and down the river that was responsible for Africas
place under the sun as the cradle of Egyptian civilization, or Egypts place
as the birthplace of African (and world) civilization. The rivers role was
performed inside the Nile Valley alone, up to the cataracts and not beyond.
The traffic on the Nile permitted the creation of the Egyptian kingdom and
offered the only natural and convenient route from village to village; as we
saw, the very concept of travel was expressed by sailing upstream and
downstream.28
Because the matter concerning us is Egypts connection with Africa,
contact did not have to be based on the Nile as a transit route. Hence the
question of up the river or down the river need not focus on the role of
the river as a route of transportation but on the very nature of the contacts
between the Nile Valley and equatorial Africa. This issue can also be discussed without entering into the role played by the Nile in creating these
contacts. The question of up or down is therefore metaphorical; the real
question is from north to south or from south to north; whether it took
place through the Nile or through other possible routes, what concerns us
are two different phenomena of migration and diffusion between Africa
and Egypt: first, the gradual and very long prehistorical (predynastical)
phenomenon; and second, the diffusion between tribes and organized nations with a defined identity, which were able to control both migration
and diffusion during the historical (dynastical) period.
Between Migration and Transmission
If there were ongoing contacts between Egypt and Africa, what were they
like and what influence did they wield? My discussion will focus on clarifying the underlying ideology usually given to this question and its implications.Who was the benefactor (donor) and who was the beneficiary
(receiver) in the relationship between the Nile Valley and tropical Africa
south of the Sahara?
The Afrocentric view is that the Nile, in John Henrik Clarkes words,
played a major role in the relationship of Egypt with the nations in southeast Africa. During the early history of Africa, the Nile was a great cultural
highway on which elements of civilization came into and out of inner
Africa.29 Or, as Molefi Kete Asante, the leading African scholar, wrote:
Cataracts aside, the ancient Nubian and Egyptians never considered the
rocks in the river impregnable boundaries that prevented social, political,
and military interrelation and interventions.30
At this point it is important, first, to distinguish between relationships
during the prehistorical period and the historical period, and between
84
Egypt and Nubias relationship and that of Egypt and equatorial Africa.
Second, in dealing with contacts between Egypt and sub-Saharan (equatorial) Africa, we should distinguish between two different periods: the long
period before 3000 B. C., and the period after. We should also distinguish
between human migration and the diffusion of cultural traits in general,
and within these two long spans of time in particular during these two time
periods. The differences between various forms of immigration or cultural
diffusion should be examined because there is a fundamental difference
between the movement of populations in the prehistorical period and migratory movements between settled and politically organized regions.
There is also a difference between the diffusion of cultural elements in the
prehistorical period and diffusion involving developed cultures. There is a
difference between a large-scale nomadic movement, takeover, and settlement on one hand, and cultural changes resulting from the slow infiltration
of small groups, trade relations, and the like on the other.
This is an important fact in our case because the chances of influential
contacts between the Egyptian Nile Valley, the Sahara, and Africa south
of the Sahara and along the upper reaches of the Nile were better between
5000 and 3000 B.C. than in later periods. 31 East Africa was the cradle of
humanity, and the peopling of the Nile Valley was a result of waves of migration from the south. As mentioned earlier, the Nile Valley provided a
unique environment for the development of an agricultural society, dependent upon domesticated crops and animals, basically different from the
African societies in the equatorial rain forest.32
These waves of migration suggest that there may have been a transmission of cultural elements and goods between the north and south. Perhaps a common cultural substratum existed during the prehistorical period
as well. If this is true, the question is whether discrete cultures developed
from that substratum and then fragmented, or whether it was sufficiently
vigorous and strong to remain active even after the various cultures split
off and went their own ways.
Nevertheless, following the prehistorical period, almost all significant
contact between Egypt and most of sub-Saharan Africa via the Sahara
came to an end,33 mainly as a result of climatic changes in the Sahara region, which had become arid, and as a result of Egypts rapid development. Some scholars believe that the Sahara region could not continue to
serve as a route between Egypt and Africa, whereas others believe that
even after 3000 B.C., a rich trade was carried on for all the coveted commodities of Africa, for ivory and ebony, for ostrich feathers and eggs, for
leopard skins and cattle and slaves, and gold.34 On the basis of his findings in Knossos, Sir Arthur Evans even reached the conclusion that some
African products may have found their way into Crete by way of the Nile
Valley and Egypt, or by overland routes across the Sahara from the interior
85
via Nubia.35 Some of these commodities were brought to Egypt and the
Mediterranean. 36 According to this view, prior to the introduction of the
camel to Africa,37 donkey-drawn and possibly horse-drawn carts and even
chariots crossed the western and central Sahara between North Africa and
the regions of the Niger River, throughout a long period before the middle
of the first millennium B.C. Another useful route lay between the Middle
Nile and the western region around Lake Chad, passing across Africa by
way of Kordofon, Darfur and Zangawa.38 The Nile never replaced the
desert routes; even if we accept the view that favored continuous trade
contacts, it is quite clear that only limited Egyptian commodities reached
Africa, and that only a very few Egyptian commodities reached the interior
of Africa through the Nile Valley.
As mentioned earlier, the question of the nature of the Nile Valley civilizationthe nature of the relationship between its two parts, Egypt and
Nubia, and the nature of the relationship between them and the African interiorhas gained a new ideological dimension in recent years. Those
African and African American scholars who invested so much effort into
establishing the theory that Egypt and the Nile Valley were an integral part
of Africa must inevitably claim that it was the river and the river valley
that played an important part in creating this unity and uniformity.39
From an Afrocentric point of view, however, it is not nearly enough to
find the traces of intensive trade contacts between the interior of Africa,
Nubia, and Egypt, or even a limited cultural exchange. Its aim is to claim
far greater, more intensive, continuous, and influential biological and cultural contacts during the prehistorical periods. Thus, Afrocentrist writers
argue that these contacts occurred during the predynastic period (before
the third millennium) and continued during the historical dynastic periods;
that they were based on deep cultural affinities and resemblances based on
common racial backgrounds. In other words, they were based on a substratum of racial and cultural unity and uniformity, thus creating another
cultural unity and uniformity.
It seems that Afrocentrists emphasize this pointthe continuity of interdependence during the historical (dynastic) period, based on the common substratumbecause they are fully aware that the phenomena of
human migration and cultural diffusion in prehistorical periods are fundamentally different in nature from cultural diffusion in historical periods,
just as they are fully aware that this fundamental difference is much more
evident when one party in the relationship, the Egyptians, was a highly advanced civilization, while the peoples of interior Africa were far less culturally advanced. In other words, I believe the Afrocentrists fully realize
that even if Egypt and Africa shared the same material culture during the
Neolithic period, Egypt developed so rapidly that it became very different
from the interior cultures, as well as from Nubia and Sudan.40 In contrast
86
to the Nile Valley, agriculture in Western and Central Africa spread very
slowly, while the use of iron dates from 700 B.C. to 400 B.C.41
This Afrocentric view can be regarded as an inverted intellectual response to Western diffusionist theories that claimed that African culture
developed through the outside influences of the white or Hamitic race and
that so-called African backwardness resulted from Africas long isolation
from the Near East and the Mediterranean basin. In one famous example,
Gordon Childe claimed that Egypt advanced as a result of a migration of
large numbers of people into the river valley oasis during the last Ice Age
who settled in the Nile Valley and did not migrate to the south, resulting in
Africas isolation.42 The early Egyptians came as conquerors from outside
Africa (Asia) and advanced through Lower Egypt southward.43 Until the
beginning of the twentieth century, European literature rarely considered
the possibility of ties and contacts between Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa.
From this point of view, the only acceptable theory is that there were mutual influences between Kush and Egypt.44
Their urgent need to respond in kind led the Afrocentrists to adopt a
hyperprehistorical and historical diffusionist paradigm and to stress the
importance of the racial factor. This factor, some of them assume, was responsible for the common human traits that, according to this view, were
(and are) long-lasting and stronger than any other cultural development,
evolution, and context. In their view, African cultural evolution was free of
any outside African influences. Instead, Africa is perceived as the source
and origin of human evolution. The goal of the Afrocentric theory and
worldview was to turn the picture of African isolation and backwardness
upside down. African American scholars replaced the European diffusionist paradigm with a hyper-African or Egyptian paradigm, in which Africa
and Egypt became the cradle of a homogeneous black race that spread its
culture and knowledge throughout the world, from China to the preColumbian civilization.45 They were preceded by a few European scholars,
such as G. Elliot Smith and Charles G. Seligman, who drew parallels between ancient Egyptian and African cultures and believed they discerned a
basic resemblance between Egyptian and African customs that, in their
view, arose from a common African substratum.46 Smiths Egyptocentric
(heliocentric) diffusionism claimed that Egyptblack Egyptwas the single source of human culture,47 and that an ebb and flow of migrants from
the south came to Nubia and Egypt, bringing with them the concepts and
patterns of divine kingship, cosmology, language, and more. Africans and
African traits were transmitted to Nubia and Egypt from the south,
whereas the predynastic age was characterized by the migration of blacks
into Egypt, not only from Nubia but from the inner regions of Africa as
well. This flow continued during the dynastic period. However, these
87
Western scholars stopped at this particular point: an African substratum

existed, expressed mainly in popular religion, but Africa was never able
to attain the high achievements of Egypt.
It is no wonder that only part of this theory has been adopted by
African and African American scholars, convinced as they are that Egypt,
Nubia, and Africa sprang from a common racial stock or substratum,
shared the same philosophical concepts and customs, and that the Egyptian
language belongs to the family of African languages. For the Afrocentrists,
this view or theory became a scientific truth, an ideological faith, a political stand, a historical revelation and redemption.48
EGYPT, THE NILE, AND AFRICA
I do not wish to enter the debate about the racial origins or racial traits of
the ancient Egyptian population. 49 Even some Afrocentrists agree that in
the course of hundreds of years, the population of the Nile Valley must
have undergone physiogenetic changes as a result of living in a physical
environment that differed from the one in equatorial Africa. Diop himself
wrote that the man born in Africa was necessarily dark-skinned due to the
considerable force of ultraviolet radiation to the equatorial belt. As he
moved toward the more temperate climes, this man gradually lost his pigmentation by process of selection and adaptation. 50 A more reasonable argument is that the Egyptian population underwent changes as a result of
non-African migration. A geographically defined population, as was the
Egyptian population, can undergo significant genetic change with a small
percentage of steady assimilation of foreign genes.51 As a result the
people of the Nile Valley present a continuum, from the lighter northern
Egyptians to the browner Upper Egyptians, to the still browner Nubians
and Kushites and to the ultra-dark brown Nilotic peoples.52
But let us assume, for the sake of argument, that Africa and the Nile
Valley indeed shared a common biological and cultural substratum. Does
this mean, as Afrocentric writings claim, that Egypt was African in its way
of writing, in its culture, and in its way of thinking? Is there any connection between a common racial origin, and culture and civilization? Even
if we are able to point to some biological and cultural similarities, the
question still remains: Was this a result of the common biological substratum, of common cultural roots, resulting from similar responses to the natural environment, or a result of continuous cultural contacts between the
Nile Valley and the sub-Saharan savanna? Here we may argue that if one
stresses the racial substratum, there is no need to claim continuous contacts and influences, since those who belong to the same race will respond
88
in similar patterns and create a similar human culture. And if, indeed, we
accept the theory of both a common biological substratum and continuous
contact between Egypt and Africa, one may wonder how the vast differences separating the civilization and culture of ancient Egypt from that of
Nubia, and even more so, from that of Africa, may be explained.
Afrocentrists often refer to Africa as a homogeneous entity, whereas,
as Wyat MacGraffey observes, the influence of Egypt on Africa, and vice
versa, must be studied in terms of plurality of discrete, autonomous groups
instead of the undifferentiated Negroes and Hamites of the traditional approach.53 From a historical point of view we should try to trace the influence of Egypt not on the whole of Africa but on specific African nations
and regions. However, if we find a similiarity between Egyptian culture
and one of the cultures south of the Sahara, we must ask why this similarity is found in that particular culture and not in other African cultures.
Moreover, even if we assume that there is a common linguistic stratum, the
claim that modern research (of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries) in
oral traditions of the Western African peoples reveals that they contain living, active sediments of an ancient Egyptian tradition that vanished more
than 2,000 years ago (!) actually asserts that the said African societies have
remained static, without undergoing any cultural real change for thousands
of years. In this manner, a hyperdiffusionist hypothesis becomes the theory
that a certain society functioned as a receiver during a particular period,
and then remained in a frozen state.
Thus, from a geographical-regional perspective, we are dealing with
two separate issues: one refers to the nature of the ties between Egypt and
Nubia within the Nile Valley; the other to the nature of the links between
Egypt (and Nubia) and the interior. Because space is limited, I shall deal
only with the second issue: the relationship between Egypt and Africa. All
Afrocentrists believe that humankind originated around the region of the
Great Lakes and that the peopling of the Nile Valley (and other parts of the
world) must have taken place in a succession of waves.54 W. E. Burghardt
Du Bois, for example, wrote: The Negroid came as hunters and fishermen. Probably they came up from Nubia. They began to settle down and
till the soil. . . . They had copper and varied tools of flint capable of working timber.55 In his view, the origin of the indigenous Egyptian is African,
and as a result the African people who moved or pushed northward along
the Nile brought the basic elements of their culture with them until Egypt
passed from the wings to the center stage in the unfolding human drama
of northeastern Africa.56 If, however, this is so, what happened after the
end of the prehistorical and predynastic period?
On this point, Afrocentrists take two different tracks that bear historical as well as ideological significance.
89
THE UP THE RIVER THEORY: FROM NORTH TO SOUTH
According to Diop and his disciples, black Egyptian civilization originated

in Upper Egypt from the Paleolithic period onward,57 and the different inhabitants of the African interior originated from this southern Egyptian
stock and derived their culture from Egypt, namely, up the river.58
I believe that Diop adopted this paradigm because it was evident to
him that even if a common Stone Age African substratum existed, the Nile
Valley civilization advanced more rapidly than other African civilizations.
Since Diop could not be satisfied with the basic Stone Age traits, and since
ancient Egypt was a literate culture while African cultures were oral cultures, he was inclined to assume that it was Egypt that influenced Africa
(an influence which became possible because Egypt and Africa shared the
same racial and mental equipment!). For us, wrote Diop, The turn to
Egypt in all domains is a necessary condition for reconciling African civilization with history . . . in order to renovate African culture. . . . In a
reconceived and renewed African culture, Egypt will play the same role
that Greco-Latin antiquity plays in Western culture. 59 According to this
view, Egyptian cultural influences spread for thousands of kilometers in
the direction of sub-Saharan Africa.60
In his many publications, including his contribution to the UNESCO
International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of
Africa, Diop claimed that Africa was inhabited by people from the Nile
Valley. He also said that in all likelihood, after the drying of the Sahara
(7000 B.C.), Black mankind first lived in bunches in the Nile basin before
swarming out in successive spurts toward the interior of the continent,61
and that the Yoruba are of Egyptian origin. According to Diop, the nations
of the Kara from southern Sudan and Upper Oubangui, the Kare-kare from
northeastern Nigeria, the Yoruba of southeastern Nigeria, the Fulani, the
Poular, the Serer, the Zulu, and others, all originated in the Nile Valley.
These Negro people left the Nile Valley because of overpopulation and a
series of odd crises.
The fundamental changes resulted from the different ecological conditions they met when they penetrated deeper into the continent and their
adaptation to the different ecological conditions. Thus, they abandoned the
technical equipment and scientific knowledge they had brought with them,
assets that were not needed in their new environment. Diop claims that
with economic resources assured by nature, without the need for perpetual inventions, the Negro became progressively indifferent to material
progress.62 Although the Negro was the first to discover iron, he found no
use for it. Asa G. Hilliard III is one of many African American writers who
adopted this theory, claiming that indigenous Africans were driven from
90
Egypt by various invasions occurring after the 12th dynastic period circa
1783 B.C., settling in other parts of Africa including West Africa.63
Diop was neither the first nor the only scholar to develop this theory.
Archdeacon Lucas, T. E. Bowdic,64 E. L. R. Meyerowitz,65 and others asserted that there were strong cultural and linguistic ties between the
Yoruba, the Ashantees, and the Egyptians as a result of diffusion processes
from Egypt south to the lands of the Yoruba and Ashantee, as well as to
other West African peoples. These statements, writes Peter L. Shinnie in
his contribution to Harriss The Legacy of Egypt, have been repeated time
and time again without any further authority. Apart from the inherent improbability of cultural and artistic traits surviving in recognizable form
over such a period of time, it is difficult to see how any objective study
could find anything distinctively Egyptian in the cultures of the people described.66 Following this line of thought, Dana M. Clark suggests similarities between the Egyptians and the Dagons (Mali) perception of
Man, God and Nature, 67 whereas according to Yoruba traditions, enthusiastically propounded by some Yoruba historians, 68 they were influenced by ideas from the Nile Valley, perhaps transmitting via Mero. Even
if we accept the possibility that certain techniques and forms of government were influenced by the Sudanic state, writes Robert S. Smith, these
possibilities far from justify the acceptance of the Egyptian theory, while
other parts of the argument, especially the supposed resemblance in language, between ancient Egyptian and Yoruba, can be dismissed.69
One may wonder why these Egyptian immigrants never thought of
using their technological heritage to shape their environment; to use, for
example, iron tools (which were transmitted to the main body of Africa
primarily through North Africa),70 irrigation systems, and the like. Indeed,
iron-pointed spears were a great social and political innovation in Africa,
but the use of iron was limited and very backward compared to the Nile
Valley civilization. And how do we explain the theory that while they
maintained their basic social organizations and cosmology in the savanna
and the rain forest, all their other cultural, social, and political achievements were so unlike the Egyptian origin?
As mentioned earlier, scholars do not exclude the possibility of mutual
contacts. Shinnie, for example, does not rule out the possibility of Egyptian influence on Africa, or vice versa, and agrees that there exist here
and there faint traces of common culture or of influence of the one on the
other. Through the haze of centuries of separation there is the suggestion
that there were exchanges, some in the realm of ideas and institutions,
some in the realm of material objects. But, he sums up, it is very hard to
tell which way these ideas or objects traveled, 71 or when. Even if we assume that the idea of the divine pharaonic monarchy, rule by a god, is
founded on a broad African soubassement (base) as claimed by E. L. R.
91
Meyerowitz,72 this idea underwent fundamental changes in Egypt, not to

mention changes in its functions; the Egyptian king was closely tied from
the outset to the fertility of the Nile and the soil of Egypt. He personally
guaranteed this fertility.73 Nevertheless, the crucial question is the degree
of importance of the components transmitted from Egypt to Africa, in
shaping the nature of the various cultures in Africa, or in affecting the dynamics of their changes. The cultural elements that moved from north to
south during the period in question, according to the up the river theory,
were not the sort that could shape the nature of African society or influence its dynamics.
Diop and his school conclude that Upper Egypt (Nubia and Sudan)
was the birthplace and cradle of humanity. From there, people and culture
migrated to the south (inner Africa) and the north (Lower Egypt and beyond). But during the historical period it was Egypt (Upper and Lower), a
far more advanced civilization, that transmitted its high culture to Africa.
THE DOWN THE RIVER THEORY:

FROM SOUTH TO NORTH
The second theory claims that ever since the prehistoric period, the movement of human migration, cultural diffusion, and transmission went from
the south (the Great Lakes and inner Africa) to the northdown the
riverand that the movement of Negroes from the south to the north along
the Nile Valley and the Sahara Desert brought with it the African language,
myths, cosmogony, and skill. This view was held by quite a few European
scholars. For example, English Egyptologist E. A. Wallis Budge, in Osiris
and the Egyptian Resurrection, asserted that Africans and African traits arrived in Nubia and Egypt from the south, and that the predynastic age was
characterized by migration to Egypt by black people from sub-Saharan
Africa in a stream that continued during the dynastic period. The indigenous Egyptian beliefs in a god creator of the world and in his resurrection
and immortality are African in origin.74
Thus, according to this view, Africa was the first and genuine source
of migration and cultural diffusion; it was from Africa that Nubia and
Egypt received almost everything that enabled them to rise. This school
of thought holds that Egyptian civilization is millennia older than is usually believed, and that the Sphinx represents prima facie evidence of the
existence of a full-fledged, flourishing Nile Valley civilization no later
than 7,000 years ago, quite possibly as old as 9,000 years! The conclusion
is that high Egyptian culture evolved from a confluence of migration and
influences coming down the Nile from the Great Lakes, merging with
those moving eastward out of the Sahara. 75 This cultural influence was a
92
result not only of Stone Age diffusion, but also of Bronze Age and Iron
Age diffusion and transmission.76
The ideological implications are quite clear. If we accept the first view
that cultural diffusion during the historical period went down, not up, the
river, this gives cultural priority to black Egypt, and, thus, in the opinion
of many Afrocentric writers, seems to undermine the originality and greatness of the African culture. Even if Afrocentrists regard Egypt as a land
of black people, from the ideological point of view they still prefer to give
priority to pure Africans and genuine Africa. If Africa was the fountain of
Egyptian cultural achievements, and these great achievements grew out of
a genuine African culture, then it is Africa that gains the status of the primordial civilization.
The other point of view states that if Egypt is considered the source of
African culture, then Africa gains from having been inspired by this great
civilization. If Africa was influenced by Egypt, it could not have been a
backward continent. Thus, black Africans can and must lay exclusive
claim to the cultural heritage of the Egyptian civilization.77 Basil Davidson, I believe, is aware of the difficulties inherent in this theory. Thus,
even though he refers to classical authors who wrote that pharaonic culture
had derived from inner Africa, and he writes that inner Africa was the cultural begetter of the ancient Egyptians, his African source is not equatorial
Africa but the cultures of the then green Sahara of the fifth millennium
B.C. and earlier. 78
This idea was recently repeated by Miriam Maat-Ka-Re Monges, in
her book KushThe Jewel of Nubia: Reconsidering the Root System of
African Civilization.79 This book, like most others, is not based on an original study, but rather on a summary of existing literature, collected in such
a way that it reflects her premeditated decision to reject books that do not
concur with her opinion and to praise those books that support it (Diop in
particular 80). For the most part, her book focuses on the connection between Nubia and Egypt. Both, according to the authors, are closely connected to eastern Africa and tropical Africa. She ignores Diops views on
Egypts influences during the historic period and prefers to focus on
Africas alleged influence on Egypt (and Nubia). Monges rejects the findings and conclusions of scholars such as Graham Connah,81 William Y.
Adams,82 and others who admit that Africa south of the Sahara supplied
Nubia and Egypt with gold, ivory, and slaves, while various concepts such
as that of divine kingship were diffused from north to south. Her view is
that residents of the Nile Valley were of indigenous African ancestry, who
brought with them important elements of their culture from south to north,
or down the riverelements that became the foundation of Egyptian culture. She also feels it necessary to argue that despite Egypts progress, its
culture was not necessarily superior to other African civilizations.83
93
In addition to these two extreme views, there is another moderate, and

more accepted, view, according to which correlations of linguistic and archaeological data suggest a westward migration of Nilo-Saharan speakers
at approximately 3000 B.C. 84 Here Africa is not considered a homogeneous racial-cultural entity, and diffusion and acculturation are regarded as
complex and dynamic phenomena.
As we have already argued, there is a basic difference between a common substratum of two different civilizations and a similarity between two
different civilizations. To speak of a racial substratum of equatorial Africa
and Egypt that created a common culture (or even common collective
personality) is to accept a black version of the myth of an Aryan (IndoEuropean) race and to presume that Indians, Persians, and Germans are a
homogeneous cultural-human entity. Common racial origin does not inevitably produce a common culture. Thus, even if we accept the view that
Egypt was an integral part of Africa, this partnership could have been a result of prehistorical background or of common racial features, but not
based on intensive and prolonged contacts (as was the case with Egypt and
the Nubian riverland, and desert dwellers in Upper and Lower Nubia).
Nevertheless, the fact remains that different human entities emerged and
developed from the real or alleged common substratum.
Let us accept, for arguments sake, the theory that common racial origins create a common worldview, symbols, and social organization in the
early stages of the evolution of human society. This does not mean, however, that different cultures cannot, in later periods, emerge from the same
racial source and substratum. If this is so, the population that sprang from
the assumed common African stock underwent physiogenetic and more
important cultural changes. The claim of constant migration and diffusion
from Africa to Egypt or vice versa is baseless, but if indeed this constant
and continuous migration and diffusion took place, one may wonder what
caused the fundamental differences between the cultures of interior Africa
and the Egyptian-Nubian civilization.
The historical fact remains that if Africans were descendants of the
Egyptians, or vice versa, they underwent cultural separation from their
original culture; even if we accept the radical view that the ancient Egyptians retained for more than 3000 years their essential African outlook in
terms of myths, symbolism, and ethos throughout the history of the country until the arrival of the Greeks,85 we still cannot deny that their culture
diverted from its origins. Moreover, popular and high Egyptian culture was
transmitted to Hindu-European Greeks or to Semitic people, and not to
their racial partners, the black Africans.
Was this a result of cultural isolation or of the unique genius of the
Egyptians? According to Davidson, Much of the greatest numbers of
tropical Africans lived in former times, as many live today, in villages or
94
scattered homesteads, having few material possessions, knowing nothing

or little of the written word, enjoying the present as a gift from the golden
age of their ancestors, and not much caring for a different future. Yet their
technological simplicity was no guide to their social and cultural achievement. In truth they had tamed a continent.86 Davidson also rejects the notion of diffusion from one common fund and what one may define as
parallelomania. Here, then, a processual approach is taken. 87 The internal progress of African societies is seen not as a mere result of outside influences but as a result of internal dynamics.
It is quite clear that Diop and his disciples are fully aware of the problem and attempt to overcome it. We have already noted that in Diops
view, it was Egypt that played the role of the cradle of black Africans. He
based his theory on etymological data, including a discussion on totemism,
circumcision, kinship, cosmology, social organization, and matriarchy. Yet,
like all African American writers, he cannot deny the notion that the Nile
Valley constitutes an independent cultural record. He also must accept that
a deep and wide cultural chasm separates Africa and Egypt. Egypt
brought the African genius to its highest and finest expression. Inner
Africa was the mother, the great Nile the father, and Egypt the brilliant son
and fulfiller.88 If this is so, then it is necessary to explain what gave the
son the driving force and ability to ascend higher than his mother.
In his efforts to explain the fundamental cultural differences between
Egypt and Africa, Diop offers a solution: the assertion that there was no
need for Egyptian material civilization in the African environment and that
the tropical climate caused them to lose interest in technological innovations. With economic resources assured by means that did not require perpetual inventions, the Negro became progressively indifferent to material
progress, he writes.89 Cut off from the Nile Valley and the Mediterranean,
the people of Africa settled in a geographical environment requiring a minimum effort of adjustment, and became oriented toward the development
of their social, political, and moral organization, rather than toward speculative scientific research. Can we really accept the view that in this tropical setting, humans were freed from the need to adjust to nature, or had no
incentive to change it according to their own needs? The Afrocentric view
tends to describe this human condition as an ideal and harmonious co existence with nature. The fact is that the different peoples of equatorial
Africa adapted themselves to the limitations or the possibilities of the land
in different ways, which resulted in pronounced regional differences.
Afrocentrists also portray Africa as the home of an ideal civilization
that emerged as a harmonious balance of nature and environmentthe
same ideal environment as in Egypt. Kete Asante, for example, compares
Africa to the Nile Valley, claiming:
95
The central physical phenomenon of Egypt is the great river, the Nile. It
played a vital role in the creation of Kemetic philosophy, agriculture,
technology, and religion. . . . Much like other Africans in riverine areas
of the continent the Egyptians viewed the world with security, stability
and optimism. The world did not seem harsh and ferocious, cruel and
menacing to the Egyptians. To a large extent the geography of Egypt provided the people with a pleasant isolation except to the south. There were
no harbors in the Delta, deserts east and west, and so openness to the
south through the cataracts allowed Ethiopians and Nubians to interact
with the Egyptians. . . . The Egyptians retained their essential African
outlook in terms of myths, symbolisms, and ethos throughout the history
of the country.90
Needless to say, this is an unhistorical and imaginary description of

ancient Egyptian society, which ignores its close interrelations with the
Near East, the Aegean, and even inner Asia. It is misleading to compare
the economic resources of the Nile Valley with those of tropical Africa, or
to argue that Egypt was not indifferent to material progress. Yet, can we
accept his statement that Egypts social and moral order in Egypt had attained a level of perfection?
While Kete Asante unifies Africa and the Nile Valley, Diop accepts the
notion that the obviously deep cultural changes between Africa and Egypt
were the result of the different ways by which different people, even those
belonging to the same racial stock, responded to their environment or developed their collective genius.
Thus, we may conclude that from an ideological, Afrocentrist point of
view, hyperdiffusionism may be perceived as the right response to European racial hyperdiffusionism; at the same time, however, it presents a
very grave challenge to Afrocentrism itself: If all the Negroes share the
same mental qualities, why, according to Afrocentric theory itself, did all
the black peoples need Egypt to serve as their source of high culture, and
were unable to invent and develop their own cultures along the same lines
of progress without the help of diffused traits from the Nile Valley? This
hyperdiffusionism frees ancient Africa from its image of a dependent culturedependent on Europebut instead portrays it as dependent on ancient Egyptian culture. This dependence is not considered an expression of
inferiority because the ancient Egyptians are perceived as belonging to the
Negro race.
Nevertheless, this awareness of the profound gap separating Egyptian
and African cultures gave rise to three speculative paradigms: (1) the claim
that the Africans uniqueness is manifested in their distinct phenomenology, philosophy, ethics, and collective psychology, and not in their creative
skills in science, technology, and so on; 91 (2) the claim that Africans in
tropical Africa were able to develop their own science and technology; and
96
(3) the claim that Egyptian achievements in these fields belong to the entire Negro race.
Therefore, in their geographical lore, East Africathe Great Lakes,
Sudan, and Upper Egyptare considered the heart and cradle of Africa,
and as a result, their historical lore was forced to spin a web of migrations
and cultural contacts between this heart, inner Africa, and Egypt in order
to describe Africa as a cultural unity based not only on race but also on
mutual cultural transmissions first from south to north and later from north
to south.
THE WONDER THAT WAS EGYPT
At this point we must return to the Nile and the Nile Valley and to the
common perceptions about them.
Some Afrocentrists often accept the climatic theory and the influence
of environment on creative genius and social and political order. According to Diop, the black skin color of the first human beings was a result of
the warm and humid climate that secreted a black pigment. Thus, even if
the racial origin of the Egyptian population in predynastic Egypt was
Negro, their color underwent changes throughout the years. The color of
the Egyptians has become lighter down through the years, like that of the
West Indian Negroes, but, he argues, the Egyptians never stopped being
Negroes.92 Not only was the climate of the Nile Valley different from the
climate of the African hinterland, but, according to Herodotus, the Nile
Valley and the river had different features and functions compared to the
other great African rivers. The Nile necessitated the creation of an organized social and political order able to produce large surpluses of food,
consequently resulting in a stratified society, a segment of which was
urban and highly developed. Crops had been grown in the Nile Valley
since 7000 B.C.: barley unknown to Africa, emmer wheat and flax, and
later, palm trees, dates, papyrus, and others. The Nile also played a key
role in religion and ritual. The horse and chariot, which could not reach
Africa, also influenced the shaping of the state and political society. The
plow and the pump, as well as other irrigation techniques, were not used in
Africas fields. There were no temples or libraries in Africa, no scribes and
books, no science like that in Egypt. All the elements of culture that Afrocentrists claim are common to Africa and Egypt only serve to underscore
the number of disparate elements, as well as a number of elements in
Egyptian culture that are absent in African cultures.
And is it not a historical irony that, according to the Afrocentrist view,
it was Greece that inherited the wisdom of Egypt, spawning literature, philosophy, and science, while Africa was left behind? That would mean that
97
the Sinai desert and the Mediterranean Sea have played a far more important role as routes of cultural transmission than the river Nile.
The paradox here, in my view, lies in the fact that while the Afrocentrist (or pan-Negroid) theory believes that by claiming Africans and Egyptians belong to the same race, they are providing the black African people
with a new historical and cultural past and future and are, in fact, replacing an old white racial theory with a new black racial theory, in response
to white racism. Furthermore, since many of them accept the historical fact
that a deep gap separated Egyptian cultural achievements from African
cultural achievements during the dynastic periods, they themselves undermine the basic foundation of their racial theory and its racial-cultural message of redemption.
We may conclude that if the ecology of the valley shaped the nature of
Egyptian culture, it was stronger than the primordial common substratum.
In other words, even when we accept the influence of a real or alleged
common substratum and the existence of several similarities, we, as well
as most of the Afrocentrists, cannot avoid accepting the ancient view,
echoed by Du Bois, that to the Nile Egypt owes all the special peculiarities which distinguish it from Africa. Even though he tries to stress the
unity of Negro history and culture from the Mountains of the Moon to the
Mediterranean, he is forced to admit that this culture blossomed along the
lower Nile (but was never severed from the Great Lakes and Inner
Africa). Even though he argues that Egyptian religion came naturally
from the primitive animism of the African forest, he admits that gradually. . . . The Egyptians became a separate inbred people with characteristics quite different from their neighbors, and that the primitive animism
progressed to a more advanced religion.93
Civilization is an assemblage of styles and patterns of life consisting
of a form of government, laws, literature, social organization, a mode of
production and economy, religious beliefs, and organization.94 All of these
create and formulate a complete pattern of life. I believe this to be the primary reason why Afrocentrists with a modern orientation cannot accept
the Western notion that they lack any cultural heritage (except for popular
religion, etc.), but at the same time are not ready to reject a Western cultural heritage, as some radical Afrocentrists do, and find refuge in the notion of unique spiritual traits (i.e., a unique phenomenology). Their solution is to make Egypt part of African culture and thus appropriate it,
without any need to claim that this culture originated in Africa or that
Africa was part of it. From this point of departure, there is no need at all
to deny the uniqueness of the Nile Valley, nor is there any need to propose
a hyperdiffusionist paradigmbe it a diffusion that moves up the river or
down the river. Herodotus himself asserts that not only is the Egyptian climate peculiar to that country, and that the Nile is different in its behavior
98
from other rivers elsewhere, but the Egyptians themselves in their manners
and customs seem to have reversed the ordinary practices of humankind,95
thus stressing the unique nature of Egyptian civilization that separates it
from the rest of the world, including Africa.
The debate I have surveyed here is an important expression of the
search for an ancient past as a part of the endeavor to forge a new identity. It is doubtful, however, whether a reconstructioneven one that is
historically reliablecan serve this goal. In truth, this leads to the conclusion that cultural diffusion (i.e., the dissemination and borrowing of culture) is an integral and essential part of the history of culture, and that
racial commonality does not create cultural communality, not to mention
political commonality.
In his poem, The Negro Speaks of Rivers (1921), the African American poet Langston Hughes wrote:
I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled me to sleep.
I looked upon the Nile and raised the Pyramids above it.
Hughes, I presume, was unaware that with these lines he was clearly pointing not to a common basis but to fundamental differencesthe differences
symbolized by a hut on one hand, and a pyramid on the other.
We may conclude that the main function of the Nile and the Nile Valley was not a route or corridorup- or downstreambetween Egypt and
inner Africa, creating and preserving racial and cultural interrelations and
even unitybut a river that provided Egypt with a distinct environmental
setting for the emergence and development of an integrated, advanced, and
unique civilization; a civilization that developed and flourished on both
sides of the river and that was, from its inception, fully aware of its
uniqueness. This was a civilization that may have been accessible to the
south, to Africa, but maintained a deep and fruitful cultural relationship
with neighboring cultures in the Mediterranean basin and in the ancient
Near East instead.
NOTES
1. See Levine, Bernal and the Athenians in the Multicultural World of the
Ancient Mediterranean, p. 20. On Afrocentrism, pan-Negroism, and Egyptocentricism see Howe, Afrocentrism: Mythical Pasts and Imagined Homes; Moses,
Afrotropia: The Roots of African American Popular History; and Shavit, History in
Black (forthcoming).
2. See van Sertima, Great African Thinkers; and Fauvelle, LAfrique de
Cheikh Anta Diop.
3. See, for one example, the statement by Kete Asante: The Egyptians retained their essential African outlook in terms of myths, symbolism, and ethos
99
throughout the history of the country (Kete Asante, Kemet, Afrocentricity and
Knowledge, p. 52).
4. Pritchard, Ancient Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, p. 372. See
the translation in Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, pp. 205210: Hail to
you, Hapy: / Sprung from earth, / Come to nourish Egypt! See also the Hymn to
the Nile (Nilhymanus) in Helck, Kleine gyptische Texte: Der Text des Nilhymnus, p. 11. On the Nile in Egyptian theology, see in Morenz, Egyptian Religion, p. 150. He writes: What the author of the Hymn to the Nile apparently had
in mind was the fact that the Nile did not have a cult image or receive daily service, but that sacrifice was made to it as a festival on the occasion of the flood
(hpy). Heitsch, p. 126. A love poem dedicated to the Nile that floods its banks,
from the Roman era, says, among other things: My betrothed, do not tarry, yours
. . . / Embrace your bride, / bearer of sheaves of corn, / With wave-enveloping
flowers, / Take pleasure in your wedding songs. / Path that shakes earth to Egypt
. . . / Flows exuberantly [ . . . ]. See Heitsch, Die Dicterfragmente der Rmischen
Kaizerzeit, p. 126. In Aeschyluss play, Supliants, the Danaids praise the Nile (lines
516, 854857), and in W. Kranzs view, Aeschylus was familiar with ancient
Egyptian hymns to Hapy Walther Kranz, Stasimon: Untersuchungen zu Form und
Gehalt der griechischen Tragdie, p. 101.
5. Hallo and Simpson, The Ancient Near East: A History, p. 261. In ancient
Egyptian, many words concerned with movements were determined by the idea of
sailing: to travel south is to get upstream, and to travel north is to go downstream,
even when referring to traveling outside Egypt (Kees, Ancient Egypt, p. 96).
6. Morenz, Egyptian Religion, p. 46. On the environmental changes in the
Nile basin and their influence, see Krzyzaniak, Robusiewicz, and Alexander, Environmental Change and Human Culture in the Nile Basin and Northern Africa
Until the Second Millennium B.C.
7. Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection, vol. 1, pp. 11, 19.
8. Ibid., p. 385. Budge suggested that the conception of Osiris was of purely
African origin (p. 17).
9. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 51. Borghonst notes that from the New Kingdom onward,
those who were drowned in the Nile were thought to become saint by coming
into immediate contact with the primeval waters (Nun), represented on earth
by the River Nile (see Borghonst, Magical Practices Among the Villagers,
p. 122).
10. Clagett, Ancient Egyptian Science/A Source Book, vol. 1, tome 2, p. 579.
11. Morenz, Egyptian Religion, p. 46.
12. Clagett, Ancient Egyptian Science, vol. 1, tome 1, pp. 265266. Statues
of the River god were painted green and red; the first was supposed to represent
the color of the river in June, when it is a bright green, before the inundation.
13. Cohen and Drabkin, A Source Book in Greek Science, p. 34. James
Breasted writes: Thus a genial and generous, but exacting soil, demanded for its
cultivation the development of a high degree of skill in the manipulation of the
life-giving waters, and at a very early day the men of the Nile valley had attained
a surprising command of the complicated problems involved in the proper utilization of the river (Breasted, A History of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 9).
14. Gillings, Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs, p. 235. On the three
Egyptian calendars, see pp. 265266.
15. See one example of many, the painting of a state ship of Viceroy Huy who
gets ready to sail for Nubia, From the Tomb of Huy, about 1360 B.C., in Wilkinson
and Hill, Egyptian Wall Paintings, p. 51. See the biblical perception of the Nile and
its different functions in Isaiah 19:410.
100
16. One should, of course, distinguish between the role and perceptions of a
river that flows through a rain forest and a river (such as the Upper Niger) that
flows through desert land. In the Edo cosmogony, for example, water is considered
the primordial substance that once covered the world and from the center of
which land first emerged (Ben-Amos, The Promise of Greatness, p. 119). See
Flute Poem in Praise of River Deities from Ghana: River Adutwum, in you we
bathe, and from you we quench / Our thirst. / From you we take the water to wash
our clothes. / Asante Kotoko, our children and our grandchildren, / But for you
what we have done? (in Curlander, A Treasure of African Folklore, pp. 17).
17. Indeed, as one moves to the north, the climate becomes progressively
more arid, and the importance of the river is enhanced until it is the only life-sustaining feature. As to the role of the Nile in the history and kingdoms of Kush, it
should be noted that Kush extended into a number of diverse climatic zones which
offered vastly different potentials for agricultural activities. Some degree of homogeneity in the lifestyle of the peoples inhabiting its banks, however, was provided by the river Nile which traversed these zones. See Welsby, The Kingdom of
Kush, p. 153. In his Geography (1.2.23), the geographer Strabo comments that
even if this is not true of the whole of Egypt, it is certainly true of the part embraced by the Delta, which is called Lower Egypt (p. 153). Diodorus Siculus
wrote that, according to Egyptian accounts: When in the beginning the universe
came into being, men first came into existence in Egypt, both because of the
favourable climate of the land and because of the nature of the Nile. For this
stream, since it produced much life and provided a spontaneous supply of food,
easily supported whatever living things have been engendered (1.10.1) (trans. C.
H. Oldfather, The Loeb Classical Library, vol. 1 [1981 edition], pp. 3435). In
Platos Timaeus the Egyptian priests tell Solon that the Nile is the savior of Egypt
in various ways because whereas other dry places suffer destruction as a result of
dry weather, the Nile saves us also at such times from this calamity by rising
high (D.1112). Egypt has no floods that bring destruction: Neither then nor at
any other time does the water pour down over our fields from above, on the contrary it all tends naturally to well up from below / (E.1821) (trans. R. G. Bury,
The Loeb Classical Library, vol. 2 [revised and reprinted, 1952], pp. 3435). In
Ethiopica (An Ethiopian Romance), written in the second or third century A .D.,
Helodorus refers to sacred books about the Nile, which only priests may read and
understand, telling how the Nile spreads over its banks like a sea and fertilizes the
filth it floods. That is why its water is sweet to the taste: it is supplied by clouds
in the sky (trans. Moses Hadas, Ethiopica, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press, 1957, p. 58). In De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things), the Roman
poet Lucretius describes the flow of the Nile: The Nile towards summer-time
swells and overflows on the fields, the only river in the whole land of Egypt. This
river is wont to irrigate Egypt through the middle heats (6.712) (trans. W. H.
Rouse, The Loeb Classical Library [1959 edition], pp. 494495).
In Metamorphoses the Roman poet Ovid repeats this theme (1.422424).
These are primarily descriptions that mainly fit the situation in Lower Egypt, as
life in the southern rain belt of Egypt has never relied exclusively on the Nile. The
truth is that the flooding of the Nile was not regular but rather prone to long- and
short-term trends. Egypt, both the delta plain and the river valley, experienced
floods on one hand and drought on the other. This is also the reason for the importance of the irrigation system of the flood plain (see Butzer, Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt). Nevertheless, the phrase coined by Herodotus was expanded
and became a common topos of both parts of Egypt, both Upper and Lower, as one
101
physical unit; see Volney, Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte, pp. 1834. This view became the conventional wisdom. Hegel, for example, wrote that the Nile Valley was
adapted to become a mighty center of independent civilization and has a singular
and unique nature as a geographical region in Africa (Hegel, The Philosophy of
History, pp. 207210). At the same time, however, he accepted Diodoruss view
that the Egyptians received their culture from Nubia (Mero).
18. Trans. F. H. Colson, The Loeb Classical Library, Vol. 6 (1994 edition), pp.
279, 333335. This description follows Genesis 13:10, which described Egypt as
the garden of the Lord, and Herodotus (now, indeed, there are no men, neither in
the rest of Egypt, nor in the whole world, who gain from the soil with so little
labour) (Herodotus, 2.14, trans. A. D. Godley, The Loeb Classical Library [1960
printing, p. 291]), but undermines the biblical story about the seven years of
drought!
Jewish exegeses repeat this topos to explain how this basic difference between
Egypt and Palestine makes a decisive impact on the worldview of each people:
The land of Egyptonly if you work over it with mattock and spade and give up
sleep for it [will yield], if you do not, it will yield nothing. The land of Israel is not
like thatits inhabitants sleep on their beds while God sends down rain for them
(Finkelstein, 77). This is the explanation offered by the Jewish sages for the sublimity of the Land of Israela country blessed by Godcompared to the land of
Egypt. Yet this saying obviously implies, intentionally or not, that Egypts prosperity and its surplus of food were not only the result of a gift granted by nature
but were based on the social and political organization required, and created, to
control the use of the water and the soil.
19. Butzer, Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt, p. 11.
20. Redford, Pharaonic King-Lists, pp. 115118, 204. See also Janseen, The
Ancient Egyptian Ships Logs.
21. The six cataracts upstream Aswan prevented navigation, and the Nile
seemed to lose itself inextricably in the marches of the Sudanese lowland at a latitude of some 8-N, making it impossible to track the river to its sources (Hugon,
The Exploration of Africa, p. 42).
22. Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, Their Life and Customs, vol. 2, pp.
119132. The nile itself was characterized by more vigorous summer flood with
the competence to carry massive loads of gravel from Nubia to Cairo (Butzer,
Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt, p. 13).
23. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, p. 21.
24. Kees, Ancient Egypt, pp. 100101. Herodotus wrote that at some point the
travelers had to leave the river for forty days, because sharp rocks . . . make the
river impracticable for boats (2.29); according to Diodorus, it took ten days to sail
the Nile from Alexandria to Ethiopia (3.34.7). According to Ibn Khaldun: Boats
cannot get through. Cargoes from the Sudanese boats are taken off and carried on
pack animals to Assuan at the entrance to Upper Egypt. In the same way, the cargoes of the boats from the cataracts to Assuan is a twelve days journey (Ibn
Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, p. 121). Welsby writes: In the reach from Abu Hamed
to el Debba, where the direction of the current and the prevailing winds coincide,
movement upstream is virtually impossible for vessels under sail. Elsewhere boats
were able to float downstream with the current or sail upstream before the north
wind which blows virtually all the year round (Welsby, The Kingdom of Kush, p.
171). The Nile served a water route for 750 miles, from the red granite outcropping
at Aswan northward to the Mediterranean and back. See Budge, The Nile, pp.
4549, and Kees, Ancient Egypt, pp. 96141. The Nile continued to serve as the
102
highway of Egypt beyond Cairo until the railway was laid and steam power introduced (Cooks Nile Service, from 1869). Travelers during this period could sail
on private dhahabiyya up the river from Cairo to Aswan and back, a voyage of 590
miles. See the selection from travelers books in Pick, Egypt: A Travelers Anthology, pp. 116145.
25. OConnor, Ancient Nubia, p. 12.
26. There is no evidence of trans-Saharan trade from Egypt to southwest
Africa.
27. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, p. 21. Harkuf sent a great altar of
alabaster downstream in a barge that he built for it. On Harkhuf see Lichtheim, pp.
2327. Punt was described as a land full of treasures, and the lands east of it were
perceived as marvelous land and fabulous realm in Egyptian travelers tales. See
Maspero, History of Egypt, pp. 224226, 365368. However, it is hard to accept
his view that the Nile afforded an easy means of access to those who wished to
penetrate into the heart of Africa (p. 221).
28. Landstrom, Ships of the Pharaohs, p. 11.
29. Clarke, Cheikh Anta Diop and the New Concept of African History, pp.
115116.
30. Kete Asante, Kemet, Afrocentricity and Knowledge, p. 33.
31. Egypt was part of the Sahara Desert before it began to get humid (since
7000 B.C.) and then dried up (around 2000 B.C.), and it was its link with the rest of
the continent. See Nougera, How African Was Egypt?
32. Many scholars believe that this development was due to diffusion from the
East. See Newman, The Peopling of Africa, p. 42.
33. OConnor, Ancient Egypt and Black AfricaEarly Contacts, p. 2.
34. Steindorff and Seele, When Egypt Ruled the East, p. 97.
35. Hanseberry, African History Notebook, Vol. 2, p. 39.
36. OConnor, Ancient Egypt and Black AfricaEarly Contacts, p. 2.
37. First in the eastern horn of Africa. The camel arrived in Egypt in Roman
times. See Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel.
38. Davidson, African Civilization Revisited, p. 13.
39. Many scholars, however, emphasize the impact of internal factors on the
developments of African societies in Central Africa. And see the different and contradicting views expressed in the essays in Celenko, Egypt in Africa.
40. According to George Murdock, Egypt, Nubia, and Sudan shared a common culture during the Stone Age up until c. 3000 B.C. The agricultural advances
in the Lower Nile Valley brought about a cultural spurt that separated it and formed
the basis for the early dynastic age (Murdock, Africa: Its Peoples and Their Cultural History).
41. Newman, The Peopling of Africa, pp. 104157; van der Merwe, The Advent of Iron in Africa, pp. 453506. Afrocentrists often claim that metallurgy was
discovered first in Africa, basing this idea on scientific news such as an article
from February 6, 1970, in the New York Times, announcing that South African archaeologists had discovered an iron mine in Swaziland that revealed that iron
smelting dates back at least 43,000 years in Africa (Clark, Similarities Between
Egyptian and Dagon Perception of Man, God and Nature, pp. 121122.
42. Trigger, Egypt and Early Civilizations, p. 26. This was the conventional
wisdom among many scholars. The logical conclusion from the identification of
the ancient Egyptians as non-Africans in origin was that every cultural evolution
southward to Egypt was a result of diffusion or transmission from the Nile Valley.
See Holl, West Africa: Colonialism and Nationalism, pp. 229301.
103
43. See Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, Their Life and Customs, vol. 1, pp.
302303.
44. Adams, The Kingdom and Civilization of Kush in Northeast Africa, pp.
775789.
45. De Barros, Changing Paradigms, pp. 150172. For a hyperdiffusionist
approach, see Kraus, Human Development from an African Ancestry.
46. Seligman, The Pagan Tribes of the Nilotic Sudan.
47. Smith, Migration of Early Culture.
48. Diop, Origin of the Ancient Egyptians, pp. 2757. See also van Sertima,
Egypt Revisited, pp. 937.
49. See Berry and Berry, Origins and Relationship of the Ancient Egyptians,
pp. 199208. They write that Egyptian skull samples are not very distinct from
the Nubian samples . . . (however they are more distinct from the Ashanti series
. . . and the Near Eastern series); Yorca, Black Athena, pp. 62100; OConnor,
Ancient Egypt and Black AfricaEarly Contacts; Macgraffey, Concept of Race
in the Historiography of Northeast Africa, pp. 117. For an Afrocentric view, see
Crawford, The Racial Identity of Ancient Egyptian Populations, pp. 3544.
50. Diop, Africa: Cradle of Humanity, p. 21.
51. Keita, The Geographical Origins and Population Relationship of Early
Ancient Egyptians, p. 24.
52. Yorca, Were the Ancient Egyptians Black or White? p. 58. See also Trigger, Nubian, Negro, Nilotic? pp. 2735.
53. Macgaffey, Concept of Race in the Historiography of Northwest Africa,
p. 17.
54. See the summary in Finch, Nile Genesis, pp. 3554.
55. Du Bois, Egypt, p. 100.
56. See Ehret, Ancient Egyptian as an African Languge, pp. 2527.
57. Diop, The African Origin of Civilization, pp. 8598.
58. Ibid., pp. 179201.
59. Diop, Civilization or Barbarism, p. 3.
60. Diop, The African Origins of Civilization, p. 254.
61. Diop, Precolonial Black Africa, p. 213; Diop, The African Origin of Civilization, pp. 134178.
62. See Holl, African History, pp. 200204; Diop, Precolonial Black Africa,
pp. 212234.
63. Hilliard, The Meaning of KMT History, p. 13.
64. Bowdich, An Essay on the Superstitions, Customs, and Arts Common to
the Ancient Egyptians, Abyssinians, and Ashantees. See also Massey, Book of the
Beginning, pp. 598674.
65. Meyrowitz, The Divine Kingship in Ghana and Ancient Egypt.
66. Shinnie, The Legacy to Africa, pp. 436437.
67. Clark, Similarities Between Egyptian and Dagon Perceptions of Man,
God and Nature, pp. 119130. And see Baines, Origins of Egyptian Kingship,
pp. 95156. He stresses the unique nature of the dual kingship of ancient Egypt,
which is a result of the physical contrast of the Nile Valley and the delta.
68. Lucas, The Religion of the Yoruba.
69. Smith, Kingdoms of the Yoruba, p. 10.
70. Davidson, African Civilization Revisited, p. 13.
71. Shinnie, The Legacy to Africa, p. 438.
72. See Meyerowitz, Divine Kingship in Ghana and Ancient Egypt, and
Nouguera, How African Was Egypt? pp. 123201.
104
73. Redford, Pharaonic King-Lists, p. 24.

74. Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection, pp. 348349. See also the
entire chapter, pp. 348383. Also see the articles in van Sertima, Egypt Child of
Africa. According to this view, African nations in various part of the continent
knew the secret of iron-toll production and astronomical mathematics, and even
possessed proto-script. This view was adopted by the modern Egyptian scholar
Salama Musa in his book Hadanat Misr fi Ifriqiya, under the influence of Elliot
Smith.
75. Finch, Nile Genesis, pp. 3554.
76. See, for example, Ben-Jochannan, AfricaMother of Western Civilization,
pp. 292303. However, he stresses primarily the deep links of the Nile Valley
(down to Zimbabwe) and the Great Lakes.
77. Diop, The African Origin of Civilization, p. 249.
78. Davidson, The Ancient World and Africa, pp. 324325.
79. Monges, KushThe Jewel of Nubia.
80. See Monges, Homage to the Elders, in KushThe Jewel of Nubia, pp.
5260.
81. Connah, African CivilizationsPre-colonial Cities and States in Tropical
Africa.
82. Adams, NubiaCorridor to Africa.
83. Ibid., p. 39.
84. Macgaffey, Concept of Race in the Historiography of Northeast Africa,
p. 17.
85. Kete Asante, Kemet, Afrocentricity and Knowledge, pp. 5053.
86. Davidson, The African Genius, pp. 2728.
87. See Renfrew, Archaeology and Language, pp. 120144.
88. Finch, The Works of Gevnal Massey, p. 401.
89. Diop, The African Origin of Civilization, p. 23. And see Holl, West
Africa: Colonialism and Nationalism, p. 203.
90. Kete Asante, Kemet, Afrocentricity and Knowledge, pp. 5053.
91. African and African American writers try to prove that some branches of
technological skills and scientific innovations originated in Africa or were known
in it prior to their development in Egypt or independent of it. See van Sertima,
Blacks in Science.
92. Diop, The African Origin of Civilization, p. 249.
93. Du Bois, Egypt, pp. 98114.
94. Singer, When a Great Tradition Modernizes, p. 252.
95. Herodotus, The Histories, p. 142.
Renaissance Geographical
Literature and the Nile
Benjamin Arbel
Nearly one and a half centuries ago, Jacob Burckhardt published his famous book, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy. Part 4 of this
book, entitled The Discovery of the World and of Man, opens with the
following phrase: Freed from the countless bonds which elsewhere in Europe checked progress, having reached a high degree of individual development and been schooled by the teaching of antiquity, the Italian mind
now turned to the discovery of the outward universe, and to the representation of it in speech and form.1 In this chapter I do not pretend to go into
the long discussion on Burckhardts view of Renaissance culture. My purpose is more limited: by presenting the changing attitude to the Nile in the
geographical literature of the Renaissance, I should like to point out that,
beyond the idealistic and provocative phrasing, Burckhardts basic idea
concerning the discovery of the world is still valid.
The image of the Nile in the medieval West can be viewed as a later
phase in a long tradition, beginning in ancient Egypt and later reflected in
Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman cultures. The sacred character of the river
was related to its periodical flows and to the mystery of its sources. But
above all, a very unrealistic and rather incoherent world picture had been
at the base of many myths related to the river. The questions of the sources
of the Nile and the reasons for its annual inundations occupied the attention of several important Greek and Roman writers. Herodotus, for example, devoted much attention to these questions. As he was unable to obtain
any information from the Egyptians concerning the Niles inundations and
its sources, and had discarded all hypotheses concerning the Niles inundations, he suggested a theory of his own. During the winter, the sun was
driven out of its usual course by storms; consequently, the Nile, not deriving
105
106
any of its bulk from rains, ran at that season with a smaller amount of
water. Herodotus ascended its course up to Elephantine and made inquiries
concerning the parts beyond. He suggested that the Nile was of equal
length with the Danube River, but he was finally forced to conclude that
the sources of the Nile were unknown to all men. 2 These questions were
not clarified in later centuries. Alexander the Great is said to have believed, when reaching the Ganges River, that it was one of the Niles tributaries.3 Strabo lived in Egypt and also traveled up the Nile, but his estimate of the size of Africa was less than a third of its real dimensions.4
Plinys description of the inner and southern regions of Africa and his presentation of its form have been described by a modern scholar as a mass
of inextricable confusion.5 Ptolemy, in his Geography, traced the course
of the Nile from the Mountains of the Moon (Lunae montes), the great
basin of its sources and its eastern tributary.6 Thus, no coherent picture of
the sources of the Nile was transmitted from antiquity to later generations.
Medieval travelers and writers who were, of course, just as impressed
by the Nile, considered the big river and the phenomena related to it as a
wondrous expression of divine creation. The Nile was associated with one
of the rivers of the earthly paradise, generally the Gihon,7 which, like the
Euphrates, the Hiddekel, and the Pison, was believed to run underground
before emerging at a different place.8 Practically all European travelers to
the Levant did not go farther down the Nile than Cairo, and the information they provide on the river is often imaginary and stereotyped. For example, the thirteenth-century chronicler Jean de Joinville dedicated to the
Nile a passage in his Life of Saint Louis, in which he recorded the event
of the so-called crusade of Damietta. The Nile, according to this author, is
different from all other rivers; for as these others flow down towards the
sea, more and more brooks and rivulets flow into them; but no other
streams of any kind fall into this river which, as it happens, runs down one
unbroken channel into Egypt, and then divides into seven branches that
spread throughout the land. After describing the inundation of the Nile,
he writes: Nobody knows how these inundations occur, unless it be by
Gods will. He adds that when morning comes, the Egyptians find in
their nets cast into the river products such as ginger, rhubarb, aloes and
cinnamon. It is said, he reports, that these things come from the
earthly paradise; for in that heavenly place the wind blows down trees just
as it does the dry wood in the forests of our own land; and the dry wood
from the trees in paradise that thus falls into the river is sold to us by merchants in this country. Alongside these fantasies, de Joinville reports of an
attempt by the Mamluks to reach the sources of the Nile. According to
him, an expedition sent by the sultan for this end reported on its return that
after they had gone a considerable distance up the river they had come to
a great mass of rocks, so high and sheer that no one could get by. From
Renaissance Geographical Literature
107
these rocks the river fell streaming down, and up above, on the top of the
mountain, there seemed to be a marvelous profusion of trees. They also
said that they had seen a number of strange and savage creatures of different species, such as lions, serpents, and elephants, that came and looked
at them from the banks of the river as they were going upstream. 9 Thus, a
description that probably had some real foundation is used to confirm the
association of the Nile with the unreachable earthly paradise. William of
Boldensele, a powerful German nobleman and Dominican who visited
Egypt in the course of his pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 13321333, expressed a commonly accepted opinion when writing that the Nile was the
Gihon of the Scriptures, if not the Gihon and the Pison combined into one
stream. 10 Ludolph Sudheim, who traveled in the East between 1336 and
1341, refers to a subterranean course of the Upper Nile in certain regions.
Like many other travelers, he was fascinated by the crocodiles. According
to him, the Templars, by judicious tooth extraction, had converted these
fearful animals into beasts of burden.11
The mystery of the Nile and its sources was an ideal topic for writers
who were eager to supply their readership with delightful stories. For example, the Spanish traveler Pero Tafur writes about a story reported to him
in 1436 by the Italian traveler Nicolo de Conti: it concerns a mission allegedly organized by Prester John (by then identified as the Christian
monarch of Abyssinia) to discover the sources of the Nile. According to
this story, to ensure success of the expedition, it was necessary to produce
a race of men who could live on fish. The African monarch collected a
group of babies, deprived them of milk, and brought them up on raw fish.
When fully grown, they were sent on the projected expedition. Reaching
the Mountains of the Moon, they saw the Nile pouring out high up out of
a hole in the rock. Yet, some scouts who were sent up to investigate refused to return, while others who did were unwilling to say what they had
seen.12
These are typical examples of themes mingling religious traditions
and fantastic descriptions, which characterize a great part of this kind of
literature during the later Middle Ages.
The image of the Nile underwent a gradual but radical transformation
during the Renaissance. This was a result of several interrelated developments, none of which can be dealt with in detail here. The first and most
important was the gradual emergence of a secular culture, especially in
urban Italy. The second was the rediscovery of works of classical antiquity
in general, and more specifically several works of geographical and historical interest, such as Ptolemys Geography and the works of Strabo,
Herodotus, and Diodoros, all of whom had much to say about Egypt and
the Nile (though not always correctly). These were thoroughly studied,
108
translated, and widely diffused during the Renaissance. The voyages of

this Age of Exploration widened the European horizons and consolidated
knowledge about the configuration of the earth in general and of the
African continent in particular. The accounts written by travelers and explorers helped to develop a new critical attitude toward the venerated
works of classical authors, who during earlier phases of the Renaissance
had been treated as infallible authorities. Particularly, repeated and continuous contacts with Ethiopians in Europe, in the Levant, and in Ethiopia itself led to a growing interest in the only Christian kingdom in Africa and
to everything related to it, including the Nile.
European missionaries and merchants seem to have reached Ethiopia
already in the fourteenth century.13 But it was especially during the fifteenth century that mutual contacts of various kinds intensified. Several
sources attest to the presence of European missionaries and adventurers in
Ethiopia during the fifteenth century. 14 For example, Pietro Rombulo from
Messina spent three years in Egypt before passing to Ethiopia, where he
lived for thirty-seven years with his Ethiopian wife and eight children. In
1450, when on an embassy on behalf of King Zara-Yaqob to the king of
Naples and the Pope, he met Pietro Ranzano, another Sicilian, who
recorded a few elements from Rombulos diary.15 A Venetian merchant,
Gregorio, or Hieronimo Bicini, is said to have settled in Ethiopia, where
he is believed to have served as secretary to the emperor in the late fifteenth century.16 A Venetian painter, Francesco Brancaleone, was reported
by James Bruce to have been active in the Ethiopian court during the reign
of Baeda Maryam (14681478).17
European potentates developed an interest in the Christian emperors in
faraway Africa who could serve as allies against Muslim powers in the
Levant. The once legendary Prester John, a figure placed in earlier centuries in the Far East, became identified with a flesh-and-blood monarch,
who was expected to collaborate with Western Christendom.18 Toward the
end of the fifteenth century, Portuguese efforts to reach the Indian Ocean
were also accompanied by attempts to establish friendly relations with
Ethiopia. The two Portuguese envoys, Afonso de Paiva and Pero de Covilh, sent to Ethiopia in the 1480s, never returned from their mission, but
Father Francisco Alvarez, who spent about six years in Ethiopia between
1520 and 1526 as a member of an official Portuguese delegation headed by
Rodrigo de Lima, returned to Europe and was able to publish in Lisbon in
1540 a detailed account of his Ethiopian experience.19
During the same period, and more significantly from our point of view,
the presence of Ethiopians in Italy and the Mediterranean became a regular
phenomenon. An Ethiopian delegation, the first to appear in Europe, came to
Europe at the beginning of the fourteenth century to ask for assistance
109
against the Muslims.20 Ethiopian monks from Jerusalem were sent by their
king to the Council of Florence (1439), and subsequently Ethiopian pilgrims, mainly from Jerusalem, occasionally went to Rome, where a small
church, Santo Stefano Maggiore, later Santo Stefano degli Abissini, was
placed at their disposal in 1479.21 By the end of the fifteenth century there
were small Ethiopian communities in Cyprus (where they had been established in the middle of the previous century), Venice, Rome, and perhaps
also in Florence.22
It should be noted, however, that the rediscovery of Ptolemys Geography at the beginning of the fifteenth century, and its later publication in
print from 1475 onward, though contributing to a more secular approach to
geographical matters, must have also augmented the confusion concerning the configuration and size of the African continent and the course of
the Nile. Paradoxically, this happened just when modern cartographers and
writers were starting to present the contours of Africa in a more realistic
manner. The authority attributed to classical knowledge deterred cartographers of the early Renaissance from rejecting Ptolemys world picture on
the basis of contemporary experience. The ensuing confusion was to influence the presentation of the Nile for over a century. No wonder, therefore, that Anselmo Adorno, who traveled to the East in 14701471, though
distinguishing between India and Ethiopia, could still write that the Nile,
which he identified with the biblical Gihon, originated in India and flowed
through Ethiopia into Egypt.23 Likewise, the influence of traditional Christian concepts and the tendency to satisfy the European readership with fantastic tales did not vanish in the Renaissance. Not surprisingly, the association of the Nile with the earthly paradise is found in Ariostos Orlando
Furioso, published for the first time in 1516, where fantasy and reality are
firmly interwoven. 24 But the survival of the traditional world picture is
also reflected in geographical works and in the writings of some sixteenthcentury travelers to the East. The Franciscan friar Suriano, whose travel
account was published in 1524, writes that the sources of the Nile were in
the earthly paradise, adding that the river passed through Ethiopia over a
bed of pure gold.25 Sebastian Mnsters Cosmography, published in Basel
in 1554, includes a chapter on the dragons of India and Ethiopia.26 As late
as the 1580s, Johann Michael Heberer still associated the Nile with the
earthly paradise.27
But besides such traditional accounts, there was an increasing number
of others in which secular curiosity was combined with a more critical
spirit in dealing with everything related to the river, including its sources,
its course, the life around it, the archeological remains scattered along it,
its flora and fauna, and any other aspect worthy of notice. Consequently,
the Nile gradually changed its character in the eyes of educated Europeans:
110
from a wondrous phenomenon, drawing its waters from the earthly paradise, it became an object of scientific investigation, including a critical
analysis of all available written material and research expeditions. This
process was nourished by travel literature, which provided more and more
material to the educated public in Europe, and also reflected the results
of this process, by an ever-growing secular approach to the river and its
civilizations.
Descriptions of travels to the Levant carried out by Europeans during
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are numerous. Authors of travel accounts came from many countries; they represent a wide spectrum of Renaissance society, including churchmen and laymen, soldiers and humanists, merchants and physicians, noblemen and burghers. Their accounts
were generally written in the modern vernacular languages, which meant
that their readership was not restricted to the scholarly world. Indeed,
travel literature was a very popular genre in Renaissance culture, particularly after the introduction of the printing press around the middle of the
fifteenth century. Travel accounts were reprinted time and again, were
translated into different languages, and enjoyed a wide diffusion. It should
also be noted that despite the growing interest in newly discovered lands,
descriptions of travels to the Muslim Levant continued to attract much interest, at least until the end of the sixteenth century.28
The new spirit of the age is reflected in the motivation of travelers,
often explicitly formulated in their works. The famous traveler Ciriaco of
Ancona, for instance, made at least two visits to Egypt, motivated, as he
himself wrote, by his great desire to see the world. His main interest lay
in the monuments of classical antiquity, but he seems to be among the first
who was also attracted by the marvels of pharaonic times, copying hieroglyphic inscriptions and sending them to his humanist friends in Italy.29
Ludovico di Varthema, who traveled in the East between 1503 and 1508,
wrote that his purpose was to see different people and different customs
and to learn new things in every way.30 Other travelers were attracted to
the Levant by professional motivations: for example, Pierre Gilles (1547),
Pierre Belon (1547), Leonard Rauwolf (1573), and Prospero Alpino
(15821584), all of them physicians, were mainly interested in the flora
and fauna and in the medical practice of the Levant but did not leave out
anything worthy of notice when putting pen to paper.31 An anonymous
Venetian traveler of the late sixteenth century accomplished a trip of about
3,000 kilometers from Cairo to southern Egypt and Nubia out of sheer archaeological interest.32
As a result of this cultural change, Africa in general and Egypt,
Ethiopia, and the Nile in particular became subjects worthy of independent
scholarly treatment. As early as 1483, Polo Trevisan, a Venetian who spent
many years in the Levant, wrote a book on the Nile and Ethiopia. Though
111
unfortunately lost, the subject of the book points to the growing interest
in the river as well as in Ethiopia. Another Venetian, Alessandro Zorzi (b.
before 1470), who was apparently greatly interested in various enterprises
of European explorations, assembled a collection of itineraries, mostly of
Ethiopian monks who traveled northward.33 The growing interest in Egypt
was probably also related to the development of an Egyptian vogue among
artists and scholars of late fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Italy.34
An important contribution to the knowledge of Africa and especially
that of the Nile is that of Hasan ben Muhammad al-Wazzan al-Zayyati, better known in the West as Leo Africanus. Born in Granada and a resident
in Fez, he was a learned Muslim who had been captured by corsairs in the
course of a maritime journey near the Tunisian coast and subsequently
brought to Rome, where he was converted to Christianity by Pope Leo X.
Before returning to the Maghreb and to his original faith, he lived in papal
Rome for about ten years, where he also composed, or translated from the
Arabic, his Description of Africa. This work is a unique contribution to the
Europeans lore of Africa, combining learned knowledge with the authors
personal travel experience. It is interesting to encounter in this work a critical spirit similar to that which characterized some Italian scholars of the
same age, an attitude also reflected in his treatment of the Nile. He does
not seem to take too seriously a statement found in the work of the tenthcentury Arab geographer Masudi, who wrote that in the mountains around
the sources of the Nile there were wild human beings who ran around like
goats and lived in the desert eating herbs like wild beasts. Following this
citation, Leo wrote: Had I cited everything written by our historians on
the Nile it would rather seem like telling fairy tales, and would be tiresome to
read. He seems to have more confidence in the statements of many Ethiopians living in the plains like the Arabs, a few of whom, when searching for
their lost camels who tended to wander away when in heat, went upstream for
about 500 miles, where they often saw small lakes and big tributaries.35
Portuguese contacts with Ethiopia and the Upper Nile Valley started
sometime before the circumnavigation of Africa by Portuguese ships, but
these contacts were often kept secret and therefore, during their early
stages, did not have a wide impact on Renaissance culture. Even after
1541, when a rescue expedition, led by Christopher da Gama, initiated a
new age of Portuguese presence in Ethiopia, information on the remote
Christian kingdom hardly trickled to wider European circles. 36 It is only
by the middle of the sixteenth century, when some Portuguese accounts of
Ethiopia were published in print, that the hitherto unknown aspects of
Ethiopian reality reached the educated public in Europe.37
The year 1550 marks an important stage in Europes acquaintance
with Africa and the Nile. In that year the Venetian scholar Giovanni Battista Ramusio published the first volume of his collection of travel
112
accounts, Navigazioni e viaggi, accompanied by maps made by the famous

cartographer Iacopo Gastaldi. 38 Ramusio represents Venetian geographical interests at their best. A renowned humanist, 39 he was also deeply involved in public affairs, serving as secretary of the Venetian Senate and
later of the all-powerful Council of Ten. His friends included famous
scholars, such as Girolamo Francastoro, the important Paduan astronomer
and physician; the famous printers Manuzio and Giunti; Cardinal Pietro
Bembo; and Iacopo Gastaldi, the official cartographer of the Venetian Republic. Another interesting figure in his milieu was Filippo Membre, official interpreter of the republic and one of its chief intermediaries with the
world of the Orient. 40 Ramusio also corresponded with scholars in other
countries, such as Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo, the famous historian of
the West Indies.41 He was considered an expert in Levantine affairs, and
among other assignments, he was charged by the Venetian authorities to
interview David Ha-Reuveni, the mysterious Jewish messenger from the
East, during his stay in Venice in 1530. From our point of view it is worth
noting that Ha-Reuveni told Ramusio that he had descended the Nile when
passing from Ethiopia to Egypt. He also told Ramusio that the Nile was to
be identified with the biblical Pison.42
Ramusios collaboration with people such as Francastoro and Gastaldi
and his systematic arrangement of travel accounts, both ancient and modern, enabled him to combine the results of humanistic scholarship with
contemporary travel experience, presenting for the first time to the large
European public the new world picture emerging from the intensive activity in the field during the first half of the sixteenth century. His collection
of travels, though not the first that appeared in print, is undoubtedly the
best and most systematic that had ever appeared in Europe. Though a
scholarly enterprise, it was intended to be read by a wide audience.43 It is
written in the Florentine dialect, which was then becoming the modern literary language of all Italians, also understood by many foreigners. Interestingly, the first of the three folio volumes of this pioneering work was
dedicated to Africa. Beside the first printed edition of Leo Africanuss
work, it included, among other texts, the report of Francisco Alvarez,44
two short essays on the periodic inundations of the Nile (presented as an
exchange of letters between Ramusio and Francastoro), and Gastaldis new
map showing the course of the Nile.
Though it was already published some ten years previously in Portuguese, the publication by Ramusio of Alvarezs Voyage in Ethiopia was
an event of some significance, since it caused the information on Ethiopia,
which until then had been mainly the domain of Portuguese official circles, to be widely diffused.45 Alvarezs account has a relatively short passage on the sources of the Nile, which is not based on his personal experience but relies on what he heard from other Portuguese who had been
113
there. The sources of the Nile, according to this account, were in the kingdom of Goyame. The river was said to originate in two big lakes, forming
some islands in its upper course. Alvarez also noted that the inundations of
the Nile were caused by heavy rains in Ethiopia starting in mid-June and
continuing till mid-September.46 Ramusio, in his short introduction to Alvarezs treatise, though stressing the great value of this account, expressed
his regret that Alvarez did not visit personally the sources of the Nile, its
upper course and the first cataract. Had he done so, and had he used an astrolabe, which, according to Ramusio, all Portuguese sailors used, he could
have measured the latitude of these places. Who knows, adds Ramusio,
perhaps one of Italys princes will be convinced by reading this book, to
send a worthy person to visit these regions and make such measurements
so as to establish the exact location of the sources and cataracts, and to describe them in greater detail.47
The periodic inundations of the Nile are discussed in two short treatises by Ramusio and Francastoro, which are included in the same collection. It should be noted that, during the sixteenth century, the relation between rainfall and rivers was not yet taken for granted as it is today.48
Ramusio and Francastoro agree that the only plausible explanation could
be heavy rains during certain periods in Ethiopia. Francastoro is actually
more interested in the causes of these rains. In any case, these treatises reflect a genuine belief in the progress of human knowledge and in the superiority of the writers own age compared to earlier ones. Ramusio examines all the available explanations of the periodical inundations of the
Nile that he could find in the works of ancient authors, systematically discarding nearly all of them for various reasons.49 In particular he does not
seem to have much respect for writers who did not take into consideration
the experience of people who had personally seen and described the phenomenon.50 In his concluding remarks, explaining why he addressed his
essay to Francastoro, he writes that the latter dared to present the movements of the sky and many other beautiful parts of philosophy, contradicting the opinions of ancient writers; he calls upon him to act likewise
with regard to what they had written on the globe, which, as was already
clear, was inhabited all over, with no part of it, either in the seas or on
land, devoid of people or animals. Francastoro affirms in his treaty that
thanks to the reconnaissance of the earth by his own contemporaries, earlier scholars seem like little children.51 Both Ramusio and Francastoro did
not even bother to mention the earthly paradise or the traditional biblical
rivers, and their treatises do not have anything to say about wonders unfathomable to humans. Though containing a few errors, their research is
characterized by a clear conviction that study and experience are the only
tools to understand such phenomena, and that only by combining the two
can one reach satisfactory results.
114
A clear reflection of the changes described above can be found in the

development of Renaissance cartography and particularly in the depiction
of the Nile and the adjacent regions in maps of that period. We have seen
that as late as 1554, Sebastian Mnsters Cosmography still presented
Ethiopia as a land inhabited by dragons. But in reality an important change
had already been well under way by then. If most fifteenth-century maps
still associated the Nile with the earthly paradise, and on the other hand
were strongly influenced by the cartographical tradition associated with
Ptolemys Geography, by the middle of the sixteenth century, the Nile became a river like any other big river. Even if its sources and exact flow
were still partly unknown, their cartographical depiction depended less on
religious and mythical concepts and more on knowledge accumulated by
Renaissance travelers and discoverers. The map known as Egyptus Novelo, dated before 1454, has been described by a modern scholar as a remarkably good approximation of the real geography of Abyssinia of which
it is the first map.52 Fra Mauros map of Africa (1460), though still typically medieval, and also influenced by Ptolemy, incorporated information
derived from travelers, missionaries, and Ethiopian monks.53 Crawford has
remarked that the Abyssinian river system, as depicted in this map, is remarkably correct in its essentials, though many details are still in the realm
of fantasy.54 The data accumulated during subsequent decades were used
in Giacomo Gastaldis Disegno della geografia moderna de tutta la parte
dellAfrica (Venice, 1564), an important event in the history of African
geography. This map, together with another that accompanied Filippo Pigafettas book on the kingdom of Congo (Rome, 1591), served as a basis
for several other important maps of Africa that were to be published subsequently by leading cartographers, such as Ortelius, De Jode, and Mercator.
Another important step forward was made during the first three
decades of the following century and was related to the activities of Jesuit
missionaries in Ethiopia. 55 In particular, the chapter on the Nile included
in Pero Paezs important History of Ethiopia is a model of critical approach to the subject.56 Paez (d. 1622), who came to Ethiopia in 1603,
even if not the first European to reach the sources of the Blue Nile, is the
first to have left a detailed and scholarly description of the upper parts of
the river, which he visited in 1618.57 The only residue of traditional opinions in this chapter is a brief reference to the association of the Nile with
the biblical Gihon, which Paez attributes to ancient writers and nearly all
modern ones. 58 Most significantly, he has nothing to say about his own
opinion on this point and seems to be much more interested in the physical, historical, and anthropological aspects related to those parts of the
river visited by him. He has no inhibition in criticizing ancient and modern authors who had written on the subject. All theories that do not link the
Niles inundations to the heavy seasonal rains in Ethiopia are described by
115
him as fables and mere fantasies.59 Some of his contemporaries who

wrote about the Nile are also sharply criticized. Among other things, he repudiates the claim, repeated by several Renaissance writers, that the Mamluk and Ottoman sultans paid tribute to the negus in order to prevent the
total inundation of Egypt by the Nile. Paez checked the veracity of this
story by questioning the emperor himself, who, according to Paez, was
rather amused to learn about it.60 Paezs precious geographical information
was used by the Venetian cartographer Vincenzo Coronelli (16501718),
probably the last representative of Venices prestigious cartographical tradition, who included a map of Africa in his Atlante Veneto (first edition,
Venice, 1690).61 The map of Abyssinia, dated 1662, which accompanies
Almeidas History of Abyssinia, summarizes the information obtained by
Portuguese missionaries up to their expulsion in 1632. In this map, the
upper course of the Abbay is shown correctly, along with several of its
tributaries. According to O. G. S. Crawford, it reveals an intimate and
fairly accurate knowledge of Abyssinian topography.62
Considering that the Muslim Levant had been the subject of Western
visits and descriptions long before the Renaissance, descriptions of travels to this region are a most suitable means to follow transformations in
Western world perceptions. The depiction of the Nile in this literature reflects not only a new attitude to travel but also the widening geographical
horizon of the Renaissance world, and particularly a change toward a more
secular attitude to the universe, based on human capacity to understand
natural phenomena once conceived as unfathomable wonders. In fact, the
attitude to the Nile may serve as a typical example of the development of
the world perception in Renaissance culture. Secularization of knowledge
was achieved by transforming the rediscovered world of classical antiquity
into a cultural model. This had also a negative effect, by attributing too
much authority to the erroneous world picture found in Ptolemys Geography and other ancient texts. Subsequently, however, increasing reliance
on the results of European reconnaissance in the Age of Exploration led
to growing criticism toward the once authoritative ancient writers. For
scholars such as Ramusio, Francastoro, and Paez, the ultimate authority in
establishing learned knowledge became experience, accompanied by a
critical approach to available sources.
In this context it is also noteworthy that neither the travel literature
nor scholars, such as Ramusio, Francastoro, and Gastaldi, who used it,
make any reference to the hermetic tradition, to which recent Renaissance
scholarship has attributed such a great importance. It should be remembered that this tradition was closely associated with ancient Egyptian culture. The hieroglyphs, for example, were believed to contain the secrets of
divine truths, and were subject to speculations concerning their hidden
116
meaning.63 The absence of any hint of this cultural trend in the travel literature and in the scholarly works related to Egypt and the Nile may indicate that the impact of the hermetic tradition on Renaissance culture was
probably not as all embracing as several modern historians would have us
believe.
Finally, as a marginal note, it is also appropriate to refer briefly to the
value of Renaissance travel literature as a source for the history of the Nile
Valley and the Levant. During recent generations, for various reasons, Orientalists have been reluctant to use Western sources in general and travel accounts in particular for the study of Oriental societies. Yet, in the light of the
cultural transformations treated in this chapter, this reservation is hardly justifiable. The travel accounts of the Renaissance are not merely a reflection
of Western attitudes. They contain much valuable information on the countries visited, which often has no parallel in Oriental sources, especially on
subjects that were too obvious to be pointed out by local writers, as, for instance, Belons description of various types of boats on the Nile and on the
manner of swimming in the river,64 or Johann Wilds observations on children in villages along the Nile.65 If used systematically and with care, this
rich and fascinating material may open new vistas in the study of these regions in the period parallel to the Renaissance in the West.66
NOTES
1. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, p. 171.
2. Herodotus (2.1934). See also Lloyd, Herodotus Book II, Commentary
198, pp. 9193, 98.
3. Berger, Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen, pp.
7576.
4. Bunbury, A History of Ancient Geography, p. 328.
5. Ibid., pp. 430432.
6. Sitran Gasparini, LEgitto nella rappresentazione cartografica, p. 17. For
some remarks on the Mountains of the Moon, see Crawford, Some Medieval Theories About the Nile, p. 18.
7. According to Bernard Hamilton, this association is already found in Josephus, Jewish Antiquities, I, 39 (Hamilton, Continental Drift, p. 239, n. 15).
8. Wright, The Geographical Lore of the Time of the Crusades, pp. 298299.
9. Joinville, Chronicles of the Crusades, pp. 211213.
10. Beazley, The Dawn of Modern Geography, p. 10. In the King James Bible,
the land of Kush, associated in Genesis with the river Gihon, is translated as
Ethiopia, whereas the Pison is associated with land of Havila, where gold comes
from.
11. Ibid., pp. 399401.
12. Referred to by M. Letts in his remarks to Crawford, Some Medieval Theories, p. 24.
13. Crawford, Some Medieval Theories, pp. 78.
14. Crawford, Ethiopian Itineraries, pp. 2021.
117
15. Figliuolo, Europa, Oriente, Mediterraneo nellopera dellumanista palermitano Pietro Ranzano, p. 340. It is not clear whether Pietro from Naples, whose
personal description of Ethiopia and the Nile was recorded by a French traveler at
Pera in 1432, is to be identified with Pietro Rombulo. See La Broquire, Le Voyage
dOutremer, pp. 142148; and Trasselli, Un Italiano in Etiopia nel XV secolo,
pp. 173202.
16. Crawford, Ethiopian Itineraries, pp. 2122.
17. Bruce, Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, pp. 69, 8788, 90.
18. Crawford, Some Medieval Theories, p. 8.
19. Diffie and Winius, Foundations of the Portuguese Empire 14151580, pp.
163164; Ramusio, Navigazioni e viaggi, vol. 2, p. 77.
20. Beckingham and Huntingford, An Ethiopian Embassy to Europe, pp.
337346.
21. Marrassini, Insieme contro Maometto. Europa ed Etiopia dal Medioevo
allet moderna, pp. 3133; Hamilton, Eastern Churches and Western Scholarship, pp. 234235. From these contacts originated the Ethiopic psalter printed in
Rome in 1513 by Johannes Potken, to which was appended the Ethiopic alphabet
and an explanation on the formation of Ethiopic syllables.
22. Hamilton, Continental Drift, p. 253.
23. Adorno, Itinraire dAnselme Adorno en Terre Sainte (14701471), pp.
178183. It should be noted that medieval writers often used the name Ethiopia to
denote the entire trans-Saharan region.
24. Ariosto, Orlando Furioso, pp. 101128.
25. Campbell, The Witness and the Other World, p. 134.
26. Suriano, Treatise on the Holy Land, p. 193.
27. Heberer, Voyages en Egypte de Michael Heberer von Bretten, p. 39.
28. Atkinson, Les Nouveaux horizons de la Renaissance franaise, pp. 1011.
29. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Altertums oder das erste
Jahrhundert des Humanismus, pp. 270, 276. Voigt suggests that Ciriacos second
visit to Egypt took place in 1434.
30. Varthema, The Travels etc., p. 221.
31. On Pierre Belon and Pierre Gilles, see Belon, Le Voyage en Egypte de
Pierre Belon du mons 1547, pp. ixxxvi, and The French Embassy of DAramon
to the Porte, pp. 2739; and Paviot, Autour de lambassade de dAramon: Erudits et voyageurs au Levant 15471553, pp. 381392; and Musto, introduction to
Giles, The Antiquities of Constantinople, pp. xvixx. On Prospero Alpino, see Lucchetta, I viaggiatori, pp. 6064. On Rauwolf, see Henze, Leonhart Rauwolff,
pp. vxxxiii.
32. Mi son mosso non per util nissuno, ma solo per vedere tante superbe fabrice, chiese, statue, collossi, aguglie e colonne, e anco il loco dove si cavano dite
colone e agugliecited in Lucchetta, I viaggiatori, p. 64. See also Chevalier,
Le Voyage archologique au XVIe sicle, pp. 357380.
33. For these itineraries and for Zorzi, see Crawford, Ethiopian Itineraries,
pp. 2327.
34. Iverson, The Myth of Egypt and Its Hieroglyphs in European Tradition, pp.
5975; Castelli, I geroglifici; Calvesi, Il mito dellEgitto nel Rinascimento;
Grafton, The Ancient City Restored, pp. 118123.
35. Ramusio, Navigazioni e viaggi, vol. 1, pp. 437438.
36. On the presence of Westerners in sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century
Ethiopia, see Conti Rossini, Le sorgenti del Nilo azzurro e Giovanni Gabriel, pp.
3847.
118
37. Tamrat, Ethiopia, the Red Sea, and the Horn, pp. 180182.
38. Three volumes were published: the first in 1550, the third in 1556, and the
second in 1559, two years after Ramusios death. On Gastaldi, see Karrow, Mapmakers of the Sixteenth Century and Their Maps, pp. 216249.
39. Between 1530 and 1542 Ramusio was acting librarian of Bessarions collection, one of the most important collections of Greek codices in the West (the official librarian, Cardinal Bembo, was generally absent) (Milanesi, Introduction to
Ramusio, Navigazioni e viaggi, vol. 1, p. xvi).
40. Fabris, Note sul mappamondo cordiforme di Haci Ahmed di Tunisi, pp.
810.
41. Milanesi, Introduction to Ramusio, Navigazioni e viaggi, vol. 1, p. xix.
42. Ibid., p. xv. On Ramusio, see also Lucchetta, Viaggiatori e racconti di viaggi nel Cinquecento, pp. 482489.
43. See the letter written by the Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti, admirer
of Ramusio, and particularly of his essay on the Nile, Milanesi, Introduction to
Ramusio, Navigazioni e viaggi, vol. 1, pp. xxxiiixxxiv.
44. Ibid., p. xx.
45. Ramusios edition also served the Antwerp editor Plantin in publishing a
French translation of Alvarezs work in 1558 (Pankhurst, Ethiopia. A Cultural History, p. 314).
46. Ramusio, Navigazioni e viaggi, vol. 2, p. 359.
47. Ibid., p. 80.
48. See the observations of E. G. R. Taylor in Crawford, Some Medieval
Theories, p. 26.
49. Quando la certezza della esperienza distrugge la probabilit delle ragioni,
si debbe ben laudare lo ingegno delluomo, ma non gi si debbe dar fede a quelle
cose che da lui sono dette (Ramusio, Navigazioni e viaggi, vol. 2, p. 401).
50. Ibid., pp. 401402.
51. Ibid., p. 407, note.
52. Crawford, Some Medieval Theories, p. 9.
53. Ullendorff, The Ethiopians, p. 3.
54. Ibid., pp. 13, 16.
55. Conti Rossini, Etiopia e genti di Etiopia, pp. 57.
56. Beccari, Notizia e saggi, pp. 273291.
57. Giovanni Gabriel, a descendant of a Venetian soldier in Christopher Da
Gamas expedition, seems to have visited the place in 1588 (Conti Rossini, Giovanni Gabriel, p. 39). James Bruce, who reached those parts toward the end of the
eighteenth century, claimed that Paez had never actually been there, a claim that
has meanwhile been proven as baseless. See Beccari, Notizia e saggi, pp. 269271,
and Ullendorff, The Ethiopians, p. 14.
58. Beccari, Notizia e saggi, p. 274.
59. Ibid., p. 283285.
60. Ibid., p. 290. For this belief, see, for instance, Ariosto, Orlando Furioso,
canto 33, p. 106: And the Egyptian Sultan, it is said, / Pays tribute and is subject
to the king, / Who could divert into another bed the river Nile, and thus disaster
bring / on Cairo, and on all that region spread / the blight of famine and great suffering. / Senapo by his subjects he is named; / As Prester John among us he is
framed.
61. Sitran Gasparini, LEgitto nella rappresentazione cartografica, pp.
1742.
119
62. Crawford, Some Medieval Theories, pp. 1920.

63. Iversen, The Myth of Egypt, pp. 5989.
64. Belon, Le Voyage en Egypte de Pierre Belon du Mons 1547, pp. 101a
101b.
65. Wild, Voyages en Egypte, pp. 154155.
66. For a demonstration of the use of these sources for the urban history of
Levantine port towns, see Arbel, The Port Towns of the Levant in the Sixteenth
Century Travel Literature.
The Legend of
the Blue Nile in Europe
Emery van Donzel
For at least 600 years, perhaps even a millennium, Arab, Ethiopian, and
European sources mention that the Ethiopians were able, or thought to be
able, to block off the Blue Nile, or divert its course, so as to starve Egypt
and bring Islam to its knees. This idea, qualified here as a legend, has
played an important role in the relations between Christianity in Ethiopia
and Islam in Egypt in the first place. Later, when the Western powers had
begun to send out their discoverers, conquerors, and missionaries, the legend played its part in Western concepts about the way in which Islam in
Egypt could be subdued.
The origin of the legend is perhaps to be found in Egypt in the second
half of the eleventh century, when the country was hit by several consecutive, severe famines, caused by internal political strife that led to social
unrest and neglect of the irrigation systems. The legend most probably was
not caused by a low level of the Nile. On the contrary, the level of the
water seems to have been quite normal during that period. In later times,
these famines were supposed to be related to the Ethiopian power over the
water of the Nile. In Egypt, the Christian kingdom was felt as a constant
threat to Islam because it dominated the Nile; in Ethiopia, the so-called
mastery over the river was seen as a means of the Ethiopian kings to assist
the Copts, their co-religionists, against their Muslim overlords. The legend
thus became a political and religious issue between Muslim Egypt and
Christian Ethiopia.
The oldest Arab source to mention the legend probably is the Kitab alJawahir al-buhur, a legendary history of Egypt, written by Ibn Wasif Shah alMisri, who died in 12021203.1 The oldest Ethiopian source known so far, in
which the legend is found, seems to be the fourteenth-century manuscript of
121
122
the Gadl of King Lalibala. 2 This chapter, which owes much to the works
of Enrico Cerulli and Taddesse Tamrat, deals with the European sources
only.
The legend was known in Europe by the end of the thirteenth century.
When European interest in the Crusades, notwithstanding Dante and Petrarca,3 came to an end with the fall of St Jean dAcre (Akko) in 1291, European strategists nevertheless continued to develop plans against Egypt,
and the idea of starving Egypt out by diverting the Nile was part of these
plans.4 In 1317 Guillaume Adam, a Dominican friar who for many months
had been waiting on the island of Socotra to enter Ethiopia, submitted
plans to Cardinal Raymundus Guillelmi de Fargis de modo Saracenos
extirpandi.5
The oldest written European source is Jacob of Veronas report of his
journey to Palestine in 1335. It contains a reference to the tradition about
the power of the Ethiopian sovereign over the Nile.6 In December 1338
Pope Benedict XII sent the Franciscan friar Giovanni da Marignolli (John
of Marignola) with three other legates to the Mongol court in Cambalec
(Peking). After fifteen years he returned to Avignon, then the papal city. In
the recollections of his Asiatic travels Giovanni writes that the river Gyon
(Nile) flowed around the land of Abyssinia and that it was believed to descend to Egypt through a crack in a place called Abasty, probably a clerical error for Abascy, Marco Polos Abasci, and Arabic Habasha. The
land, according to Giovanni, was inhabited by the Christians of the Apostle Matthew, and the sultan of Egypt paid them tribute because it was in
their power to cut off the water of that river.7
In 1384 Simone Sigoli, accompanied by some other Florentines, visited Egypt, the Sinai, and Palestine. He too wrote that the sultan of Egypt
paid tribute to Prester John because the latter had control of certain sluices
in the river Nile. These were opened a little, but if the Prester chose to
open them widely, Cairo, Alexandria, and the whole of Egypt would be
drowned. Fearing this, the sultan every year sent a ball of gold with a
crown on top of it and 3,000 gold bezants.8 Still in the seventeenth century
Milton was to write that in his days the people of Egypt believed that there
was a sluice in the Nile, which the Abyssinians began to open on June 12,
widening the passage every day somewhat more until September 14, during the rainy season. But, Milton adds, the Egyptians were not aware of
the real reason why the Nile rose, and nobody seemed to have seen the
sluice.
In 1403 Guillebert, seigneur de Lannoy,9 traveled from Hainaut to
Palestine and Egypt. He left again on a secret mission from 1421 to 1423
to study the possibilities of a crusade for the liberation of Jerusalem. He
writes that the (Mamluk) sultan of Egypt was not able to divert the bed (le
cruschon, or little jug) of the Nile and that Prester John could give it
123
another course but refrained from doing so because otherwise the many
Christians in Egypt might then die of hunger.
In 1432, some forty years after Sigolis report, Pietro the Napolitan, of
Spanish origin, visited Ethiopia just after the death of Negus Yishaq
(14131430). He was a member of an embassy sent by Jean de France,
Duke of Berry, a leading patron of the arts. He stayed for two years in the
country and married an Ethiopian woman. On his way back he met, in
Pera, the well-known European quarter of Istanbulthen still known in
the West as Constantinoplethe Frenchman Bertrandon de la Brocquire,
a courtier of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. 10 In the report of his
journey, Pietro writes that Prester John, if he wished to do so, very well
could divert the river Nile in another direction. But Pietro had not seen the
great river either.
In the same century, the story of the Nile had become part of the popular literature of Ethiopia.11 It was logical for the Ethiopian priests and pilgrims to emphasize the power of their king; and the West, afraid of Islam,
was all too much inclined to believe those stories. The legend of Prester
John is a case in point. A reflex of such credulity is found in the letter sent
in 1450 by Alfonso V the Magnanimous of Aragon (14161458) to King
Zara Yaqob (14341468). The Portuguese king requested his Ethiopian
counterpart to be solicitous in diverting the waters that flowed to Cairo.12
A new element in the legend was introduced by Guerin Meschino. 13
The Saracens (Sarraini), he writes, paid a substantial tribute to Prester
John in order not to lose the waters of the Nile. He also relates that he had
visited the gate of the river and had asked whether the sluices where the
water passed through could be locked. The local people answered that in
that case the water would flow to the mountains of the Red Sea. Guerin
Meschino uses the word cataratta, which may be rendered as the English
sluice, but also with cataract. It is possible that Guerin Meschino saw the
Alato cataract near the place where the Abbay leaves Lake Tana.
An important document, which probably contributed much to the
spread of the legend, is the letter that Jean de Lastic, Grand Master of the
Knights of St. John at Rhodes, sent on July 3, 1448, to King Charles VII
of France (14221461).14 He writes that some Indian (i.e., Ethiopian)
priests had arrived at Rhodes, reporting that Prester John had won a great
victory over the Saracens. The Prester had warned the ruler of Egypt (Sultan Jaqmaq, 14381453) that, unless he desisted from persecuting the
Christians, he would snatch away the entire river Nile and give it another course.
Not only pilgrims and travelers who heard about the legend reported
on it. During the Renaissance, it was also known to the men of letters. In
his Orlando Furioso, Ludovico Ariosto (14741533) describes Orlandos
desperate love for Angelica. The setting of the poem is the struggle
124
between Saracens and Christians around Paris, the story being part of the
Carolingian cycles. Ariosto himself led a miserable life as a humble servant of Cardinal Hippolytus dEste. Poetry was an escape for him. He
loved to travel over the world, but only on maps and with his phantasy. 15
In doing this, he made use of what was common knowledge in his days. At
a certain point, his hero Astolfo flies along the Nile in a southern direction.
On his right-hand side, he has Tlemsen algerina and on his left altra
tremisenne (Christian Nubia). He then reaches Senapo, imperator della
Etiopia. Already back in 1339 Angelino Dalorto had explained the word
Senapo as Servus Crucis (Servant of the Cross), and in the Libro del
Conoscimento, written between 1348 and 1375 by Francescano di Castiglia, the Abyssinian ruler had been called Abdelselib, in Arabic Abd
al-salib (Servant of the Cross). This title is the Arabic equivalent of
Ethiopic Gabra Masqal (Servant of the Cross), the baptismal name of Negus
Amda Seyon I (13141344). Cerulli remarks that around 1350 Genovese
merchants had traveled to Dongola, thus opening the road to Abyssinia
through the Nile Valley.16 The first historically identifiable contacts with
Abyssinia, however, had been established in the beginning of the fifteenth
century, not by the Genovese and along the Nile Valley but by the Venetians
via Suakin and the Red Sea. It is remarkable that Ariostos hero Astolfo follows the road opened by the Genovese and not that of the Venetians.
Si dice che il Soldan re dellEgitto
A quel Re da tributo e sta suggetto
Perche in poter di lui dal cammin dritto
Levare il Nilo e dargli altro ricetto;
E per questo lasciar subito afflitto
Di fame il Cairo e tutto quel distretto.
[It is said that the sultan, king of Egypt,
Pays tribute to that king and is subject to him
Because it is in his power to deduct from its straight path
The Nile, and to give it another receptacle;
And in doing so to leave at once afflicted
Through famine, Cairo and all that region.]
These lines by Ludovico Ariosto represent the ideas about the Nile
current in Europe at the time, and they must have contributed to the spread
of the legend.
The same version is to be found in an account of a journey made by
Jehan Thenaud, guardian of the monastery of the Cordeliers (Franciscans)
in Angoulme. He left his town in July 1511 and returned in May 1512.
The king of the Abassins or Ethiopes whom we call in corrupted language
125
le prebstre Jehan, is rather (assez) feared by the sultan since Jehan can
diminish the waters of the Nile and thus render the greater part of Egypt
infertile.17
So far no European seems to have set eyes on the Blue Nile. Yet its
legend began to play a part in Portuguese foreign policy. After the conquest of Goa and Malacca in 15101511, Afonso dAlbuquerque, the organizer of the Portuguese hegemony in the Orient, turned toward the Red
Sea. He wanted to take the spice trade away from Egypt and deliver a
deadly blow to Islam by diverting the course of the Nile and thus starving
Egypt out. It was said that only a small mountain had to be tunneled in
order to lead the water to the Red Sea. According to Afonsos son Braz, his
father had written several times to King Manuel I of Portugal (14951521)
that field-workers should be sent from Madeira who are very skilful in
splitting rocks and in building canals for the irrigation of the sugar plantations on their island.18
In seventeenth-century Europe, marked by Reformation and counterReformation, the reports on the Nile provided by the Roman Catholic missionaries were rejected by scholars such as Job Ludolf for reasons that had
nothing to do with the Nile but everything with religious controversies.
The Roman Catholic Padre Pero Paez probably was the first European
to see the sources of the Blue Nile, which happened on April 21, 1618. He
writes: I was very happy to see with my own eyes what in earlier times
King Cyrus and his son Cambyses, Alexander the Great and the famous
Julius Caesar had so ardently wished to see.19 Paezs account was made
known in Europe by the German Jesuit Athanasius Kircher from Fulda
(d. 1680) in his Oedipus Aegyptiacus.20 The Dutch scholar Isaac Vossius,
following Kircher, wrote a booklet called De Nilo and a Dissertation
touchant lorigine du Nil.21
The sources of the Blue Nile are also described by another Jesuit,
Jeronimo Lobo, in his Itinerario. This work was translated into French by
M. Le Grand and into English by Samuel Johnson.22 Lobos description of
the sources of the Blue Nile is probably borrowed from Paez.
Manoel de Almeida, another Jesuit, was a keen observer and an indefatigable explorer. His sound knowledge of Abyssinias geography made
him a sober and realistic critic of Albuquerques high-strung projects.
Everywhere, he writes, the Nile was at least 100 miles distant from the
Red Sea, and the mountains were so high that the Alps and Pyrenees were
but hills in comparison.
Yet the reports by Paez, Lobo, and dAlmeida were unacceptable to Job
Ludolf. In the eyes of the fervent Protestant, the Roman Catholic missionaries were untrustworthy, even in matters that had nothing to do with religion. Ludolf very often refers to the Jesuit Balthasar Tellez, who had published a shortened version of dAlmeidas work, but attacks him wherever
126
he can. Although Ludolf had never set foot on Ethiopian soil, he nevertheless posed as an expert and judge in geographical matters. In his rather
heavy Latin he writes: Nunc sequitur questio non minus mira quam momentosa. Num Rex Habessinorum Nilum divertere possit ne in Aegyptum
fluat? (There now follows a question no less curious than momentous. Is
it in the power of the king of the Abyssinians to divert the Nile so that it
does not flow to Egypt?) For Ludolf the answer is affirmative, for only
one single mount stands in the way; it would be possible to dig a canal
next to it. The argumentation for this view is astonishing indeed: It is not
probable that such a man [Albuquerque] would write such unreal (vana)
things to his king, or that he would have requested the execution of such
great works without serious reasons, to no other purpose than to expose
himself, and his king, to mockery for proposing aimless efforts.23 Ludolf
was probably the first to ask whether the story had a basis in reality, but
his answer is very unsatisfactory: the story is true because a great man
wrote about it to his king.
Ludolf must have read the sober and realistic remarks of the French
traveler Jean de Thevenot (d. 1667), who writes that it was not true that
the sultan of Istanbul paid the Abyssinian king so that he would permit the
river Nile to follow its natural course, because the sultan believed the King
could not divert the river.24 In 1658 Thevenot had met in Alexandria a certain Hajj Michael Abu Yusuf, who had told him that he was on his way to
Istanbul as envoy of the Abyssinian king.25 It was through Thevenots intermediary that Ludolf in 1683 had been able to meet an Armenian merchant in Paris.26 He even quotes Thevenots information about Michael in
his Historia.27 Yet, he does not seem to have taken into account Thevenots
information on the Nile.
On the other hand, Ludolf quotes the Spanish Dominican Urreta, although he despises him. According to him the Pope had written to Negus
Minas (15591563) that he should divert the Nile and disregard the tribute of
300,000 sequins (Venetian gold coins) that the negus received from the Turks
to keep the Nile open. At the request of Ernst Duke of Saxony, Wansleb, a
pupil of Ludolf, had made investigations about the Nile.28 At first he wrote
that the Europeans in Egypt considered the whole story as Abyssinian bragging. Later, in 1677, he said that he had found a letter of an Abyssinian king
in which the latter threatened the sultan that he would divert the Nile.
In the early eighteenth century, the European discussions about the
Nile were revived in France. In 1703 Louis XIV sent Le Noir du Roule,
the French vice consul in Damietta, to King Iyasu I (16821706) to establish trade relations and to resume the missionary activities. But the Franciscans, the Jesuits, and the Coptic patriarch were opposed to du Roules
mission. The patriarch even spread the rumor that the Frenchman was a
magician who was going to Ethiopia to change the course of the Nile.
King Takla Haymanot (17061708) wrote to the sultan in Egypt that he
127
very well could repay him for the fact that the sultan had arrested his
envoy Murat, the Syrian: The Nile would be sufficient to punish you,
since God hath put into our power his [sic] fountain, his outlet and his increase, and that we can dispose of the same to do you harm.29
The French physician and traveler Franois Bernier, who died in 1688,
and thus was a contemporary of Ludolf, gives a realistic description of the
Nile. The inundations of Egypt, he writes, were caused by the rains in
Ethiopia, and from this the kings of the country derived the right of exacting tribute from Egypt. When the Christians in Egypt were oppressed, the
Ethiopian monarch thought of turning the course of the river toward the
Red Sea. However, Bernier adds, the project appeared so gigantic, if not
impracticable, that the attempt was never made to carry it into execution. 30
But the legend did not die out. James Bruce told his readers that King
Lalibala, if he had persevered, might have completed his purpose of turning the current of the Nile into the Red Sea, as would have Alexander the
Great and, perhaps, Louis (Lewis) XIV.31 But Bruces judgment on the
possibility was negative: In my time, no sensible man in Abyssinia believed that such a thing was possible, and few that it had ever been attempted. The legend, however, did not disappear, not even when the river
became an object of scientific investigation. In the 1840s, the English geographer Charles Tilstone Beke mapped about 180,000 square kilometers
of Ethiopia and ascertained the approximate course of the Blue Nile. In
1848 he published an article in French that was meant to be a rehabilitation of Pero Paez and Jeronimo Lobo and as such was directed against
James Bruce, who so desperately had claimed to be the discoverer of the
sources of the Nile. 32 It is remarkable that Beke, who published several
works on the river, 33 seriously reflected on the possible change of the
Niles course. In 1851 he sent a copy of his Memoir on the Possibility of
Diverting the Waters of the Nile so as to Prevent the Irrigation of Egypt
to Lord Palmerston, secretary of state for foreign affairs.34
Some thirty years later, another well-known English explorer seemed
to share Bekes view on the Nile. On October 9, 1888, Sir Samuel White
Baker who, together with John Hanning Speke, had established the sources
of the Nile,35 wrote a letter to The Times in which he attributed the exceptionally low state of the Nile to some unexplained interference with the
river. He adds: I have seen a spot, about 230 miles from the mouth of the
Atbara, where the river might be deflected without difficulty, and be
forced to an eastern course towards the Red Sea.36
NOTES
1. Wstenfeld, Die lteste gyptische Geschichte nach den Zauber und Wundererzhlungen der Araber, pp. 326340. A manuscript of this text was kept in the
128
Asiatic Museum in St. Petersburg (see Aus den Briefen des Dr. Chwolsohn, p.
408); Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Literatur, p. 409; Supplement 1,
p. 574.
2. Perruchon, La Vie de Lalibala, roi dEthiopie, pp. xxxxviii. Naakuto
Laab, Lalibalas successor, is said to have diverted the bed of the river Takkaze
during three years and seven months (see Conti Rossini, Storia dEtiopia, p. 310,
and Gli atti di re Naakuto Laab, p. 110; and Cerulli, Etiopi in Palestina, p. 118,
who reproduces an illustration from a nineteenth-century manuscript showing
Naakuto Laab blockading the Nile).
3. Dante Alighieri, Divina Commedia (Paradiso), pp. ix, 137138; Petrarca,
Trionfo della Fama, vol. 2, pp. 141146.
4. Hayton (Hethum), La Flor des Estoires de la Terre dOrient, pp. 232,
241, 247; Blochet, Neuf chapitres du Songe du viel Plerin, vol. 4, pp.
373374, vol. 5, pp. 144145; Cerulli, Etiopi in Palestina, vol. 1, pp. 2026,
9299, 155161; D. Newbold, quoted in Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia
12701527, p. 252, n. 1.
5. Kohler, Documents relatifs Guillaume Adam, pp. 1617.
6. Rhricht, Le Plerinage du moine augustin Jacques de Vrone (1335),
pp. 155302.
7. Sir Henry Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, 1866, pp. 3, 177ff.
8. Sigali, Viaggio al Monte Sinai, p. 202.
9. Potvin, Oeuvres de Ghillibert de Lannoy voyageur, diplomate et moraliste,
recueillies et publiees par Ch. Potvin, avec des notes geographiques et une carte
par J. C. Houzeau, Louvain, 1878.
10. Schefer, Le Voyage dOutremer de Bertrandon de la Brocquire, p. 148;
La Roncire, La Dcouverte, vol. 2, pp. 110111.
11. Guidi, Due nuovi manoscritti della Cronaca Abbreviata di Abissinia, pp.
360361.
12. Creone, La politica orientale di Alfonso dAragone, pp. 4088.
13. Cerulli, Il volo di Astolfo, pp. 1938.
14. Marquis de Lastic, quoted in Tamrat, Church and State, p. 264, n. 1; La
Roncire, La Dcouverte, vol. 2, p. 119.
15. Momigliano, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, p. 151.
16. Cerulli, Il volo di Astolfo.
17. Cerulli, Etiopi in Palestina, vol. 1, p. 355; Schefer, Le Voyage dOutremer,
pp. 5, 99.
18. Maffei, Historiarum Indicarum libri xvi, p. 233; De Birch, The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalbuquerque.
19. Kammerer, La Mer Rouge, p. 36; Beccari, Rerum Aethiopicarum Scriptores, vol. 1, p. 273ff., vol. 2, p. 255. According to Ullendorff, The Ethiopians, p.
14, Conti Rossini established with a fair degree of probability that the sources of
the Nile were visited even earlier by Giovanni Gabriel, son of an Italian father and
an Abyssinian mother.
20. Kircher, Oedipus Aegyptiacus, vol. 1, pp. 5059.
21. Vossius, De Nilo et aliorum fluminum origine, and Dissertation touchant
lorigine du Nil.
22. Johnson, A Voyage to Abyssinia by Father Jerome Lobo, pp. 206219. In
Dissertation III on the Nile, Le Grand writes: We do not pretend that a canal
cannot be dug from the Nile to the Red-Sea, but that the Abyssins cannot do it
(pp. 218219).
23. Ludolf, Historia Aethiopica, L. 1, c. 8, pp. 76102; and Ad suam historiam
Aethiopicam Commentarius, pp. 130132.
129
24. Thevenot, Voyages de M. de Thevenot, vol. 2, p. 767.

25. See on him van Donzel, Foreign Relations of Ethiopia 16421700, pp.
12ff; Thevenot, Voyage de M. de Thevenot, vol. 2, p. 754.
26. De Birch, Commentarius of the Great Afonso Dalbuquereque, p. 265; cp.
van Donzel, Foreign Relations, p. 177.
27. Ludolf, Historia Aethiopica, L. 2, c. 16.
28. Paulus, J. M. Wansleb bisher ungedruckte Beschreibung von Aegypten,
vol. 3, p. 162.
29. Bruces translation, quoted in Jones and Monroe, A History of Ethiopia, p.
117.
30. Bernier, Travels, pp. 448449.
31. Bruce, Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile, vol. 3, pp. 712725.
32. Beke, Mmoire en rehabilitation des P. P. Paez et Jer. Lobo.
33. Beke, An Essay on the Nile and Its Tributaries, and The Sources of the
Nile.
34. Quoted in Bernier, Travels, p. 449, n. 1.
35. Baker, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia.
36. Quoted in Bernier, Travels, p. 449, n. 1.
10
The Gondar Utopia

Joachim Warmbold
Novels by German authors about Africa or, at least, with an African backdrop are scarce. The first publicationrather a travelog than a novel
written in German by a German about Africa was Otto Friedrich von der
Grbens Brandenburgische Schifffahrt nach Guinea (The Brandenburg
Voyage to Guinea), published in 1694, a detailed fact and fiction account
of the founding of Gro-Friedrichsburg Castle on the Gold Coast in 1683
by representatives of the Great Elector of Brandenburg.1 The same subject
was then being treated in a novel entitled Berlin und West-Afrika, by a certain Heinrich Smidt, published in 1847.2 Only German colonial rule in
Togo, Cameroon, German East Africa, and German southwest Africa, beginning in 1884, set off a veritable flood of Kolonialliteratur that, not very
differently from the colonial literature of other European countries, depicted Africa and Africans in a rather unfavorable light.3 With the loss of
Germanys colonies after World War I, finalized in the Treaty of Versailles,
this literature did not come to an end, though; on the contrary, it flourished
and was deliberately promoted during the Third Reich by the Nazis, who
considered the subject of Germans in Africa a superb opportunity to propagate their racist views.4
Of course, apart from these fictional publications there were scholarly
ones by a number of German explorers as well as missionaries, such as
Heinrich Barth, Gerhard Rohlfs, Eduard Schnitzer (alias Mehmet Emin
Pasha), Gustav Nachtigal, Georg Schweinfurth, Hermann von Wissmann,
Leo Frobenius, Johann Ludwig Krapf, and Johannes Rebmann.5 There
were, from the very beginning, translations from Latin, Dutch, English,
and French into German of voyages and expeditions to and through Africa
by foreign travelers and explorers.6
131
132
Still, in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth centuries

Africa was at best known as a dark, inhospitable continent. A considerable number of adventurers had to pay for their curiosity with death or
lifelong illnesses. The ever negatively slanted reports were completely unsuited to make West, Central, and East Africa acceptable as backgrounds
for fictional exotic literature. A Robinson Crusoe in Africa would seem unthinkable, for even if he had not succumbed in the shortest time to malaria,
he would doubtless have sought in vain for a loyal Friday amongst the
negroes. While North and South America; the Near, Middle, and Far
East; as well as the Pacific Islands proved perfectly suitable for pirate adventures and Robinsonades, enriched with noble savages, Africa and its
peoples remained excluded from the big literary adventure vogue.
Thus, any exception to the rule is most noteworthy. The book I am
going to discuss is such an exception. But before I shall turn to the text itself, I would like to take a brief look at its author.
Adolph Franz Friedrich Ludwig von Knigge was born in 1752 on his
parents estate at Bredenbeck, near Hannover, in northern Germany. He
was raised and educated at various German courts. As one will remember,
Germany as such did not exist in those days; it consisted of a territory split
into dozens of independently and autocratically governed states and miniature states, whose rulers, in the vast majority of cases, tried to imitate the
glory and splendor of the French royal court. Disgusted with the excesses
of absolutism, Knigge gave up his aristocratic title Freiherr, the German
equivalent of baron, and deliberately, and provocatively, called himself
der freie Herr Knigge (the free Mr. Knigge). Barely twenty years old,
Knigge joined the Freemasons, and a little later the so-called Illuminatenorden, a secret society promoting the teachings and ideas of the Enlightenment. From 1791 onward he took up an administrative post in the
city of Bremen, which, being a free hanseatic city, provided considerably
more freedom than the court of Hesse-Cassel, where he had worked before. Knigge became an ardent defender of the French Revolution and a
much feared critic of the ruling aristocracy and its suppressive politics. He
published extensively and died in 1796 in Bremen.
Many of Knigges publications were banned, censored, confiscated, or
even falsified, and for a long time the author was deliberately ignored by
German literary historians. Only recently have scholars in Germany and
abroad shown a new interest in Knigge and his works.7
Let me now turn to Knigges exemplary Ethiopian novel. Its complete title reads: Benjamin Noldmanns Geschichte der Aufklrung in
Abyssinien oder Nachricht von seinem und seines Vetters Aufenthalte an
dem Hofe des grossen Negus, oder Priesters Johannes (Benjamin Noldmanns History of the enlightenment in Abyssinia or news of his and his
cousins stay at the court of the great negus, or Priest John). The text was
The Gondar Utopia
133
published in 1791, its first edition without the authors name for fear of
reprisals by the censor. Yet a second edition, by a different publisher,
which appeared in the same year, did mention Knigges name, and on its
title page was printed the rather amusing addition, no doubt aimed at the
critics at court: Mit kaiserl. Abyssinischem allergndigsten Privilegio
[With the most benevolent imperial Abyssinian authorization].8 The novel
was published in two volumes with 262 and 300 pages, respectively. It is
divided into a preface and five main parts and is adorned with six engravings depicting scenes from the text.
I shall now present a brief summary of the five main parts of the
novel.
Part 1 describes Benjamin Noldmanns adventurous voyage via England; Madeira; the Canary Islands; Morocco; various West, Central, and
East African kingdoms; and, finally, along the Nile, to Abyssinia. Noldmann,
a lawyer from Goslar, a little town in the Harz Mountains between Hannover
and Gttingen, had received an invitation from the royal court in Gondar to
join his cousin, Joseph Wurmbrand, who held the post of minister of state
in Gondar. Wurmbrand had reached Abyssinia a few years earlier, also after
a series of startling adventures, and is cooperating with the king, das Aufklrungswesen in Abyssinien mit groem Eifer nach Europischer Weise zu
treiben [in order to introduce the system of Enlightenment in Abyssinia
with great eagerness and according to the European way].9
In Part 2 we encounter Noldmann at the court of Gondar. He has been
promoted to Baalomaal und Oberster der Leibgarde [gentleman of the
chamber and colonel of the body guard]; he is studying the social, cultural,
and political situation in Abyssinia and its neighboring countries; he is actively involved in developing plans for an enlightened system of government, together with the king and his cousin Wurmbrand. An essential part
of the plan is an extensive educational tour of the crown prince of
Abyssinia to Germany, following the footsteps of Czaar Peter der Groe
von Ruland. Noldmann is requested to accompany the crown prince on
this tour, and, after its completion, return to Abyssinia with some Stck
[sic!] Deutscher Gelehrter, Philosophen, Pdagogen, Fabrikanten, Dichter,
Mahler, Bildhauer, Tonknstler u.s.w. [pieces (sic!) of German scholars,
philosophers, educators, manufacturers, poets, painters, sculptors, composers, etc.].10
Unfortunately, however, as we read in Part 3, the grand educational
tour of the crown prince and Noldmann turns out to be a total failure. With
the exception of a two-week-long stay in Hamburg, a free city and state,
where the princes schwarzes Gesicht [black face] kaum Aufsehen erregen wird [will hardly cause a sensation],11 and where the republican
spirit could be sensed everywhere, bad examples abound. The miserable
political situation our travelers encounter in various German states and the
134
decadence and corruption at German courts turn the prince into a decadent,
physically and mentally corrupted, power-lusting tyrant, and as such he returnswith Noldmannto Abyssinia five years later.
At Gondar, meanwhileand this is the content of Part 4the king
and Wurmbrand have failed with their efforts to introduce an enlightened
system of government, the German specialists all proved to be a complete
disappointment, and, to make things worse, shortly after the return of the
crown prince and Noldmann, the old king dies. The crown prince seizes
power and, well equipped with all his newly acquired vices made in Germany, establishes an appalling regime of terror and suppression. However,
his rule is soon being challenged by a popular revolution in the neighboring state of Nubia, where the people overthrow a similarly despotic
monarch. War breaks out between Abyssinia and Nubia. The revolutionaries from Nubia win the war, unite with the Abyssinian people; unser alberner Negus [our silly Negus] flees, and, already weakened durch
viehische Ausschweifungen [by beastly debauchery],12 dies shortly after,
in 1787.
After the tyrants death, his younger brother takes over. He is an enlightened, good monarch; he calls for a national collegium with twentyfour deputies, two from each of the twelve provinces, and presents his
draft of a republican constitution, which is unanimously accepted by the
representatives. These events as well as a detailed draft of the constitution
can be found in the last and final Part 5 of the novel. Noldmann, his cousin
Wurmbrand, and all the other German specialists are sent home by the
king, as, according to the new constitution, foreigners are not tolerated
anymore in the newly formed government. The two cousins are the only
survivors of the voyage back home; they resettle in Goslar, and Noldmann,
as the I-narrator, decides to make their adventures public.
Jrg-Dieter Kogel, one of the eminent Knigge scholars,13 is, of course,
absolutely right when stressing that the fictional space Knigge is creating
for his readers (by fictional space I mean the descriptions of exotic countries, the travels, the adventures), that all this is a perfectly attractive bait
to catch the readers interest, a well-designed vehicle for transmitting revolutionary messages. And Kogel is equally correct in stating that Knigges
satirical descriptions of corrupt and decadent monarchs, of the latters despicable exploitation of the people, and of the disastrous effects of wellmeant, but badly founded educational processeslike the crown princes
tour through Germanythat all this is in fact Knigges criticism of the
German situation, a criticism he would not have been able to publish
openly had it been taken out of its fictional space, had it been clearly
marked as criticism of absolute rule in Germany instead of being described
as criticism of utopian African courts in general, and the utopian court at
The Gondar Utopia
135
Gondar in particular. And, finally, Kogel is perfectly right when pointing

out the many similarities between elements in Knigges oeuvre and that of
Jean-Jacques Rousseaus Du Contrat Social ou Principes du Droit Politiques,14 between Knigges Abyssinian novel and Montesquieus Lettres
Persanes, 15 between Knigges social utopias and those described in
Fnelons Les Aventures de Tlmaque,16 Morellys Code de la Nature ou
le vritable esprit des lois,17 and Albrecht von Hallers Usong. Eine morgenlndische Geschichte.18
Interestingly enough, though, neither Kogel nor any of the other scholars dealing with Knigge ever felt any need to ask the seemingly obvious
question: Why did the author choose Africa as a setting for his utopian
ideas? Why Abyssinia? Why take the reader to Gondar, and not, as so
many of his contemporaries preferred, to a fantasy island, or the Orient, or
any of the other standard settings? Could it be that Knigge was familiar
with Hiob Ludolfs Historia Aethiopica,19 or did he have other sources of
inspiration? Had he possibly met personally with one or several of the
Mohren (Moors), as Africans were called in those days, at the various
German courts he was familiar with? It is an established fact that Mohren
were considered a fashionable addition to courts and rich households in
Knigges time, that they were imported, bought, and used as porters, servants, musicians, and we even know of an exceptional case where a certain
Anton Wilhelm Amo, who had been working at the court of Wolfenbttel,
was allowed to study at the University of Halle and became a professor of
philosophy at Jena University between 1739 and 1747.20 In short: as valuable as any research about Knigges sources of philosophical and political
inspiration may be, the African question should definitely not be overlooked, or simply left unanswered.21
Knigges Geschichte der Aufklrung in Abyssinien (and with this I am
returning to Kogel) is a clear product of Zweckliteratur, 22 of littrature
engage, written out of truly felt support and admiration for the French
Revolution, an attempt at combining the historical experience of the
French people from 1789 with his (Knigges) personal hopes for a revolutionary process on German soil.
Being a German revolutionary, however, Knigge does not completely
subscribe to the French recipe. As we have seen, any attempt at introducing the principles of Enlightenment from above, at the monarchs initiative, must fail: the old king, although willing to trywith Wurmbrands
helpa few reforms, is at the same time afraid of granting the essential element of freedom to his people. The negus enthusiastically supports
Wurmbrands idea of Wissenschaften und Knste in seinem Lande blhen
zu machen [making the sciences and the arts blossom in his country] but
simultaneously introduces eine Bcher-Censur [book censorship]. Not at
136
the rulers initiative, well meant as it may be, will real, positive changes
occur, as Knigge laconically writes: Man bekehrt die Despoten und ihre
Kinder nicht [one cannot convert despots and their children]. No, real
change will only be brought upon by a popular uprising, like the Nubian
and later Abyssinianrevolution. Frchterliche Grausamkeiten und Ungerechtigkeiten [terrible cruelties and injustices] in connection with such
an uprising must, according to Knigge, be accepted. An wem liegt denn
die Schuld [who is to blame], he writes, wenn abscheuliche Mibruche,
verzweiflungsvolle Mittel unvermeidlich machen? [when disgusting
abuses make desperate means unavoidable].23
Yetand this is the specific German element in Knigges philosophy,
I am afraidafter the revolution, after all the violence and bloodshed, a
strong, even authoritarian leadership will be necessary to secure a stable,
enlightened system of government. This is why in our text a postrevolutionary, enlightened, and therefore guter Prinz [good prince] is introduced, almost like a deus ex machina, the brother of the evil former crown
prince, a new monarch who has quietly and diligently learned his lesson,
without being in power yet and thus being positively predisposed, and who
is willing to share his power with Deputierten in a National-Versammlung [national assembly].24 All in all, as we can see, Knigges Gondar
utopia has its limits: revolution, yes, but no unrestricted power to the people. Enlightenment, yes, but under enlightened aristocratic guidance. Still,
with all its limitations with regard to its ultimate political consequences,
Knigges novel is a true masterpiece of enlightened, and revolutionary, literature written and published in Germany.
One might even sayand this takes me back to the opening of the
chapter: Knigges Geschichte der Aufklrung in Abyssinien is the first and,
unfortunately, only publication by a German author projecting anand I
deliberately use this term nowenlightened image of Africa. True,
Gondar, Abyssinia, Africa, are depicted as exotic, but Knigges exoticism does not involve a distinct eurocentric perspective, something that, a
mere hundred years later, has become the norm. Corrupt African monarchs
are not any more corrupt, despicable, or ridiculous than the ones the
reader, Noldmann, and the crown prince encounter in Germany. Nubians
and Abyssinians are not any different in their sufferings under absolute
rule from Germans. Africans are, as shameful as this may sound, still normal human beings, no savages, no black devils, no underdeveloped poor
souls, or whatever other stereotypes one might quote from colonial or even
contemporary German Afrikaliteratur. Paradoxically, Knigges novel at
times seems like a perfect example of anticolonial or even postcolonial literature with its descriptions of despots supported by European advisers
and experts, with its presentation of European political and social models
that fail in the African context, and, most unique indeed, with its emphasis
The Gondar Utopia
137
on African superiority. Since, as we must not forget, it is only in Africa,

in Nubia and Abyssinia, that a revolution leads to a new, enlightened
political system, Germany in Knigges novel remains under the rule of numerous tyrants. Only because of the new Abyssinian constitution, drafted
by an enlightened Abyssinian king and his equally enlightened national
collegium and presented to the German readers by Noldmann/Knigge, is
there hope for a change in Germany, too. Thus the myth of darkest
Africa, which badly needs European Enlightenment, is happily turned
around by Knigge: for him it is darkest Germany in dire need of African
Enlightenment.
Knigges Geschichte der Aufklrung in Abyssinien has a lot more to
offer to the modern reader than one might expect from a 200-year-old publication. It offers a stunningly different perspective guiding the readers
eyes not up but down the Nile toward Germany and Europe, a unique, an
enlightened, a utopian view in German literature about Africa.
NOTES
1. Von der Grben, Brandenburgischen Schifffahrt nach Guinea.
2. Smidt, Berlin und West-Afrika.
3. Warmbold, Germania in Africa; see especially pp. 4996.
4. Ibid.; see especially pp. 97129.
5. For bibliographical data see, for example, Heine and van der Heyden, Studien zur Geschichte, and Warmbold, Germania in Africa.
6. For bibliographical data see, for example, Atkinson, The Extraordinary
Voyage in French Literature Before 1700; Mercier, LAfrique Noire dans la littrature Franaise; Hamann, Der Eintritt der sdlichen Hemisphre in die europische Geschichte; and Bitterli, Die Entdeckung des schwarzen Afrikaners.
7. The latest edition of Knigges works is Adolph von Knigge, Ausgewhlte
Werke in zehn Bnden translated by Wolfgang Fenner; the latest bibliographical
data can be found in Arnold, Adolph Freiherr Knigge.
8. I am using the reprint of the Erstausgabe, Knigge, Benjamin Noldmanns
Geschichte der Aufklrung in Abyssinien, vols. 1 and 2. Hereafter, page number indications are given with vols. 1 and 2, for first and second volume of the original,
respectively.
9. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 182.
10. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 182, 258, 261.
11. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 9.
12. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 154, 159.
13. Kogel, Knigges ungewhnliche Empfehlungen.
14. First published in 1762.
17. First published 17551760.
18. First published in 1771. For a detailed discussion of the various influences
on Knigge, see Kogel, Knigges ungewhnliche Empfehlungen, pp. 1731.
19. First published in Frankfurt, 16811694, 4 vols.
138
20. See, for example, Brentjes, Anton Wilhelm Amo, and Sadji, Der Negermythos am Ende des 18.
21. Veronika Six from Hamburg pointed out to me that she was presently
doing research about Kniggess possible sources of information and inspiration for
his Abyssinian novel. She is planning to publish the results of her research soon,
and therefore it would be somewhat unfair to report here on the discussion we had.
22. Kogel, Knigges ungewhnliche Empfehlungen, p. 32.
23. Knigge, Geschichte der Aufklrung in Abyssinien, vol. 2, pp. 111, 123,
150.
24. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 167, 168, 239.
11
The Nile as a Gateway

for Missionary Activity
in Abyssinia
Uoldelul Chelati Dirar
Missionary expansion in Africa has been studied intensively and extensively. Scholars have examined carefully the main social, cultural, political, and of course, religious consequences of this phenomenon. However,
despite this impressive research, little attention has been paid to the role
played by the environment and more generally by the geographical context
as a facilitating or disabling factor in the missionary scramble for Africa.
This is quite surprising because the environment was the first major problem with which missionary activities in Africa had to cope. In fact for a
long time, environment, as a result of both climatic conditions and tropical
diseases, restricted missionary activities to the coast of Africa and, more
significantly, strongly influenced most of the famous missionary plans for
the evangelization of Africa. Recent progress in both missionary and
African studies requires a more comprehensive approach incorporating an
analysis of the entirety of the relationship between society, environment,
and missionary expansion.1 This chapter discusses the role played by the
Nile in the spreading of missionary societies in nineteenth-century Ethiopia.
There has always been a close and constant connection between geography and missions. Missionaries, as a consequence, but also as a necessity of their pioneering travel, were among the first to draw maps of
Africa, to give extensive descriptions of African societies, and to draft
grammar of African languages as well. Of course we have come a long
way since the first maps simply described Africa as divided between
Etiopia and the land of hic sunt leones, otherwise of barbarians and
foolishness; but the analysis of this evolution would lead us too far from
the topic of this chapter. What I would like to underline, as we will examine later, is that, though in a rough and sometimes inconsistent way,
139
140
missionaries never stopped accumulating data and storing them away for
future (if not for immediate) use.
Information, collected by assembling Greek and Roman literature, official reports, memoirs of travelers, and also fantastic stories, combined to
sketch a blurred image of Africa but one able to kindle the keen interest
of traders, explorers, and (why not?) politicians. At this level we can safely
speak about an interaction between myth and geography.2 Anyway what
must be stressed here is that since the first maps and planispheres were
drawn, the Nile was the element that most caught the rapt attention of European geographers.3 Although outlined in a very fanciful way, the course
of the Nile was depicted as a gateway to a fabulous region inhabited by
black peoples who were affluent with gold, ivory, and spices. And it could
not have been different, as long as the Nile, with its yearly flood and dregs
of fecund humus, epitomized the idea of wealth and opulence.
In this composite process of knowledge and imagination, what about
Ethiopia? Although often perceived as a synonym for the whole of Africa,
Ethiopia has been one of the preferred objects of both geographical and
missionary regard. There is also great evidence of the diffusion of an
image of Ethiopia (though a mythical one) in European literature since the
Middle Ages.4 Such references give a clear idea of the familiarity of European culture with the idea of Ethiopia, and at the same time they raise
questions about the reasons for that particular interest. First of all to feed
this particular interest were the fabulous descriptions of treasures and lush
landscape that filled the reports of travelers as well as the Greek and
Roman descriptions. However, for people of faith the main reason for such
interest was the recurrent description of the ancient Christian roots of
Ethiopia firmly surviving in a continent generally perceived as drifted
away by a dozing paganism and a fanatic Islam. Another factor that maintained the interest in Ethiopia alive was the regular flow of Ethiopian pilgrims to the Holy Land, some of whom prolonged their journey to Rome.5
Those pilgrims in Jerusalem had the invaluable opportunity of getting in
touch with people from all over the Christian world, receiving information
from them about the troubled theological debate and about the main social
and political changes in the East and in the West. At the same time
Ethiopian pilgrims, particularly those who went to Rome, acted as spreaders of news about the general situation of Ethiopia. 6 In this sense the famous institute known as Santo Stefano Maggiore dei Mori in Rome, which
operated more or less uninterrupted from the end of the fifteenth century
to the end of the nineteenth, had a pivotal role in the definition of the
Catholic image of Ethiopia and in delineating missionary strategies toward
this country.7
This complex and extremely lively network of relationships and of
cultural exchanges contributed significantly to the development of three
Missionary Activity in Abyssinia
141
important myths that had long conditioned the European approach toward
Ethiopia and the development of the Ethiopian national identity as well. I
am referring here to the myth of the Prete Janni (Prester or Priest John), the
myth of Ethiopia as a Christian island, and to the myth of Semitic Ethiopia.
All those myths are strictly connected and must be regarded as the expression of Europes interest toward Ethiopia, but also in the long term as expression of the European wish of using exoticism as an instrument of
knowledge. Otherwise, borrowing with due caution the analytical concepts
offered by Edward Saids analysis of Orientalism, exoticism could also be
described as a way of affirming, or perpetuating, European and Christian
domination by forcing different cultures into insulated paradigms.
As long as it operated, the myth of Prete Janni was a powerful bait for
the travelers and missionaries keen to revive the greatness of the Christendom. In fact the quest for Prete Janni gathered an astonishing amount of
mental and material resources and by so doing made way for a long and
fascinating history of contacts between Abyssinia and Europe.8
Closely connected to this was the mythical image of Ethiopia as a
Christian island in a troubled sea of paganism and Islam. I am not going to
repeat the history of that well-known image, but I would like to emphasize
the importance that this image had in the planning of both Catholic and
Protestant missionary strategies.9
Finally, connected with the previous myth we must consider the myth
of the Semitic specificity of Ethiopia. Risen mainly as a product of the linguistic studies of orientalists and missionaries, the myth of Semitic
Ethiopia empowered missionaries and later colonial pretensions over this
country on the basis of the supposed superiority of Semitic roots over subSaharan Africa. By the way, it is interesting to see how those assumptions
found part of their legitimacy by emphasizing the pre-existing Ethiopian
national epic of the Solomonic tradition but were also embodied in twentiethcentury Ethiopias nationalism.10
It is with that background that at the beginning of the nineteenth century arose a renewed interest of missionaries toward Ethiopia. What made
particular this new wave of missionary activities was both the composition
and the reasons of the protagonists. On the one hand, in western Europe
the Christian Church was not anymore a monolithic reality; doctrinal debates and conflicts had split the Church, and now, besides Roman
Catholics, there were also Protestant missionaries eager to shepherd flocks
of pagans and heretics toward the true light of the Gospel. On the other
hand, the reasons of missionary expansion had also changed. During the
eighteenth century, because of the diffusion of rationalist theories and of
the political changes put in motion by the French Revolution, Christendom
in Europe had experienced a deep crisis that had seriously endangered its
spiritual and material leadership.
142
As a consequence, missionary expansion was seen as the only way to

put new oxygen into a wheezing Church. Apart from theology the main
differences between Catholics and Protestants were the premises of their
missionary strategies. Catholics looked at the integral conversion of pagan
and heretic peoples because they thought, by so doing, they would inject
fresh blood into the anemic body of Christian Europe. Behind that theory
there was the idea that African peoples, because of their seclusion from
corrupted and degenerated Europe, had lived in a state of eternal and uncontaminated childhood and when educated to the values of the Bible
would regenerate the Christendom.11 On the other side Protestants also
looked at Africa and Asia as continents from which new life was expected
to come, but, with a slight difference. Instead of a direct and total conversion they preferred to put in motion an intense theological debate. The purpose of that debate, mainly in the case of the so-called Oriental Churches,
was the starting of an internal awakening whose consequences, in the long
term, would have been fruitful for all Christendom. From a theological
perspective, the basis of that awakening was to be the renunciation of external ritual in favor of a more internal and rational worship.
It is into this composite and often unpredictable framework that
should be fitted the analysis of the role of the Nile in the missionary expansion of the nineteenth century. A first consideration to be made is that
the Nile, although not always explicitly, played an important role in the
first missionaries steps in Ethiopia. The first and most obvious reason for
that is that the Nile appeared to be the easiest and most direct route to both
Ethiopia and equatorial Africa. But reality was completely different, and
often the Nile disclosed an unpredicted range of pitfalls that ruthlessly
decimated or simply hindered the missionary flock, frustrating the rush of
the first half of the nineteenth century. Nevertheless, though the Nile
ceased to be considered a real gateway to missionary penetration in
Abyssinia, it started to become a mythological gateway. In this second
role, the Nile as a myth became an ideological weapon functional to the
missionary scramble for Africa (not only for Abyssinia). At this level the
differences between mythological and ideological levels were particularly
dim. What can be said, for sake of clarity, is that, before the nineteenthcentury missionary and colonial interest in Africa, the Nile was more an
idea, suggesting the possible existence of mysterious people living on its
banks in far and inaccessible countries, rather than a geographically defined entity.
In the nineteenth century, in spite of an increasing amount of geographical knowledge and also after the discovery of the sources of the
Nile, this river still retained its mythological dimension of a gateway toward Africa, becoming an important aspect of missionary ideologies.
Strange as it might seem there is an interesting parallelism between the
143
role played by the Nile and the Niger, the two most important and, at that
time, most mysterious African rivers in the missionary and colonial partition of Africa. In fact both were seen as the key for European penetration
into the dark core of Africa and as the best way to achieve the spreading of the Gospel and the eradication of the plague of the slave trade. A
first important episode to be reported is the organized, though initially
fruitless, way the Church Missionary Society, strongly supported by the
British government, organized three expeditions on the Niger.12 The aim of
those expeditions was to explore the course of the river, establishing the
basis for the study of the languages spoken there and the subsequent starting of a diffused missionary activity. Behind this ambitious project there
was the idea that the Niger, unknown as it must have been, was indeed the
best way to penetrate the interior of Africa in order to fight the slave trade
and by so doing to soothe one of the plagues of the black continent. In the
word of one of the outstanding promoters of this expedition: I can form
no conception of a stronger argument in favour of carrying thither civilization and Christianity, than the existence of the Slave Trade itself, as it
is found at this day,13 and after, It is the Bible and the plough that must
regenerate Africa.14
Something very similar happened in respect to the Nile during the
same period. Before the nineteenth century many European travelers had
used this river as one of the ways to access Ethiopia, and most of them
were missionaries.15 What kindled a new and more intense interest toward
the Nile were the discussed memoirs of the Scottish traveler James Bruce
of Kinnard. In fact his description of Ethiopian societies and traditions as
well as his claim to have discovered the sources of the Nile significantly
influenced any successive travel, and for a long time his work was seen as
obligatory references.
The importance of Bruces memoirs seems to be in his vivid account
of Christian and pagan Ethiopia, which renewed the old interest of missionary agencies. In the new diffused atmosphere of revivalism of those
years, Ethiopia and the Nile became a turning point for missionary strategies. There is strong evidence in the archival and missionary literature of
the nineteenth century of a perception of Ethiopia and the Nile as gateways
toward Africa. This pattern was clearly expressed by the German missionary J. L. Krapf when he said, As the Romanist missionary said, Give us
China and Asia is Ours so may we say Give us Gallas and Central Africa
is ours. 16 Also, more explicit was the Roman Catholic missionary
Guglielmo Massaja when, writing about Daniele Combonis Piano per la
rigenerazione dellAfrica, said that it was a good plan but applied in the
wrong area. In fact he thought that Ethiopia would have been the best
place from which to start a general conversion of Africa. It is a document
that, though quite long, needs to be quoted extensively:
144
The plan of Daniele Comboni has to be reduced to the eastern part of

Africa, this inhabited by Semitic races more capable of being educated
and the only part that has a future, for three reasons: (1) Ethiopia is the
best zone, partly Christian party pagan, and the richest and healthiest in
Africa. (2) It is cultivated and held by a nation of religion capable of reuniting millions of Christians. (3) Because it is located in the middle of
Islam and it is so near to Mecca that it will be an operation, perhaps the
only one, that may stop the progress of Islam. The Ethiopian Christians,
who constitute less than a third of these peoples, waged war for twelve
centuries against Islam. In so doing they managed to save their faith and
save all those regions to the south. If Ethiopia could do so with only three
or four million inhabitants, why will it not be done by all those countries
together, united by the same Christian relgion?17
This letter has the value of a manifesto of missionary ideology; moreover,

we can find assembled some of the main stereotypes of the new strategy
toward Ethiopia and Africa in general: the idea of the superiority of the Semitic element over the rest of sub-Saharan Africa; the image of Ethiopia as
a Christian Island in perennial fight against Islam; and eventually Ethiopia
as lighthouse and basis for a further missionary expansion.
It is interesting to observe that in this optimistic period of evangelical
expansion, but also some years later, Ethiopia tended to be viewed as a
wonderland where everybody could find what they wanted. Priests of the
Lazarist order wanted to convert heretic Christians, and they found them in
the borderland between Tigray, Akkala Guzay, and Karan and in some way
contributed in laying the basis for Eritrean nationalism. In the same way, the
London Society for Promoting Christianity amongst the Jews found its desired object in the Falashas, as did Joseph Halevy some years after on behalf
of the Alliance Israelite Universelle.18 The same happened to the Oromo
people who were the object of desire for many different missionary societies, although the only one that could work there with a certain degree of
intensity was the order of Cappuccini, led by the famous Cardinal Massaja.
Indeed the history of missionary penetration amongst the Oromo is a
fascinating one and can be regarded as a paradigm of the process of imagination of identities in colonial and precolonial Africa.19 Missionary attitudes toward Oromo swung between a mere acceptance of Ethiopian
stereotypeswhich described Oromo as an outsider people with a low degree of social and cultural cohesivenessand an assertive policy of redefinition of Oromo identities. The latter attitude emerged as a dual policy.
On a theoretical perspective, Oromo as a backward and savage people were appointed as the key for the conversion of Ethiopia and through
Ethiopia for the whole of the African continent. At the same time, missionaries put in motion their traditional praxis consisting of intensive
translations of the Bible and other religious material in the Oromo language,
145
the grammatical pattern of which was first codified by them in those

years.20
From this new perspective it is interesting to see the sudden change of
tone in missionary reports. As soon as Oromo became a privileged target
of proselytism, they lost the attributes of ruthless and wild cruelty usually
employed to depict them. They suddenly became a dull and sluggish people to be patronized and protected from the violence of the Christian Orthodox of the highlands and from the slave trade. So, again, the old missionary and colonial obsession of eradicating the slave trade connected
European activities in the region of the Nile with what was happening in
West Africa and on the banks of the Niger. Later on, in 1869, the Nile too,
though in a more secular and violent way, would have its own expedition
against the merchant of flesh that infested its banks in those years,21 but it
was to be mainly a military expedition.22
So far we have examined the function of the Nile as a gateway for
nineteenth-century missionary strategies, but it would be too simplistic to
confine the analysis to this aspect. In fact another important characteristic
of the Nile was that of being an impressive hindrance, frustrating the attempted expansion toward Ethiopia. This is its most dramatic aspect, because it implied the death, often tragic, of many missionaries.23
One reason for the high mortality rate was the climatic conditions.
Malaria and other tropical diseases killed many European missionaries and
were factors that indirectly influenced Combonis Piano per la rigenerazione dellAfrica.24 In fact, behind the idea of utilizing Africans as missionaries instead of Europeans, there was not only the thought that
Africans would be better accepted because of their knowledge of the social
and cultural environment but also the thought that Africans would better
tolerate the harsh climatic conditions of the region.
Another reason reported by missionary sources about the difficulty in
entering Ethiopia by the Nile was connected with politics and particularly
with the feeling of bitter resentment engendered in the populations that
used to live on the southern banks of the Nile. As a consequence of the
ruthless and bloody ransacking effected by Turks and Egyptians, those
peoples tended to identify all white travelers with agents of the Turks and
for that reason sought to take their revenge on them.
Eventually the most banal but nevertheless forbidding reason that periodically transformed the Nile into an obstacle was the regular period of
drought that for some months transmuted the river into a muddy stream, restraining the travelers coming from Egypt to the dreadful climate of Khartum.
At the end, the last perspective from which we can analyze the Nile
in relation to missionary activities in northeastern Africa and particularly
in Ethiopia is that of the Nile as an outlet. Particularly for what concerned
146
the missionary stations among the Oromo people living south of Goggiam,
the Nileduring the rainy season that made it unfordablebecame a sort
of natural and self-patrolled border that protected people and missionaries
from the raids of the Ethiopian Imperial army or from the pillaging of the
local lords.25 From the same perspective there is a recurrent tendency of
the missionaries, mainly Catholic, to consider the borderland around
Matamma and the Sudanese branch of the Blue Nile as a harbor. There
they could find shelter during the unpredictable war or persecution that
missionaries experienced in the first years of their activity in Ethiopia. The
idea of a network of missionary stations scattered on the border of the
Ethiopian empire is a recurrent one in this period, but the most clearly expressed is that proposed by the Italian Lazarist Giuseppe Sapeto. In a report forwarded to the board of Propaganda Fide Sapeto, he suggested
building up missionary stations on the Red Sea and in the Sannar, proposing to use them as safe haven for missionaries and the converted. In this
way, once a storm had passed, the frustrating and hard burden of restarting
the work in the field would be avoided. A second aim of the project was
the possibility of utilizing those bases as hostels for the pilgrims directed
to Jerusalem.26
From the same perspective, because of one of the strange coincidences
of history, Matamma and the Nile tended to be also the sad road to exile
for many of the most famous missionaries.27 A last but marginal aspect is
that of the Nile as lieu de perdition (symbol of the loss of moral integrity
and of faith) in the missionary purpose. From this point of view the Nile
could be seen as a metaphor of the dark heart of Africa. That is an aspect
of missionary pitfalls, mainly on the Catholic side, that has not received
due attention yet. In the context of this discussion I would like to underline only that from missionary sources there emerges a blundered idea of
the Nile as a place where missionaries could lose their interior equilibrium
as expressed in renouncing celibacy or in the temptation of commerce and
the achievement of material rather than spiritual wealth.28 Finally, both on
the Protestant and Catholic sides there are recurrent warnings against the
bait of science. This could refer to the desire to discover the source of the
river,29 as well as to the excessive attention to the study of languages.30
After this long sketch of the multiple and often contrasting features of
the Nile during the missionary period spreading over Africa there is a
question to be answered that could eventually lead to a provisional conclusion. The question, which mainly referred to the Catholic side of the
missionaries, is: Why is there such a sharp contrast between the mythological idea of the Nile carried by missionaries and the wide and often
very detailed geographical and social knowledge that the main missionary
organizations, such as Propaganda Fide, used to have? During the centuries,
147
the archives of Propaganda Fide, as well as most of the archives of many

other congregations, collected an impressive amount of historical, anthropological, linguistic, and of course also geographical materials. Those materials, integrated with the regular exchanges with the Ethiopian pilgrims
who used to visit Jerusalem and Rome, should have enabled the missionaries to have a clearer idea of the places that they were going to visit. On
the contrary we notice a general lack of communication between the high
hierarchies of the ecclesiastic establishment and the missionaries in the
field. In other words, the wide knowledge collected at the center failed to
become a common heritage of the new generations of missionaries in the
field.
This is not the place for an extensive evaluation of such a complex
matter. However, I would like to prospect some general hypotheses. The
first evidence to be pointed out is that the missionary milieu was troubled
by deep conflicts and rivalries. Those conflicts were not only between
Catholics and Protestants but also between the different religious orders
and missionary congregationes. Internal rivalries and a sort of missionary
scramble for Africa could be one of the possible reasons behind this lack
of communication.
Another possible reason often undervalued in the studies on missionary activities could be founded in the high budgets with which priests and
ministers had to deal. A shortage of funds was often the main reason that
influenced the choice of the itineraries. In fact, it must be remembered that
missionaries, particularly the Catholics, suffered a chronic lack of money.
That problem often hampered missionary plans. This would be increasingly true after the colonial partition of Africa, when, for example, colonial administrations used to offer free passages to missionaries on boats.31
No less important was the role played by the background of missionaries in the field. Often they had very short training and serious difficulties
in understanding and making operational the instructions that came from
the high hierarchies.
Last but not least, there is an interesting and, at the moment, little explored aspect of missionary activity that could disclose new insights. I am
referring here to the role played by Africans in the development of the European image of Africa. Whatever the concern for missionary activities in
Ethiopia, it would be interesting to see how deeply the European image of
Abyssinia and, of course, the Nile was affected by the information given
by Ethiopian monks and pilgrims during their travel to the Holy Land and
Europe. I think that in the long term this kind of approach could lead to a
more balanced comprehension of African history and of the history of the
relationships between Africa and Europe. It is important to also adopt in
missionary studies a perspective that focuses attention on the assertive role
of Africans in both colonial and missionary history.
148
NOTES
1. For an interesting review of the main scholarly works on missionology
and African Church history, see Spindler, Writing African Church History 1969
1989, pp. 7087; and Melloni, Facteurs involutifs et lignes de dveloppement, pp.
283310.
2. See Conti Rossini, Leggende giudaiche del IX secolo, pp. 160190, and
Il Libro del Conoscimiento, pp. 656679.
3. See Lefevre, LEtiopia nella stampa del primo Cinquecento, pp.
345369, and Geografica I, pp. 215233; Crawford, Ethiopian Itineraries; and
Conti Rossini, Geografica I, pp. 167199.
4. Cerulli, Il volo di Astolfo, pp. 1938; Conti Rossini, Il Libro del
Conoscimiento, pp. 656679.
5. On the history of Ethiopian pilgrims to Jerusalem, the most important
work is still Cerulli, Etiopi in Palestina, vol. 2.
6. Lefevre, Roma e la Comunit etiopica, pp. 7186; Lefevre, Note su alcuni pellegrini etiopi, pp. 1626; Lefevre, Presenze etiopi in Italia, pp. 526.
7. On the history of this institution the most important contribution remains
Leonessas, S. Stefano Maggiore o degli Abissini.
8. An important example of the strength of this myth in the history of European attraction toward Ethiopia is Alvarez, The Prester John of the Indies.
9. Last but not least this myth has played a central role in the development of
Ethiopian national identity and by so doing has also strongly influenced Ethiopias
foreign policy. On this topic see Iyob, The Eritrean Struggle for Independence, and
Sorenson, Imagining Ethiopia.
10. On the complex process of development of the Solomonic epic in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries see Crummey, Imperial Legitimacy, pp. 1343;
and Levine, Menilek and Oedipus, pp. 1123.
11. It is interesting to see that in this way the Roman Catholics utilized,
though from a different perspective, the rationalistic myth of the bon sauvage.
12. The first was in 1841, the second in the 1854, and the last in 1857. Of the
last expedition there is an interesting journal written by two outstanding Nigerian
missionaries, Rev. Samuel Crowther and Rev. John Christopher Taylor. It permits
a fascinating inside regard of the expedition viewed with African, though converted, eyes (see Crowther and Taylor, The Gospel on the Bank of the Niger).
13. T. F. Buxton, The African Slave Trade and Its Remedy, p. 512.
14. C. Buxton, Memoirs of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, p. 451.
15. Some of the most important were Remedius Prutkij and Michelangelo
Pacelli da Tricarico, whose memoirs constitute a precious source for both missionary and Ethiopian history (see Prutsky, Prutskys Travels in Ethiopia and Other
Countries, and Stella, Il viaggio in Etiopia di Michelangelo Pacelli).
16. Krapf, Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours, p. 24.
17. Letter of G. Massaja to Card. Alessandro Barnabo, in Massaja, Lettere,
p. 208, translated here by the author. The original text is as follows:
Il piano di D. Daniele Comboni dovrebbe ridursi alla parte pi orientale
dellAffrica, quella che abitata da razze semitiche pi capaci di educazione, e quasi lunica parte che presenti un avvenire in grande per
queste tre ragioni: 1. LEtiopia zona migliore, parte cristiana parte pagana la pi ricca e pi salubre di tutta lAffrica. 2. Perch coltivata e concentrata in nazione della religione pu riunire molti milioni di cristiani.
149
3. Perch luogo situato proprio al centro di tutto lislamismo e tutto

vicino alla Mecca sarebbe un operazione, forse lunica che potrebbe arrestare i progressi dellislamismo medesimo. LAbissinia cristiana, che
non fa il terzo di tutte quelle popolazioni, conta dodeci secoli di guerra
contro lislamismo. Con ci ha potuto salvare la sua fede e salvare tutti
gli alti piani a sud di essa. Se lAbissinia ha potuto fare questo con soli
tre o quattro milioni di abitanti, cosa non farebbero tutti quei paesi insieme uniti dalla medesima religione cristiana?
18. See Kaplan, The Beta Israel (Falasha) Encounter with Protestant Missionaries, 18601905, pp. 2742; also very interesting though mainly connected
with fascist policy toward Jews and Beta Israel is Trevisan-Semi, Allo specchio dei
Falascia.
19. I am using the word imagination here in the sense given by T. Ranger in
his recent revision of the category of tradition that he had previously elaborated
upon in the famous Hobsbawm and Ranger, The Invention of Tradition; see
Ranger, The Invention of Tradition Revisited, pp. 129172.
20. Arens, Evangelical Pioneers in Ethiopia, pp. 383387, and Massaja, I miei
trentacinque.
21. Noting slave trade in Sudan and Ethiopia. See Abdussamad Ahmad,
Ethiopian Slave Exports.
22. Some of the most interesting reports of this expedition are to be found in
S. Baker, Ismailiya, and A. Baker, Morning Star.
23. On this aspect of missionary experience, see Gaffuri, Africa o morte.
24. This plan, though proclaimed as particularly innovative, seems to be
mainly the best-known expression of a common feeling amongst the missionaries
in the field. In this sense there was no difference between Catholics and Protestants
and very similar projects were proposed quite simultaneously in different regions.
In the case of Nigeria, see Ajayi, Christian Missions in Nigeria, pp. 816, and
Ayandele, The Missionary Impact on Modern Nigeria, pp. 2025. Something similar happened also in Algeria with Cardinal Lavigeries schemes. For the vicariate
of Abyssinia with De Jacobis see APF, P. Etienne to Propaganda Fide, p. 214,
and Poussou to Fransoni, p. 451. For the Vicariate of the Gallas, see Massaja,
Lettere, vol. 1, pp. 4346, 352358.
25. Massaja, Lettere, vol. 2, p. 53.
26. APF, Sapeto to Propaganda Fide, pp. 233240.
27. It was by this route that Massaja, Krapf, and many others left Ethiopia.
Nevertheless, though little attention has been paid to the Catholic bishop Tobia
Gheresghier, he was one of the first illustrious missionaries to leave the country
through this way and was forced to retreat from Ethiopia in 1792 (APF, Tobia
Gheresghier to the Pope, p. 496).
28. Regarding commerce, one aspect of missionary failures, an interesting
episode is referred to in Massaja with reference to the Catholic missionary Angelo
Vinco (see Massaja, Lettere, pp. 347352).
29. Suggestion of the Committee to the Missionaries, Proceedings of the
Church Missionary Society 29, p. 138.
30. APF, Istruzioni fatte in Sinodo da Mons. G. Massaja, pp. 308340; see
also Massaja, I miei 35 anni di missione, pp. 124125.
31. For example in 1851 the French foreign ministry ordered that all missionaries directed to the Horn of Africa and the Red Sea were to be offered free access
to French vessels (APF, Brenier to Havett, p. 352).
Part 3
Old Waters,
Modern Identities
12
The Father of Rivers:

The Nile in
Ethiopian Literature
Bairu Tafla
The Nile, the sea, and Islam were perhaps the most significant factors that
played a role for a thousand or more years in the foreign relations of
Ethiopia. A great deal has been researched and published about each of
them, but the history of the Nile seems still far from being exhausted, as
the themes of this and other volumes show.1 The Nile has played, and will
probably do so further, an important role in the history of Ethiopia. It has
been one of the major historical factors that drew the attention of the country more toward the Middle East than toward the regions to the south of
it. If we imagine the country in the form of a human being sitting on an elevated place, then Ethiopia has been unmistakably looking northwards,
watching its neighbors flourish on its flooding rivers, and its enemies encroaching into its valleys. It was the magnetic Nile that intrigued explorers as early as the Roman times and as late as the twentieth century; it
drew to its vast valley adventurers who sought gold, slaves, and gum arabicum, lured foreign missionaries to preach the Gospel to the numerous
peoples of the grand valley, and attracted the colonialists to possess a
major part of the region. It was precisely in this direction that most of the
bloodiest battles of Ethiopia were fought in the period from 1840 to 1900.
Conferences, consultations, and treaties that began in the aftermath are
still momentous. 2 And who knows what exactly took place in the watershed of this mysterious river in earlier periods?
From the remote times, we have mainly legends left, at least for the
upper course of the Nile, which nonetheless indicates that the Alexandrian
metropolitan and the Nile were occasionally the objects of bargain between Ethiopia and Egypt. The legends also include the peoples, civilizations, and cultures that intermittently moved along the Nile throughout the
153
154
Old Waters, Modern Identities
centuries. No wonder then that Emperor Haile Selassie emphasized in his

speech during an official visit to the Republic of Sudan in January 1960
that, since history began to be recorded, the Nile contributed toward
the heritage of culture and economic similarities of the neighboring
countries.3
The aim of this chapter is not to describe the foreign relations of
Ethiopia or the economic potentialities of the Nile or the politics ensuing
from the complexity of the problems that the longest river in the world involves, but rather to assess the notion and the role of the Nile in Ethiopian
literature in the widest sense of the term. It seems that this area has been
scarcely treated, though the peoples thoughts, beliefs, and imagination
must also have played a part in the attitudes and policymaking of their
leaders. It is an attempt at identifying and analyzing the various aspects of
the popular notion of the greatest river, how this notion is articulated in the
oral traditions, and to consider some of the perspectives of its intellectual
expression. In this preliminary study, three components lend themselves
easily to identification: the awe-inspiring nature of the Nile, the formidable
obstacle that the river poses, and the treacherous character of the stream.
Before considering the vicissitudes of these points, it is necessary to
straighten up a few points. A conclusive study of such a topic requires
thorough research, which in turn presupposes accessing full information
on the subject. Unfortunately, not all the oral traditions have been collected and archived nor have all novels and other works in Ethiopian languages been available abroad. Hence, this chapter remains preliminary in
character, and any statement made is liable to change in the face of new
evidence or the reconsideration of a fresh interpretation.
THE ABBAYA SYMBOL OF THE NATION
Ethiopia is full of torrential rivers, some of which are comparable to the

Blue Nile. But the Abbay (known as the Blue Nile on the Ethiopian highlands4) is no doubt the most popular. So far, other rivers have indeed been
more useful in economic aspects,5 but none could rival the Abbay in reputation on the national level.
It is difficult to establish beyond doubt whether it always enjoyed the
same nationwide popularity in the past. A few developments since the midtwentieth century have certainly contributed to the enhancement of its
prestige. An all-weather road has been constructed across the province of
Gojjam, traversing the Abbay at a few points. Its beautiful waterfall and
the associated Lake Tana together with its ancient monasteries have become an attraction for tourists, and their beautiful scenery has decorated
postcards and magazines. A hydroelectric power station has been built at
The Nile in Ethiopian Literature
155
its waterfall, and a great deal of propaganda was made in the press on the
potentialities of the Abbay. The waterfall panorama eventually became a
symbol of the birr, the basic unit of the Ethiopian currency and, hence, a
national symbol.
The river has been personified in praising poems and descriptive prose
in the country with which it is occasionally paired. For example, a politically inspired song of recent years underscores the unity of the country by
attributing honesty to almost all the remaining provinces and concludes by
emphasizing the historical characteristicsthe name of the country, the
mighty Abbay, the diligence of the women, and the valor of the men:
Yabulga lej yallawem abay
Yamanz lej yallawem abay . . .
Agarachen ityopeya wanzachen Abbay
Setu qatchen fatay wandu tagaday.
[The sons of Bulga know no deceit
The sons of Manz know no deceit . . .
Our country is Ethiopia, our river the Abbay
The women are yarn-spinners and the men warriors.]6
If the nationwide popularity of the river is connected with the economic
and political needs of the period, to the riparian provinces, namely Bagemeder, Gojjam, Shawa, and Wallo, that is, mainly the Amharic-speaking
people, the Nile has always been of a special significance. Both male and
female children have been named after the mighty river,7 which itself had
no name in the proper sense of the word.8 For this society, this particular
river was unique, especially with regard to its size. It was simply the river,
the father of rivers, as the Amharic lexicons put it, and was thus referred
to.9 The legends, the anonymous poems, proverbs, and anecdotes related to
the Nile are a product of the intellect of that very people. Much of the
modern creative literature in which the Nile plays a role has also been produced by the intellectuals of this particular society.
The Amharic as well as the bilingual dictionaries include a number of
phrase entries or expressions whose equivalents or similarities are not to
be found in the lexicons of the neighboring languages such as Tigrinya and
Oromo.10 The American lexicographer, Thomas Kane, who produced the
most comprehensive two-volume English-Amharic dictionary, lists
Abbay masku as one who swims across the Blue Nile or one who frolics in it, while Gush Abbay refers to turbid waters of the Nile in the
rainy season. 11 Another well-known expression is Abbayen batchelfa,
which literally means [emptying] the Blue Nile with a ladle,12 but which
is applied to undertaking a considerable task with insufficient means.
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A few well-known proverbs are also still in use in the language. The
French Catholic missionary, J. Baeteman, records: Abbay, anta ayyaha
kadarat, enem ayyahuh kagulbat,13 which literally can be translated as,
Nile, you have seen me at the breast and I have seen you at the knee, but
which is often applied to the downfall of a rich or powerful and atrocious person in comparison to the rise and fall of the Niles flow. Two ironic proverbs
are: (1) Abbay madarya yallaw, gend yezo yezoralThough the Abbay
is homeless, he carries around a tree trunk. This is often applied to an active but aimless person; and (2) Yalatchen lej qemal balaw; yabbay lej weha
tammawThe son of the barber suffers from lice, the son of the Abbay
suffers from thirst. This is usually applied to a person who has the means but
pretends to be needy. A similar but less widely used proverb goes: Tchatchata yalammada saw abbay dar qebaru yelal14He who is used to clatterings requests to be buried at the bank of the Nile. An Ethiopian writer who
in recent years compiled some 6,000 proverbs also records most of the above
and adds one more of the ironic ones: Abbayn yalayya mentchen yamasagenalOne who has not seen the Nile praises a brook.15
THE ABBAYA FORMIDABLE OBSTACLE
When Negus Menelik of Shawa heard that Negus Takla Haymanot of Gojjam had sent an army contingent southward across the Abbay to claim new
territories, the first question Menelik is said to have posed was, What territorial rights does he have to the south of the Abbay? In actual fact,
Menelik did not at this particular time have control over the claimed territories, either; he only had conceived a plan to conquer them. The underlying assumption was that his plan was more legitimate than that of his peer
on the other side of the Abbay. The Abbay did not only form a natural
boundary of Gojjam in the thinking of the period, but it also posed a formidable obstacle in communication between the peoples of Gojjam and
other regions. Almost all of the couplets and proverbs refer to this challenge. For example, among the prominent ones are the following lines:
Abbayen batankwa sishaggaru bay
Bagre gabbahulesh abasayan lay.
[Having seen others crossing the Abbay in a Tankwa16
There I entered (for you) on foot to suffer greatly.]
Kabbay Wadya mado zamad alaga malat
wa blo maqrat naw wehaw yamollalat.
[Refusing to find a relation beyond the Nile river
One wails and fails, when the waters swell.]
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Yamihon yehonal yamayhon ayhonem

and abbay simola saw ayashagerem
yafarra mashella mattashat ayqarem
yezagayal enji yassabnaw ayqarem.
[What cant happen, cant happen, what should happen will happen
When the Nile swells it lets none across
A ripened millet cannot remain uneaten
What we planned will happen even if it may be delayed.]
The barrier was not only the high waters of the Abbay as mentioned in
the couplets, which is actually seasonal, but it also had a number of components more dangerous at times than the swift current of the river. When
describing in a trilogy the changes the Ethiopian society experienced in
this century, the famous Ethiopian writer, Haddis Alamayyahu, accounted
vividly for the elements that constituted the danger. The setting he chose is
the ravine between Dajan in Gojjam and Gohatseyon in Shawa, though the
situation is equally applicable to any point of the river. The two towns are
located on the edge of the escarpment overlooking the deep gorge and may
not be more than 10 kilometers distance from each other as the crow flies;
but the chasm below them has to be negotiated with at least two hours
drive. Prior to the construction of the winding road and the bridge, the
crossing took quite a different dimension that the novelist let his characters
go through, which in actual fact might have been a real personal experience, as he is a native of Gojjam who undertook the journey in his youth
some seventy years ago. As an illustration, I quote the gist of the passage 17
in my own translation:
Before a road was constructed through its deep ravine and a bridge
spanned across its waters, the Abbay was a place that travelers heading
from Gojjam to Addis Ababa or vice versa had to traverse. Until they arrived at Gohatseyon or Dajan they trembled and their hearts throbbed for
fear as if a prophecy of disaster was told about them. The Abbay was not
one death, but rather a place where a host of deaths settled, where a multitude of sufferings and affliction rested. There was none who could number those who met their deaths within a year being carried away by the
current of the Abbay, eaten up by the crocodiles, murdered by outlaws,
stung by serpents or infected by malaria, snatched away by beasts after
having been beaten to the ground by bandits, as well as those who were
stripped of their clothes or robbed of their wealth. All these could be enumerated only by the houses and families that this tribulation had befallen.
More dreadful than the deaths and sufferings converging in the Abbay
was the rumor. Some fabricated stories about the tribulation they suffered
and how they came out of it through their might or skill or the help of
God; and, to those who had not yet experienced it, the Abbay became as
terrifying as hell when these stories spread by their inventors who exaggerated them a thousand times. Hence, when from the escarpment of
Dajan the travelers, heading for Addis Ababa or beyond, view the Abbay
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stretching up and down in a terrifying majesty like the king of hell, covered by fog in the rainy season and by mist in the dry season, concealing
in its depths the known and the unknown deaths and sufferings, their
hearts throb for a while; soon they look above and across the fog or mist
at Gohatseyon and get the feeling that the death and suffering would remain behind and never encounter them thereafter if they only reached
there unscathed and, hence, they turn to planning and devising a way for
reaching there safely. All their wishes, prayers, and preparations concentrate on reaching Gohatseyon as if it were the ultimate target of their
journey. The journey beyond, be it as far as Addis Ababa or the borders
of Ethiopia, will not count for the time being. That is something that
comes after the arrival at Gohatseyon. Likewise, the feeling of the travelers heading for Gojjam from Addis Ababa or elsewhere and looking at
the Abbay and beyond it at Dajan from the escarpment of Gohatseyon is
similar to that of the travelers looking at the Abbay and Gohatseyon from
Dajan. Thus, Gohatseyon and Dajan were starting points where traders
and other travelers intending to cross the Abbay waited for further company so as to resist together whatever might be encountered, where they
made preparations, where they armed themselves, where they prayed to
God so that they might go across in safety, and where they made their
wills. They were also places where those who crossed the Abbay safely
would praise God, where those who suffered a mishap blamed God and
their luck, where those attacked by outlaws or befallen by a malady
would recuperate, and where those who died would be buried.
THE ABBAYAN ABODE OF THE SPIRITS
Rivers, mountains, and seas are perhaps the most captivating natural objects of the human intellect, possibly on account of their permanent presence and formidable nature. The challenges they pose or the benefits they
offer are a constant reminder of their significance to the societies that, by
virtue of their location, have to do with them. The mightier these objects
are, the livelier is the human fascination with them. At least in Ethiopia,
the gigantic mountains and the mighty rivers were believed to be the abode
of the spiritsboth the good and the evil ones. Thus, these natural entities are by virtue of that very privilege endowed with special healing or influential attributes. Hence, going to Tis Abbay (the waterfall) around midday when the spirits would be active was discouraged. Though this is one
of the few superstitions that have survived until our time, it appears that
more spirituality was attached to the river in earlier times. When the Scottish traveler arrived at the source of the Blue Nile in November 1770, he
was required to take off his shoes, as the place was holy. He observed altars at the venue and eventually described the impact of the river on the
life of the inhabitants who cleansed themselves with the holy waters of the
Gelgal Abbay (the Minor Nile) from visible dirt and invisible obscenity:
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The Agows of Damot pay divine honour to the Nile; they worship the
river, and thousands of cattle have been offered, and are still offered, to
the spirit supposed to reside at its source. They are divided into clans, or
tribes; and it is worthy of observation, that it is said there never was a
feud, or hereditary animosity between any two of these clans; or, if the
seeds of any such were sown, they did not vegetate longer than till the
next general convocation of all the tribes, who meet annually at the
source of the river, to which they sacrifice, calling it by the name of the
God of Peace.18
These holy waters were believed not only to cleanse people from maladies and iniquities but were also regarded as having the power to relieve
individuals from the fetters of an excommunication. The reminiscences of
the famous Ethiopian church scholar, Alaqa Lamma Haylu, include a reference to a discussion between two prominent church scholars of the nineteenth centuryAlaqa Kidana Wald of Shawa and Alaqa Yamesserach of
Amara Saynt. The point of discussion was the practice of washing away a
preemptive excommunication at the Abbay or in any other river for that
matter. The practice emanated from the divisive circumstances of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries prevailing over the Ethiopian Orthodox
Church. There was only one Coptic metropolitan for the whole country despite the enormous size of the empire and the prevalent doctrinal or Christological dissensions. At the time the discussion of the two scholars of the
second half of the nineteenth century took place, the metropolitan lived in
Gondar. Priests and deacons from Shawa, Amara, Gojjam, and elsewhere
went to him for ordination. He excommunicated them if they did not believe in the Hulat Ledat (two births) doctrine, which he maintained. For
fear of being denied ordination, those from a sectarian group suppressed
their belief during the ordination ceremony but washed the excommunication away at the Abbay, the Mofar Weha, or elsewhere on their way home
and believed they were rinsed from the excommunication. The two scholars, we are told, were convinced that it really worked.19 Amazing is, however, that they by implication believed that the rivers were so intelligent as
to be able to discern between the blessing and the condemnation of the
highest dignitary!
The reminiscences of Alaqa Lamma also entail a belief on how the
spirits used persons in the 1880s to cross the Nile whenever that river was
flooded. Alaqa Lamma describes how on their way to Dima Giyorgis, the
famous center for monastic education, he and his student companions
swam across the Abbay, fighting against attacking crocodiles. Worse than
the riverine beasts were, however, the spirits and an epidemic, the usual
associates, which took advantage of the traveling students. An epidemic
had broken out in Gojjam before Lamma and his friends came to Dima.
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The epidemic took its horse, the zar (a particular spirit), and tried to go
across to Saynt, the region on the eastern side of the river. The river
swelled and hampered it. According to some of the victims in Lammas
group who suffered from hallucinations, the epidemic left its zar and used
the students as its horse to come back to Dima. 20 Lamma himself was only
slightly ill and could not experience the riding spirit. With the spread of
secular education and technology that undermine the awe-inspiring attributes of the Abbay, the spirits and their horses are now fading away. Unfortunately, the healing waters of the Nile are also likely to be defiled with
the growth of industry.
HISTORIC ABBAY
Ethiopian historical sources are notoriously silent about routes of communication with the outside world. Countries of origin or the final destination
of the envoys, traders, or missionaries are often mentioned, but not always
which route they took. A few Ethiopian legends, however, depict the
Abbay as a highway that was occasionally used by migrants and fugitives
and implicitly by traders and envoys. Though the famous legend of the
queen of Sheba does not connote the queens preference to this route21
(and indeed the region from where the Blue Nile springs was peripheral to
the Aksumite kingdom), there are other legends that allege the use of this
highway in earlier and later periods. The learned Alaqa Tayya Gabra
Maryam, who compiled traditions of origin of the Ethiopian peoples in the
early years of the twentieth century, recorded that, according to tradition,
the Wayto people living around Lake Tana and along the banks of the
Abbay originally came along the Nile on account of famine in Egypt and
Sudan. They followed the river and ate all sorts of animals, a practice that
has remained their custom. Similarly, the Shenash people are also said to
have come along the Nile from Egypt on account of famine and civil war
around 1800 B.C.22
Another legend that uses the Abbay as a route of migration and a
means of communication with Egypt and the Sudan is that of King Lalibala, who ruled from around 1180 to 1220 and to whom the construction
of the rock-hewn churches at Roha is attributed. The legend goes that the
prince was chased out from the capital by a relation who seized power, so
he went into exile to Gojjam, the region almost encircled by the Abbay and
which apparently was not under the direct control of the Zagwa dynasty
to which Lalibala belonged.23 After spending some time there, Lalibala
went down to Egypt and mobilized some 60,000 Christian fugitives whom
he led along the Nile to Ethiopia. Reinforced by men from Gojjam, this
force enabled the prince to regain his legitimate throne. 24
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Other legends allege that the Ethiopian rulers were aware of the
rivers importance to Egypt and, hence, they used it as a political instrument in the Middle Ages to get a Coptic metropolitan consecrated for
Ethiopia or to ameliorate the lot of the Coptic Christians who from time
to time suffered under the harsh rule of some sultans. The means of pressure was the threat to divert the Nile to the desert or the Red Sea and dry
up Egypt.25 Apparently, this threat was taken seriously in Egypt, as can be
gathered from a legend also known in Egypt.
In the tenth century, the Coptic metropolitan of Ethiopia became a victim of a political rivalry within his diocese, and he was sent on exile where
he died. The patriarch in Alexandria was unhappy about it and refused for
a long time to consecrate another bishop for Ethiopia. This coincided with
an occurrence of a dry spell of some years on the Ethiopian highlands,
which inevitably brought the current of the Nile very low. This was interpreted in Egypt as the execution of the Ethiopian threat, and consequently
the sultan intervened with the patriarch to consecrate a metropolitan for
Ethiopia. By the time the new metropolitan arrived in his diocese, rains
began to fall and the rivers swelled, a coincidence that probably confirmed
the Egyptian belief in the seriousness of the threat of the Ethiopian rulers.
The threat is believed to have brought for Ethiopia a better result in
the fourteenth century when Emperor Dawit (r. 13801410) allegedly relieved the Coptic Christians from persecution and he himself received a
piece of the actual Holy Cross, which the Ethiopian Orthodox Church venerates and jealously preserves until this day.
ETHIOPIAS IMAGE OF EGYPT AND THE EGYPTIANS
According to the ancient Ethiopian traditions, the Abbay was a river of

two countries: Ethiopia, the source country, and Egypt, the main user of
the water. Ethiopian oral traditions and written historical sources of the
pre-nineteenth century recognize primarily one African state beside
Ethiopia itself, namely Egypt, to which the country was linked by the Nile
and the church,26 and it was precisely these two links more than anything
else that shaped the relations and image of both countries. Too little is said
about the legendary kingdom of Damot in the south. The sultanates in the
southeast, though a considerable challenge to the Christian kingdom of
Ethiopia between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries, were somehow regarded as minor political entities based on lost provinces that were at any
rate to be retrieved sooner or later. The Sudan, too, was regarded to be
more or less under the Ethiopian sphere of influence.
According to the legends that concern the remote times, northeast
Africa as a whole is conceived as one unit inhabited by four peoples of the
162
same stockSaba, Noba, Balaw, and Kalawruled by a dozen or more

kings with silver and iron thrones at the head of which is the king of
Ethiopia with a diamond and gold throne.27 Hence, no reference is made to
diverting the Nile to punish any state in the Sudan. In fact the point of diversion was assumed to be at Khartoum, the name of which is popularly
derived from the Tigrinya verb kartama (to break, to cut).28 Ezanas military expedition to Mero and the intervention of the Nubian King George
with the Egyptians on behalf of the Ethiopian sovereign in the tenth century have apparently sunk to oblivion; the military expeditions of Emperor
Susenyos (r. 16071632) and that of Emperor Iyyasu I (r. 16801704)
against Senaar are described by the royal chronicles in the same manner as
those of the expeditions of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries against
the southeastern sultanates of Yefat, Fatagar, and others. Only Egypt and
its associatesthe Arabs and the Turkswere regarded as foreign and a
great challenge to Ethiopian sovereignty at least since the sixteenth century. The challenge became a real threat in the second half of the nineteenth century, when Egypt, with the tacit blessing of the Turks and the
European powers, tried to conquer Ethiopia.
Long before the Egyptian scheme, the Ethiopian view of Egypt was
rather ambivalent. On the one hand, Egypt was a holy land next to Palestine in which the Holy Virgin, the Holy Child, and St. Joseph took refuge,
and where the apostle St. Mark chose to have his seat. Throughout the
centuries, Ethiopian monks traveled to Egypt to live in seclusion in the
Coptic monasteries founded by the ancient church fathers in the desert.29
Alexandria in particular was regarded as a sacred city. When Emperor
Yohannes IV declared at the Council of Borumeda in 1878 that his father
was St. Mark and his mother Alexandria, he was only restating an old
creed.30 Until the mid-twentieth century, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
drew its metropolitans from the See of Alexandria and they were highly respected for the most part. Basically, the attitude of the believers has not
changed significantly today in spite of the intermittent conflicts between
the two churches.
On the other hand, there were quite a few formidable intricacies, primarily originating from the Egyptian side, which made the Ethiopians
frown at the Egyptians. No tract seems to have been written to attack the
Egyptians, but there are sufficient indications that the Copts (not to speak
about the Muslims) were looked upon with mistrust and at times with contempt.31 Among the reasons were the Coptic claim that only a Copt could
be consecrated a metropolitan for Ethiopia, the inability or negligence of
many of the metropolitans to live up to the dignity of their office, the intermittent appearance in Ethiopia of Egyptian pretenders and fraudulents,
the violation of the rights of the Ethiopian Church by the Coptic monks at
the Holy Sepulchre, and the influence of the sultans on the patriarchs and
their representatives. The details of each exceed the scope of this chapter.
163
The fact that Egypt was under the control of outsiders, and Muslims at
that, had obviously created a low opinion of the Copts in Ethiopian thinking,
which was normally not expressed unless solicited by a serious provocation.
Such a case was recorded by a foreigner who was in Gondar in the eighteenth century. The occasion was provided for in the 1770s, when a rebel attempted to overthrow the emperor during his absence from the capital,
Gondar. Both the Coptic metropolitan and the highest Ethiopian dignitary,
the Aqabe Saat, were involved. The coup aborted, and both dignitaries were
arrested and brought to the Imperial court of justice presided over by the
sovereign himself behind a curtain. The court obviously made a difference
between the Ethiopian and the Egyptian defendants, though both were accused of the same treason. An officer spoke on behalf of the sovereign:
The king requires of you to answer directly why you persuaded the
Abuna to excommunicate him? the Abuna is a slave of the Turks, and has
no king; you are born under a monarchy, why did you, who are his inferior in office, take upon yourself to advise him at all? or why, after having presumed to advise him, did you advise him wrongly, and abuse his
ignorance in these matters?32
A similar remark was made by Empress Mannan in the 1840s when

the turbulent Abuna Salama disputed with her faction and unduly offended
her: The metropolitan is a slave, for he is bought with money. Furthermore, the slave executes the wishes and orders of the lady of the house;
but he has no say in anything. The abun responded in equally arrogant
terms, which possibly reflected a latent Egyptian prejudice against
Ethiopians: My price as a slave you refer to is a thousand Talers; I am
bought for a thousand Talers. But you would not be worth even ten Talers
in my country.33
With the deterioration of the political relations between Ethiopia and
Egypt that resulted in a bloody war of 18751876 and the growth of
Ethiopian nationalism in the subsequent decades, Ethiopian criticism of
the Copts became louder and harsher. A famous writer and government official criticized retrospectively Menileks decision to staff the first modern
government school with Egyptian instructors in the early years of the
twentieth century and remarked that the Egyptians were at any rate a people who themselves needed instructors. 34 Some years thereafter, a work
that incorporated the traditional teachings of a particular school within the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church characterized the Egyptians as lawbreakers
who like Adam and Eve seek what is not due to them and who do not abide
by the law given to them.35
The same work accuses them of falsifying the decision of the 318
church fathers who met at Nicaea in A.D. 325. Here the dispute was not
whether Ethiopia had been legally placed under the See of Alexandria but
rather that the Copts denied the Ethiopians the right to have a bishop from
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among their number. Another point the Ethiopians regarded as unjust was
that the Copts even restricted the number of dignitaries to be sent to
Ethiopia usually to one, and occasionally to a maximum of four, numbers
that were obviously inadequate for the needs of the large empire. The
Ethiopians had challenged these interdicts at least since the eleventh century, but they could not force the Copts to change their mind. Various attempts to switch their alliance to the Syrians or Armenians were also frustrated through the intrigues of the Egyptians.
What infuriated the Ethiopians in the late nineteenth century was the
allegation that the four bishops who arrived in Ethiopia in 1882 after a
protracted negotiation between the Ethiopian and the Egyptian governments had to take an oath before leaving Alexandria not to consecrate
under any circumstance an Ethiopian to the office of metropolitan or
bishop, even if they were forced at the threat of death by the Ethiopian
authorities.36 This was followed in the subsequent decades by alleged incidents of Ethiopian clerics being badly treated at the hands of Coptic dignitaries in Alexandria, including the patriarch himself. In the 1910s and
1920s, the two Amharic newspapers occasionally carried overt criticisms
while the government intensified their demand for the consecration of
Ethiopian bishops.37
The problem was solved when the Copts agreed to ordain five Ethiopian bishops in 19291930 and a metropolitan in 1951. Finally, an Ethiopian patriarch was consecrated for the first and last time in Alexandria in
1959. However, lapses have occurred in the relations between the two sister churches in the 1970s when the Ethiopian Orthodox Church decided to
elect and consecrate a new patriarch although the second patriarch, deposed by the Marxist regime, was still alive, and again in the 1990s when
Patriarch Shenuda ordained bishops for Eritrea.38
If the church issue is thus solved and needs only a skillful diplomacy
to maintain its old good relations, the question of the Nile is yet far from
being settled. Gone are the days when a threat or a rumor to divert the
river to the desert could prompt peace overtures. But the possibility of decreasing the flow of the river, not for punishment but for economic purposes, still endures and can bear crucially on the relations between the two
countries. As long as Egypt was under the shadow of a foreign power, the
negotiations of 19001903 and those of the 1920s regarding the Abbay
were not accompanied by vile words of propaganda like those of the 1970s
and 1980s. The period following World War II revived the old resentments.
Ethiopia was perturbed in the 1940s and 1950s by Egypts keen interest in
regaining Eritrea as its old territory. Egypts attempt to arouse Ethiopian
Muslims and revolutionaries through propaganda was thwarted only by the
astute diplomacy of Emperor Haile Selassie who visited Cairo in 1959.
Nevertheless, in the same year Egypt concluded a treaty with the Republic
165
of Sudan on the distribution of the Nile waters without consulting with

Ethiopia, a case that was viewed by Ethiopia (and now by many other
countries as well) as an obstacle for a better understanding.
THE ABBAYAN INDICTEE
In the 1920s, an Ethiopian journalist allegedly commented sharply against

the Egyptians in general and Abuna Matewos in particular following an
Abbay incident. About thirty would-be priests and deacons from Bage meder and Gojjam were carried away by the Nile current, with them also
the amole (salt bars then used as a means of exchange) they had carried as
a fee to the abun when traveling to the Ethiopian capital. The journalist reported the incident, consoled the relatives of the deceased, and concluded
by saying that the metropolitan had in any case lost nothing, as the Nile
carried the amole to Egypt on his behalf. Abuna Matewos was incensed
and tried to complain about the journalist before the government, but his
influence had long waned and he could do very little. 39 Such criticism of
the Abbay was by no means unique in Ethiopia, though the general tendency under the last emperor was apparently to say as little about the
Abbay as possible so as not to arouse Egyptian emotion.40
The new Ethiopian generation is obviously not satisfied with the symbolic pride entailed by the mighty river or the healing spirits abiding in it
or the historic route that the Nile may have been. At least a part of the new
generation seems to be convinced that the disadvantages of the Nile outweigh by far those benefits and is now demanding action against the
treacherous river. The crime begins with erosion, as the Abbay wrenches
away over half a million tons of fertile soil from the country.41 The river
has also dug itself deep into the bowels of the earth so as to look invincible and to make communication difficult. These and many other characteristics arouse vexation in the mind of the poets who retort with chastising words. The Abbay is visualized as a full-fledged person and is told his
crimes straight in the face in plain words.
The lamentation of the new generation is understandable: drought and
famine have taken a heavy toll on the Ethiopian population in recent years
while the Abbay waters thundered unused down the precipice as always.
This contradiction made many Ethiopians restless, and some began to
compose challenging poems.
In 1985 a young poet resounded the gigantic plans of the Marxist
regime and told the Abbay that his days were counted and that he would
soon be harnessed to produce electricity and to water plantations. Above
all, he could no longer snatch away people and properties nor would he be
admonished by the superstitious and the cleric. 42 The dream was never
166
fulfilled; there remained only bitterness and despair. An anonymous poem

that appeared in the daily newspaper Addis Zaman in April 1990 charged
the Abbay with treachery, theft, and robbery, all being evidenced by the
amount of erosion the river caused.43 The river was spoken to in this piece
and elsewhere, as it was impossible to charge the relevant government organs for doing too little about it. This is in conformity with the traditional
qene (sacred hymn) technique; but looking at the Abbay from the negative
aspect was an innovation that probably was initiated by Haylu Gabra
Yohannes.
This renowned poet who lives abroad had published a book only a
year earlier precisely on the same theme. He entitled his monograph Innatkin Belulgn, a pejorative Amharic expression that can at best be translated as Insult him on my behalf, and repeatedly posed the rhetorical
question, What use is there in bragging that one owns the Abbay? 44 In a
monologuefor the Abbay never gets a chance to respondthe poet
charges the Nile with insubordination, robbery, arrogance, desertion, betrayal of his own home country, and letting the poor Ethiopians die of
hunger and thirst while he (the Nile) flows into the sea.
Unlike Addis Zamans poet, however, Haylu was in a position to
switch his focus intermittently from the criminal river to the thoughtless
authorities who limited their project to constructing a road and failed to
harness the unruly stream and make it useful. Thus, the poet expressed his
wish, his anger, his criticism, and hopefully he is relieved of his passion;
but the flow of the Nile, the erosion it causes, the countrys limitation of
resources, and the international entanglement in the question of the Nile
will probably continue for a long time.
CONCLUSION
The Blue Nile transcends the concept of a river in the country of its origin.
Its notion indeed varies in degree of consciousness and intensity on the national and regional levels; but it is in any case a deep-rooted element in the
Ethiopian culture. As an awe-inspiring, mighty natural entity, it was venerated in the past; as a formidable barrier whose crossing could only be negotiated with difficulty, it has set a distinct sociopolitical boundary within
the state; and, as the longest river in the world, it determined to a large extent the historical character of Ethiopias foreign relations. In other words,
the Nile was, and still is, an ever-present factor in the mind of the Ethiopian society, and as such its significance has won a prominent position at
least in the official language. With the introduction of modernization into
the country, a new dimension of a political and economic nature has inevitably cropped up in recent decades which has markedly enhanced the
international significance of this renowned river.
167
NOTES
1. Like the Tel Aviv one, The Fifth Nile 2002 Conference, held in Addis
Ababa on 2428 February 1997, attracted quite a few experts from various fields
and with interesting papers. The fact that the number of the countries concerned
with the Nile rose from three to ten in recent decades is also indicative of the new
aspects of the riverine question.
2. For texts and commentaries on the various treaties, see Hertslet, The Map
of Africa by Treaty, pp. 431436; Tilahun, Egypts Imperial Aspirations, pp. 67
152; Lemma, Ethiopia and Egypt, pp. 755780; and the following two papers
presented at The Fifth Nile 2002 Conference, Addis Ababa, 2428 February 1997:
Mekonnen, A New Basis for a Viable Nile River Water Allocation Agreement,
and Amare, The Imperative Need for Negotiation on the Utilization of the Nile
Waters.
3. Haile Selassie, Fre kanafer (Fruit of the lips), p. 2423.
4. In the twentieth century, the attribute teqqur (black) has been added to
Abbay. Thomas Kane states that blue is perceived as black and that the term
was used by intellectuals after the White Nile was generally known. He does not,
however, clarify why the intellectuals could not apply the actual equivalent of
blue (Kane, Amharic-English Dictionary, p. 1203).
5. The only couplet identified in the course of the research has been that of the
late singer Asaffa Abata, which asserts that the Abbay was used for fishing:
Asabalashaallahu abbay dar naw bete
Doro maraqemma kawadet abbate.
[I will feed you on fish; my abode is at the Nile
As to chicken soup, where from should I fetch it?]
6. From the 1994 recording of Darbabaw Abunus traditional songs made on
behalf of the Ethiopian Research Council in Florida, U.S.A. The melody is traditional, but the poem could not be identified in earlier recordings. The first line repeats itself twenty times, changing only the name of the region, as exemplified in
line 2, and touches upon all administrative units, excluding Eritrea, which was separated by this time.
7. The most popular names are Abbay, Abbaynah, and Abbaynash. The first
spread even as far north as Tegray and Eritrea, where the Takazze is more popular.
It is interesting to note, however, that no person with the name Takazze could be
identified in the course of the research. In the southern regions, particularly in the
Oromo-inhabited areas, the names of other rivers such as the Awash, the Wabi, the
Didessa, the Baro, and the Gilo are popular, and persons are named after them.
8. Two other rivers share the same fate of being called simply the river: the
Takazze in the north, which is known as Gash-Satit at its lower course; and the
Djama in Shawa, which is referred to as the Adabay at its lower course. See
Mikael, Yaamarena mazgaba qalat, p. 597; and Wald, Addis yamarena mazgaba
qalat bakahnatenna, p. 518. Whether all the so-called names of rivers in actual fact
signify river or stream in archaic or extinct languages has yet to be determined by
linguists.
9. The Ethiopian lexicographers assert that the river was so referred to as a result of its having many tributaries that it gathers together like a father does with his
children. See Kefle, Mashafa sawesew wages wamazgaba qalat haddis nebabu
bageez fechchew bamarea, p. 195; and Wald, Addis yamarena mazgaba qalat
bakahnatenna, pp. 75, 255. Alternate names for the same river are the biblical
Gihon and Epheson (Genesis 2:11). The original appellation, however, seems to
168
have been the Geez adjective Abbawi (fatherly), mentioned at the earliest in the
chronicle of Baeda Maryam, 14681478, the mobile sovereign who seems to have
been the first among his like to traverse the Abbay (Perruchon, Les Chroniques de
Zara Yaqob, p. 169). The chronicle of Amda Tseyon, 13141344, does not mention the river by name, though the title of the ruler of the region and an army contingent of Gojjam are listed. Later records show that Abbawi was in use at least
until the end of the eighteenth century. Bruce made an attempt to find out the
African name for the river and wrote: It is not to be wondered, that, in the long
course the Nile makes from its source to the sea, it should have acquired a different name in every territory, where a different language was spoken; but there is one
thing remarkable, that though the name in sound and in letters is really different,
yet the signification is the same, and has an obvious reference to the dog-star.
Among the Agows . . . it is called Gzeir, Geefa, Seir; the first of these names signifying God; it is also called Abba, or Ab, Father; and by many other terms which
I cannot write in the language of that nation, whilst, with a fervent and unfeigned
devotion, under these, or such like appellations, they pray to the Nile, or spirit residing in that river (Bruce, Travels, vol. 3, pp. 654657).
10. The Takazze, the largest river of the Aksumite kingdom, recurs in Tigrinya
expressions, in the same way the Nile does in Amharic, whereas the Abbay is of
less significance in Oromo in comparison to the Gibe, the Didesa, and the Baro in
the south (see Cerulli, Folk-Literature, under their respective entries).
11. Kane, Amharic-English Dictionary, p. 1203.
12. Ibid.
13. Baeteman, Dictionnaire Amarigna-Franais, p. 586. See also MahtamaSelassie, Yabbatochqers, p. 75.
14. Mahtama-Selassie, Yabbatochqers.
15. Warqu, Messaleyawi annagagar, pp. 106, 150.
16. A small, light boat made of reeds or the like. Actually, this refers to a
means of transport that was, and still is, used mainly on Lake Tana.
17. Alamayyahu, Feqer eska maqaber, p. 531.
18. Bruce, Travels, vol. 3, pp. 597602, 633.
19. Lamma, Matshafa tezzeta zaalaqa lamma haylu walda tarik, pp. 125 ff.
20. Ibid., p. 83.
21. Tegegne attempts to set the whole Aksum tradition in Gojjam, but he fails
to make the queen travel down the Nile toward Jerusalem (see Tegegne, Gojjam
the Stigma, pp. 21 ff).
22. Maryam, Yaityopeya hezb tarik, pp. 16 ff.
23. The legend has many versions. See Makweriya, Yaityopeya tarik, p. 432;
and Institute of Archeology, Yaatse lalibala gadl, pp. 41 ff. The latter source is not
sure where the Prince went and suggests Harar or Egypt as possibilities.
24. Tafla, Atsma Giyorgis and His Work, p. 205.
25. Emperor Zara Yaqob is alleged to have once said that it was within his
power to divert its course. He desisted from doing it, only for the fear of God, and
in consideration of the human sufferings that would result from it. Both Egyptians
and Europeans of the Middle Ages presumed that the Ethiopian sovereigns could
divert the Nile (Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, pp. 256, 262).
26. For the history of the relations between Ethiopia and Egypt, see Reinisch,
Ein Blick auf Aegypten und Abessinien; Wiet, Les Relations gypto-Abyssines sous
les sultans Mamlouks, pp. 115140; Doresse, LEthiopie et le patriarcat copte,
pp. 715; Meinardus, A Brief History of the Abunate of the Ethiopian Church,
pp. 3965; Meinardus, Ethiopian Monks in Egypt, pp. 6170; and Seyberlich,
169
Beziehungen und Abhang igkeibverhaltnisse, pp. 253258.

27. Mondon-Vidailhet, Une tradition Ethiopienne, and Beyene, Fesseha
Giyorgisstoria dEtiopia, pp. 57.
28. Tafla, Atsma Giyorgis and His Work, p. 205.
29. Meinardus, Monks and Monasteries of the Egyptian Deserts, pp. 147, 159.
The reverse, though rare, seems also to have been true. The Christian fugitives who
came to the Aksumite kingdom and who introduced monasticism in the late fifth
and early sixth centuries were Copts, Syrians, and Greeks who had lived in Egypt
for at least some time. One of the later saints, Abuna Gabra Manfas Qeddus, was
also believed to have come from Egypt.
30. De Coppet, Chronique du regne de Mnlik II, p. 149.
31. Apart from the metropolitan, no Egyptian has apparently won a significant
office or position in Ethiopia comparable to that held by individual Europeans.
Even the metropolitans power was very limited when it came to administration.
His authority lay primarily in spiritual matters, particularly the ordination of priests
and deacons. Next to the emperor, the most powerful person in church administration was an Ethiopian clericthe Neburaed of Aksum, the Aqabe Saat of Hayq,
the Etchage of Dabra Libanos, or any other dignitaries who won Imperial favor.
The Ethiopian Church scholar and lexicographer, Alaqa Kidana Wald, describes
vividly the relationship between the two dignitaries: There is a paradox in
Ethiopias attitude toward the Coptic metropolitan. On the one hand, Ethiopia accepted a foreign metropolitan whose language she did not understand and he
equally did not understand her language, instead of electing one from among her
own clergy in accordance with the decisions of the Council of Nicaea. On the other
hand, she did not want to give up her honour and her authority. Hence, she appointed an Etchage who for all practical purposes was a bishop. In the absence of
a bishop, he undertook the activities of the metropolitan. Both sat to the right and
left of the Emperor, the Etchage sat to the left. Whenever the metropolitan was no
longer there, the Etchage sat to the right of the Emperor. As the metropolitan was
dumb and hornless [speechless and powerless] who could neither teach, nor judge
nor comment at the court of justice, it was the Etchage who did all these. He was
in charge of the Fetha Nagast (Wald, Addis yamarena mazgaba qalat bakahnatenna, p. 457).
32. Bruce, Travels, vol. 4 (1771), p. 76.
33. Mondon-Vidailhet, Chronique de Thodoros II, pp. 9 ff.
34. Baykadane, Ate Menilekenna Ityopeya (Emperor Menelik and Ethiopia), p. 345.
35. Kefle, Haymanota Abawla foi des pres anciens. I: Texte thiopien,
p. 121, and also pp. 127130.
36. Ibid., pp. 123 ff.
37. Habla-Selassie, Yaamarena yabeta krestyan mazgaba qalat.
38. Lesinski, Zwischen Mutter- und Schwesterkirche, pp. 1822.
39. From the reminiscences of Qes Badema Yalaw (then the most senior pastor of the Makana Yasus Evangelical Church), interviewed in Addis Ababa in 1966.
The newspaper was said to be the Aemero, a complete collection of which could
not be located in the course of the present research.
40. The monarch himself did not give a speech at the time he laid the foundation stone of the hydroelectric power plant on 13 May 1959, and the speech of Ato
Sayfu Mahtama-Selassie, who was then in charge of the Electric Power Authority,
was carefully calculated to emphasize the countrys need for energy (see Ministry
of Information, Yaabbay weha lemat majammarya masarat, pp. 62 ff).
170
41. Mulatu, Teqqur abbay, pp. 3235.

42. The Ethiopians were aware of the erosion caused by the Nile and other
rivers at least in the Menilek period. Foreigners, who had vested interest in the
Nile, urged them to do something about it. The German envoy to the Ethiopian
court, Friedrich Rosen, has, as his brother notes, impressed the Ethiopians in 1905
when he drew their attention to the disadvantages of deforestation and erosions:
Wherever you go, you burn down the forests. Hence, the rains wrest your rich soil
from the plateaus and the Nile carries it down to Egypt. There the farmers become
rich, because you do not know how to preserve your wealth. There the population
grows, and you are obliged to abandon your settlements every ten years to move
elsewhere lest you will starve. The Egyptians flourish at your expense! (Rosen,
Eine deutsche Gesandtschaft in Abessinien, p. 225).
43. Addis Zaman (Ethiopia), 19 April 1990.
44. GabreYohannes, Innatkin Belulgn, pp. 78 ff. Note that the above transliteration is that of the author himself who has entitled his book in both Amharic and
English.
13
Brothers Along the Nile:

Egyptian Concepts of
Race and Ethnicity, 18951910
Eve Troutt Powell
In 1901 and 1902, a British anthropometrist and ethnographer named

Charles Myers began his exploration into the racial identity of Egyptians.
Later, he acknowledged the support of Major-General F. R. Wingate, sirdar
of the Egyptian army and governor-general of Sudan for the supply of
subjects. These subjects were all fellahin conscripts in the British-led
Egyptian army, and the anthropometrist described his evaluations thusly:
I here give a complete list of the measurements which I made during my
anthropometric investigations in Egypt. It comprises height when 1) sitting, 2) standing, 3) kneeling; height above the ground of 4) ear-hole, 5)
chin, 6) acromion, 7) elbow, 8) wrist, 9) great trochanter, 10) knee, 11)
ankle; 12) maximum breadth and 13) length of head; 14) upper and 15)
total length of face, 16) bimalar, 17) bizygomatic, 18) bi-auricular and
19) bigonial breadth; 20) width of mouth.1
The subjects of this quote, subject to the pushing and pulling fingers
and measuring tools of the British researcher, were all soldiers in the
Egyptian army. How had the soldiers of Egypt come to this? Could the
racial origins of the Nile Valley be so easily measured?
Myers was not the first foreigner to try to pin down the size, shape,
and origins of Egyptians; Egypt had endured over a century of this kind
of racializing scrutiny since the scientists and artists of Napoleons expedition in 1798 had both measured and sketched prototypes from all walks
of urban and rural life for their masterwork Description de lEgypte. Ever
since the French occupation, in fact, Egyptian rulers in search of ways to
bring their country towards greater parity with Western Europe had often
hired Europeans to come to Egypt and analyze the weaknesses and
171
172
strengths of their subjects. Interestingly, Egyptian scholars, writers, and

theologians trained in London or Paris in the middle of the nineteenth century often returned home with new ways of seeing their homeland, and
wrote or translated their own analyses of what kept Egyptians from being
like Europeans. But although it was not the first, Charles Myerss study
occurred at a crucial point in Egyptian history. While Egyptians of certain
classes, like the unfortunate soldiers, were being exposed to the stares and
instruments of foreign scientists, politically minded Egyptians of great education and wealth were turning similar eyes to the Sudanese.
Egypt had conquered the Sudan in 1821 and governed much of it until
about 1885, when the Mahdi and his forces destroyed the last vestige of
Egyptian authority in Khartoum. Shortly before Egypt lost the Sudan, it
was itself occupied by the British in 1882. But even under occupation,
after the Sudan was lost in 1885, Egyptian nationalists began a campaign
to the British authorities for the eventual return of the Sudan to Egypt.
Sudan remained under the Mahdis and then his successors control, however, until 1898, when General Herbert Kitchener led the Egyptian army to
victory over the remaining forces of the Mahdiyya. In 1899, under the auspices of Kitchener and Lord Cromer, the governor-general of Egypt, the
Sudan began a new existence as The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.
Egyptian authority was only nominal, however, and Egyptian nationalists were deeply enraged over this dishonoring of claims to the Sudan
they considered historical, geographic, and religious. But British figures
like General Wingate and Lord Cromer found their arguments unconvincing, and, as Charles Myerss acknowledgment illustrates, supported the efforts of anthropologists who were conducting research projects into the
racial homogeneity of the Egyptians and thus their racial distinction from
the Sudanese. This situation thus reinforces the quiet but profound drama
of researchers turning the barracks of the Egyptian soldiers into a laboratory, and the soldiers themselves into specimens. Myerss article reinforced the conditions of their capture, rendering them forever splayed like
powerless butterflies.
As Timothy Mitchell has shown, leading Egyptian thinkers like
Sheikh Rifaa al-Tahtawi, Ahmad Fathi Zaghlul, and Qasim Amin had for
many years accepted scientific gradations of humankind borrowed from
the West.2 But by the turn of the century, some were also manipulating
such paralyzing science into a powerful response to the measurements of
race created by British anthropologists and used by colonial authorities.
These thinkers, most notably Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid, promoted an alternative to the idea that the Sudanese and the Egyptians were racially distinct
peoples, a theory that contradicted Egyptian claims to the geography and
culture of the Sudan. The alternative was the concept that the Egyptians
and the Sudanese were one people, and it developed into a political ideal
Egyptian Concepts of Race and Ethnicity, 18951910
173
and a slogan that redefined Egyptian ambitions for hegemony over the
Nile Valley. This concept was, in fact, a colonialism that could exist between brothers. The soldiers of Upper Egypt would thus still have a real
job to perform.
MUSTAFA KAMIL AND THE

EXTENSION OF THE NILES BODY
In 1898, as it became clearer that the British were about to embark on the
reconquest of Sudan from the forces of the Mahdi, Mustafa Kamil, the
leader of the Egyptian Nationalist Party, mourned the impending castration of his nation. Almost like a eunuch, Egypt was about to lose its most
sensitive appendage. He lamented this in vivid language in an article published in the French newspaper Le Clair, written after the retaking of the
Sudanese city of Atbara: There is no doubt that Egyptian blood and
money was sacrificed in order to conquer the Sudan [fath al-Sudan], which
gave Egyptians the first right in its administration and in mastering its resources.3 But the British, in their eternal greed for Sudan, were seizing
the harvest sown by Egyptians and would leave the Egyptians nothing;
worse, they would make the Egyptians as helpless and feminine as the
Sudanese. Egyptian soldiers had trekked through the killing heat of the
Sudan, toiling and fighting, and proving victorious, only to hear it said that
the Egyptian is not humane enough, not worthy enough, of governing. 4
Now the British had wielded their most damaging weapon:
The Sudan, as is clear to the reader, is a piece of Egypt, and has been
stripped from her with no legal right, because the Egyptian khedivial
government has not the least right to give up even a foot of her land or
allow someone else to possess it. With this to be considered, the Sudan is
still Egyptian property and the British do not have the right to any claims
to it. It returned to khedivial authority after almost twenty years of the
dervishes upheaval and even if British soldiers participated with us in
the reconquest, we did not need their help. Our army, even less than our
whole army, would have been enough to accomplish this result.5
Kamils wordsterritories, or sections, stripped and detached from

the mainland by the British and Egyptian possession and ownership of
the Sudanstirred powerful images for his public. His sense of his audience, whether French or Egyptian, and the emotions that they shared
against the British enabled him to deconstruct the words used to describe
imperialism and to delineate two meanings for the same word, one a natural linkage between the Sudan and Egypt, the other a cold, calculated
strategy of greed on the part of Great Britain.
174
For Kamil, Egypt and the Sudan were irrevocably linked by the bonds
of Islam. Only co-religionists could communicate with or understand the
Sudanese. Given both Egypts physical proximity to the Sudan and the
shared culture and spiritual background of the two regions, only Egyptians
could in truth know the Sudanese, and on the strength of this knowledge,
be their lawful and benevolent guardians. With his references to corporeal
organs and members, Kamil thus extended a metaphor long to his target
audience (an elite and educated class capable of moral and political leadership) that Egypt represented a body or a body politic.6
But a question haunted Kamil: If the Sudan was really Egypts possession, how did the Egyptians lose it? Mustafa Kamil placed the responsibility
for this first on the British when he spoke in Alexandria in 1896: Why did
the Sudanese keep on determinedly rebelling against Egypt? Why would they
not accept any agreement with us? No one can deny that the British presence
in Egypt made the Sudanese behave that way.7 But another quality in the Sudanese propelled them into the Mahdiyya against the Egyptians (and Mustafa
Kamil never denies that the Mahdists rebelled against an Egyptian, and not
Ottoman, authority)and this quality is native fanaticism.
In reality, the Muslims of the Sudan are very rigid and fanatical; they
would never and will never accept that any but Muslims rule them. In
order to win them over, it is not necessary to use force, rather, we will
call to them in the name of Islam. In the name of the Khedive and of the
Sultan we will send a religious delegation to them consisting of several
ulama. It would be enough to stanch the fire of revolution in them and
bring them to our side for us to enter their territory carrying the holy
Quran in one hand and the flag of the prophet in the other.8
As a culture, Egypt was therefore uniquely imbued with the capacity to

bridge this untamed religious energy and Western European society. Kamil
continued, Is there any other country in the world as suited by religious
liberalism (al-muhid) and absolute moderation to be the medium between
civilized Europe and fanatical Africa if not Egypt?9 And this unique
though combustible blend of qualities should have properly distanced
Egypt and the Sudan from the rest of the continents vulnerability to the
European scramble for Africa.
Egypt does not resemble other African countries, which can be seized simply by treaties between the Powers. Egypt is a different place. Behind the
Egyptian question is actually a very dangerous and very important issue.
Behind the Egyptian question there is the White Nile question and the
African question and the Christian question and the Muslim question.10
Two years after that speech, however, Great Britain had seized Omdurman,
and Egypt had become (willing or not) a significant part of the African
question.
175
TAKING EGYPTS FULL MEASUREMENT
With the reconquest of the Sudan, and in the context of the popular
Mustafa Kamils speeches, the British found a stronger imperative for
charting and categorizing its inhabitants. The new political map required
clear knowledge of who belonged where, and British anthropologists approached the question between Egypt and Africa as a racial puzzle. Their
conclusions, even their guesswork, carried great weight in the discussion
of race and identity in the Nile Valley, relying on science rather than indigenous conceptions of belonging. Colonial authority was the final proof,
making the anthropological theories a reality.
Myerss work was published in a three-part series of articles in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute entitled Contributions to Egyptian Anthropometry, from 1904 to 1906. In the second of the series, The
Comparative Anthropometry of the Most Ancient and Modern Inhabitants,
he measured the skulls of ancient Egyptians and compared the measurements to anthropometric data culled from troops in the Egyptian army. He
also recorded the birthplaces of their parents, which he claimed enabled him
to study the measure of the soldiers according to their origins. These were
fellahin conscripts of Kena and Girga, modern people who lived on the same
ground as their ancient Nahada ancestors had. Myers concluded that there
is no essential difference between the head dimensions of the prehistoric and
those of the modern population of this region of upper Egypt. And from
that evaluation came this conclusion: It is evident that the homogeneity of
the Egyptians of this district is the same today as it was 7000 years ago.11
On one level, Myerss assertions of a continual homogeneity among
Upper Egyptians contributed to the anthropological debate over the origins
of ancient Egyptian civilization, and thus genetically connected modern
Egyptians to the glories of their ancestors. This kind of assertion might
have made many Egyptian nationalists proud. But on a much more significant level, his confirmation of a genetic homogeneity among Egyptians of
this area separated them from the other dwellers of the Nile Valley, the Sudanese. And Myers posited this theory of racial distinctiveness almost immediately after the Anglo-Egyptian conquest, under circumstances that
could only be produced under a colonial administration. As mentioned earlier, without the help of General Wingate, Myers might not have had such
obedient subjects for study. Wingate had long been involved with the
British administration of Egypt and had almost single-handedly waged a
propaganda campaign for the British conquest of the Sudan in the years
following Charles Gordons death in Khartoum. Wingate wielded a great
deal of power as governor-general of the Sudan, and was eager to see that
kind of power remain in British, and never Egyptian, hands. And so he lent
out soldiers to Myers, who had these young conscripts measured standing,
sitting, kneeling, breathing, opening their mouths to have their teeth measured,
176
holding their arms out straight to gauge the span, in order to make concrete
the relationship of these young men to the land and not to regions further
south.
The anthropological idea of racial distinction between the Egyptians
and the Sudanese reinforced official British policies about the structure of
government in the Nile Valley. Lord Cromer, consul general of Egypt,
echoed the concepts of Myers in his annual report on Egypt and the Sudan
of 1905, when he denied the feasibility of having Egyptians come south
to serve as functionaries in the building of a bureaucratic infrastructure in
the reconquered Sudan. In the first case, he said, Egypt was itself in too
great a need of these functionaries to send aid to the Sudan. In the second
place, those Egyptians with the requisite competence would only serve in
the Sudan at inflated salaries. And finally, in the places where their services would be most needed, the climate is not at all suitable for the Egyptian race [italics mine].12 With a gaze like that of Myers on the bodies of
the soldiers, Cromer insisted Egyptians were biologically unsuited for authority in Sudan, and thus, over the Sudanese.
SUDANESE CHARACTERISTICS
There were Egyptians who internalized this kind of scrutiny on themselves

and their culture, as Muhammad Umar did in his well-known book The
Present State of the Egyptians, or, The Causes of Their Retrogression
(1902). The Egyptian army was the arena for other approaches to surveillance of social culture as well. In 1900, a Lebanese intelligence officer
named Naum Shuqayr was assigned to document the variety of contemporary life in the Sudan. The book he published in 1903, Tarikh al-Sudan
al-qadim wal-hadith wa-jughrafiyatuhu (The history of ancient and modern Sudan and its geography), provided an ethnographic account of every
Sudanese tribe, along with their customs, their physical characteristics,
their religious practices, and, whenever possible, legends they told about
themselves. Shuqayr carefully traced the genealogies of every tribe, and he
organized the population of the Sudan into distinct racial and tribal groups:
black, shibh al-sud (Negroid), the Beja, the Nuba, and the Arabs.
Naum Shuqayrs text is a fascinating canvas of opinion, a census of
facts and popular ideas about the Sudanese. Unlike the studies of Myers,
in which the subjects were silent and pliable, Shuqayrs subjects were neither bending nor sitting on order, and thus his text relies a great deal on
both European and Egyptian perceptions about the racial and cultural identities of the Sudanese. While it offered a wealth of information about the
history and the lives of the Sudanese in this book, and in addition to the
facts, Tarikh al-Sudan relied strongly on popular understandings of Su-
177
danese racial identity then current in both Egypt and in Europe, here is
where I find the book most revealing. In the chapters devoted to the inhabitants of the Sudan, their origins, their tribes and their habitats,
Shuqayr says of the Banqo, a branch of the Dinka, that they are in the
opinion of Schweinfurth, the famous German explorer, the most developed
intellectually of all of the black tribes. 13 In the section of the book entitled The Morals of the Sudanese, Their Customs and Superstitions, he
described the Arab tribes of the Sudan as having the well-known moral
standards (al-awsaf al-khulqiyyah) as Arabs have had in every place and
through all times.14 But other tribes in Shuqayrs accounting have not
maintained the morals once so powerful among their ancestors, most infamously the Barabra, a tribe Shuqayr described as a racially mixed group,
descended from relationships among the original Nuba, Arabs, and Turks.
Unfortunately, as the author saw it, they have lost the more splendid traits
that distinguished their ancestors, so that you do not see in them Nubian
courage, nor the chivalry of the Arab, nor the sagacity of the Turk; rather
they are the ultimate in cowardice, dishonesty, laziness, ignorance and
malice to an extreme extent.15 And then this wonderful glimpse into current stereotypes: Those among them who came to Egypt as servants made
themselves famous by their cleanliness and their reliability, while those
who penetrated deeper into the Sudan were known for their cunning and
their deceit, as already mentioned.16
Shuqayr thus asked his readers to visualize his Barabra subjects in
contexts more familiar than the Sudan. He placed them in Egyptian homes,
as domestic servants. The three sets of ancestors whose interrelationship
created the BarabraTurks, Arabs, and Nubiansare broken down into
essentials, and out of their miscegenation comes disorder: of racial identity, of features, of morals, and of authority. The racial pieces of the
Barabra are reordered, in Shuqayrs analysis, in Egypt, where as domestic
servants these same Barabra take on more noble characteristics and are
distinguishable from their relatives much farther south in the Sudan for
their cleanliness and dependability. It is important to note here that in
Egypt at this time, the tribal distinctions of Sudanese and Nubian people
were often overlooked. Although there is a region of the Sudan called
Berber, for example, there developed a singular identity: al-barbari (or the
Nubian) that encompassed dark-skinned Nile Valley residents, whether
they were Nubian or Sudanese, and whose color, customs, and accents
Egyptian writers sketched out in numerous essays, dialogues, and stories.
In the nineteenth century, the native homelands of Nubians extended from
Upper Egypt to northern Sudan, in the Wadi Halfa-Dongola region. 17
Shuqayrs account of the Barabra fits easily within this framework.
Shuqayrs text is most revealing in its relationship to its audience. The
book was written originally in Arabic and was quickly published in Beirut
178
and Cairo. It was intended for Arabic readers. Yet, while it is clear that he
expected his Egyptian readers to understand his meanings about the
Barabra working in Egypt, as opposed to their counterparts in the Sudan,
the ultimate arbiters of racial distinction continued to be, for Shuqayr, European explorers in Africa, explicitly the Germans Schweinfurth and
Junker. At the end of his presentation on the morals and customs of the
black tribes of the Sudan, he wrote, And whoever desires more details
should refer to the books of European explorers who went to those territories and came to know their circumstances and published long books
about them.18 Shuqayrs work acknowledges two authorities over the Sudanese: Egyptian and European. But his final analysis grants the power of
racial identification to the Europeans.
DE-RACING EGYPT AND THE SUDAN
By 1910, however, Egyptian nationalists could not afford parcelling the

physical and racial attributes that these other viewpoints offered. Nor
could Egyptian nationalists afford to rely on European constructions of
race and identity in the Nile Valley. Accepting racial differences among the
peoples of the Nile Valley now meant acquiescing to the potent categorizations of the British colonial administration; worse, meant losing the
Sudan possibly forever. Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid, the famous educator,
newspaper editor, and nationalist, saw this danger and encouraged a new
approach to the campaign for the Sudan. At first, he saw no reason why
Egypt should not claim Sudan as a colony and wrote, in his newspaper AlJarida, in 1910:
The Sudan is Egypts by right of conquest. She is a part of Egypt, and her
not being separated is vital to Egypts life, due to her holding the source
of the Nile and being her neighbor. We loathed giving her up, then she
was reconquered, this time with the participation of the English. During
all of that we were submissive to the contract of the Condominium and
the triumphant power [England]. That administration is void before public opinion and the law. The arrangement of the Condominium alters
nothing of the correct concept that all Egyptians hold dear, and that is
colonizing [istamar] the Sudan is the right of Egyptians, and no one
else, just as the subsidizing of the Sudan is the duty of Egyptians, and
no one else. Egyptians look at the Sudanese as brothers, as a part of
their community, so its their responsibility to look out for their brothers welfare.19
Several months later, Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid deepened the discussion

with his original ideas about how the sharing of culture created family ties
between the inhabitants of the Nile Valley. The Egyptians had experienced
179
everything that the Sudanese had suffered, and this shared past bound their
cultures together. By linking them together, Lutfi al-Sayyid redefined the
word imperialism for Egyptian society. Only foreigners could colonize.
It is a mistake to consider the Sudan an Egyptian colony. The Sudan is
rather a part of what makes up Egypt; she completes Egypt. There is
Lower Egypt and the Sudan is Upper Egypt. Every Sudanese bears the
same responsibilities to the nation of Egypt as every native Egyptian.
When Sudanese people mention the tyranny of some Egyptian rulers,
Egyptians can also relate the despotism of their own rulers. Egypt at
times suffered autocrats throughout the entire nation. If it was within a
governors power in Sudan to hang a Sudanese, it was also within the
power of the Mudir of Dakhiliyya or Sharqiyya to hang an Egyptian.
Lutfi al-Sayyid bitterly disapproved of class distinctions that Egyptians made among themselves. The sharing of such historical and political
experience should have made any right-minded Egyptian forget the artificial prejudice that he acknowledged was harbored by many against the Sudanese. After all, there are those
among the sons of Lower Egypt who continue to view the Saidi [villager
from Upper Egypt] with a prejudiced eye [bi-nadhrati al-makhsusah], but
that viewpoint cannot remove the Saidi from his equality with the
British. Likewise, those who view the Sudanese with shortsightedness do
not remove the Sudanese from their equality with Egyptians in all rights
and duties.20
And so, racial equality resurrects the formerly limp bodies of the oppressed Egyptians and Sudanese.
These were new concepts in the development of Egyptian nationalist
thought and the issue of the Sudan. Lutfi al-Sayyids vision elevated the
Sudanese from the stereotypes of wild fanatics or savages to co-citizens.
His ideas also raised them from the stereotypes of buffoonish servants so
prevalent in Egyptian popular culture into co-nationalists.21 A more conscious awareness of past history and the path of politics united the Egyptians and the Sudanese, and in this way, Lutfi al-Sayyid asked both groups
to mentally re-create their sense of community and their place in the
world. For the sake of keeping the Nile Valley in one symbolic peace, and
for the sake of family peace, Lutfi al-Sayyid chose to diminish the importance of the Mahdiyya. The discord was over, and every Egyptian on the
one hand and every Sudanese on the other must consider each other as immediate brothers, or as cousins [ibn amm], all from one mother, within the
borders of one country. 22 With the revolt of the Mahdiyya extinguished,
normal family relations could once again be resumed. But the implied easiness and informality of this relationship cannot disguise who runs the family.
180
Lutfi al-Sayyid never seemed to have imagined the Sudanese running the
unified country of Egypt/Sudan. And their fourteen years of autonomy remained a blot to be airbrushed away, out of common memory.
When he encouraged both Egyptians and Sudanese to regard each
other as brothers and to disregard the borders that separated the two countries, Lutfi al-Sayyid asked his readers to create for themselves a new
ethnographic identity, a new geography, and to imagine an alternative reality with the sheer force of hope and rhetoric. He invited his readers toward rethinking their cultural and racial identities from deep within themselves. Ironically, the Sudanese, the brothers, are never quoted, never
asked, never named individually. Raised to equality with the Egyptians,
the Sudanese in Lutfi al-Sayyids account are rendered practically invisible. Even their distinctiveness in Egypt, as noted by Shuqayr, is removed
from them. And they thus are hidden by the bodies of Egyptians, even the
passive bodies of the soldiers so carefully measured by Myers, the Egyptians standing, sitting, and kneeling in the name of science.
Once you problematize cultural constructions of race, where do you
go? Where do these questions lead us, particularly in the case of Egyptian
nationalism at the end of the nineteenth and in the beginning of the twentieth century, beleaguered a movement as it was? I am not raising these issues in order to accuse great figures like Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid of being
racist, worthy of politically correct scornone cannot help but appreciate
the intellectual power of this Egyptian hero when reading his articles. I believe that although Lutfi al-Sayyid and other nationalists manipulated constructions of race as a defense against the British restructuring and reordering of Egyptian society, this was a desperate self-defense. Still, they
were not always able to see how their own refiguring of the Sudanese,
whether in stereotypical images or by making them faux Egyptians, resembled the straitjacketed roles into which British officials were trying to
fit them.
NOTES
1. Myers, The Anthropometry of the Modern Mahommedans, p. 237.
2. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, pp. 95127.
3. Kamil, Al-Maqalat, p. 298.
4. Ibid., p. 299.
5. Ibid., p. 299.
6. Mitchell, Colonising Egypt, pp. 155156.
7. Kamil, Al-Khutub, p. 115, from speech given 3 March 1896 at the High
Chamber of the Abbas Theater.
8. Ibid., p. 115.
181
9. Ibid., p. 116.
10. Ibid., p. 123.
11. Myers, Contributions to Egyptian Anthropometry II, pp. 8384.
12. Rapport de Lord Cromer sur LEgypte, et le Soudan pour Lannee 1904,
Imprimerie National, Cairo, 1905, p. 186.
13. Shuqayr, Tarikh al-Sudan al-qadim wal-hadith wa jughrafiyatuhu, p. 55.
14. Ibid., p. 245.
15. Ibid., p. 237.
16. Ibid., pp. 237238.
17. I thank Professor John Voll of Georgetown University for these insights.
18. Shuqayr, Tarikh al-Sudan al-qadim wal-hadith wa jughrafiyatuhu, p. 232.
19. al-Sayyid, Al-Jarida, 24 July 1910.
20. Ibid., 22 October 1910.
21. For a sense of the popular stereotypes of Nubians and Sudanese in Egyptian literature, see Troutt Powell, Egyptians in Blackface: Nationalism and the
Representation of the Sudan in Egypt, 1919, pp. 2745.
22. Ibid.
14
Egypt, Ethiopia, and

The Abyssinian Crisis,
19351936
Haggai Erlich
Ethiopia and Egypt have been connected from antiquity by the Nile issue,
by church affiliation, and by Red Sea strategy. Their common history is
ancient, one of the more diverse cases of international relations that, at
certain historic junctures, has produced chapters of mutual cooperation and
understanding, as well as conflict. These chapters were always of formative importance to both parties. The Ethio-Egyptian war of 18751876 and
its outcome, for example, were very much a determining factor in modern
Ethiopian history. Emperor Yohanness victory at the battle of Gura in
March 1876 reaffirmed for a short while Tigrean hegemony in the country
(until 1889) and led to the establishment of imperial control over Eritrea.
In the long run it paved the way for a chain of military victories culminating in the Adwa 1896 victory over Italy, thus ensuring the survival of
Ethiopias sovereignty throughout most of the twentieth century.1 Egypts
defeat at Gura was equally central to modern Egyptian history. Without Eritrea and a railway from Massawa to Khartoum, it became nearly impossible to effectively control Sudan. Gura led directly to the loss of Ismails
African empire and indirectly to the subsequent occupation of Egypt itself
by Britain. Moreover, his personal observation of Egypts humiliating defeat at the hands of Ethiopia triggered Colonel Ahmad Urabis protest
movement, which was to herald the emergence of modern Egyptian nationalism. The purpose of this chapter is not to factually reconstruct another chapter of the Ethio-Egyptian story but rather to identify some of the
mutual images and concepts, and determine how they influenced matters
during a major historical event.
183
184
ETHIOPIAN EXPECTATIONS
The year 1935, the time of the Abyssinian crisis, was far less dramatic than
1876 in terms of direct Ethio-Egyptian bilateral contacts. Ethiopia could
expect little aid from Egypt in the face of Benito Mussolinis aggression.
Egypt had long since lost its independence and could render no diplomatic
or material help of concrete significance. A few Ethiopian emissaries were
sent to Cairo in 1935 in a vain attempt to make contact with the Sanusis
resistance movement of Libya in order to direct anti-Italian riots there. The
British completely controlled Egypts strategic assets, including the Suez
Canal, on which the entire fascist enterprise rested. In fact, the Egyptians
were in no position to discuss even the future of their own lifelinethe
Nile waters. The Lake Tana Dam issue had long been a British-Ethiopian
affair from which the Egyptian governments and public had been deliberately excluded.2 From the beginning of the century the British had hoped to
revolutionize the Nile irrigation system by building a dam at Lake Tana in
Ethiopia, turning it into a major water reservoir. Such a project, of course,
was to be under British imperial control; its implementation, no matter how
executed, would, in effect, mean tearing western Ethiopia from the Addis
Ababa government, bringing it under British rule. Because this was unthinkable to the Ethiopians, they conducted futile and prolonged negotiations, frustrating British policymakers. (The British continued to toy with
the Tana Dam idea until 1954.3) When Ras Tafari, the future Haile Selassie,
visited Cairo in 1924, he witnessed firsthand how the British kept the Egyptians in the dark. Indeed, British correspondence regarding the Nile and the
Lake Tana project reveals an amazingly paternalistic British approach toward Egypt. Only in the early 1930s did the British allow Egyptian policymakers to have a partial glimpse of the British-Ethiopian negotiations picture, primarily because the Egyptian government had to pay for some
relevant surveys. In 1935 Mussolini threatened to capture the source of the
Blue Nile and the Lake Tana area, alarming the Egyptian politicians and the
public.4 All they could do, however, was rely on their British occupiers who,
after Mussolini had occupied Ethiopia, reached an understanding with him
in which he would not interfere with the flow of the Nile without their consent. This understanding was officially sealed in 1938.
During the period between the two world wars, Egypt, its political
weakness so clearly exposed, still remained important to Ethiopia in cultural and religious terms. By 1935, however, Egypts image had undergone
significant changes. Prior to Britains occupation of Egypt in 1882, the
country had been perceived by Ethiopians primarily in terms of a Christian-Islamic conflict. Emperors Tewodros (r. 18551868) and Yohannes IV
(r. 18721889), still influenced by medieval traumas (the Ahmad Gragn
syndrome),5 even depicted the modernizing Egyptians of the time as
The Abyssinian Crisis, 19351936
185
Muslim holy warriors. Tewodros dismissed Khedive Saids friendly gestures, even arresting the Egyptian Coptic patriarch sent by Cairo to his
court on a goodwill mission. Yohannes IV, clashing with Khedive Ismails
invading armies on the battlefield, disastrously failed to see the Egyptian
ruler, an impatient Europeanizer, in terms other than that of a religious
enemy. 6 But after Egypt lost its political independence, Ethiopian suspicions dwindled. Emperor Menelik I (r. 18891913) and his successors
were undisturbed when young Muslim Ethiopians flocked to the riwaq aljabartiyya (the Ethiopian Muslim wing of the al-Azhar Islamic University)
in Cairo. This atmosphere of greatly reduced Christian-Islamic tension culminated in 1935 when Haile Selassie, faced with Mussolinis anti-Christian Ethiopian-Islamic propaganda, did his best to appease Ethiopias Islamic communities. He was aided by the leadership of the Egyptian
al-Azhar madrasa, which, in February 1935, sent two Azharite shaikhs
from Cairo to Addis Ababa to open a madrasa in the Ethiopian capital and
help rally support around the emperor.7
Paradoxically, things went less well in the Egyptian Christian context.
From the fourth century A.D., the Ethiopian Church was dependent on the
Coptic patriarchate of Egypt. The abun (Ethiopias archbishop) was an
Egyptian appointed by Alexandria, a fact of pivotal importance in the regions long history. When Haile Sellassie began building his power base
(from 1916 to 1930 he was still Ras Tafari) he also aimed at enhancing
centralization by emancipating and nationalizing the Ethiopian Church. He
wanted the Egyptians to agree to the appointment of an Ethiopian abun.
He also began a campaign for the return of the keys of the Jerusalem
monastery of Deir al-Sultan, which had been taken over by the Copts from
their fellow Ethiopian monks in 1834. 8 Ras Tafaris combined effort culminated in his 1924 trip to Cairo. Much to his frustration, the Egyptian
government was unhelpful, and the Coptic establishment refused to compromise on either issue.9 In 1926 a new Egyptian abun was appointed to
Ethiopia who, in 1929, consecrated five Ethiopian bishops, slightly improving the situation. However, further negotiations came to nothing. Indeed, in 1935 the leadership of the Egyptian Coptic Church (unlike Coptic intelligentsia and modern politicians) failed to serve as a rallying point
in mobilizing sympathy for Ethiopia. Moreover, Mussolinis occupation
only aggravated relations in the Christian aspect. In late 1937 Abuna Qerilos returned to Egypt and the Italians declared the Ethiopian Church autocephalous by appointing one bishop as a metropolitan. This arrangement
was annulled by Haile Selassie upon his return to Ethiopia in 1941.
Egypts negative response to the 1937 emancipation of their church had
made its mark on the collective Ethiopian consciousness.
Egypt was important to Ethiopias modernization in areas other than
church affairs. Egypt was perceived by many educated Ethiopians as the
186
corridor to Europe and European culture. Practically all Ethiopians who

ventured to Europe passed through Egypt, marveling at its own modernization. Ras Tafari visited Cairo in 1924 en route to Paris, Rome, and London, and wrote that he conceived the Egyptian capital to be part of Europes modern beauty.10 In 1929 an Egyptian consulate was opened in
Addis Ababa; during Haile Selassies coronation ceremony in 1930, a
high-ranking Egyptian delegation represented King Fuad along with other
Western dignitaries and delegates. Modern education was of major importance in this context. The first modern school in Addis Ababa had been established in 1908, run and staffed by Egyptian Coptic schoolmasters. Ras
Tafari opened the second school upon his return and continued to rely on
Egyptian educators. Ethiopian youngsters were sent to study in Egypts
secondary and high schools.
The Ethiopian most identified with Egyptian ties was most likely
Blata (Doctor) Heruy Walda-Selassie (died 1938). A prominent writer and
historian, Heruy became Haile Selassies chief adviser on foreign affairs.
Heruy wrote extensively about his various tours in Europe and Asia, combining his religious concepts with his curiosity and admiration for everything modern. His special interest in Egypt helped him become the chief
negotiator in church relations, the Deir al-Sultan issue, and modern educational affairs. His own two sons studied in Victoria College in Alexandria.
It is quite apparent that Heruy was the go-between on the Nile issue, and
that during his many visits to Cairo, he told his Egyptian hosts whatever
the Ethiopian emperor wanted them to know on the Tana negotiations with
the British. During the Abyssinian crisis in 1935, Heruy served as Haile
Selassies foreign minister.
Heruy Walda-Selassies vision of Egypt, therefore, is most interesting.
He published three books on his tours to the Lower Nile country. The first
was issued following his 1923 tour to Jerusalem and Egypt,11 and the second was his diary on the 1924 tour, in which he accompanied Ras Tafari to
Egypt and Europe. The book, Happiness and Honor, was indeed a very optimistic account of Ethiopian-Egyptian relations.12 During this year, his
master, Tafari, made a major breakthrough as Ethiopias promising modernizing prince; during this same year, Egypt enjoyed the peoples government, the first Wafdist cabinet under Sad Zaghlul. Heruys 1924 descriptions of Egypt, both as a religious sister as well as a model of
modernization, were vivid and admiring. Meetings with King Fuad, Prime
Minister Zaghlul, and members of the Coptic Church establishment were
most cordial and promising. The 1924 visit was indeed the Ethio-Egyptians finest hour in centuries, and Heruys book reflected high expectations
for modern cooperation between the two ancient and culturally connected
neighbors. By 1933, however, when Heruy revisited Egypt in September,
disillusionment had set in. The Egyptians had failed to respond to
187
Ethiopias modern needs in terms of nationalizing its church, and the

Ethiopians continued to keep their Nile cards close to their chest. Heruys
1934 book, Experiencing and Seeing It All, is a description of his tour
through Palestine, Egypt, Syria, and Greece.13 He accompanied the emperors wife to Jerusalem (Empress Menen was a keen promoter of
Ethiopian religious rights in Jerusalem) and went to Egypt to make another
effort at emancipating the Ethiopian Church and regaining Deir al-Sultan.
Heruy met again with King Fuad, the Coptic patriarch, and twice with the
foreign minister. He achieved nothing, and his description of the country
this time is nearly dismissive. In fact, he saved his enthusiasm for his short
visit to Tel Aviv a few days later.
EGYPT AND THE CRISIS
In 1935, the Ethiopians were too overwhelmed to expect anything of substance from Egypt. Egypt, however, was forthcoming. Cairo sent the
Azharite shaykhs, which helped Haile Selassie rally the Muslim community. Yet this was not the only Egyptian source of aid. In late 1935, soon
after the beginning of the Italian invasion, Egypt actually sent volunteers
(mostly Ethiopians residing in Egypt), led by two exOttoman generals
and three Red Crescent medical teams, all of whom saw action on the
Harar front.14 These were meaningful symbolic gestures of solidarity,
whose significance can better be appreciated in the Egyptian context.
Indeed, it is from the Egyptian perspective that the Abyssinian crisis
can be described as perhaps the most revealing chapter in EthiopianEgyptian relations. For as Mussolini defied the entire system of international relations, the year 1935 became a major watershed in Egypts history. Egypts political publicthe old guard of rivaling politicians and a
new emerging generation of the educated middle classlong engaged in
the struggle for liberation from the British, were now torn between various
pressing dilemmas. An intensive public debate on the nature of fascism ensued.15 Mussolinis aggression had a double impact. In challenging British
and French regional supremacy, he opened new strategic options; in violently threatening an oriental neighbor, he recycled and magnified old
fears. Mussolini also introduced new forms in the political system, accumulating national pride and strength, and his image galvanized curiosity in
Egypt. The debate culminated in the year of the Abyssinian crisis and
helped Egyptians to realize where they really stood on democracy and parliamentarianism. Recent studies convincingly show that the overwhelming
majority of opinion makers in Egypt at that time despised fascist totalitarianism, and publicly defended political openness, a topic outside our present scope. Mussolini also represented a new and more violent form of
188
Western imperialist aggression. Faced with this aspect, Egypt naturally

perceived Ethiopia as the negative mirror image, and Egyptian debate on
this issue during 1935 was equally intensive. But while the discussion of
Mussolini and fascism was somewhat external, having to do with strategic options and the nature of politics, the debate over Ethiopia delved into
the very issue of identity. In hundreds of newspaper articles, pamphlets,
and books published in Egypt that year, Ethiopia was discussed in terms of
its legacies during the long regional relations; in terms of old Islamic perceptions; in terms of ancient and modern Egyptian ideas of Ethiopia; and
in terms of the renewed concepts of emerging pan-Arabism. Al-masala
al-habashiyya was not merely a discussion of the other; it was also a reflection of different ideas and concepts regarding the Egyptian self.
Like any other analysis of identity in history, our discussion does not
simplify matters. Islam, Egyptianism, and Arabism are all far from being
one-dimensional definitions of the self and of the other. We must therefore
summarize our observations of their complexities in shaping attitudes during that stormy crisis.
ISLAMIC PERCEPTIONS
Islams primary perceptions of Ethiopia stem from a formative experience

dating back to its very emergence. These perceptions remained essentially
polarized, a good reflection of Islams own versatility.16
In A.D. 616 the najashi (the negus king of Ethiopia) gave asylum to
the first group of the Prophets followers, saving them from their Meccan
persecutors and perhaps even rescuing Muhammad himself. The najashi
continued to support Muhammad, who in gratitude, ordered his believers
to leave the Ethiopians alone as long as they leave you alone. This message was interpreted as a recognition of Christian Ethiopia as the only real
land of neutrality exempted from Jihad. The Islamic notion of Ethiopia
as a land of righteousness and justice has often resurfaced throughout
history. The Ethiopian model of religious affinity and brotherly tolerance
today serves the case of moderate fundamentalist Muslims in the United
States, Great Britain, and Israel in urging acceptance of a non-Islamic government. Even leaders of Hamas recognize Yasser Arafats Palestinian Authority, arguing that the Prophet ordered his followers to live under the
non-Muslim, yet righteous najashi.17
It has long been established that the 1930s saw the return of Islam
in Egypt. Until recently, this return was interpreted as implying the abandonment of Western ideas of tolerance and liberalism by many intellectuals. Recent studies accept the notion of return, but tend to highlight liberal
dimensions in this renewed Islamic orientation. Examination of the
189
Ethiopian case supports this trend. Most of Islamic-inspired expressions

and actions in Egypt of 1935 were consonant with antifascist and proEthiopian expressions made by Egypts liberals. They all resorted to the
medieval image of noble Ethiopia, emphasizing Islams tolerance. Shaykh
Muhammad Rashid Rida, the old and tiring leader of the salafiyya movement who died in December 1935, led the field. He also inspired his followers to real action. The Association of Young Muslims, guided by Rida
since the 1920s, became Ethiopias most energetic supporter. In early 1935
leaders of the association established a Committee for the Defense of
Ethiopia, later joined by other elements. 18 This committee, in which the
Young Muslims remained prominent, sent the two Azharite shaykhs mentioned earlier to Addis Ababa and supervised the enlistment of volunteers.
The committee also raised contributions for an Ethiopian Fund that
financed transportation for the three Red Crescent medical teams to the
battlefield.
Needless to say, the expression of solidarity with Egypts oppressed
Christian neighbor was also clear support for the interpretation of Islam as
an open and liberal religion. In 1935, however, this was not the only voice
of Islam in Egypt. A more militant and less flexible Islam was on the rise,
which, as it reasserted itself, also dealt with the Ethiopian dimension.
The initial chapter of Islams relations with Ethiopia, the Muhammadnajashi story, had also left the opposite image of the Christian state in
Islam a most negative one. It was argued by all relevant Muslim historians
that in A.D. 628 the najashi answered the call of his friend the Prophet and
embraced Islam. However, he had to conceal this fact from the priests and
generals. They and their people betrayed him, remaining loyal to their
Christian heresy. Seen from this angle, Ethiopia was already a legal part of
the land of Islam, and the demise of the Muslim najashi was therefore
Islams first defeat. The legacy of Islam al-najashi has been adopted ever
since by Muslims less tolerant of other cultures. In their literature, these
militants have portrayed Ethiopia as the embodiment of heresy, barbarism,
and evil, one of Islams principal enemies. For example, some medieval
traditions recycled an old, pre-Islamic episode to show that the infidel
Ethiopians wanted to destroy the Kaba, and predicted they would succeed. The infidel Ethiopians would also invade and destroy Egypt prior to
Gods redemption of Islam.19 Many Islamic rulers throughout the centuries
have refused to negotiate with Ethiopias emperors, declaring them illegitimate usurpers and declaring that Ethiopia had no right to exist unless its
people reconverted to Islam. These militant Muslims interpreted the leave
the Abyssinians alone prophetic message to mean that Ethiopia, prior to
its Islamization, should be boycotted, sidelined, and ignored.
The most prominent manifestation of this Islamic anti-Ethiopian stand
in Egypt, 1935, was the publication in November of a book called Islam
190
and Ethiopia. Written by Yusuf Ahmad, a teacher and formerly an inspector in the government archeology department, and subsidized by the Italian legation, it was the harshest condemnation of Ethiopia and a clear call
for its destruction in the name of Islam. Resorting to old traditions and
using some elements of modern research, Yusuf Ahmad described Ethiopias major sins toward Islam in general and toward Ethiopias own Muslims in particular. He provided extremely unbalanced surveys of the Islamic policies of Emperors Tewodros, Yohannes, Menelik, and Haile
Selassie, making every effort to depict Ethiopia as the worst enemy of
Islam and deserving of a good lesson by Mussolini. Indeed, another book,
Italy and Her Colonies, written in Cairo in 1936 by Shaykh Muhammad
Num Bakr, ran along the same lines, describing Mussolini as a champion
and savior of Islam in Libya, and wishing an equally enlightened occupation on Ethiopia.20
Yusuf Ahmads book was widely read. In the months following its
publication, newspapers such as Al-Balagh and Ruz al-Yusuf published entire chapters of it. A very favorable review appeared in the prestigious
monthly magazine, Al-Hilal. In years to come, Islam in Ethiopia was to
become the standard text on that country for Arabic readers in the Middle
East. In this capacity it replaced Voyage to Ethiopia by Syrian author
Sadiq al Azm, published in 1908, a book written in the spirit of Islamic
openness and one that had advocated recognition of Christian Ethiopia as
a respected neighbor.21 In fact, radical Islamic literature produced in Egypt
today still recycles large portions of Yusuf Ahmads book preaching the
same concept of Ethiopias illegitimacy.
The immediate influence of radical Islamic perceptions of Ethiopia on
public opinion in Egypt must be investigated further. In any case, Ethiopia
had been conquered by the middle of 1936, and its struggle was no longer
a major focus of interest. Other issues such as the outbreak of the Arab revolt in Palestine in April 1936 captured public attention. In the midst of all
the excitement, the Muslim Brethren, previously an offshoot of the Association of Young Muslims, had begun gaining momentum in Cairo. It
began preaching a more militant Islam, though still much more moderate
as compared to later radicalism. From our point of view, however, the following episode is worth mentioning. When the Arab revolt in Palestine
broke out, the leader of the Brethren, Shaykh Hasan al-Banna, turned to
Prince Umar Tusun, the head of the Committee for the Defense of Ethiopia, and in the name of Islam demanded that the Ethiopian Fund be transferred to help fellow Muslims struggling in Palestine. He was refused.
Tusun replied that the money was not only of Muslim origins. It had been
donated by Egyptian Muslims, Christians, and Jews alike, and in the name
of pluralism should remain in the service of the Ethiopian cause.22
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CONCEPTS OF EGYPTIANISM
Prince Tusuns reply reflected a modern Egyptian concept of Ethiopia, a

very positive dimension of pluralist Egyptianism to which we shall turn
shortly. In 1935, the majority of modern Egyptian nationalists detested
Mussolini and identified with Ethiopia. The Committee for the Defense of
Ethiopia, which supervised the activities and gestures mentioned earlier,
was a coalition of moderate Muslims, Coptic Church leadership, and liberal Egyptians. However, Egyptian nationalism, a modern identity that
began to emerge in the late nineteenth century, was divided as regards
Ethiopia.
On one hand, a favorable concept of Ethiopia had appeared, stemming
from a variety of reasons, all central to the emerging modern Egyptian
soul. First was the renewed definition of Egypt as the land of the Nile,
which held Ethiopia to be relevant. Second was the growing sense of
equality of the Egyptian Copts, whose Ethiopian connections need no reminder. Third was the entire regional concept rooted in the new, pluralist
Egyptian self. Within this concept of a pluralist, diversified, yet united
East, Ethiopia, considered oriental in its religions, culture, and languages,
was perceived as a fully legitimate partner. As mentioned earlier, this spirit
culminated during Ras Tafaris visit to Egypt in 1924. In that same year,
perhaps the culmination of parliamentary Egyptianism (the peoples government of Sad Zaghlul), the crown prince of Ethiopia, leader of an independent Afro-oriental state, was enthusiastically and warmly received in
Egypt as a dignified brother.23
On the other hand, as in the case of Islams dichotomy and not entirely
divorced from it, Egyptianism had also developed a distinctly negative
view of Ethiopia. It essentially stemmed from the ancient fears that
Ethiopia would divert the waters of the Nile, fears that multiplied with the
renewed conceptual and practical centrality of the river. Interwoven with
these anxieties was the sense of anger and shame in the wake of the 1876
Gura defeat. Gura was the Egyptian armys first significant defeat since its
re-establishment by Muhammad Ali, and its grave consequences were
strongly felt during the formative period of emerging modern nationalism.
The image of barbarous Ethiopia ambushing an army that had been sent
to spread advanced civilization in Africa, and then maltreating Egyptian
prisoners, was burned into Egypts modern collective memory. The Gura
story, Ethiopias savage image and its foiling of Egypts dream of unity
along the Nile, was recycled and retold on many occasions. Modern Egyptians of more militant bent could hardly forgive Ethiopia. For example,
Ethiopias 1896 Adwa victory over the Italians was widely ignored by the
Egyptian public. Egypts only significant response was the publication of
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a book in Cairo in 1896 written by a retired army officer. Far from crediting the Ethiopians for their unique achievement, the book narrated the officers Gura misfortunes of twenty years earlier and his maltreatment as a
prisoner of war at the hands of the primitive Ethiopians. Forty years
later, during Ras Tafaris visit in 1924 to Cairo, another ex-officer published an article to the same effect.24
During the 1930s, a more militant Egyptian nationalism was on the
rise. Many members of the new generation, some established thinkers and
movements such as Young Egypt, came forward with a less pluralistic concept of Egyptianism, ready to abandon parliamentarianism in favor of military pride and authoritarian politics. Their flirtation with fascism and
Mussolini is a subject of some controversy, but we shall confine ourselves
to a short observation from the Ethiopian angle. In 1935, the overwhelming majority of Egyptian public opinion strongly disapproved of Mussolinis aggression. The Abyssinian question, at least for a while, exposed
both the crude imperialism and racism inherent in fascism. Thinkers such
as Salama Musa,25 youth leaders such as Fathi Radwan,26 and others were
now ready to declare their solidarity with Ethiopia. Members of Young
Egypt participated in related activities. In this respect, at least during the
crisis, Egypts nationalistic-militant wing was clearly in favor of
Ethiopias survival. They were not, however, ready to go beyond this declaration and showed no real curiosity toward Ethiopia itself, its culture or
history.
The mainstream of Egyptian modern nationalism, however, was quite
ready to cross this line and wholeheartedly identified with Ethiopia in
1935. Most opinion makers, as recent studies have shown, attacked Mussolini in defense of political openness. At the same time they also rediscovered Ethiopia, and for the same purpose.
The quantity of relevant literature produced in Egypt that year was
enormous. Al Masala al-habashiyya (the Ethiopian Question), in both its
Italian and Ethiopian dimensions, was the main issue and a most stormy
one. Hundreds of newspaper articles dealt with Ethiopia as well as dozens
of analytical pieces and quite a number of books. Many newspapers, notably Al-Ahram, ran daily columns, even appointing special correspondents
to Addis Ababa. The leading opinion makers were Muhammad Abdallah
Inan,27 Abdallah Husayn,28 Muhammad Hasan al-Zayyat,29 and, primarily, Muhammad Lutfi Guma. The latter, the author of the famous The Life
of the East (1932), was a very prominent advocate of the concept of Easternism; the idea that all Eastern peoples, facing the Western challenge,
should enhance their cultural affinity and cooperate politically. His book,
The African Lion and the Italian Tiger,30 depicted Ethiopia as the symbol
of the entire East, its leader in the areas of bravery and survival. He went
on to review Ethiopias history explaining in most sympathetic terms its
193
development and victories. Like almost all the other authors mentioned
here, he wrote that he felt the need to reintroduce Ethiopia to himself and
to the Egyptian public. He described Ethiopias land, Christianity, customs, and social diversity, and praised its leaders for their efforts at modernization. He also referred to the old Islamic concepts of Ethiopia as the
land of righteousness. Published in November 1935, Gumas book was
the mirror image, at the opposite pole of Ahmad Yusufs radical Islamic
book. Paradoxically, it was equally popular.
Needless to say, most modern Egyptians yearned for an Ethiopian victory. This time they did not ignore the 1896 Adwa victory, but rather expected its recurrence. For liberals like Muhammad Lutfi Guma, such an
Ethiopian victory would have enhanced liberalism and parliamentarianism
in Egypt. Inan (and many others) kept reminding the Italians of Adwa. 31
Yet, although Guma predicted the African lion would defeat the Italian
tiger again, a new Adwa was not to occur. Rather, the history of Egypt, its
immediate politics, and its own struggle to shape its identities was forced
to develop under the shadow of Mussolinis success.
ARABISM AND ETHIOPIA
The year of the Abyssinian crisis was also most significant in the history
of the Arab modern identity. Mussolinis defiance of the British and
French, his militant nationalism, and fascisms emphasis on the spirit of
youth were instrumental in triggering the wave of the younger generation
in politics. In Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and Iraq, the Abyssinian crisis was a
factor in inspiring the emergence of paramilitary youth organizations, as
well as in the strengthening of pan-Arabism as an ideology of the middle
class. The consequences for the history of Egypt and the entire region
were far-reaching,32 though our discussion refers only to the Egyptian dimension during the formative crisis.
Arab identity in Egypt was, at that time, an emerging element, blended
primarily in the integral Egyptianism of the kind mentioned above. In
order to observe it in isolation, we must refer to Syrians and Iraqis residing, or influencing the debate, in Egypt. In so doing we encounter another
dichotomy, reflecting an equally intensive debate over Ethiopia in Syria
that year.
On one hand, again, Ethiopia found supporters. Abd al Rahman Shabandar, the Syrian Arab national hero of the 1925 anti-French revolt, and
long exiled in Egypt, becomes an important figure in our history. He
joined the Committee for the Defense of Ethiopia and, himself a physician,
was active in organizing the Red Crescent medical aid. He published articles in the Egyptian press in which he stated that Ethiopia represented all
194
Eastern peoples and that he was ready to die for Ethiopia the way he was
ready to die for Syria.33 Another Syrian residing in Egypt, historian Amin
Said, published a series of pro-Ethiopian articles in the Al-Muqattam
daily, a main platform for Egyptian liberals. He stated that the Arabs and
Ethiopia had always, even in pre-Islamic days, been part of the Orient, that
all Arabs should be committed to support their Ethiopian sister on the
basis of Oriental bond.34
General Taha al-Hashimi, a sworn pan-Arab Iraqi, one of Iraqs important politicians and the chief of staff of the Iraqi army at the time, answered
the call of the Egyptian journal Al-Risala to explain the military dimensions
of the crisis, Egypt at that time having no generals of its own. He produced
a series of six articles published in the last weeks of 1935. Their subject
was the 1896 Adwa victory of Ethiopia over the invading Italians, and their
message, in terms of Arab hopes and expectations, was clear.35
Stronger, however, was the voice of anti-Ethiopian Arabists. The
Lebanese Christian, Bulus Masad, resident of Cairo, journalist, and the
author of various books on Arab history, published a book entitled
Ethiopia or Abyssinia.36 Like Yusuf Ahmads book, it was also subsidized
by the Italian legation in Cairo and was equally venomous. The difference
was that he narrated Ethiopian history, depicting the country as barbarous
and primitive, not in Islamic terms but in modern progressive ones. He recycled material supplied to him by fascist propaganda machinery on
Ethiopia, describing the cruel house of slavery, a land in need of a civilizing Mussolini.
Much more important was the work by the Lebanese Druze, Amir
Shakib Arslan. Arslan was by far the most important figure in the context
of Mussolinis influence in the whole Middle Eastern arena. He undertook
to spread the world of the Duce, and to exploit the Abyssinian crisis in
order to inspire the younger generation in the Middle East to revolt against
the French and the British. He hoped that such an uprising would enhance
pan-Arabism, especially his brand, namely Arabism with a strong element
of Islamic identity and solidarity. In the dozens of articles published in
1935, Arslan depicted Ethiopia as a historical enemy of Islam, an oppressor of its own Muslims, an enemy of Arab language and culture. A skilled
historian, he combined the negative messages of radical Islam with the
modern message of fascist propaganda.37 Most of Arslans work was published primarily in Syrian, Lebanese, and Palestinian papers; nevertheless,
he had his share in the Egyptian press and was widely read in Egypt.
CONCLUSION: THE NILE PERSPECTIVE
We have discussed just one dimension of 1935, which was a watershed in

the histories of the two countries. In the years following the end of World
195
War II, nearly all the concrete issues of the old Ethio-Egyptian agenda
resurfaced and culminated, their intensity magnified by newly emerging
factors. Egyptian scholars and educators supervised Ethiopias effort in the
early 1940s to rehabilitate the education system ruined by the fascists.
Haile Selassies campaign to emancipate the Ethiopian Church led to an
agreement in 1959 with the Coptic patriarchate, in which the former was
declared autocephalous. In the mid-1940s, Egypt, which had lost control
over Eritreas territory to Gura in 1876, renewed its claims. Its diplomatic
effort at the UN was conducted in Egyptianist terms, but they were transformed beginning in the mid-1950s into modern Arab revolutionary concepts of ethnic nationalism and subversion. Later in the same decade, Israel entered the picture, and its alliance with Haile Selassie further
complicated Ethio-Egyptian relations.38 (In 1969, after the Six-Day War,
Israel handed the keys of Deir al-Sultan over to the Ethiopians.) The 1963
establishment of the Organization of African Unity headquarters in Addis
Ababa, and Haile Selassies rising prominence in African diplomacy,
added a conciliatory tone to his relations with Gamal Abdel Nasser. These,
and many other related matters, intensified Ethio-Egyptian relations. The
main factor, however, remained the Nile issue.
After the British, along with their Tana Dam idea, left Egypt, Nasser
built the High Dam at Aswan. His message was clear. Egypts source of
life would remain in Egyptian hands. It would never again be the subject
of negotiations, such as those between Ethiopia and the British in which
the Egyptians themselves were ignored. In erecting the dam and in shaping
the water policy behind it, however, Nasser ignored the Ethiopians. Indeed, Egypts long-range water strategy seems to rest on the assumption
that Ethiopia, contributing four-fifths of Lake Nassers waters, will never
receive any of it for itself. One can never really appreciate the Egyptian
approach without perceiving it as a new, modified version of the old Islamic legacy of leave the Abyssinians alone, in the sense of ignoring and
sidelining Ethiopia. Indeed, without a familiarity with the rich reservoir of
old mutual concepts, one cannot make sense of the contemporary EthioEgyptian dialogue regarding the Nile. The Egyptians, on their part, continue to waver between the various and contradictory Ethiopian images
created during their own transformations. The hard-liners in the NileEthiopian context recycle the memories of Gura, Eritreas Arabism, and
radical Islams concepts of Ethiopias illegitimacy. Indeed, radical Muslims in Cairo still resort to Yusuf Ahmads book when producing their antiEthiopian literature. The Egyptian soft-liners, such as certain circles in the
foreign ministry circles and sources behind the Siyasa Duwaliyya magazine, prefer to emphasize the historical legacies of religious and cultural
brotherhood with Ethiopia, derived from the more pluralist concepts of
Islam, Egyptianism, and Arabism discussed above. The Ethiopians, on
their part, also conduct their present-day Nile policy, wavering between
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deep suspicion and a sense of affinity. The former stems from old recycled
concepts of Islamic enmity and historic sensitivities about the church; the
latter relies on a sense of ancient, Oriental neighborliness, and of diplomatic ties in Heruy Walda-Selassies tradition. In forming their foreign
policies, Egyptians and Ethiopians, like all peoples, continue to struggle
with their own identities derived from concepts and messages of the past.
NOTES
This chapter is based on research conducted under the auspices of and with the
help of grants by the Israel Science Foundation, founded by the Israel Academy for
Science and Humanities and the U.S. Institute for Peace.
1. On the battle of Gura and consequences see Erlich, Ras Alula and the
Scramble for Africa, Chapter 1.
2. On the Tana project and Ethio-British negotiations see Abdussamad
Ahmad, Gojjam. Also, McCann, Ethiopia, Britain, and Negotiations for the
Lake Tana Dam, 19221935, pp. 667699. For British efforts to conceal their negotiations from the Egyptians see British Archives, Public Record Office, Foreign
Office 371/9989, Allenby to MacDonald, 17 May 1924. Also, Foreign Office
401/3538, Lake Tana Reservoir Scheme: Negotiations Since 1924 by H. K.
Grey, 20 February 1935.
3. See British Archives, Public Record Office, Foreign Office 371/108264,
Bromley to Luce, 7 July 1954.
4. For British reports on Ethio-Egyptian relations of the period see files in
British Archives, Public Record Office, Foreign Office 401/3538, and in Foreign
Office 371 series; for Italian material see Archivio Storico, Ministero Degli Affari
Esteri, Rome, the series Etiopia fondo la guerra, buste 6170.
5. The sixteenth-century conquest and destruction of Ethiopia (15291543)
by the Islamic holy war, led from the town of Harar by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim
Gragn, left a traumatic memory in the Ethiopian collective soul. Gragn was inspired and aided by the Islamic-Ottoman revival in the Middle East, and managed
to unite the Muslims of the Horn of Africa against the Christian state. In Erlich,
Ethiopia and the Middle East, the term Gragn syndrome is coined to reflect
Ethiopians recurring fear that Middle Eastern connections may encourage such
dangerous local Islamic reunification (see Chapter 3).
6. On Tewodros and Egypt see Erlich, Ethiopia and the Middle East, Chapter 4; on Yohannes and Egypt, Chapter 5; also see Erlich, Ethiopia and the Challenge of Independence, Chapter 2.
7. Details in Erlich, Ethiopia and the Middle East, Chapter 8.
8. On Church relations see, for a Coptic perspective, Meinardus, Christian
Egypt, Faith and Life, appendix, and for an Ethiopian perspective see Amanu, The
Ethiopian Orthodox Church Becomes Autocephalous. On the Deir al-Sultan, for a
Coptic perspective see Suriyal, Dir al-Sultan bial-Quds. For an Ethiopian perspective see Gabra-Haywat, Yader Sultan bairusalem.
9. See Erlich, Ethiopia and Egypt, pp. 6483.
10. See Haile Selassie, My Life and Ethiopias Progress, p. 84.
11. Walda-Selassie, Yalelat wayzaro Manan mangad bairuslemna bamisr.
12. Walda-Selassie, Dastana kibir.
197
13. Walda-Selassie, Baadame masinbat hulun lamayet.

14. Details in Erlich, Ethiopia and the Middle East, Chapter 8.
15. Israel Gershoni has just completed an extensive study on this subject,
Light in the Shade. I am grateful to Professor Gershoni for allowing me to see his
manuscript. Some of the ideas and material that I have presented in this chapter
have come from his authoritative study.
16. For a detailed discussion of the formative concepts of Ethiopia see Erlich,
Ethiopia and the Middle East, Chapter 1.
17. See a detailed discussion in Erlich, Ethiopia and the Middle East, Chapter 1.
18. On the committee see Erlich, Ethiopia and the Middle East, Chapter 8,
and more in Gershoni, Light in the Shade, Chapter 3.
19. See more in Ibn Hamad, Kitab al-fitan, pp. 403409, the chapter entitled
The Ethiopians Invasions.
20. Bakr, Italy in Her Colonies, pp. 6166, 74.
21. al-Azm, Rihlat al-habasha.
22. Gershoni, Light in the Shade, chapter 3.
23. Erlich, Ethiopia and EgyptRas Tafari in Cairo, 1924.
24. See Erlich, Egypt and Adwa.
25. Musa, Italy and Ethiopia, Majallati, 1 July 1935.
26. Fathi Radwan, second in the command of Young Egypt, published a book
on Mussolini and his road to power (Cairo, 1937), in which he did not mention the
Ethiopian crisis.
27. Inan, The Conflict Between Ethiopia and Western Imperialism, AlRisala, 24 December 1934, and Egypt, the Waters of the Nile and the Ethiopian
Affairs, Al-Risala, 7 January 1935.
28. Husayn, The Ethiopian Question.
29. Muhammad Hasan al-Zayyat, The Ethiopian QuestionThe Question of
the East and of Freedom, Al-Risala, 5 August 1935.
30. Guma, The African Lion and the Italian Tiger.
31. See for example Inans article, The Conflict Between Ethiopia and Western Imperialism.
32. For an elaboration on these issues, see Erlich, Periphery and Youth. Also
see Erlich, The Middle East Between the World Wars.
33. See quotation from Al-Qabas of 1 December 1935 in Erlich, Ethiopia and
the Middle East, p. 113.
34. Said, Arab-Ethiopian RelationsWhy the East Supports Ethiopia, AlMuqattam, 25 April 1935.
35. Al-Hashimi, The Battle of Adwa.
36. Masad, Ethiopia or Abyssinia in a Turning Point in Her History.
37. See Erlich, Ethiopia and the Middle East, especially Chapter 9.
38. See Erlich, The Struggle over Eritrea, 19621978.
15
Geographers and Nationalism

in Egypt: Huzayyin and the Unity
of the Nile Valley, 19451948
Israel Gershoni
Nationalism and territory are two closely related entities. Simple relations
of mutual attraction and dependence exist between them. The national
imagination has to define for itself a specific territory, a fatherland, in
order to people it with the national community and to realize a national life
in it. The territory, for its part, constitutes the home of the national community and creates a country for it. The relationship between nationalism
and geography as a science and a distinct academic discipline is more
complex. Generally, in creating what Anthony Smith calls poetic spaces,
nationalism utilizes archaeology, history, anthropology, and philology as a
scientific means of shaping the national landscape.1 The new priesthood of the nation, to borrow another of Smiths phrases, will generally
be historians, archaeologists, philologists, folklorists, and anthropologists
in addition to poets, writers, sculptors, artists, and musicians. They serve
as an intellectual avant-garde that creates, manages, and disseminates a
new community memory and identity and obliterates the old. 2 However,
geography and geographers sometimes also have an important role in inventing the national poetic spaces and time. Geographers can endow the
geographical structure of the national territory with scientism and objectivity; they can define its geographical and historical boundaries and establish the reciprocal relations between the climatic and topographical milieu and the human community residing in that territory. In this way, they
become active partners in constructing the new national imagination.
In more saliently territorial types of nationalism, like the case of the
ethnic communities living on the banks of the Nile, the role of geographer
seems even more critical. Here their task is to turn the climatic and geographical space developing around the central existence of a river into a
199
200
national landscape and national experience. They will tend to recruit scientific geographical knowledge to create a territorial memory. They will locate
the community of memory in place and time, and will depict the organic
continuity of human life in the course of thousands of years within a stable
geographical structure. Geographers will explain the existence of ethnic homogeneity in the natural reality of geographical unity based on the eternal
cyclical rhythm of the river flow. They will organize the national museum so
that the ethnic artifacts of ancient national existence will rest on geographical displays that represent a rigid and unchanging pattern of an environment
and ethnie that took shape on the banks of the Nile and live in its shadow.
They will show how a river has created a nation in its own image.
This double stance of a geographer who is both an academic scholar
and a national priest typifies the lifework of Sulayman Huzayyin, one of
Egypts most able and well-known geographers of this century. Huzayyin,
who was born in 1909, graduated in the first class of the geography department of the newly established Egyptian (Cairo) University in 1929. He
earned his M.A. and Ph.D. in the 1930s in England at the geography departments of Liverpool and Manchester Universities. His area of specialization was historical geography, and the subject of his early research was
the place of Egypt in the ancient world in prehistory. Huzayyin took a
great interest in what he called the prehistoric age of the Nile Valley, referring to the Stone and Bronze Ages. He tried to reconstruct the history of
the earliest human habitation in Egypt before the first foundations were
laid for the development of the ancient pharaonic civilization, which he regarded as the inception of Egypts real history. In his research, he relied on
historical knowledge and the anthropological and archaeological theories
that prevailed in Western academia in the 1920s and 1930s. He also participated in several anthropological projects and archaeological excavations conducted in Egypt in the 1930s under the supervision and academic
direction of European archaeological teams. In that period, after returning
from his studies in Europe, Huzayyin joined the geography department of
the Cairo University, where he taught and conducted research from the end
of the 1930s to the early 1940s. In 1942, with the founding of Alexandria
University, he was appointed to head the new department of geography.
Later, in the mid-1950s, Huzayyin was one of the founders of the University of Asyut. For a while he served as the rector of that university, the first
to be established in Upper Egypt to provide university services to the population in the peripheral areas of the south. In this position, he made an important contribution in establishing the academic and scientific foundations
of the new academic institution. At the end of the 1960s, he was appointed
president of the Egyptian Geographical Society, an office that he holds to
this day. During this period, under the regime of Gamal Abdel Nasser, he
served in 19651966 as minister of culture.3
The Unity of the Nile Valley, 19451948
201
In the course of more than sixty years of extensive scholarly activity,

Huzayyin published scores of scientific papers on historical geography in
academic journals in Egypt and in the West. Recently, in the 1990s, three
new books of his were published. They are, in a sense, a summary of his
academic work and public service. Huzayyin emphasizes his geographical
interests not only in Egypt but throughout the Arab world, ard al-Uruba
(the land of Arabism). In the books, Huzayyin also collected his scientific
papers and journalistic articles, the result of seven decades of research endeavors. To these he added autobiographical reflections and memoirs that
document his academic and public life.4
In his later memoirs, Huzayyin returns to the scenery of his childhood.
We learn that he was born in Wadi Halfa, a provincial town located exactly
on the border between Sudan and Egypt. Wadi Halfa was on the banks of
the Nile, and Huzayyin nostalgically describes the experiences of a child
growing up on the banks of the Great River. The symbiosis between the
flow of the river, the types of plants and animals that grew on its banks,
and the rural human milieu nourished by them through simple, hard agricultural work created a unique pastoral ambiance. Huzayyin recalls the
smell of the fish that were caught each day by the Nile fishermen and displayed for sale in the local fish market. He remembers the croaks of the
alligators in the river that so terrified the fishermen. In Huzayyins eyes,
there was perfect harmony between the water, the soil, and human life and
work. In retrospect, he remarks that his birthplace left a deep imprint on
him and in fact destined him to become a geographer. Wadi Halfa gave
him the perspective for unique geographical observation: Egypt to the
north and Sudan to the south organically connected by the Nile Valley and
delimited by the deserts surrounding the valley on the east and the west. 5
It was here that Huzayyin learned that the border drawn by the British between Egypt and Sudan (in 1899, a decade before his birth) was an arbitrary imperialistic boundary. It artificially cut into two unnatural parts
that Huzayyin calls, the one Nile nation. It severs the territorial unity of
the Nile Valley and splits the national community that populates it. It destroys the harmony between earth and man, thus contravening geographical laws and historical realities. From this point onward, Huzayyin becomes obsessed with the permanent need to defend the natural unity of the
Nile Valley. He was enraged by the imperialist sin that had challenged the
organic wholeness of nature. He regarded himself as destined to restore the
symbiotic unity of the river and its distinctive surroundings, as someone
blending the unity of the landscape with the unity of the nation that developed in its bosom. Hence, as he himself testifies, the choice of geography
as a profession was for him a natural one.6
But Huzayyin, throughout his long career, was far from being simply
a recruited national geographer. For him, his identity as an academic and
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professional geographer faithful to scientific truth was no less important

than his identity as an Egyptian patriot. I work for science, he stated,
and for Egypt, and my loyalty is to science and Egypt. And science was
always mentioned first.7 His commitment to the academic profession is reflected in the simple fact that most of his publications appeared in professional journals restricted to experts in the field. His public activity was
limited in scale. Huzayyin belonged to the generation of Egyptian pioneering geographers that wrought a revolution in the profession. Between
1935 and 1955, this generation expropriated the profession of geography
from the control of foreign geographers (in particular Europeans) and in a
process of nationalization and Egyptianization turned it into an indigenous
Egyptian profession dominated by young Egyptian geographers. The members of this generation who studied geography in Europe created a pro fessional Egyptian discipline of high academic quality. As the youngest
member of this pioneering generation (his teachers, Mustafa Amir and
Muhammad Awad Muhammad, were about a decade older than him),
Huzayyin worked, first and foremost, to advance geography as an aca demic discipline that created a scientific discourse.8 He fostered the research of total geography based on archaeology, geology, anthropology,
ethnology, biology, cultural studies, and history. He admits that a wide variety of Western influences, including his teachers at the Egyptian University and later in England, shaped his academic approach. Geographers, anthropologists, and archaeologists, like H. Lorin, P. M. Roxby, O. Menghin,
and H. G. Fleir, deeply affected his career as a geographer.
Huzayyin together with others of his generation tried, based on these
influences, to forge an independent, more indigenous Egyptian approach to
geography. In addition to its affinity to universal science, it was supposed
to meet the unique academic needs of Egypt and to constitute a tool for
gaining self-understanding.9 Huzayyin defined his field of specialization
as al-jughrafiya al-hadariyya (civilizatory geography) or sometimes as aljughrafiya al-tarikhiyya (historical geography). He regarded the school of
civilizatory geography as a subdiscipline within the broad science of geography, based on the method that geography is a field that deals with
both science and culture. The role of geographers is to reconstruct the totality of the natural geographical milieu along with human life and culture
and to present them as one historical entity. They have to deal with the
physical geography, the material civilization, and the spiritual and cultural
structures. Here Huzayyin viewed himself as the successor of Ibn Khaldun, who had attempted to interpret the historical phenomena in the context of both the natural and the human environment. Huzayyin regarded
his civilizatory geography as a theoretical elaboration of Ibn Khalduns alumran (civilization) theory. Indeed, Ibn Khalduns Al-Muqaddima, in particular the chapters on the reciprocal relations and mutual feedback
203
between natural and climatic structures and the social organization and political regime of human communities, was a constant inspiration for Huzayyins geographical theories.10
However, Huzayyin was also a product of his time and place. In his
early adulthood, he experienced, together with others of his generation, the
immense impact of the 1919 revolution and the struggle for national liberation from British rule. He saw
in our generation of students, the children of the 1919 revolution . . . the
generation that took shape in the shadow of the national revolution and
lived through an experience that was unknown to the preceding generation. [The revolution and its aftermath] were the forge that shaped this
new generation in which two aspirations were meshedthe desire to pursue [university] studies and the wish to learn Egyptian history. . . . Indeed
the revolution was the greatest single influence in molding this generation, its political culture and its inclination to become intensively involved in the national movement.11
In the 1930s and 1940s, in the face of growing social and cultural
crises, domestic political clashes, and international upheavals, Huzayyin
could not remain indifferent to the rapidly changing political environment.
Indeed, national pressures did remove Huzayyin from the ivory tower and
bring him into the public political discourse. The decolonization of the
profession was linked to the political struggle for decolonization. In these
instances, Huzayyin brought the balanced critical voice of the professional
geographer to the national discourse. On one hand, he placed an empirical
professional restraint on the nationalistic rhetoric. On the other, he paid a
considerable price for his political involvement. He tended to be captivated by the national myths and to become the person who provided them
with a scientific basis. Professional truth was then supplanted by the national truth. The academic geographer became, albeit temporarily and partially, a national priest.
Between 1945 and 1948, Huzayyin published a series of articles on
geographical subjects in Al-Katib al-Misri. This was the first time the conscientious geographer wrote articles intended for broad public consumption. Al-Katib al-Misri was a new cultural journal that began to appear
after the war. Its owners were the Jewish Harari brothers. Under the management and editorship of Taha Husayn, the journal promoted liberal,
Western, and Egyptian nationalist orientations as well as programs of social reform and cultural modernization. Occasionally, it also devoted some
attention to current political problems. Taha Husayn also succeeded in enlisting several of the most impressive liberal intellectuals of that time to
publish articles in the periodical. Salama Musa, Mahmud Azmi, Muhammad Rifat, Muhammad Abdallah Inan, Ali Adham, Sayyid Qutb, and the
204
young Lewis Awad regularly expressed their views in Al-Katib al-Misri.

The geographer Muhammad Awad Muhammad also wrote for the journal.12 The period was in fact marked by widespread national ferment stemming from the Egyptian national demand to rescind the 1936 treaty. From
nearly the entire spectrum of the political arena the call went out to rescind
the clauses relating to the continued British control of Sudan and its separation from Egypt. The national struggle for independence and liberation
was then focused on the struggle for the unity of the Nile Valley, for the
unity of Egypt and Sudan, for the common Egyptian-Sudanese fight
against imperialism, and for the evacuation of foreign control from the
Nile Valley. The oppositionary forces, led by the Wafd and the Muslim
Brothers in a coalition with the leftist movements and student and workers
organizations, waged a militant national struggle.
In 19451947 the political strife took to the streets in mass demonstrations and violent riots against British rule and often against the Egyptian minority governments that were represented as collaborating with the
British.13 Al-Katib al-Misri adopted a moderate pro-Wafdist position. It attempted to mobilize public opinion for the sake of the struggle for the
unity and liberation of the Nile Valley.14 Apparently the Wafdist Taha
Husayn, who at the time was chancellor of the new Alexandria University
(established at the initiative of the Wafd government), enlisted Huzayyin,
head of the geography department, for the task of explaining the national
goals. Not only was Huzayyin unable to refuse the request of his chancellor, but it seems he undertook the assignment with great professional and
patriotic enthusiasm. In the series of articles he wrote, Huzayyin did not
deny the immediate political pressures that motivated him to compose
them. In fact, he explicitly admitted to them. The national context was
clearly reflected in the academic text and explained its meaning. As a geographer, Huzayyin asserted, his entire aim is to impart the geographical
dimension to the national discourse and the political struggle, in order to
endow them with scientific force and to base them, as far as possible, on
solid historical and geographical realities. He complained that the political
discussion was ignoring solid geographical facts. With a certain degree
of naivet, he believed that the issue of the unity of the Nile Valley could
not be clarified and explained merely as part of politics without its underlying geographical dimension. The politicians will be making a big mistake, he stated, if they dismiss this important scientific dimension. Their
policy will only gain credibility and validity if it includes a clarification of
the natural geographical conditions of the Nile Valley that either constitute
or refute its unity and wholeness. Huzayyin felt that he, as a professional
geographer, was compelled to contribute a systematic clarification of the
historical geographical perspective to the political discourse. To his
mind, this was an essential means to endow national political claims with
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an objective historical-geographical basis.15 Once he entered into the national

discourse and enlisted in the national cause, Huzayyin was compelled to engage in a mode of patriotic discourse in which he had to validate and sanctify
national myths. At the same time, however, this did not prevent him from
criticizing these collective myths and moderating their political intensity.
In these early articles, Huzayyin presented a series of geographical
and anthropological theories intended to form a scientific explanation for
the physical and mental existence of Egypt and the Nile Valley. His intention was to establish an objective scientific basis for the unity of the Nile
Valley that would substantiate the physical, mental, and cultural natural
linkage between Egypt and Sudan. Due to the limited scope of this chapter, we will only relate here to five key theoretical elements.16
THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE
Huzayyin utilizes the primary physical data of the process in which the
Nile Valley was created as a key basis for his theoretical structure. Al-wadi
(the valley) is portrayed as an extremely early creation of nature, and in
Huzayyins words as an objective geographical truth. 17 The Nile River
carved a unique topographical and climatic belt into an arid desert. The geographical autonomy of this belts environment is complete because it was
the Nile that created it from its waters: from the water itself and the silt it
brought with it that shaped the features of the soil and the landscape of the
valley. The flow of the Nile and its rhythm dictated the structure of the
valley. Over tens of thousands of years they created a rigid and permanent
pattern of landscape. The absolute dependence on the Nile ensured symmetry, stability, and continuity. The relative isolation created by the deserts
surrounding the valley preserved its independence as a self-contained ecological entity. Huzayyin differentiates between the wadi al-nil (Nile Valley), hawd al-nil (the Nile basin), and hadbat al-nil (the Nile heights).18
From a geographical standpoint, only the Nile Valley, which comprises the
areas of Egypt and north and central Sudan, represents what Huzayyin
calls al-biah al-niliyya (the Nile environment). It is only in the valley that
identical topographical and ecological conditions exist, making it one integrative geographical unit. Here the effect of the Nile on the physical environment is exclusive and absolute. In contrast, the Nile basin, comprising the areas where the waters of the Nile collect, and the Nile heights, the
source of the main flow of its water, the mountainous areas of south
Sudan, Ethiopia, and Uganda, do not represent geographical unity for
Huzayyin. They are also affected by other geographical factors, and the
Nile has no all-determining influence on their formation and development.19 Huzayyins rejoinder to those who developed nationalistic theories
206
of a Greater Egypt, which also takes in southern Sudan and parts of northern Ethiopia, was that the natural geographical unity only exists between
Egyptians and Sudanese. He added that as far as the Ethiopians are concerned, they do not depend on the Nile for their livelihood, water, irrigation and fishing or fertilization salts. Therefore, although they form part
of the abna al-hadba (peoples of the high plateau), they are not a part of
the abna al-wadi (peoples of the valley), who are exclusively the Egyptians and the Sudanese. Nor do the widespread trade, cultural, and religious relations that flourished between the peoples of the valley and the
Ethiopians for thousands of years make them one nation from a geographical point of view: They never led to political connections or to popular
or national unity [wahda shabiyya aw qawmiyya] because it was never necessitated by the natural conditions. Huzayyin tried to limit the national
space, to strip it of territorial myths of lebensraum and to base it on
geographical truth.20 In the map he defined, only the Nile Valley created
within itself a territorial and historical entity with a defined identity that
unites the river and its physical environment, the flora and fauna, and the
human community. It was only the unique structure of the valley that
melded land, vegetation, and people into one organic entity that developed
a singular social organization, political regime, and national existence.
Only it constitutes the cradle for the growth of the civilization of Egypt.
In this approach, the valley is a singular creation of nature which has no
equal in any other geographical region on the globe.21
THE HUMAN STRUCTURE
The physical geography has reproduced itself in human geography. The

clear-cut climatic and ecological personality of the Nile Valley has bred in
its bosom a singular national personality. Huzayyin describes the historical
development of what he defines as ummat wadi al-nil (a nation of the Nile
Valley): the human community that emerged on the banks of the Nile and
was imprinted with its character. In the course of thousands of years,
waves of human immigration came to the land of the Nile from the south,
from central Africa, from the west, from north Africa, and from the east,
from the Fertile Crescent and from the Arabian Peninsula. In the process,
varied human groups and cultures settled in the Nile Valley. Their total dependence on the Nile as the source of life and livelihood, fishing, and agricultural crops dictated uniform patterns of life and molded a multitude of
peoples into one homogeneous community. The naturalness of the geographical unity created a natural social bond. A common existence in the
framework of a similar lifestyle formed for this community a common
experience expressed in its behavior as a cohesive nation whose members
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rely on and protect one another and together create a perfect internal integration. In this way the community developed into one umma wahida
(unified nation), into a national body that commingles the Egyptians and
the Sudanese into one organic entity.22
However, when Huzayyin considers the ethnic unity of the inhabitants of the Nile Valley from an academic point of view, he presents us
with a more complex picture. His nationalist self to a certain degree yields
to his academic self. He attempts to prove the existence of blood ties, origin and kinship between the inhabitants of the north (the Egyptians) and
the inhabitants of the south (the Sudanese) based on the anthropological
and ethnological theories that prevailed in European academic fashion at
the time. Huzayyin was aware that science was incapable of precisely
defining race. He concurred with the doubts expressed by anthropologists
and ethnologists regarding the reality of race and the possibility of reconstructing it as a pure biological entity. At the same time, he appropriated
from Western anthropological and historical knowledge the premise that
it is possible to try to prove the existence of ethnic and cultural common
origins and to scientifically trace the uninterrupted existence of an ethnic
community, particularly if it has developed in a defined geographical and
climatic pattern. Under the influence of those Western ethnological theories, Huzayyin stated that the inhabitants of the Nile Valley are Hamitic
in origin. Groups of people of Hamitic origin had settled in the Nile Valley and spread in it from the dawn of history. They provided the human infrastructure for the rise of the pharaonic civilization. From that time, the
Hamitic roots of the Nile Valley inhabitants continued to be a hegemonic
element in the various human compositions that populated the valley
throughout its long history. It was also that element that created the unity
and ethnic oneness of the Egyptians and Sudanese. In the course of hundreds of generations, the Hamitic stock absorbed other elements: barbarians from the west, black African and Nubian elements from the south, and
Semitic groups from the east and north. And in fact these immigrations of
Semitic groups influenced, more than any others, the reshaping of the Nile
Valley community. Despite the fact that the Hamitic ethnic hegemony remained, Huzayyin stresses the power of Semitism to imbue the Nile Valley nation with a more mixed, Hamitic-Semitic, character. Following the
Islamic conquestthe Arabization and Islamization of Egypt and Sudan
this mix consolidated and determined the new ethnic character of this nation. However, according to Huzayyins theory, the Arabic language and
the Islamic religion only served to reinforce the ethnic cohesiveness of the
inhabitants and further enhanced their ethnic homogeneity. The historical
ethnic unity of thousands of years was substantiated and consolidated with
the cultural, linguistic, and religious unity that had prevailed since the seventh century among the valleys inhabitants.23
208
In Huzayyins view, the natural ethnic unity between the two halves
of the Nile Valley has created an economic and social unity between its inhabitants, and this in turn has given rise to national and political unity. This
national existence is thousands of years old. It began back in the prepharaonic period. It achieved its complete formation during the pharaonic
eras and has continued to exist throughout all periods until the present day.
Huzayyin emphasizes the element of ethnic origin in the national existence.
For him, this is a dynamic element operating from above to below (from
north to south) and from below to above (south to north) in a nearly equal
manner. In other words, in his view, two processes of feedback are constantly in operation. At times the human immigration came from Lower
Egypt and at others from southern Sudan. But they all submitted to the
enormous natural power of the Nile Valley; they all merged in its ecological melting pot, and they were all fused into a nation living on its banks.24
THE CULTURAL STRUCTURE
A unique culture sprang up in the physical and human conditions of the

Nile Valley. The necessity to oversee the water supply and to manage an
orderly agricultural hydraulic system created a constant need for social
solidarity and a strong and stable political government. This regime in its
turn was in need of a culture that would provide it with legitimacy and organize human life in a symbolic system that would give meaning to the
human experience. Huzayyin has a manifestly functionalist approach to
culture. Culture has a defined role in interpreting and organizing the relationships between physical existence and mental existence in the Nile Valley: on the one hand, it gives meaning to mans ties to the place, and on
the other, to the link between man and the divine creation. In this way, culture serves the ecological and social structure of the human community,
explains it, and ensures its integrity, stability, and continuity.25 In his attitude toward culture, Huzayyin also reveals himself to us as a consummately Egyptocentric geographer. What he defines as al-madaniyya almisriyya or hadarat misr (the Egyptian civilization) or as al-madaniyya
al-niliyya (the Nile civilization) is actually a North Egyptian cultural entity. Huzayyin views Egypt, in the northern part of the Nile Valley, as the
main producer of this civilization. In the pre-pharaonic age, in the time of
the pharaonic dynasties, in the Hellenistic, Christian, and Islamic eras
in all these periods, Lower or Upper Egypt supplied thaqafa (culture) to
the Nile Valley. Or in his words, Egypt was the route via which culture
and civilization reached Sudan; it bestowed on Sudan the light of culture.26 In this hegemonic Egyptian approach, Egyptian civilization is an
autonomous Egyptian product of the northern Nile Valley, almost devoid
209
of any southern African influences. It was bequeathed by Egypt to Sudan.

Huzayyin claims that the Sudanese reception and assimilation of Egyptian
culture was easy and natural. Just as the existence of Egyptian civilization
was dependent on the sources of the Nile that came through Sudan from
below to above, in turn Egypt supplied from above to below the cultural
systems, the material and spiritual culture, the elite and the popular cultures. Thus, the geographical unity of the Nile Valley created al-wahda althaqafiyya (a cultural unity) between Egypt and Sudan that solidified and
fortified al-wahda al-jinsiyya (the ethnic unity) between them.27
This hegemonic approach, suffused with a tinge of Egyptian patronage, was expressed in the way Huzayyin depicted Egypts contribution to
the opening of Sudan to the modern era. Muhammad Alis large-scale
modernization project in the first half of the nineteenth century took Egypt
from the Middle Ages and ushered it into the modern era, introducing it to
modern technology and culture. Beyond the structural, economic, and military reforms, Muhammad Ali engendered a cultural al-nahda (revival) in
Egypt that strengthened the Westernizing cultural orientations in it and
connected it with Europe. The stepped-up processes of development, modernization, and Westernization rapidly exerted their influence on Sudan.
The nature of things produced a constant deterministic force that compelled life to go according to the river [the Nile]. Thus the revival that
took place in Egypt by necessity had to spread [with the forces of the river
and the valley] to Sudan.28 Muhammad Alis military conquests in Sudan
were presented by Huzayyin as a reunification of the parts of the Valley
and the creation of wahda (unity) and nahda (renewal) in both Egypt and
Sudan. This modernization was passed down from the north to the south.
The nation was reunited within one political framework under the leadership of the Muhammad Ali dynasty. Thus, it was able as one bodyEgypt
and Sudanto burst into the modern era. In this way, Muhammad Ali put
an end to hundreds of years of political decline and deterioration that the
Mamluks had inflicted on Sudan even more than on Egypt itself.29 He reestablished one country that politically and nationally reunited Egypt and
Sudan, that created a holy unity between the two parts of this vast homeland. In this way, the unity fostered a great cultural awakening throughout the land of the Nile. It generated processes of change, reform, and modernization that raised the nation of the Nile Valley to a new cultural level,
that of a modern, progressing, and enlightened nation.30
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
As a geographer, Huzayyin was sensitive to space and environment. However, he did not overlook time and history. He challenges the static and
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archaic paradigm of the national pharaonicist ideology, which assumes that

the rigid and unchanging physical structure of the Nile Valley preserved
the pharaonic core of the Egyptian nation. This nationalistic approach, according to Huzayyin, made an absurd reduction of time to place and created a mythic, stagnant, and ahistorical representation of a stultified and
eternal national Egyptian existence. According to it, present-day Egyptians
are pharaonic and Egypts present is a precise reflection of its ancient
past.31 Huzayyin challenges this pharaonist narrative about the national
past. He suggests an alternative, dynamic paradigm for an understanding
of the historical development of the changing Egyptian reality. He rejects
the total reduction of human existence to the natural environment. In continuous and consecutive processes one can always discern breaks and discontinuities. In his view, the environment of the Nile Valley underwent
profound changes and frequent upheavals in technological and intellectual
spheres that altered the economic, mental, and cultural structure of the
human community living in it. Added to these were social and political
transformations that were clearly expressed in the changing nature of
forms of government, of dominant elites, and of the regimes that ruled the
land of the Nile. He poses a rhetorical question: Was the political system
of the pharaohs and the elite that predominated in their time the same
regime or elite that ruled during the Mamluk period or the modern era of
Muhammad Alis dynasty? Obviously, the political history of Egypt is
one marked by a multiplicity of constant change and upheaval that gave
rise to new rulers and new predominant elites.32
However, Huzayyin tries to illustrate the innovative mentality of the
Egyptian community in the most important sphere of its lifeagriculture,
the cultivation of the land and the rural pattern of life. That is precisely
where he sees that an attempt was made to depict the unvarying eternal
continuity of the life of the fellahin and the agrarian communities. Hu zayyin believes there can be no greater mistake than that. He describes at
length the transformations that took place in agricultural crops in Egypt:
from an ancient agriculture based on grain crops such as wheat and oats
to crops of vegetables and fruits, beans, olive groves, and vineyards, and
later to the adoption of industrial branches of agriculture such as long-staple cotton and sugarcane. All of these changes in land cultivation and the
introduction of new crops could not have taken place without the introduction of a new engineering technology. The construction of irrigation
basins, dams, and water pumps called for new engineering and hydraulic
know-how and the organizational ability to apply that knowledge in the
field. Moreover, these innovations called for the cooperation and consent of
the growersthe fellahin who worked the land. They required the adoption
of modes of thought and action on their part in order to absorb the new technologies into the agricultural economy. In other words, the revolutionary
211
technological developments spurred significant mental changes. In Hu zayyins view, they prove beyond any doubt that claims such as the
Egyptians are conservatives who zealously guard an unchanging tradition
are groundless and ahistorical. They are also fraudulent when they are uttered by Egyptian nationalists trying to prove the uninterrupted and eternal
existence of the Egyptian nation.33
In the cultural sphere Huzayyin finds additional evidence of what he
views as the Egyptian readiness to adapt to change and to accept innovations. In this sphere, the Egyptians and the Sudanese on several occasions
absorbed languages, religions, beliefs, customs, and symbolic systems that
came to them from outside the Nile Valley. In the process of acclimatizing to the Nile environment, new cultures were indeed stamped with a distinctly Nilotic imprint. However, they also forced the local population to
change, leading to new historical stages in the life of the people of the Nile
Valley. The acceptance of Hellenism in the post-pharaonic period, the
adaptation to the Roman and Byzantine cultures and patterns of government in the first centuries A.D., and above all, the reception of Islam evince
the Egyptians great adaptability to substantive cultural changes. The
changes made in belief systems, laws, languages, customs, and traditions,
and the ability to accept the new and relinquish or forget the old, or to
reinvent it as a new traditionall these attest to the Egyptian openness
to cultural change. They refute the claim of cultural conservatism.34
In fact, for Huzayyin the processes of the Islamization and Arabization
of Egypt are the strongest historical proof of the innovative mentality of
the Egyptians and the Sudanese and their openness to cultural reconstructions. He devoted a special effort to prove that the processes of reception
of Islam and Arabic by the inhabitants of the Nile Valley wrought profound cultural changes in them. Moreover, the Egyptian civilizations acceptance of Islam and Arabism strengthened its ability to survive, imbued
it with political and intellectual prowess, and enhanced its influence on the
entire Near East. Here also, Huzayyin challenges the territorialist paradigm that endeavored to represent the Egyptian personality as one that is
free of any Arabic and Islamic influences and to establish it on purely
pharaonic foundations.35 Once again Huzayyin denies the pharaonist theory that the hard core of the Egyptian personality has remained pharaonic and that external cultural forces have had no real influence on its evolution. The Islamic religion and the Arabic language and culture have
become the key elements shaping the Egyptian personality and the life of
the people of the Nile Valley. A cultural-symbolic negotiation is constantly
being conducted between Islam and Arabism, on the one hand, and Egyptianism, on the other, and it has brought about enduring reciprocal influences between them. Egyptianism has been reshaped as an Islamic Arabic
entity. Islam and Arabism, in turn, following their assimilation in the Nile
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Valley, have been reshaped: under the strong impact of the environment,
they have taken on a local Egyptian character that has made them into cultural forces that are friendly to the human Egyptian-Sudanese environment. 36 But here also Huzayyin remains Egyptocentric in his approach. He
explains to his readers that the processes of Islamization and Arabization
first took place in Egypt and only then moved on to the Sudan. The Arabs
[the Muslims] came through Egypt to paint Sudan with their Arabic color,
he emphasizes. 37 The Muslim conquerors did not arrive directly in Sudan
from the Arabian Peninsula. They spread there from Egypt, and only after
the religion and language they brought with them had been assimilated
into the Egypt pot and had taken on an Egyptian complexion were they
passed on, in their new local form, to the inhabitants of Sudan. Again, it
was northern Egypt that served as the source of the creation and dissemination of the Arab-Islamic culture to all the other parts of the homeland of
the Nile Valley.38
In Huzayyins view, the present Islamic-Arabic identity of the inhabitants of the Nile Valley is natural and authentic. Moreover, Islam and Arabism have reinforced the national unity between Egypt and Sudan. Both
the linguistic and the religious unity have fortified the geographical and
ethnic unity and reconstructed the Nile nation as an Arabic-Islamic nation.
Huzayyin does not conceal from his readers the fact that the establishment
of the Arab League in 1945, the growing involvement of Egypt in Arab affairs and Arab culture, and the intensification of the sense of Arabist identity among Egyptians and Sudanese formed the background of his scientific endeavor to stress the Arabic essence of the unity of the Nile Valley.39
THE POLITICAL CONCLUSION
For Huzayyin, the unity of the Nile Valley is a natural given. The boundary line drawn by the imperialistic rule at the latitude of 22 degrees is an
unnatural boundary because it was drawn along an imaginary line. The
attempt to establish an administrative or a political border between
Egypt and Sudan is unwarranted and is bound to fail, because it violates
what Huzayyin defines as the human and physical al-hudud al-hayawiyya
(vital borders) that nature has created and preserved.40 Hence, he believes
that the aspiration of the Egyptian-Sudanese nation to realize its united national sovereignty in a territory with genuine and trustworthy geographical
boundaries is justified and would abolish the artificial boundary of 1899.41
Huzayyin also formulates this national link in more practical terms
economic and strategic. The economy of Egypt drinks the waters of the
Nile and is in need of its free supply. Without Sudan, which holds part of
the Nile sources and constitutes the rivers main drainage area, Egypt has
213
no life. Its need for unity with Sudan is therefore essential and existential. In the strategic sphere, Egypt is dependent on Sudan as a security
backyard to ensure Egypts economic prosperity and its physical defense
against threats to the sources of the Nile. The Sudanese territory is Egypts
natural strategic and economic space. Egypt will never find a secure and
tranquil life for herself without the Sudan, he makes clear. 42 Hence, the
nullification of the artificial 1899 border is essential for the very assurance
of the natural material and cultural life of Egypt. Huzayyin sums up this
argument by stating that the unity of the Nile Valley is natures commandment and a geographical truth, but it is also an existential necessity for Egypt from the national, economic, political, cultural, and strategic points of view. As a geographer, he is obliged to promote the scientific
truth of the geographical unity of the Nile Valley; as an Egyptian nationalist, he must make that truth the basis of political, economic, and security considerations.43
NOTES
I am grateful to Donald M. Reid for having provided me with valuable biographical information on Sulayman Huzayyin. The research for this study was supported
by a grant from the (American-Israeli) Binational Science Foundation.
1. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations, pp. 183190.
2. Ibid., pp. 157161. See also Zerubavel, Recovered Roots, pp. 336.
3. Huzayyin, Mustaqbal al-Thaqafa, pp. 415528; D. M. Reids personal interview with Sulayman Huzayyin on 13 October 1987 at the Geographical Society
in Cairo; Reid, The Egyptian Geographical Society, pp. 559563. For Huzayyins concept of Egypt in prehistory see his Qablu an Yabda al-Tarikh fi
Misr, Al-Katib al-Misri, February 1948, pp. 5261.
4. Huzayyin, Hadarat Misr; Huzayyin, Mustaqbal al-Thaqafa; Huzayyin,
Ard al-Uruba.
5. Huzayyin, Mustaqbal al-Thaqafa, pp. 415418.
6. Ibid., pp. 416441; Huzayyin, Wahdat Wadi al-Nil wa-Muqawwamatuha
al-Jughrafiyya wa-al-Tarikhiyya, Al-Katib al-Misri, February 1946, pp. 3140.
7. Huzayyins interview with Reid, Cairo, 13 October 1987. See also Sulayman Huzayyin, Bayna al-Ilm wa-al-Siyasa, Al-Katib al-Misri, April 1947, pp.
435445.
8. Huzayyin, Mustaqbal al-Thaqafa, pp. 444478; Reid, The Egyptian Geographical Society, pp. 560567.
9. Reid, The Egyptian Geographical Society, pp. 556562; Huzayyin, Mustaqbal al-Thaqafa, pp. 434470. See also Huzayyin, Al-Hind Bayna al-Wahda
wa-al-Taqsim, Al-Katib al-Misri, October 1947, pp. 3141.
10. Huzayyin, Mustaqbal al-Thaqafa, pp. 450452, 455457, 462470.
11. Ibid., pp. 432433.
12. See various issues of Al-Katib al-Misri in the period 19451947.
13. For a detailed treatment of the period see Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and
Revolution, pp. 577582; al-Rafii, Fi Aqab al-Thawra al-Misriyya, pp. 154215;
Erlich, Students and University, pp. 139168; Quraishi, Liberal Nationalism in
214
Egypt, pp. 158163; and Vatikiotis, The Modern History of Egypt, pp. 359363.
See also Harb, Wahdat Wadi al-Nil, whose pamphlet expressed the official position
of the Young Mens Muslim Association. Harb served as president general of the
YMMA. Also see al-Nuqrashi, Qadiyyat Wadi al-Nil, whose pamphlet is based on
the official address by the Egyptian prime minister (al-Nuqrashi) at the UN Security Council on 5 August 1947.
14. See issues of Al-Katib al-Misri in the period 19461948.
15. Huzayyin, Rawabit al-Tabia wa-al-Tarikh fi Wadi al-Nil, Al-Katib alMisri, May 1947, pp. 653663; Huzayyin, Wahdat Wadi al-Nil, Al-Katib al-Misri,
February 1946, pp. 3133, 3940.
16. Some of these articles and essays were later republished in Huzayyin,
Hadarat Misr, pp. 143192, 273302.
17. Huzayyin, Rawabit al-Tabia wa-al-Tarikh, pp. 653655; Huzayyin,
Wahdat Wadi al-Nil, pp. 3840.
18. Huzayyin, Rawabit al-Tabia wa-al-Tarikh, pp. 653659.
19. Ibid., pp. 653663.
20. Ibid., pp. 655656.
21. Ibid., pp. 653663, quotation from p. 653. See also Huzayyin, Rabitat alMa fi Wadi al-Nil, Al-Katib al-Misri, January 1947, pp. 5162.
22. Huzayyin, Rabitat al-Jins wa-al-Thaqafa fi Wadi al-Nil, Al-Katib alMisri, July 1947, pp. 228242; quotation from Huzayyin, Rawabit al-Tabia waal-Tarikh, p. 653.
23. Huzayyin, Rabitat al-Jins wa-al-Thaqafa, pp. 228242.
24. Ibid.; Huzayyin, Wahdat Wadi al-Nil, pp. 3340. See also Huzayyin,
Bayna al-Delta wa-al-Said, Al-Katib al-Misri, March 1948, pp. 220228.
25. Huzayyin, Misr Halqat al-Ittisal al-Thaqafi bayna al-Sharq wa-al-Gharb,
Al-Katib al-Misri, December 1945, pp. 369384; Huzayyin, Rabitat al-Jins wa-alThaqafa, pp. 232242; Huzayyin, Fayadan al-Nil wa-Atharuhu fi al-Hadara alMisriyya, Al-Katib al-Misri, October 1946, pp. 4556.
26. Huzayyin, Rawabit al-Tabia wa-al-Tarikh, p. 660. See also pp. 659
662.
27. Huzayyin, Rabitat al-Jins wa-al-Thaqafa, pp. 228242; Huzayyin,
Rawabit al-Tabia wa-al-Tarikh, pp. 658663.
28. Ibid., pp. 661662, quotation from p. 661.
29. Ibid., p. 662.
30. Ibid.
31. For this approach, which was dominant in the nationalist ideology of the
1920s and still influential in the 1930s and 1940s, see Gershoni and Jankowski,
Egypt, Islam, and the Arabs, pp. 130227; Reid, Nationalizing the Pharoanic
Past, pp. 127149.
32. Huzayyin, Al-Misriyyun wa-al-Muhafaza ala al-Qadim, Al-Katib alMisri, January 1947, pp. 624637; Huzayyin, Marhalatan fi Tarikh Misr alAmm, Al-Katib al-Misri, May 1948, pp. 529538.
33. Huzayyin, Al-Misriyyun wa-al-Muhafaza ala al-Qadim, pp. 626632.
Huzayyin, Kayfa Nashat al-Madaniyya fi Misr, Al-Katib al-Misri, December
1947, pp. 375384. See also Huzayyin, Nashat al-Ziraa wa-Atharuha fi Tarikh
al-Hadara, Al-Katib al-Misri, January 1948, pp. 589598.
34. Huzayyin, Al-Misriyyun wa-al-Muhafaza ala al-Qadim, pp. 632637;
Huzayyin, Kayfa Nashat al-Madaniyya fi Misr, pp. 375384.
35. Huzayyin, Al-Misriyyun wa-al-Muhafaza ala al-Qadim, pp. 633636;
Huzayyin, Rawabit al-Tabia wa-al-Tarikh, pp. 660661.
215
36. Huzayyin, Misr Halqat al-Ittisal al-Thaqafi, pp. 372384.

37. Huzayyin, Rawabit al-Tabia wa-al-Tarikh, p. 660.
38. Ibid., pp. 660661; Huzayyin, Misr Halqat al-Ittisal al-Thaqafi, pp.
376379; Huzayyin, Rabitat al-Jins wa-al-Thaqafa, pp. 238239.
39. Huzayyin, Al-Jamia al-Arabiyya wa-Muqawwamatuha al-Jughrafiyya
wa-al-Tarikhiyya, Al-Katib al-Misri, January 1946, pp. 529542. See also his articles in Al-Katib al-Misri, March 1946, pp. 243255, and April 1948, pp.
357367; Huzayyin, Ard al-Uruba, pp. 11268; Huzayyin, Mustaqbal al-Thaqafa,
pp. 5984. Another representation of Huzayyins dynamic conception of Egyptian
history can be found in his series of essays on War and Geography, published in
Al-Katib al-Misri. See for example Bayna al-Harb wa-al-Jughrafiyya: Al-Hurub
al-Alamiyya wa-Mawqi Misr, April 1946, pp. 414424; Bayn al-Harb wa-alJughrafiyya: Al-Sharq al-Awsat wa-al-Harb, May 1946, pp. 586600; Bayna alHarb wa-al-Jughrafiyya: Dawafi al-Harb wa-Ahdafuha fi Auruba, July 1946, pp.
224237; and Bayna al-Harb wa-al-Jughrafiyya: Al-Khitat al-Kubra fi al-Harb alAlamiyya al-Akhira, August 1946, pp. 413427.
40. Huzayyin, Wahdat Wadi al-Nil, pp. 3140.
41. Ibid., p. 32.
42. Ibid., pp. 3239.
43. Ibid., pp. 3140. See also Huzayyin, Rabitat al-Ma fi Wadi al-Nil, pp.
5162.
Part 4
Contemporary Voices
16
The Aswan High Dam and

Revolutionary Symbolism
in Egypt
Yoram Meital
This chapter examines the construction of the Aswan High Dam in the
context of the revolutionary experience of the Egyptian regime and society
in the wake of the military coup of July 23, 1952. This study forms part
of a project whose aim is an integrative examination of the characteristic
features of the postmonarchical revolutionary experience in Egypt; namely
those processes by which the revolutionary regime and its supporters had
tried, mainly during the formative years 19521967, to forge new symbols
and values, and to disseminate them by diverse measures in public and private spheres. These efforts were targeted to present the new regime and its
policy as evidence of the revolutionary change that took place in postmonarchical Egypt. The actions of the Free Officers attested to their conviction that the seizing of power had given them a real chance of transforming the political, economic, and social domains.
The aspiration of the new leaders of Egypt to cause sweeping changes
was not grounded on a detailed program inspired by any solid ideological
agenda. In the immediate postrevolutionary stage, the intentions of the leaders regarding a number of central issues were unclear. The Free Officers
considered the status quo ante to have been the central cause of Egypts ills.
Their basic objective was to guarantee their hold on power in the long run
and to take vigorous action to consolidate a new comprehensive reality in
their country, with commitment to the July revolution as its dominant driving force. The first moves of the Free Officers were therefore intended to
dramatically change the status quo, which had characterized the monarchic
era, and to create a dramatic atmosphere of sweeping change. Their actions
attested to their conviction that the seizing of power had given them a
golden opportunity to transform the political, economic, and social spheres.
219
220
Contemporary Voices
The central argument of this chapter is that under the impact of the
construction of the High Dam, some of the main symbols of the revolution
were finally consolidated; foremost among them was the connection between such national goals as social-economic development and the struggle against imperialism. This huge project was designed to serve as fundamental leverage for the regimes agricultural and industrial plans.
However, the lack of internal financial resources and technological capability brought Egypt, in 19541955, to apply for Western aid. The initial
reactions were positive, as the United States, Britain, and the World Bank
expressed their willingness to support the project and to provide it with
substantial financial aid. This goodwill on the part of the international
community was reversed, however, following the strengthening of Egypts
image as a central leader of the anti-imperialist struggle. This image basically emerged from Cairos objection to Western efforts to consolidate regional military pacts (such as the Baghdad Pact), along with its support for
national liberation movements (like the Algerian Front de Libration Nationale). Some Western capitals followed the Egyptian activities within the
Non-Alignment group of states with much concern. Egypts recognition of
the Peoples Republic of China on May 16, 1956, its growing contacts
with the Soviet Union, and the increasing prestige of president Gamal
Abdel Nasser, especially after the role he played in the Bandung Conference (March 1824, 1955), only exacerbated existing Western anxiety.
It seems that the signing of the Egyptian-Czechoslovakian arms deal
had a crucial effect on Egypts image in many Western states, as well as
in Israel. This arms deal was perceived in the West as an expression of a
fundamental change in Cairos foreign policy orientation. The deal, which
was negotiated between Egypt and the Soviet Union during the summer of
1955 and announced in September 27, was immediately perceived as an
event with enormous regional and international implications. Egypt emphasized the direct impact of the Israel Defense Forces raid on Gaza in
February 1955 as the main motivating cause of this arms deal. The thirtyeight Egyptian officers and soldiers who had been killed during the raid
symbolized the poor condition of the Egyptian armed forces and ultimately
injured the national pride of its revolutionary regime. In view of these circumstances, Egypt decided to intensify its efforts to seek modern arms
abroad. 1 However, the political circumstances of the Cold War made the
issue of an arms deal a complicated one. The United States, for one, opposed Egypts request for modern arms, arguing that it ran against Washingtons commitment for the restraint of the arms race in the Middle East.
The arms that Britain was willing to sell Egypt were limited both in quantity and quality. The Egyptian leadership thus felt increasingly frustrated.
At that time they considered on several occasions the possibility of approaching the Eastern bloc. They were well aware of the broad implication
and risks that could entail such a move toward the Soviets. This can be
The Aswan High Dam
221
learned, for example, from Egypts foreign minister at the time, Mahmoud
Fawzi, who noted in his memoirs, When the Egyptians and the Americans
were alone together, Nasser said, You know, Ive had a lot to do with the
Russians, and I dont like the Russians. Ive had a lot to do with your people, and basically I like your people.2 However, as hope for acquiring
arms from Western sources declined, the sensitive decision to turn to the
Eastern bloc was ultimately taken.
The United States and Britain feared that Egypts reorientation toward
the Eastern bloc could harm their efforts to secure their interests in the
Middle East, specifically the efforts to circumscribe Soviet penetration of
the region. Consequently, on July 19, 1956, Washington announced its
withdrawal from its previous intention to provide some financial aid for
the High Dam project. Similar announcements were soon made by Britain
and the World Bank. This development reflected the fact that the United
States and Britain, as well as Israel and France, reassessed their policies
toward Egyptand this had a direct effect on the evolution of the Suez
crisis. From Nassers perspective, Western reactions were bound to undermine some of his most vital policy issues (i.e., arms supply, socialeconomic development, and political maneuvers). First and foremost, however, he felt that the steps that had been taken by the West could jeopardize
the position of Egypt as a sovereign and independent state. The Egyptian
president thus reacted unequivocally and vigorously: he declared the nationalization of the Suez Canal. Hence, the Suez crisis was born, during
which the concerned parties took some unpredicted steps that were destined to have substantial implications on the history of the Middle East.
The announcement of the cancellation of Western financial aid for the
High Dam project reached Egypt only a few days before the fourth anniversary of the July revolution. After some discussions regarding the options left for Egypt, Nasser decided to go ahead with the idea of declaring
the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company. According to Muhammad
Hasanayn Haykal, at that point Nasser summarized his thoughts on the
issue in a handwritten paper dated July 22, 1956. In this personal document he wrote that the nationalization of the Suez Canal would give Egypt
the financial resources required to cover the costs that it needed for the
construction of the High Dam. He described his decision as an act that
would gain the support of all Egyptians who dreamed of the day when the
canal would be under direct Egyptian rule. He thus considered the nationalization as a true expression of Egypts full independence, including its
freedom of political maneuvering. Nasser surmised that the vast majority
of the Arabs would support his decision, and he considered this support a
message for the West in general and the United States in particular.3
Nasser had carefully calculated his steps in that sensitive situation. He
therefore decided to announce the nationalization of Suez Canal Company
in his traditional speech on the occasion of King Faruqs exile. It was the
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first appearance in public of Egypts president since Western aid for the
High Dam had been canceled. Many had, therefore, expected Nasser to
disclose his countrys reaction during his speech in Alexandria on July 26.
In this speech, Nasser described at length Egypts national struggle for true
independence and freedom. He reviewed the history of the Suez Canal,
emphasizing that it had been planned all along to serve and secure the interests of Western imperialism. We dug the Canal with our lives, our
skulls, our bones, our blood, he told his audience, but
instead of the Canal being dug for Egypt, Egypt became the property of
the Canal. . . . It is no shame for one to be poor and to borrow in order
to build up ones country; what is a shame is to suck the blood of a people and usurp their rights. . . . Does history repeat itself? On the contrary!
We shall build the High Dam and we shall gain our usurped rights. . . .
Therefore I have signed today, and the government has approved, a resolution for the nationalization of the Universal Company of the Suez Maritime Canal.4
Although many were aware of the growing tension between Egypt and
the West, it seems that no one was prepared for such a dramatic statement.
The symbolic linkage between the content of Nassers announcement (i.e.,
the nationalization of the Suez Canal) and the venue in which it had been
made (the anniversary of Faruqs exile) was pregnant with symbolic meanings for the Egyptian public. This linkage was fully exploited by Nasser, to
the point that when he reached the last part of his speech he reiterated that
in the same way as Faruq left on 26 July 1952, the old Suez Canal Company also leaves us on the same day.5 Hence, the Suez crisis was born,
during which the concerned parties took some unpredicted steps that were
destined to have substantial implications on the history of the Middle East.
Egypts policy during this crisis, and especially Nassers dramatic
statements, had a significant impact on the forging of the revolutions symbols. At this stage Nasser appeared with his extraordinary abilities to express the deepest national sentiments of wide sectors and even to create the
impression that Egypts political agenda was determined by these sentiments. Using symbols and images, Nasser, like other spokesmen and many
supporters of the regime, gave the struggle for the construction of the High
Dam and the Suez crisis meanings that went far beyond the question of irrigation, agricultural and industrial development, or of military confrontation in the battlefield. Since the initial stages of the crisis Nasser tended to
describe the causes of its outbreak, as well as Egypts position on it, as
part of Egypts long national struggle for true independence and freedom,
as well as a part of its struggle for the revolutionary regimes values. In a
certain way, these tactics reflected a permanent effort to present the revolutionary ideas and policies as a practical concept available for use in the
The Aswan High Dam
223
political, social, and cultural spheres. Thus, like many other monuments
and events, the Aswan High Dam was used as a metaphor that encompassed most of the national and cultural challenges that Egypt and the rest
of the Arab states had faced. These included the struggle for national liberation and the establishment of political and economic infrastructures.
Diverse measures were employed by the regime with the efforts to disseminate the symbolism of the construction of the High Dam in the public
and the private spheres. These efforts were expressed in countless official
sources, street and square names, as well as in stamps, postcards, and, of
course, in school textbooks. The High Dam is described in these sources in
the most positive way. A formal expression of this hegemonic narrative
can be found in the following words from the national charter:
The revolutionary solution to the problem of land in Egypt is by increasing the number of land-owners. Such was the aim of the laws of land reform issued in 1952 and 1962. This aimbesides the other aims of raising productionwas one of the motive powers behind the great irrigation
projects, whose powerful symbol is the Aswan High Dam, for the sake of
which the people of Egypt have suffered all sort of armed, economic and
psychological wars. This Dam has become the symbol of the will and determination of the people to fashion its life.6
However, a greater importance should be attributed to the intensive

presence of almost the same arguments and symbols in nonofficial quarters. Since the mid-1950s the Aswan High Dam has been used in Egypt as
a metaphor that encompassed most of the national and cultural challenges
that Egypt had faced. These included the struggle for national liberation
and the establishment of political and economic infrastructures. Such
metaphorical uses were apparent in the spheres of modern arts, poetry,
popular songs, novels, dramatic plays, and movies. The tremendous popularity of the most prominent creators in these spheres among wide sectors
of the Egyptian public enhanced the importance of the content of their
works. Since 1956, dozens of songs, musical works, plays, and films were
produced, which incorporated the hegemonic narrative about the construction of the High Dam and reinforced the positive image of the July revolution among wide sectors of the Egyptian public.
As a result of this process, in official documents like the National
Charter, as well as in statements and works of prominent intellectuals,
artists, and public personalities (like Taha Husayn, Tawfiq al-Hakim,
Abbas Mahmud, Yahya Haqqi, and Louis Awad), the Aswan High Dam
was depicted as a legitimate historical, moral, and political action; and the
struggle for the completion of this huge project was characterized as a fundamental struggle for the countrys freedom and independence. It is worth
mentioning that the policy taken by the regime toward the construction of
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the High Dam received the support of many distinguished intellectuals, despite the fact that some of them were known as critics of the revolutionary regime. For example, the renowned intellectual Tawfiq al-Hakim declared on several occasions his support for the High Dam project, and
during the Suez war he was quoted as saying that if he was to be called, he
would be prepared to hold arms and fight the invading forces.7
There are many examples of the Egyptian general public support for
the High Dam. However, I think that one of the most interesting reflections of this broad support can be found in popular and patriotic songs of
the time. A perfect example of this can be found in Umm Kulthums song
Tahwil al-Nil (Transforming the Nile), which was set to music by one
of the greatest composers in Egypt, Muhammad Abd al-Wahab. This song
hailed the construction of the High Dam and its contribution to Egypt and
its population in the following idealistic and nostalgic lyrics:
We had changed the stream of the Nile
I salute this change;
which may be a token of the change in our life
and not only of the Nile River.
Who, who would have believed,
that the river which runs for millions of years
its direction left and right
we would change at our own will,
and even install adjustments in it.
the Dam is no more a fantasy
but an unprecedented fact.
I gaze with overwhelming joy
at an all-enlightening future
with flourishing factories,
and the color of green covering the arid land.
Life of tranquillity in abundance for all people
and a pleasant journey to the top.8
Nevertheless, at the same time, criticism of the revolutionary regime
and its policies including the construction of the High Dam was also evident. In this context several persons described the project as Damocles
sword, which endangered the very existence of Egypt, and which could
one day strike the population in a destructive manner. Others described the
High Dam as an example of the incorrect national priorities of the revolutionary regime that preferred a grandiose project with an uncertain future,
instead of finding a solution to the much more urgent daily problems that
The Aswan High Dam
225
dominated the social, economic, and political life. An expression of this

thought can be found in the following words of the well-known critic Sabri
Hafiz, who wrote: The sixties was indeed a decade of confusion, a decade
of numerous huge projects and the abolition of almost all political activities;
massive industrialization and the absolute absence of freedom; the construction of the High Dam and the destruction of the spirit of opposition; the expansion of free education and the collective arrest of intellectuals.9
The most critical metaphoric use of the High Dam can be found in the
writings of Sunallah Ibrahim. In his works Ibrahim sophistically made use
of the High Dam as a metaphor in his critique on the revolutionary regime.
Ibrahim argued that the revolution, much like the High Dam, could be divided into two stages: an initial stage of simple, clear work that involved
digging on a large scale, and a second more technical stage characterized
by its specialization and complexity. For Ibrahim, these two stages in the
physical project suggested parallels with the developments in the revolutionary project itself. In this regard, Ibrahim said:
Have not revolutions and historical rebellions always passed through
these two stages? In the beginning the goal is simple and clear and everything is either black or white, with or against. There is enthusiasm and
faith in the future and the ability to change the course of history. Not a
time for reflection and analysis. Then the revolution is accomplished and
another stage with a slower rhythm begins: tasks are more complex, objectives are less clear, and shadows of gray begin to smear the whiteness
and the blackness. This becomes the time for thinking. What about? The
mistakes of the first stage and the possibilities of the future.10
CONCLUSION
During the revolutionary experience symbols and images were important

factors in the struggle to win the sympathy and support of various sectors
of Egyptian society for the new regime, its values and leadership. The
struggle for the building of the Aswan High Dam, like several other national projectsthe Tahrir and New Valley provinces, and the Helwan Iron
and Steel complexwas appropriated by the revolutionary regime and its
supporters as a central symbol in their efforts to construct Egypts new values and policies. At the same time, the High Dam was used by others as a
metaphor for their criticism of the revolutionary regime and its policies.
In many regards, the High Dam can be consider as lieu de mmoire, or
site of memory, a definition that was brilliantly invited by Pierre Nora, who
argued that the lieu de mmoire was characterized by three senses of the
wordmaterial, symbolic, and functional; three aspects that always coexist, and are created by a play of memory and history.11 In addition, it is
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worth mentioning that the High Dam was a symbolic site of memory even
before the dam was officially opened in July 1970; more than that, the attractiveness of the High Dam as a central site of memory of the July revolution did not disappear when the revolutionary experience in Egypt came
to its end following the 1967 defeat. Current evidence for the durability
of this process can be found in the film Nasir 56. Apart from the heated
debate that erupted regarding the historical accuracy of the script, what is
much more important for this chapter is that when it was decided to produce (with unprecedented investment) a sympathetic film on Nasser, it was
decided almost naturally to concentrate on his policy during the first stage
of the struggle for the construction of the High Dam and the Suez crisis,
which erupted consequently.
NOTES
1. In extensive research conducted by Egypts defense ministry, it is argued
that following the Gaza raid, Cairo decided to invest many more efforts and resources in the purchase of arms (Jumhuriyyat Misr al-Arabiyya, Harb al-udwan
al-thulathi [The Tripartite War], pp. 11, 21). The causes that motivated Israels decisionmakers during 19551956 are discussed in Tal, Israels Road to the 1956
War, pp. 5981.
2. Fawzi, Suez 1956, p. 31.
3. Haykal, Milafat al-suwis (The Suez files), p. 459. It was claimed in some
sources that several times before 1956 the idea of nationalization of the Canal had
been discussed in Egypt. See Fawzi, Suez 1956, pp. 3840; and Hamrush in
Maraqat al-suwis, pp. 910. For the perspective of those who were charged with
the management of the canal after it was nationalized, see Qanat al-suwis walayam alatti hazat al-dunya (The Suez Canal and the days that had shaken the
world), Cairo, 1987.
4. Al-Ahram, 27 July 1956.
5. Ibid.
6. Al-Jumhuriyya al-Arabiyya al-Mutahida, Mashru al-mithaq21 mayu
sanat 1962, p. 74.
7. See, for example, his article in Al-Ahram, 1 May 1962.
8. Umm Kulthumhayat w-aghani kawkab al-sharq, Beirut, n.d., p. 161.
9. Hafiz, The Egyptian Novel in the Sixties, p. 171.
10. As quoted in Mehrez, Egyptian Writers Between History and Fiction, p.
125. Mehrez emphasized that this unique writing reached its climax in the story of
Najmat Aghustus (Augusts Star) in which Ibrahim represents a complex structure
that critically reflects on and rereads the stages of the revolutionary process as they
consolidated themselves in the physical presence of the High Dam (p. 126).
11. Nora, Between Memory and History, pp. 725.
17
The Nile in Egyptian-Sudanese

Relations, 19561995
Gabriel Warburg
The June 26, 1995 assassination attempt on President Husni Mubaraks life
in Addis Ababa triggered an acute crisis and a fierce war of words between
Egypt and Sudan. The immediate issue was political Islam, which had
been behind the assassination attempt. Egypt accused the Sudanese authorities of having trained the would-be assassins and of smuggling them
across its border with Ethiopia. 1 However, as in many previous conflicts
which have developed since Sudan achieved independence in 1956, the
Nile waters and the Egyptian-Sudanese border soon featured high on the
agenda. Hasan al-Turabi, leader of the National Islamic Front (NIF), who
is believed to be the power behind the throne in Khartoum, threatened to
cut off the Nile water supply to Egypt. The next clash occurred in the Halayib Triangle, on the Egyptian-Sudanese border, where in the first week
of July military patrols from the two countries clashed and several Sudanese lost their lives.2 Several years have passed since the assassination
attempt took place, yet the conflict is far from being resolved. The UN Security Council has implemented sanctions against Sudan in response to its
failure to hand over the suspected terrorists to Ethiopia, but to no avail.
Egyptian-Sudanese relations are as bad as ever, as the deteriorating situation in Sudan and its tense relations with nearly all its neighbors continue
to threaten the stability of the whole region. A leading Egyptian commentator observed recently that Egypts relations with Sudan are no longer
emotional, political, or historical as they were prior to Sudans independence. Due to the scarcity of water on the one hand and the population explosion on the other, the stability of these relations has become a matter of
survival. Sudans instability as a nation-state and the fact that after more
than forty years of independence it is still torn apart by ethnic, religious,
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Contemporary Voices
and sectarian conflicts suggest that Egypt cannot regard Sudan as a dependable neighbor. The well-known Egyptian commentator, Milad Hana,
noted in a recent article that historically the slogan of those advocating
unity was always the Unity of the Nile Valley and not the Unity of
Egypt and the Sudan, for the Nile was the bond uniting the two regions,
not its people. This remains true today, regardless of the regimes ruling in
Egypt and Sudan.3 My following observations will therefore be limited to
the Nile because of its paramount position in Egyptian-Sudanese relations,
in comparison with the other conflicts mentioned above.
THE NILE IN EGYPTIAN-SUDANESE

RELATIONS BEFORE INDEPENDENCE
As a result of Egypts rapid population growth on the one hand and the
considerable diminution of the flow of the Nile waters in the 1980s on the
other, water became a most sensitive factor in Egyptian politics. On November 5, 1987, the London Times predicted that Egypt, the cradle of civilization, was drying up. It based this prediction on so-called scientific
evidence, namely, that the rains feeding the Blue Nilein the mountains
of Ethiopiawere gradually shifting southward. The New York Times
Cairo correspondent was even more pessimistic when he wrote on February 5, 1990, under the title Now a Little Steam, Later, Maybe, a Water
War, that some Egyptian officials had warned that water, not oil, could be
the Middle Easts next cause for war.
Abd al-Tawwab Abd al-Hayy, an Egyptian journalist who in the
1980s traveled some 6,800 kilometers from the sources of the Nile in Burundi and Ethiopia to Alexandria, on the Mediterranean coast, came to the
conclusion that unless Egypt reached an agreement with its southern
neighborsprimarily Sudanabout the immediate projects needed for
saving the Nile waters, a major catastrophe was imminent.4 Egypts population growth has become so rapid during the twentieth century that it has
passed the 60 million mark in the second half of the 1990s. Other countries
feeding on the Nile have also experienced population growth, though on a
somewhat smaller scale. In Sudan the population increased from about 2
million in 1900 to some 30 million in 1995. Hence, the demands on the
Nile waters have increased at such a rate that despite conservation projects
and the High Dam at Aswan, an acute shortage of water was already evident in the 1980s. Because not a single tributary joins the Nile from Aswan
to Alexandriaa distance of some 1,500 kilometersfuture conservation
projects cannot be executed by Egypt alone and depend on the goodwill
and cooperation of its southern neighbors, primarily Ethiopia and Sudan.
Egypt can decrease its wastage of water by applying economical irrigation
Egyptian-Sudanese Relations, 19561995
229
methods and by putting an end to the profligate waste of water in Cairo

and other cities. And yet, even if all that is executed, Egypt would still
face acute water shortages in the foreseeable future.
The quest for the unity of the Nile Valley was a direct outcome of this
reality and was of crucial importance to the rulers of Egypt long before it
became the slogan of Egypts nationalists toward the end of the nineteenth
century. Following the Egyptian conquest of the Sudan in 18201821, during the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha, it became a major issue. Egypts
agricultural projects, as well as the search for the sources of the Nile, drew
Egypts attention to the centrality of the Nile in its future development and
convinced its rulers that Sudan would have to be ruled from Cairo within
a united Nile Valley. Egyptian politicians and historians viewed this quest
as a legitimate extension of their countrys borders. They argued that
Egypt had been forced by Great Britain to withdraw from Sudan in 1885,
following the Mahdist revolt, because of British imperialist designs.
Hence, it was Egypts historical right to recover this lost territory.5 It was
imperialism that ushered in the so-called scramble for Africa in the 1880s,
during which European powers arbitrarily carved up the black continent
into colonies and areas of influence. Britains aim was to maintain its
supremacy in the Nile Valley, and hence it started its conquest of Sudan in
1896 and ultimately clashed with France in Fashoda (Kodok) on the Upper
Nile, in 1898. In order to overcome European (primarily French) objections to its domination of the Nile, Britain adopted the dual flag policy,
and the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium came into being. The history of
Anglo-Egyptian relations between 1899 and 1956 cannot be understood
without taking this into consideration. For Egyptians of all shades of political opinion, the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, which enabled Britain
to rule the Sudan during these years, was a betrayal of Egypts historical
rights, which embraced the entire Nile Valley. Egyptian nationalists
viewed the condominium as an act of colonialist conquest, and the editor
of Al-Ahram (January 26, 1899) denounced it in an editorial as The Black
Condominium of Sudan. Sad Zaghlul, Egypts most notable nationalist
leader in the postWorld War I period, even stated that Sudan was more
important to Egypt than Alexandria.6 Though one shouldnt take Zaghluls
statement regarding Alexandria literally, it is nonetheless true that the
united Nile Valley that embraced Sudan was viewed by Egyptian nationalists of all political shades as an absolute must.
Following Lord Allenbys ultimatum to the Egyptian government in
the wake of the assassination of Sir Lee Stack, Sudans governor-general,
by an Egyptian nationalist in Cairo in November 1924, mutual relations
and mistrust became even worse. Lord Allenbys subsequent ultimatum to
Egypt led to the resignation of Sad Zaghluls government and to the expulsion of the Egyptian army and most Egyptian officials from Sudan. In
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it Allenby threatened, without Whitehalls consent, that Sudan would be

allowed to exploit as much of the Nile waters as it required, regardless of
Egyptian needs. This threat, though never implemented, had an everlasting
traumatic impact on Egypt, for it impressed upon its rulers that whoever
ruled Khartoum could hold Egypt for ransom. Egypt therefore rejected all
further British attempts to reach a compromise that would grant Sudan the
right of self-determination, and continued to insist on its unity with Egypt
under the Egyptian Crown. There was indeed a national consensus in
Egypt between 1899 and 1955 that once the British were forced to abandon the Nile Valley, unity would prevail forever.
THE NILE AND THE HIGH DAM AFTER INDEPENDENCE
It was only after the Free Officers came to power in July 1952 that a more
realistic policy toward Sudan was adopted in Cairo. President Muhammad
Najib (Nagib)himself half-Sudanese and educated in Sudanrealized
that Sudan had to be granted the right to determine its own future. Nagib
believed that self-determination would lead the Sudanese to opt for unity
with Egypt. But despite the optimism prevailing in Cairo following the
Anglo-Egyptian agreement of February 1953 and the first general elections
in November of that year, in which the pro-unity National Unionist Party
(NUP) won, Sudanese of all shades of opinion chose independence, and on
January 1, 1956, the Republic of Sudan was born. Nagib laid the blame for
the Sudanese change of heart squarely on the shoulders of Gamal Abdel
Nasser. According to Nagib, Nassers antidemo cratic measures and his
mistreatment of Nagib himself frightened even the most avowed pro-unity
Sudanese who feared their fate under a Nasserist dictatorship. Moreover,
the disbanding of all political parties, the public trials of leaders of stature,
such as Mustafa al-Nahhas Pasha, and finally the mass arrests of the members of the Muslim Brothers discouraged Ismail al-Azhari and Sayyid
Ali al-Mirghanithe respective leaders of the NUP and the Khatmiyya
Sufi orderfrom tying their fate to Egypts political upheavals. Abd alAzim Ramadan concluded that this unfortunate turn of events was caused
by the fact that when the dawn of liberalism rose in the Sudan, it set in
Egypt.7
Since 1956 Egypt was therefore faced with the reality of an independent Sudan. The allocation of the Nile waters to the two states had been
raised already in 1955. Ismail al-Azharithe Sudans first prime minister
and until 1954 one of Egypts closest alliesdemanded a revision of the
1929 Anglo-Egyptian agreement regarding the respective shares of the two
countries in the waters of the Nile. The Sudanese argued that the agreement was no longer valid because it had been reached by Britain and
231
Egypt without consulting with them and had discriminated against Sudan
by granting it only one-twenty-second of the total annual flow of Nile
water.8 Sudans request came at an inopportune moment for President
Nasser, for at that time he was considering the feasibility of building the
High Dam at Aswan for which he needed the goodwill and the consent of
the Sudanese. In March 1955, Khidr Hamad, a staunch supporter of unity
with Egypt, undertook his first trip to Egypt as the newly appointed minister of irrigation in al-Azharis government. The Egyptians, represented
by Major Salah Salim, who was put in charge of all matters relating to
Sudan by the Revolutionary Command Council, objected to Sudan exploiting any additional waters before the completion of the High Dam. He
claimed that this would entail less irrigation for Egypt and the death of
thousands of its peasants. He promised, however, that once the dam was
completed, there would be an additional 16 to 22 billion cubic meters per
annum to be divided between Egypt and the Sudan. At this stage the Egyptians also withdrew from their previous agreement to enable Sudan to
build a new dam at Rusayris, on the Blue Nile. They stated that their consent depended on Sudans agreement regarding the High Dam at Aswan.
According to Khidr Hamad, Egypts obstinacy was partly the result of alAzharis decision to opt for an independent Sudan. 9 The growing tension
between Egypt and Sudan included the movement of military forces to the
Halayib Triangle and highlighted the centrality of the Nile in Egyptian-Sudanese relations. Only in October 1959, one year after the military coup
that brought General Ibrahim Abbud to power in Sudan, a new Nile Waters Agreement was signed. It granted Egypt 55.5 billion cubic meters per
annum while Sudans share increased to 18.5 billion cubic meters. Work
on the Aswan Dam started in January 1960 and was completed eleven
years later when it was officially opened by Presidents Sadat and Podgorny. The dam and Lake Nasser, in which surplus waters were stored, increased Egypts water storage capacity from 5.6 to 130 billion cubic meters. It was also predicted that some 1.2 million feddans (roughly the same
size as acres) of land would be reclaimed for agriculture, and that cheap
electricity, to the tune of 10 billion kwh per annum, would be provided
until 1992.10
SADAT AND NUMAYRI: A BRIEF HONEYMOON
President Anwar al-Sadat focused Egypts attention once again on the Nile
Valley for political and economic reasons. Politically Sadat viewed Numayri as an important ally against Soviet designs on the Nile Valley. In the
1970s pro-Soviet regimes in Libya, Chad, Somali, and Ethiopia threatenedaccording to Sadatto encircle Egypt, which had rid itself of
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Contemporary Voices
Soviet domination in July 1972. A friendly, anticommunist Sudan seemed

essential to Sadat in order to forge his new alliance with the West. This
was the regional and international setting for the takamul (integration)
agreement signed by Presidents Sadat and Numayri in February 1974,
which for the first time since 1956 revived the quest for a united Nile Valley. From then until Numayris downfall in April 1985, Sudan became a
dependable ally of Egypt and supported Sadats policies against an almost
united Arab and Muslim front. Sudan did not sever its diplomatic relations
with Egypt in 1979 following the Camp David accords and Egypts boycott by the Arab summit in Baghdad. Economically, cooperation between
Egypt and Sudan flourished, and a number of joint projects were agreed
upon, including the digging of the Jonglei Canal, which sought to save the
waters of the White Nile from evaporating in the sudd. The integration
charter, which had been worked out in detail during these years by a joint
parliament of the Nile Valley, was finally signed by Presidents Mubarak
and Numayri on October 12, 1982.11
During the 1980s there had been a noticeable decrease in the quantity
of water that flowed into Lake Nasser. This had been caused partially by
the continuing drought in East Africa, causing widespread starvation in
Ethiopia, Sudan, and other countries, and by the uncontrollable wastage of
waters in the sudd region of Bahr al-Ghazal. Throughout those years and
despite growing concern, Egypt continued to exploit its full annual share
of 55.5 billion cubic meters granted under the 1959 agreement that without Lake Nasser would have been impossible. How can the flow of waters
into Lake Nasser be increased? One answer was to decrease the loss of
water in the White Nile. In June 1978 Sudan started to dig the Jonglei
Canal from the Sobat River to Malakal, a distance of some 360 kilometers.
Once completed, the canal would have yielded an annual flow of 4.7 billion cubic meters of water, of which 3.8 billion were destined for Lake
Nasser. About 267 kilometers of the canal were completed in February
1984. But digging came to an abrupt end due to an attack on the Sobat
headquarters of the company by Sudans Peoples Liberation Army under
the command of Colonel John Garang. No further progress has been made
since then, and the partially completed canal has turned into a useless ditch
and has become a dangerous hazard to the inhabitants and wildlife in that
region.12
The flow of waters in the Blue Nile had always been regarded as more
reliable, for an average annual flow of 84 billion cubic meters had been
recorded from 1899 to 1959. This too, however, declined considerably
since 1977, when the average flow dropped to 72 billion cubic meters,
with a low of 42 billion cubic meters recorded in 1984, to the dismay of
both Egyptian and other experts. Indeed, between 1984 and 1990 the average annual flow remained at the low level of 52 billion cubic meters. 13
233
These figures provided the background for the prophecies of doom both
in Egypt and elsewhere mentioned above. Egypt was faced with an annual
deficit of nearly 12 billion cubic meters of water in 1988 and with no alternative sources to bridge the gap. Its crucial concerns in this region are
therefore self-evident. Unlike its relations with the Fertile Crescent, which
are primarily of political and strategic importance, Egypts links with its
southern neighbors are vital for its survival, and any threat to the free flow
of the Nile will not be tolerated in Cairo. In an interview with the weekly
Al-Musawwar on May 13, 1988, Marshal Muhammad Abd al-Halim Abu
Ghazala, then Egypts minister of defense, asked himself the following
questions: How will Egypt react if one of its southern neighbors attempts
to divert the Nile waters? Will we die of thirst or fight for the supreme interests of the homeland? His response was that the Egyptian army would
strike if the free flow of the Nile waters was tampered with.
DETERIORATING RELATIONS
AND THE RE-EMERGENCE OF CONFLICTS
Since Numayris downfall in 1985 Egypts relations with Sudan deteriorated rapidly. The integration agreement was abolished unilaterally by alSadiq al-Mahdis government, and bilateral relations were at a low ebb. Irritation with al-Sadiqs policies made Cairo the first to recognize Colonel
Hasan Umar al-Bashir when he overthrew Sudans democratically elected
government in a military coup on June 30, 1989. President Mubarak
hoped, erroneously as it transpired, that the Bashir regime would soon resume Sudans cordial relations with Egypt. But Bashir proved worse than
his predecessor, and Egyptian authorities have ascribed much of Khartoums bellicosity to the malign influence of Hasan al-Turabi, the fundamentalist Muslim leader who heads the NIF, and to Sudans close relationship with Iran. 14 Bashirs government has turned to become the most
hostile Sudanese regime ever faced by Egypt since Sudan became independent in 1956. This hostility has expressed itself primarily in the export
of Islamic violent radicalism into Egypt, culminating in the attempt on
President Mubaraks life, on June 26, 1995. However, it invariably brought
about a conflict over the Nile waters and the Halayib border issue in the
months that followed. To quote Hasan al-Turabi once again: Egypt is
today experiencing a drought in faith and religion . . . , [but] Allah wants
Islam to be revived from Sudan and flow along with the waters of the Nile
to purge Egypt from obscenity.15
Since 1995, when Turabi uttered this warning, many waters have flown
in the Nile, and Sudans internal, regional, and international situation is on
the verge of collapse. A more realistic approach than the one uttered by
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Contemporary Voices
Turabi would view Sudans future as a viable nation-state as rather questionable. Furthermore, it would regard Egypts rather tolerant attitude toward Sudan as a sign of its strength and its unwillingness to become engrossed in the internal conflicts of its southern neighbor. All this may
change overnight if those in power in Sudan will tamper with the free flow
of the Nile waters without Egypts prior agreement.
NOTES
This is an abbreviated version of a chapter published in White Blood Black Blood,
edited by Stephanie Beswick and Jay Spaulding (Lawrenceville, N.J.: Red Sea
Press, 1999).
1. Ethiopia Puts Khartoum on Notice over Terrorism, Sudan Democratic
Gazette, 64 (September 1995), p. 6; according to an Ethiopian investigation, completed in August 1995, all suspects were Egyptian nationals, two of whom had escaped to Sudan, and the Ethiopians demanded their immediate extradition. In a
more recent report official Egyptian sources accused Sudan of not treating this
issue seriously and of evading its responsibility for terrorism (Al-Hayat, 12 July
1996); I am grateful to Yehudit Ronen, from the Dayan Center, for drawing my attention to the Al-Hayat publication.
2. For details see Warburg, The Nile in Egyptian-Sudanese Relations, pp.
565572, and Egypt and Sudan Wrangle over Halayib, pp. 5760.
3. Milad Hana, Azmat al-Sudan, Al-Hayat, 19 February 1997, p. 19. I am
grateful to Professor Sasson Somekh, director of the Israeli Academic Center in
Cairo in 19961997, for drawing my attention to this article.
4. Abd al-Hayy, Al-Nil wal-mustaqbal.
5. Ramadan, Ukdhubat al-istimar al-Misri lil-Sudan, pp. 2128, 6466; see
also Warburg, The Turco-Egyptian Sudan: A Recent Historiographical Controversy, pp. 193215.
6. Ramadan, Ukdhubat al-istimar al-Misri lil-Sudan, p. 74; see also Yunan
Labib Rizk, Al-Ahram: A Diwan of Contemporary Life, Al-Ahram Weekly, 2127
September 1995. Professor Rizk, a renowned authority on Sudanese history, published a series of articles on this issue between 7 September and 25 October in AlAhram Weekly. I am grateful to Dr. Uri M. Kupferschmidt, from Haifa Universitys
department of Middle East history, for drawing my attention to this series.
7. Ramadan, Ukdhubat al-istimar al-Misri lil-Sudan, pp. 165181; see also
Najib, Kalimati lil-tarikh, pp. 193, 231. For a detailed study see Warburg, Historical Discord in the Nile Valley, pp. 62124.
8. Ministry of Irrigation, Waters Question: The Case for Egypt, the Case for
the Sudan Nile, Khartoum, 1955, pp. 23.
9. Hamad, Mudhakarat Khidr, pp. 202204, 207213.
10. Rizk, Al-Ahram Weekly, 1925 October 1995.
11. Abd al-Ghani Saudi, Al-takamul al-Misri al-Sudani; see also Integration Charter Concluded Between Egypt and Sudan, Cairo and Khartoum, 12 October 1982.
12. Collins, The Jonglei Canal; see also Collins, The Waters of the Nile, p. 90.
13. Collins, The Waters of the Nile, pp. 402405.
14. For details on Turabi and the NIF see El-Affendi, Turabis Revolution.
15. Al-Sharq al-Awsat, 6 July 1995. See Ronen, Sudan, and Lowrie, Islam,
Democracy, the State and the West, p. 89.
18
Removing the Nubians:

The Halfawis at
Khashm al-Girba
Ismail H. Abdalla
This chapter assesses a resettlement and development project in eastern

Sudan, the Khashm al-Girba project. It traces the story of relocating
50,000 or so Sudanese Nubians displaced by Lake Nasser in southern
Egypt early in the 1960s and tries to determine the extent to which the resettlement project at Khashm al-Girba has lived up to the high expectations of its planners.
As with any major development scheme, there were many uncertainties in the 1960s with regard to the removal and resettlement of the Sudanese Nubians, or Halfawis. There was, to begin with, the difficult problem of the selection of the resettlement site. Of the six areas proposed for
resettlement, only three seemed to appeal to the Nubians who would be
displaced: the two proposed sites to the north and to the south of Khartoum, and the Wadi al-Khawi near Dongola.1 If they had to move, they
reasoned quite logically, they wanted to be as close as possible to the center of politics and finance, which was Khartoum, the capital. If for any reason the two proposed resettlement areas around Khartoum were excluded,
the alternative was Wadi al-Khawi. To them, Wadi al-Khawi was not far
from their original homeland, its ecosystem was familiar, and its inhabitants, the Dongolawis, were their distant kinfolk. However, they did not
even consider Khashm al-Girba, where they finally were resettled against
their own wishes. The place was strange to them in almost every respect,
and the fact that they knew practically nothing about it made it even less
attractive. But the Sudan military government of General Ibrahim Abbud
had an altogether different plan in mind that had much to do with the
larger issue of economic development in the country as a whole, a country for whose destiny the soldiers felt responsible since they usurped
235
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Contemporary Voices
power in 1958 from a democratically elected government. 2 Abbud and his

clique were under pressure to legitimize themselves in the eyes of the Sudanese. Thus, economic development that stressed elephantine projects
like the one implemented at Khashm al-Girba was the preferred strategy to
achieve their political goals. The Khashm al-Girba project and the resettlement there of the Nubians must therefore be understood in the context
of the larger political and economic development of Sudan in the 1960s,
and not merely as the relocation of unfortunate peoples who lost their land.
Abbuds government faced stiff resistance on the part of the Nubians
both in Nubia and in Khartoum,3 but that made his government even more
determined to succeed, if for no other reason than its own survival. In the
end the government prevailed. On the one hand, harassment, intimidation,
even imprisonment of troublemakers was liberally used by the government to silence opposition to the project. On the other, government officials went out of their way to sell the new site at Khashm al-Girba to the
settlers. Propaganda depicted the proposed resettlement area as the land
of opportunity. Its large expanse of virgin soil with a plentiful supply of
water was ready to accommodate a land-hungry people hemmed in by the
most inhospitable terrain in the Nile Valley. What is more, the Nubians
were led to believe that the abundant electricity generated by the Khashm
al-Girba Dam would usher them into the modern world of consumption.
The sites nearness to Khartoum in the west and to Sudans only port at
Port Sudan in the east would ensure the settlers fast and easy communication. The government recognized their sacrifice, they were told, and would
work with them to make their new home a model for Africa and the world.
But the government did not depend on propaganda alone to win the
Nubians over. Its newly established Resettlement Commission headed by
an able and dedicated administrator, Dawud Abd al-Latif, a Nubian himself, worked hard to convince skeptical Halfawis that the move to Khashm
al-Girba was in their best interest. Truckloads of would-be settlers were
shipped to the resettlement area where they toured the proposed site, especially the newly constructed villages with their concrete two- or threebedroom houses ready for occupancy, the newly built sugar factory, the
hydroelectric generator at the dam, and the Pilot Horticulture Farm, where
new promising cash crops and plants were being developed. It is no wonder
that many visitors returned to Old Halfa favorably impressed, if not by what
they saw at Khashm al-Girba then certainly by the seriousness of the military government to settle them there and by its commitment to do everything
possible to ensure their safety and prosperity in their new home.
The sustained, intense propaganda eventually paid off. Even the displaced people themselves began to share in the euphoria and general optimism that was in the air in the Sudan of the 1960s. They, too, believed that
something pivotal in the destiny of their country was afoot, and they were
Removing the Nubians
237
proud to be part of it. They also believed that their newly independent
country seemed to have a lot going for it at this point in history. The Sudanese had just obtained their freedom, and colonialism was on the retreat
in the rest of the continent. At long last, the process of relocation started in
January 1964, and by September of the same year almost all the 50,000
displaced Nubians were relocated at Khashm al-Girba in twenty-two newly
constructed villages plus the town of New Halfa. Each family was provided with a place to live and a fifteen-acre tenancy. Those who had
owned agricultural land in Nubia were granted twice the amount in freehold lands.4
The Sudanese career administrators, perhaps more than any group,
were caught up in this euphoria and optimism and were hence determined
to make the first resettlement project of its kind in Africa a success. The
fact that the Sudanese army took power in Khartoum and aborted the first
democratic experiment in the country barely two years after independence
did not seem to dampen the optimism of those Sudanese bureaucrats responsible for the project. It was the largest planned transfer and resettlement of a population anywhere in Africa, and its designers knew that.
They also relished the idea that they would spearhead sub-Saharan Africas
major economic drive to join the developed world. If Nasser of Egypt saw
the successful construction of the High Dam as the litmus test of his
Egyptian socialism and Arab nationalism, the soldiers in Khartoum and the
seasoned civilian administrators on whom they came to depend perceived
the execution of the resettlement project in the Butana empty lands as
the vindication of their coup dtat. To them it was a test of will for the Sudanese people, and its implementation according to plan was the proof that
the Sudanese deserved their freedom and independence.
Because planners were concerned primarily with agricultural development in Sudan as a whole and only secondarily with the immediate problems of the displaced people, they had casually dismissed the Nubians
own preference to be resettled elsewhere in Sudan. This was the first of a
series of high-handed, top-down decisions that the Abbud military government and successive administrations made that are linked directly to the
problems that have bedeviled the resettlement scheme at Khashm al-Girba
since its inception. The lofty goals of productive settler farmers, integrated
pastoralists of the Butana, and industrialization remain largely unfulfilled
to this day. Mistakes in the original planning were compounded later by
even more serious ones in management, the marketing of farm produce
(mainly cotton), and the inability of the Halfawi settlers and the local
Shukriyya nomads to coexist in the scheme in a state of harmony and cooperation.
Successful land settlements need several ingredients to succeed. They
include:
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Contemporary Voices
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Deciding on the project

Defining the objectives
Selection of the site
Distribution of land
Management of farms
Supply of services
Provision of production requisites
Integration within an overall development plan.5
Even if not included here, identifying willing settlers is by far the most important factor. This was lacking both in the resettlement of the displaced
Halfawis, many of whom would rather have been elsewhere, and especially in the planned settlement of the nomadic Shukriyya, some of whose
grazing lands were taken over by the resettlement scheme. The planners of
the project presumed that the displaced Nubians would be lured by the
prospect of the huge amount of farmland at Khashm al-Girba, and being
farmers by profession, would actually till the plots assigned them once
they were there. They were wrong on both assumptions. The Halfawis
were not impressed at all by how much land was made available to them.
There were interesting stories of many Halfawi tenants who, seeing how
big a fifteen-feddan tenancy was, told officials they would do with only
five-feddan plots. And not all the displaced people were farmers in Old
Halfa. Indeed, in the land-hungry area of Batn al-Hagar to the south of Old
Halfa, farming had never completely supported the sparse population that
lived there and depended on substantial remittances from relatives working in Egypt or elsewhere in Sudan. As for tilling the soil themselves, most
Halfawis preferred to see others, mainly farm laborers from western Sudan
and the south, do the hard work of farming. As in the Gezira scheme, absentee landlords became a problem that undermined production at Khashm
al-Girba.
In contrast, most of the Shukriyya in the Butana region were nomads
who practiced only limited farming to supplement income. But this made
no difference to planners, steeped as they were in ideas about development
popular in the 1960s. Then the wisdom of settling nomads seemed selfevident. The pastoralist way of life was deemed backward and inefficient.
Development was seen as synonymous with settled life. The Sudanese
planners and their impatient government were convinced that the nomadic
Shukriyya must be settled if they were to share in the fruits of modernity,
and must turn to perennial agriculture instead of traditional farming, dependent as it was on unpredictable patterns of rainfall. Accordingly, the resettlement of primitive tribal groups and nomads was necessary for the
proper utilization of land, forests, and water resources.6 As Salah el-Din
Noah writes, It seems inevitable for primitive tribal groups and nomadic
239
herdsmen to undergo certain social readjustments leading to an optimum

balance between their present primitive adaptations and the emerging economic needs of civilization.7
It is clear that resettlement projects were perceived as part of a more
fundamental program of social engineering in Sudan. Planners saw themselves as agents of economic and social transformation in the country, and
the Nubians and the Shukriyya were their guinea pigs. Unfortunately, neither the displaced Nubians nor their reluctant hosts believed that they were
instruments of social or economic transformation. Indeed, the response of
the Shukriyya to the scheme was clearly negative, at least in the beginning.8
First, they bitterly resented the loss of their grazing lands, and opposed the
new regulations restricting the movements of their animal herds in the settlement zone. They were also offended in particular by the fact that all government services, including housing, food rationing during the first months
of settlement, health, and education, were the exclusive prerogative of the
strangers from the north. When some of them finally agreed to settle down
and farm, they were given 6,915 tenancies, though mostly in the remote
sections of the scheme where irrigation proved to be difficult.
As a result of the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement between Egypt and
Sudan, Sudans share of the Nile waters jumped to 18.5 billion cubic meters measured at Aswan.9 To utilize its share of the waters, Sudan began
to implement several gravity irrigation projects of which Khashm al-Girba
was one. The resettlement project was to develop 372,000 feddans on the
west side of the Atbara River at Khashm al-Girba, about 350 miles east of
Khartoum.10 To irrigate these lands, a dam with a storage capacity of 1.3
billion cubic meters11 was constructed by 1966 at a cost of S 30 million
(30 million piastres). About 26,000 feddans were set aside for vegetable
gardens and forestlands, and 37,000 feddans for planting sugarcane, for
which a new sugar processing factory was built. 12 Large-scale irrigation
projects like the one under consideration here were, until very recently, favored by developers because they were easy to control, and because they
invariably fostered further centralization of the administration and the bureaucracy.13 For the governments of the newly independent African countries, which were unsure of themselves and their place in history, these
large-scale projects were a God-sent salvation.
All indications at the time showed that the irrigation development
project at Khashm al-Girba, which was to have an administrative structure
not dissimilar from that of the Gezira scheme, would be an all-round success. Its large cost was seen as a better investment compared, for example,
to limited investment in the rain-fed traditional agriculture.14 This was so,
it was argued, because the central government was more likely to collect
taxes on a regular basis from the farm produce in irrigated schemes than
from produce of rain-fed farming, notwithstanding the acknowledged fact
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Contemporary Voices
that investment in traditional agriculture would benefit a much larger number of farmers than would an equivalent sum of money in irrigated
schemes.15 In other words, planners were interested primarily in the net return to the central government from capital investment through taxes and
other miscellaneous revenue-generating activities, namely, rail transportation of export crops, and not in the overall benefits that might accrue to
farmers in the rain-fed sector of agriculture. Bureaucrats in Khartoum then
and now were in the business of governing principally for the benefit of
the intelligentsia, and not for the well-being of poor farmers who happened
to be the majority of the population. The only difference between the intellectual leadership of the early 1960s and the current leadership in Khartoum is one of orientation. The old guard was interested mainly in the economic and social transformation of the Sudanese society. The present
government in Khartoum, led by the National Islamic Front, is committed
to an ideological rebirth as well.
What is striking about this type of bureaucratic reasoning and economic planning early in the 1960s is that the contribution of the traditional
agricultural sector to the gross domestic product was more than twice the
contribution of what was called the modern sector, meaning irrigated
agriculture.16 Statistics show that investment in irrigated farming costs ten
times as much as in mechanized farming and twenty-five times as much as
in investment in traditional farming.17 Yet policymakers in this period preferred to completely ignore this fact in their drive to modernize agriculture, focusing mainly on gravity irrigation. They were willing, thus, to invest heavily in projects like that of Khashm al-Girba.
Barely fifteen years after being put into operation, the resettlement
project already faced serious problems. The most severe was the rapid rate
of sedimentation in the reservoir. A study conducted in 1977 found that the
silting up had already reduced the reservoirs 1.3 billion cubic-meter capacity to 0.8 billion cubic meters, a loss of about 40 percent.18 Even if the
dam retained its storage capacity of 1.3 billion cubic meters, it would still
be unable to meet the annual water consumption at the resettlement
scheme estimated in 1977 to be 1.7 billion cubic meters and rising.19 The
repercussions of this development were not unknown to farmers, most of
whom had experienced low or no supply of irrigation water during the critical periods of cultivation. Indeed, the same study also found that irrigation efficiency operated at only 37 percent of optimum capacity.20 The result was a noticeable decline in cotton production per feddan during the
period between 1967 and 1981, from a high of 1,449 pounds to about 825
pounds, a loss of 43 percent.21 Some loss of productivity could be explained by factors other than water shortage, lack of fertilizers and pesticides, problems with weeds, and shortage of labor for harvesting, as well
as the increasing salinity resulting from bad or nonexistent drainage. 22 But
241
the main difficulty remained water shortage. So severe indeed was this
problem that the last phase of the irrigation scheme was not implemented.
The international consulting firm that did the above-mentioned studies
even suggested that the relatively high water-consuming crops like wheat
and groundnuts should be phased out entirely by the year 2009, while
lands under cotton cultivation should be reduced from 109,000 to 7,600
feddans by 2010.23 This was a clear indictment against a project for whose
success its planners had had such high hopes.
As a project, says the report of the German Agrar und Hydrotechnic consulting firm, the scheme economics are only just satisfactory, output only marginally covering inputs. The economics at the farmer level are
unsatisfactory: for cotton the average tenant has actually made a small loss
in recent years. . . . The position is equally unsatisfactory for wheat and it
is only from groundnuts that a satisfactory farm level return is obtained.24
Insufficient water supply led to corruption in the distribution of available water. Farmers with good connections to officials responsible for
water allocation and to bank officers for credit proved to be more successful than those without such connections. The result was a much more stratified community in New Halfa than in Old Halfa.
Water shortage was just one of many problems that plagued the project from its inception. The other was management. Because of a lack of
experience with large-scale resettlement, the government ran the Khashm
al-Girba irrigation scheme as if it were an extension of the Gezira, with
more or less the same rules and regulations and with similar crop rotation.
This was a mistake. In the first place, though most Nubian settlers were
farmers in their old home, farming was not their sole source of income.
Many, as we have noticed earlier, depended on remittances from relatives.
They should not, therefore, have been put on a par with settled farmers at
the Gezira irrigation scheme, most of whom had lived there long before
the Gezira was ever developed and were totally dependent on farming for
a living. Again, the rigidity of the rules pertaining to crop rotation often
flew in the face of efficiency and common sense. For example, it took the
authorities fifteen years to realize that the Shukriyya tenants who made up
half the population in the scheme actually preferred to produce sorghum,
their staple food, than wheat, which was the staple food of the Nubians.25
Part of the problem was that there were too many government departments
involved in running the irrigation scheme at Khashm al-Girba, and they
were rarely in agreement among themselves with regard to policies. The
Engineering Department of the Ministry of Agriculture resisted for a long
time the incorporation of sorghum in the crop rotation because it put additional water demands on an irrigation system that was just barely, if ever,
able to meet existing water requirements.26 The department believed
rightly that irrigation water was too precious a resource to be spent on the
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Contemporary Voices
cultivation of a crop that could be produced much more cheaply in rain-fed

lands. In the end, however, the department had to agree, rather reluctantly,
to legitimize what had long become a practice: the illegal cultivation of
sorghum.
The management also failed to develop a sound policy that would integrate livestock in the scheme without detrimental effects on crops. The
regulation of allowing only two animals per household made no sense to
farmers, who simply ignored it. With diminishing returns from farming,27
many Nubian settlers, like their neighbors, the Shukriyya, 28 owned livestock in increasing numbers. The nomadism that the original planners of
the project considered an inefficient and backward mode of economic activity had now become a legitimate occupation.
To conclude, one can say that the whole resettlement enterprise would,
undoubtedly, have had a better chance at success if the bureaucrats in
Khartoum had involved the farmers themselves in the design and implementation of the irrigation project from the very beginning. But such an alternative would have been inconceivable in those days. Farmers, peasants,
and nomads were to be led not consulted, and development projects were
the sole concern of the technocrats and dictators who employed them.
Civil society that was to become somewhat instrumental in governance in
the Sudanone that on two occasions brought down authoritarian rule
was yet to be born.
NOTES
1. Abdalla, The Choice of Khashm al-Girba Area for the Resettlement of the
Halfawis, p. 62.
2. Abdalla, The 1959 Nile Waters Agreement in Sudanese-Egyptian Relations, p. 335.
3. Ibid., p. 67.
4. Salem-Murdock, A Study of Settlement and Irrigation, p. 26.
5. Hussain, Problems in the Planning of Land Settlement, p. 80.
6. Noah, Agricultural Extension, p. 161.
7. Ibid.
9. Waterbury, Hydropolitics on the Nile Valley, p. 321.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid. River Atbara is a torrential river that rises in the Ethiopian highlands
and joins with river Setit before reaching Khashm al-Girba. Its estimated annual
flow is 1.2 billion cubic meters. However, only one-fifth of its water storage is
available for irrigation every year. See Abdel Magid, Nile Control for Agricultural
Development in the Sudan, p. 323.
12. Wynn, Water Resource Planning in the Sudan, p. 105.
13. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Re-making of World Order,
p. 69.
243
14. Mirghani, Problems of Increasing Agricultural Productivity, p. 100.

15. Ibid.
16. Department of Statistics, Economic Survey, Khartoum, 1964, p. 45. The
bias against traditional farmers was common among Khartoum planners, as evident
from statements like this: The subsistence farmer is very conservative. He and his
family live so close to a subsistence level that they cannot afford to experiment
with new crops or new farming practices. Or the traditional farmer measures income, work, and leisure on a scale different from that which the economist is accustomed to finding in more advanced agricultural societies. It is the social value
of goods and services that is important to him, and not their economic value
(Mirghani, Problems of Increasing Agricultural Productivity, p. 99).
17. Lees and Brooks, The Economic and Political Development of the Sudan,
p. 49.
18. Agrar und Hydrotechnic, New Halfa Rehabilitation Project: Phase 1,
Ministry of Planning, Khartoum, 1978, p. 13.
19. Waterbury, Hydropolitics on the Nile Valley, p. 233.
20. Agrar und Hydrotechnics report cited in Salem-Murdock, A Study of Settlement and Irrigation, p. 35.
22. Hulme and Trilsbach, Rainfall Trends and Rural Change in Sudan Since
Nimeiri, p. 10.
24. Agrar und Hydrotechnic, New Halfa Rehabilitation Project: Phase 1,
1978, p. 22.
26. Ibid., p. 71.
27. Planners of the project estimated early in the 1960s that a farmer at
Khashm al-Girba would make a net return of S 38.00 per tenancy after the payment of water charges, and S 86 without such payment. See Wynn, Water Resource Planning in the Sudan, p. 111. Actual net returns from cotton, the main
crop, were considerably lower, however, only S 8.00 in 1960s, and S 3.00 in the
1970s. See Salem-Murduck, A Study of Settlement and Irrigation, p. 32.
28. S. Hoyle has noticed, for example, that between 60 and 70 percent of the
Shukriyya tenants in the scheme depended on raising livestock to supplement income. See Koyle, The Khashm al-Girba Agricultural Scheme, pp. 116131.
19
In Search of the
Nile Waters, 19002000
Robert O. Collins
The peoples of Egypt and northern Sudan have been obsessed by the waters of the Nile since they were driven to its banks by the desiccation of
the Sahara 5,000 years ago. But neither the pharaohs nor the kings of
Kush, and certainly not their subjects, knew the source or the configuration of the lands beyond the deserts through which the waters flowed.
Those intrepid centurions sent by the Roman emperor Nero in A.D. 61 were
not much help when they reported that the empire did not need to acquire
the sudd. After that stalwart Portuguese Jesuit, Pedro Paez, reached the
holy spring of Sakala where the Blue Nile begins in Ethiopia, it was another half century before the Royal Society translated his description into
English and another hundred years before James Bruce confirmed that
source only to produce disbelief and not a little hilarity in the fashionable
salons of eighteenth-century London. Another three-quarters of a century
had to pass before that harbinger of nineteenth-century imperialism,
Muhammad Ali, sent Salim Qapudan in 1841 to unravel the labyrinth of
the sudd, and the multinational missionary Erhardt published his slug map
of The Sea of Uniamesis to fill up the empty spaces of African maps
hitherto occupied by trumpeting elephants. Mesmerized by the cartographic myopia of the great lakes of equatorial Africa everyone forgot
about the Jesuits, James Bruce, and the Ethiopians as British explorers
challenged one another in The Nile Duel to claim its source, until Henry
Morton Stanley resolved the greatest secret after the discovery of North
America by circumnavigating Lake Victoria and running the cataracts and
war canoes on the Lualaba to end the Nile quest in 1878.1 Four years later
in 1882 the British imprisoned themselves in Egypt only to spend the next
century trying to secure their release by deciphering the hydrology of the
245
246
Contemporary Voices
Nile basin to regenerate the Egypt they had acquired in order to defend a
distant empire.
Following in the vanguard of General Sir Garnet Wolseleys victorious
British army in 1882 was Sir Evelyn Baring who, as Lord Cromer, provided the administrative leadership to secure Great Britains occupation of
Egypt and the defense of the Suez Canal by imposing scientific administration to cleanse the Aegean Stables of Turkish-Egyptian corruption with
British officials. Their task was to increase agricultural production to create political passivity by renovating and expanding the perennial irrigation
introduced by Muhammad Ali, and to devise schemes to provide water
after the Nile flood had abated from January to July with stored water
commonly known as timely. To accomplish his objective Lord Cromer
brought Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff and his engineers from India, among
whom were Sir William Willcocks and Sir William Garstin. Garstin was
perceptive and affable; Willcocks was brilliant and erratic. Garstins view
of the Nile embraced the whole of its basin; Willcocks was the quintessential Egyptian who sought to produce timely water by a dam at Aswan.
By the end of the nineteenth century, barrages, diversion dams, and
canals had raised the water level of the Nile to channel it into the fields
along the river and through the latticework of conduits in the delta. The
dam above Elephantine Island was completed in 1902 to supply the water
required for perennial irrigation, but neither it nor the barrages downstream had the capacity to store additional water from one year to the next.
Since the end of the Nile quest the great reservoirs of equatorial Africa
were well-known; their relationship to the hydrology of the Nile basin was
not. So long as the Khalifa Abdallahi and his followers dominated Sudan
from Omdurman astride the confluence of the Blue and the White Niles in
the middle of their extensive drainage, Garstin and his associates could not
begin to collect the hydrological data required to understand the hydrological dynamics to prepare for the hydrological planning to use the waters of
the Nile to the best advantage of the peoples of Egypt.
The year that the first stone was laid at Aswan the Anglo-Egyptian
forces led by Sir H. H. Kitchener destroyed the soldiers of God and the
Khalifa on the plains of Karari outside Omdurman on September 2, 1898.
Kitchener had been sent to Khartoum not so much to defeat the Sudanese,
who as defenders of the faith ironically became the protectors of the waters
for their Christian enemy, but to challenge French pretensions to control the
Nile and thereby recover at Fashoda Napoleons dreams lost at Abukir and
De Lessepss monument sold in the bankruptcy court by the Khedive
Ismail. The folly of Fashoda was quickly resolved by the display of British
military power, and then the subsequent occupation of Sudan enabled the
British to bind Egypt and their East African colonies into a Nilotic empire to
dominate virtually the whole of the Nile basin. The imposition of imperial
247
authority in the last link of this imperial chain, southern Sudan, was contingent upon navigability through the sudd, the swamps of the Upper Nile
the size of Belgium, irrespective of the prevailing ignorance of sudd hydraulics. Money was speedily found and undesirables rounded up in Omdurman to join the prisoners of war from Karari to clear the sudd obstructions from the Bahr al-Jabal and to reach open water and the parkland of
Equatoria by May 1900. The river was now navigable for Sir William
Garstin to steam south from Khartoum to the Nile source in order to determine the most advantageous utilization of its water for the benefit of the
inhabitants downstream.
While Willcocks and that pragmatic, charming Scottish engineer Murdoch MacDonald toiled in the heat of Aswan, Lord Cromer turned to
Garstin to unravel the dynamics of Nile control for Egypt and the security
of Britains position therein. Cromer was always suspicious of generals
and particularly Kitchener, who was useful to frustrate the French but
quite unsuitable to appreciate the totality of Nile control, which had been
his reason to acquiesce in the expensive Anglo-Egyptian occupation of the
Sudan. Six months after the victory at Karari and again in 1900 and 1901,
he sent Garstin upriver to delve into the waters and again in 1903 to the
lake plateau of East Africa, the swamps, lakes, and mountains that Great
Britain had conquered by a cold and calculating strategy to secure Egypt
and the Suez Canal, but in which the waters flowing from the Ethiopian
highlands had not been a significant consideration.
Garstins pioneering surveys between 1899 and 1903 and his two reports published in 1901 and 1904 established the foundation for Nile hydrological investigations to control and conserve its waters throughout the
twentieth century.2 Although the waters of the lake plateauAlbert, Edward, George, Kyoga, Victoriawere obvious reservoirs, it was equally
apparent that their fresh waters would never pass through the swamps of
the Nile without enormous loss from evaporation. Garstin did not require
seventy-five years of sudd studies to determine that any plan for additional
water in Egypt from the equatorial lakes would fail without a conduit
through the sudd. He proposed, at the suggestion of J. S. Beresford, a massive canal, the Garstin Cut, from Bor, where the swamps begin, to the confluence of the Sobat and the White Nile south of Malakal, where they end.
Ethiopia and the hydrology of the Atbara, the Sobat, and the Blue Nile
were largely ignored. The absence of the Ethiopian connection was a serious flaw in a brilliant exposition of Nile hydrology, which remains an intimidating manifesto for Nile water development to this very day. After
Garstin, the combined efforts of British, Egyptian, and Sudanese designs
for Nile development remained focused on the river from Kampala to
Khartoum to Cairo. After Garstin, all the best laid schemes omice and
men converged upon the equatorial lakes, the sudd, and the White Nile.
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Contemporary Voices
The holy spring at Sakala, the emerald waters of Lake Tana, and the winedark flow of the Abbai remained an afterthought in the Anglo-Egyptian designs for Nile control.
Despite its unmeasured but substantial volume, British interest in Lake
Tana and the Blue Nile receded proportionately to their geographical isolation, geological inaccessibility, and the fortress of Ethiopian xenophobia.
After his enemy, the Khalifa, was defeated at Karari and his allies, the
French, were discredited at Fashoda, Emperor Menelik quietly dropped his
exaggerated claims to the east bank of the Nile. In 1897 the British envoy,
Rennell Rodd, had been sent to Addis Ababa, to prevent by futile diplomacy, a French advance to the Nile from the east. Menelik had demanded
the Nilotic plains from Khartoum to Lake Albert, but in 1902 he decided it
was more prudent to curry favor with the victorious British by agreeing
not to tamper with the waters of the Blue Nile without proper consultation.
The next year Garstin sent C. E. Dupuis, inspector-general in the Egyptian
irrigation service, to determine whether Lake Tana could be an alternate
reservoir to Lake Albert. Dupuis concluded that a dam at Bahar Dar was
feasible, as did G. W. Grabham and R. P. Black in 1921, but any reservoir
would not substantially provide additional water to the Nile when the lake
only contributed a paltry 7 percent of the Blue Nile flow.3 Moreover,
Meneliks growing senility, the conservatism of Empress Zwaditu, and the
hostility of the feudal barons of Gojjam and Begemdir, who dominated the
highlands above the water, discouraged any discourse with the Ethiopians
about Nile development. Regent Ras Tafari, however, was determined to
have a dam at Lake Tana, particularly after the Nile Waters Agreement of
1929 appeared to remove the political obstacles for Nile control, which
presupposed the inclusion of the Blue Nile. Upon becoming Emperor
Haile Selassie in 1930, he crushed the power of the highland ras in order
to centralize his authority necessary to build a dam as a symbol of his policies of modernization. Suspicious of British intentions in northeast Africa
after he learned that Great Britain was willing to support an exclusive Italian interest in western Ethiopia in return for the Lake Tana Dam concession, the emperor turned in 1927 to the American J. G. White Engineering
Co. of New York to undertake the surveys and designs for the dam, the
construction of which the British and the Egyptians promptly conspired to
frustrate until the Italians were able to do it for them after their invasion of
Ethiopia in 1936. Intent upon appeasing the new and resurgent Roman empire of Benito Mussolini with the sand of the Sara Triangle in the Libyan
Desert, a governor-general in the palace at Khartoum friendly to Italy, and
their indecent abdication of collective security against Italy at the League
of Nations, the British government was silently satisfied with Mussolinis
vague assurance that Italy would not interfere with the flow of the Nile
waters. No one dared to press the triumphant Mussolini, whose king had
249
now become emperor, for a more precise definition of Italys hydrological

intentions in Ethiopia, and the engineers and hydrologists in Egypt, Sudan,
and Uganda expressed no serious concern since Ethiopia had become but
a cipher in the equation of Nile control.
Garstins magisterial report for the hydrological development of the
Nile basin in 1904 was not amended until the publication by Sir Murdoch
MacDonald of Nile Control in 1921, which was more a brief for the defense of his stewardship as adviser to the Ministry of Public Works than an
expansion on the schemes devised by Sir William Garstin. To be sure, Sir
Henry Lyons published his account of Nile supply . . . periodicity . . . low
stage . . . excessive floods, which incorporated what was known of the
Nile basin and its hydrology at the end of the Cromer-Garstin era but did
not provide any schemes or dreams of what to do with it.4 The end of
World War I witnessed a brave new world of astonishing technologies,
aberrant ideologies, and a lost generation of which Sir Murdoch MacDonald was the very personification as the skillful engineer determined to
utilize the new technology for the economic development, not only for
Egypt but for Sudan as well. Thus, his proposal to build two dams in the
Sudan, one at Makwar (Sennar) to provide water for the Gezira cotton
scheme south of Khartoum, and another at Jabal Auliya to produce timely
water for Egypt, created a storm of controversy from those Egyptian nationalists and engineers liberated, politically and spiritually, by the Great
War during which their country had experienced a surfeit of British arrogance and the lowest Nile in a century. Lieutenant Colonel M. Ralston
Kennedy Pasha, director-general of public works for Sudan and that
stormy Nile goose, Sir William Willcocks, charged that MacDonald had
deliberately falsified, then misinterpreted, Nile flows that had been incorrectly read and haphazardly collected to advocate schemes in Sudan for
Nile control to the detriment of Egypt. He thundered: The Sudan will take
its share of the water high up the course of the river, and Egypt will receive much of its share on paper.5
The Egyptian opposition to MacDonald was not confined to his proposal for dams in Sudan but sharpened the frustration and discontent with
British domination of the irrigation service whose officials were unaccustomed to pander to the psychoses of pompous politicians and ignorant fellahin. Enshrouded by measurements and equations, the British engineers
of the irrigation service appeared to be a mysterious and devious clique,
loyal to Britain and the empire and therefore not working in the best interests of Egypt. MacDonald was tried in the nationalist press, by the
Egyptian public, the consular courts, and the Nile Commission, the appointment of which only confirmed Albions perfidy. There was no Egyptian representative on that commission, and after its membership was announced no Egyptian could be convinced to serve. Not surprisingly,
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Contemporary Voices
MacDonald was found guilty by the politicians and the populace and innocent of any impropriety by the commission and the courts. The commission concluded: There had been no falsification or intentional suppression of records nor any fraudulent manipulation of data or gauges by
Sir Murdoch MacDonald or by anyone else.6 The court found Willcocks
guilty of defamatory libel against MacDonald and sentenced him to probation. Despite his vindication MacDonalds position as the adviser to the
ministry was hopelessly compromised. He resigned a few months after the
Willcocks trial and immediately decamped from Cairo for a seat in the
House of Commons and a fortune as a consulting engineer.
MacDonald left behind in Egypt a vacuum in the leadership at the
ministry with disastrous results for the hydrological development of the
Nile Valley. His testament, Nile Control, was a hastily contrived collection
of memoranda and computations composed more to deflate the rhetoric of
Willcocks and to mollify his critics in Egypt than to inspire its readers
with a grand design for the conservation of the Nile waters. There was little tangible construction for Egypt, a barrage at Nag Hammadi, and a regulator, if not a mirage, in the extreme heat at Jabal Auliya. Ethiopia was
not completely forgotten. There was to be a mysterious dam, perhaps in
the Blue Nile gorge, presumably at Lake Tana. The Garstin Cut was, of
course, included, and a remote reservoir at Lake Albert that MacDonald
hoped would assuage Egyptian concerns for the additional water that he
was giving to the Sudanese at Sennar for the irrigation of the Gezira. No
one understood the meaning of the Sennar Dam more clearly than the
American member of the Nile Commission, Harry Thomas Cory. Cory was
an engineer, a Hoosier, and something of a cowboy, later played in the cinema by Gary Cooper, who tamed the Colorado River into the Salton Sea in
1906 and sought from the Quran the principle that any additional water
conserved from the Nile should be divided equally between Egypt and
Sudan. The Cory Award, as it became known, was regarded by the Egyptians with open hostility; the reaction of the Sudanese was too inchoate to
be observed as public opinion, but Corys ghost was going to appear a generation later in Khartoum and a half century later in Kampala.
The resignation of Sir Murdoch MacDonald in 1921, combined with
the political upheavals in Egypt, left the future planning of the Nile in disarray. His position as adviser to the ministry was never filled, and upon the
independence of Egypt in 1922 the British high commissioner could no
longer play the political and financial role of Cromer, Gorst, or Kitchener,
while their successors became bogged down in the swamp of disputatious
and frustrating negotiations between Britain and Egypt over their own political relationship and the peculiar position of each in the governance of
Sudan. Leaderless, the younger British hydrologists and engineers faithfully amassed enormous quantities of information about Nile flows and
251
almost mindlessly devised schemes to bring down the water from the
equatorial lakes without any coherent plan for control of it. Ethiopia was
all but forgotten. The boats of W. N. McMillan and B. H. Jensen had been
swamped trying to run the rapids of the Blue Nile before World War I;
Major R. E. Cheesman, the British consul at Debre Markos, was to traverse the canyon of the Blue Nile during his treks on foot between 1926
and 1929. As late as 1958 little was known of the Blue Nile from Tisisat
Falls to the Sudanese frontier.
After the British government reluctantly declared Egypt a sovereign
state in 1922, the planning and execution of a chain of major engineering
works embracing thousands of miles of the Nile could not be ignored, despite the demise of the position of the adviser whose responsibility had
been to supervise the direction and the realization of Nile control. Cory
had recommended an adjudication board, and C. E. Dupuis had suggested
a board of control. The Sudanese government decided to organize its own
independent irrigation service after the assassination of Governor-General
Sir Lee Stack and the financial and construction problems that were eroding the Sennar Dam. Both the British and Egyptian governments continued
to exchange proposals for the direction of Nile development that were stillborn in the acrimony that characterized their relationship but made all the
more obvious by the signing of the Nile Waters Agreement in 1929.
The agreement was a political armistice that derived its inspiration
from The Nile Commission Report of 1926, a practical working arrangement for the engineers to administer the Nile until the politicians could
determine its destiny.7 It was not a plan for the hydrological development
of the Nile nor the means to achieve it. Exhausted by years of tendentious
bickering, both the British and the Egyptians were prepared to accept an
agreement on the rates of abstraction of water behind the Sennar Dam to
irrigate the Gezira and the amount of timely water from Jabal Auliya for
Egypt. The agreement was regarded in Cairo as a substantial victory.
Egypts established and historic rights were preserved. Egypt had the right
to review and thereby approve any future conservancy construction. Sudan
received a modest increase in its allotment of the waters but mortgaged its
future by the admission of the primacy of Egypts future needs. With
Olympian self-satisfaction, the British and the Egyptians appeared content
with an incomplete document that had no provisions for a comprehensive
plan for Nile control or the administrative machinery to achieve it.
Surrounded by a hostile physical and political environment, the British
engineers and hydrologists on the Nile labored during the two decades between the world wars with no grand design to inspire them, no direction,
and only their own rivalries that soon turned inward to collect data for no
other reason than the intrinsic merit of the information itself. They were
talented men, but they were cautious and conservative, suspicious of
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Contemporary Voices
politicians, often contemptuous of their Egyptian employers. They loathed

inefficiency, which was often a rationale for doing nothing. They were
honest, incorruptible, sober, and responsible men. They were also dull,
rigid, and unimaginative. Reports they could write; dreams they suppressed. Harold Edwin Hurst occupied a unique position among this in trepid band. Recruited by Sir Henry Lyons for the survey department in
October 1906 to begin a career that spanned sixty-two years, he had come
to Cairo from a lectureship in physics at Oxford and thereafter seemed to
be more the university don than a British effendi in the Egyptian service.
A modest and mathematical man, his scientific abilities propelled him
from the magnetic survey of Egypt to the director-generalship of the Physical Department of the Ministry of Public Works in 1915. The Physical Department was responsible for the preservation, collation, and analysis of
data throughout the whole of the Nile basin, with a view to the construction of yet-to-be-determined works for Nile control. Only when hardpressed by his Egyptian employers did Hurst produce his major contribution to Nile development, The Future Conservation of the Nile, until his
official retirement in 1946.
Hurst introduced the innovative concept of century storage but was
more interested in the mathematical probabilities between yield and reservoir capacity, which became known as the Hurst Phenomenon. Such abstruse abstractions had great practical application but by their very nature
were not easily translated into the hydropolitics of the Nile Valley. His personality and his interests were such that Hurst never conceived of himself
following in the footprints of Garstin or MacDonald nor would the Egyptians allow him to do so. In the end he remained a civil servant, not the adviser, and like a much beloved retainer he was kept on in the Egyptian service even after his contribution to Nile control had become compromised
by a High Dam at Aswan.
In the spring of 1946 the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works published
volume seven of The Nile Basin titled The Future Conservation of the Nile
by H. E. Hurst, R. P. Black, and Y. M. Simaika of the Physical Department.8 During the aimless interwar years Hurst, in cooperation with P.
Phillips and later Black and Simaika, had published six volumes and several supplements under the general title of The Nile Basin. These volumes
contained largely statistical material with little commentary and no profound proposals. They did, however, provide the data for a more comprehensive plan now demanded by the Egyptian government. The result was
volume seven in the series by which Hurst and his associates presented the
first comprehensive plan for Nile control from the information that Garstin
did not possess and a rigor that had escaped MacDonald. The Egyptian
minister of public works, Abd al-Qawi Pasha, wrote with relief and pride:
253
This is the first time that the full development of Egypt has been considered in detail and a new idea, that of Century Storage is introduced.
The book makes it clear that we can no longer proceed by small stages
leaving the ultimate development for future consideration. The new ideas
show that on important points a decision must be made now. The main
projects are seen to be closely connected parts of one whole, and their
connection is a complicated one.9
Hursts plan for Nile control demonstrated the interrelation between

the individual projects that had emerged in the variety of separate proposals during the preceding decades in order to provide for the most efficient
use of the Nile waters, which in turn required the total control and regulation of all the waters in the drainage basin of the Nile. The definition of
the most efficient use was not simply the production of additional quantities of water but the means to supply a constant flow that could be so regulated as to prevent floods. The unique feature of Hursts proposal was
century storage, a refinement of the concept advanced by MacDonald
for overyear storage by which water would be contained in the equatorial
lakes where the rate of evaporation is balanced by rainfall and the geological configuration permits an increase in the volume of water without a
substantial increase in the surface exposed to evaporation.
Hurst envisaged a great reservoir at Lake Albert supplemented by a
regulator at the outlets from Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga. In order to
make efficient use of the lake reservoirs under the concept of century storage, however, a big canal, the Garstin Cut, would be required to carry the
large volume of water conserved past the sudd to prevent its loss from
evaporation. Dams as conservators and as regulators at Lakes Victoria,
Kyoga, and Albert appeared straightforward; the sudd canal was not.
Known as Jonglei, after the fishing village on the Bahr al-Jabal below Bor
where the canal would begin its passage to the mouth of the Sobat, this
conduit immediately became the lynchpin of Hursts Nile control, but a
project complicated by the mysteries of sudd hydraulics and the impact
upon the inhabitants and the environment of the swamps and floodplain
through which the Jonglei Canal would be excavated.
Garstin proposed to reduce the loss of water in the sudd by the Garstin
Cut. Thereafter, British hydrologists had slouched through the swamps in
an effort to explain their mechanics, which resulted in numerous schemes
and many volumes of flow measurements. Despite these efforts or perhaps
because of them, a satisfactory explanation of sudd hydraulics remained
obscure until the research and publications of J. V. Sutcliffe after the independence of Sudan in 1956.10 Although the sudd presented the greatest
obstacle to the conservation of the Nile waters, the means to reduce or
eliminate it thrust Jonglei into the very center of that part of Hursts century
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Contemporary Voices
storage dealing with the whole of the Upper Nile basin and known as the
Equatorial Nile Project. To be sure its dams were principally in Uganda,
with little effect upon the inhabitants of the sudd. Not so for Jonglei,
whose massive canal would have a significant impact upon the lives of the
Nilotic peoples whose interests the British officials in Sudan were determined to defend.
Although British officials in southern Sudan had reported rumors that
a Jonglei Canal was contemplated as an essential part of the Equatorial
Nile Project, inquiries by British officials of the Sudan government at
Cairo had been dismissed as premature. Consequently, the publication of
The Future Conservation of the Nile astonished every official in Sudan,
none of whom had been apprised of its preparation nor forewarned as to
the projects envisioned for Sudan, particularly Jonglei. Angry but impotent, the Sudan government, in a feeble gesture, quickly appointed a Jonglei Committee to review Hursts plans for Nile control. Indignation
turned to outrage when the Egyptian government unilaterally adopted The
Future Conservation of the Nile as its official policy for the development
of the Nile basin of which the Equatorial Nile Project was the principal
component. There was neither casual nor courtesy consultation with Khartoum. Presented with a fait accompli the Jonglei Committee accepted the
Equatorial Nile Project with its big canal with resignation, apprehension,
and not a little bitterness. As a symbol of defiance the committee created
the Jonglei Investigation Team to assess the environmental impact and the
damages to the inhabitants of the Upper Nile in order to improve their social and economic livelihood with schemes and money. Since the Equatorial Nile Project involved British territories other than Sudan, negotiations
opened in June 1947 between Egypt, Sudan, and Uganda to seek an agreement that would enable its implementation. No one considered or desired
Ethiopian participation for Hursts inclusion of the Lake Tana Dam was
peripheral to his century storage, whereas the Blue Nile was totally ignored until incorporated a dozen years later in the more comprehensive
and sophisticated scheme for the Nile basin by H. A. W. Morrice and W. N.
Allan in Report on the Nile Valley Plan.
Remembered today by only connoisseurs of Nile control, Report on the
Nile Valley Plan is an extraordinary document published in Khartoum in
June 1958.11 The culmination of half a century of Nile studies, it combined
the sweeping comprehension of Garstin without his prose and the hydrological analysis of Hurst without his timidity. Humphrey Morrice and Nimmo
Allan had engaged the assistance of the British National Physical Laboratory
at Teddington, IBM, SOGREAH, and MIT to introduce a very powerful
tool into the study of the Nile conservation projects by which they produced a classic study in computer simulation.12 In 1946 Nimmo Allan was
the director of the Irrigation Department of the Sudan government and after
255
his retirement in 1947 its special consultant. His hydrological experience

spanned several decades, his skill as a negotiator for water unmatched.
Humphrey Morrice was the divisional engineer, Projects Division of the
Sudan Irrigation Department, as brilliant at mathematics as he was at
bridge. Pleasant without camaraderie, analytical without introspection, he
ranks with Garstin, MacDonald, and Hurst as one of the great innovators
in the search for the Nile waters. When the rumors of designs being
drafted in the Ministry of Public Works for Nile control could no longer be
completely ignored in Khartoum, the governor-general, Sir Hubert Huddleston, who had promoted his career by a visceral suspicion of everything
Egyptian, ordered an independent Sudan investigation south of Malakal,
where Africa begins, and where Humphrey Morrice was duly sent in the
summer of 1945. Thereafter he pondered the waters of the Nile and their
mysteries until his untimely death in December 1959. Nimmo Allan chiseled his epitaph: The whole of the Nile Valley should be treated as a hydrological unity.13
The origins of the Nile Valley Plan are to be found in a report by Morrice in 1954 in which he insisted that all projects should be planned so that
they become part of a larger whole embracing all the riparian states.14 On
the one hand, the Nile Valley Plan was vintage Hurst, confirming the principle of century storage with the lakes as reservoirs and a large Jonglei
Canal to bring down the water. On the other, it was more comprehensive
by including additional dams for Lake Kyoga, Semna (the third cataract),
and the High Dam at Aswan that had now become the centerpiece of
Egypts Nile water policy. Annual storage would be contained in reservoirs
at Roseires, Sennar, and Khashm al-Girba. Unlike his predecessors Morrice did not neglect Ethiopia despite the dearth of hydrological data. The
Lake Tana Dam was, of course, included, but there were conservancy
works on the Baro, in the unexplored Blue Nile gorge, and the Balas
scheme whereby a tunnel from Lake Tana to the Upper Balas Valley could
produce far greater hydroelectric power than the turbines to be entombed
in the Aswan High Dam.
Despite its elegant configuration, however, the Nile Valley Plan was a
flawed document. Hydrologically, it was derived from measured flows
from 1905 to 1952, whose volume could not be guaranteed in the future.
Structurally conceived by mathematical formulas, the plan did not take
into account the hydropolitics of the Nile Valley nor the economic requirements demanded from poverty-stricken countries for its construction.
Adopted by Sudan as its proposal for Nile control, it was, in the abstract,
the most efficient use of Nile water that has been devised in this century
and which recognized the interests of the riparian states but not those of
political reality. The Egyptians vehemently rejected the Nile Valley Plan.
Simaika, the close colleague of Hurst, former undersecretary of state, and
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Contemporary Voices
principal adviser to the Ministry of Public Works, dismissed the plan as

unacceptable and liable to human error in its regulation to the detriment
of Egypt.15 Overwhelmed by the propaganda for the Aswan High Dam, the
Nile Valley Plan was unceremoniously consigned to the dustbin of history.
Upon seizing power in Egypt on July 23, 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser
and his fellow officers needed a spectacular symbol to demonstrate the
resurgence of revolutionary Egypt under their leadership. Within two
months they found it in the proposal by Adrian Daninos, an EgyptianGreek engineer, and the Italian Luigi Gallioli, who in 1948 conceived of
one grand structure at Aswan to guarantee overyear storage for irrigation
and to produce enormous quantities of hydroelectric power for industry.
Daninos had tried for years to sell his idea to the Ministry of Public Works
without success. Hurst could not accept the huge loss of water by evaporation in the torrid heat of Aswan; siltation, seepage, seismicity, and scouring were all discouraging. They did not matter. Politically, the High Dam
was a gigantic, expensive, and daring scheme, a monument to the vision of
the revolutionaries. Economically, it provided water and power. The decisive argument, before which all previous proposals for the development of
the Nile basin were reduced to scientific obscurantism and dismissed as
British vanity, was the indisputable location of the dam at Aswan within
the territorial boundaries of Egypt. By providing overyear storage the High
Dam would free Egypt from the imagined and real threat of being a
hostage to upstream riparian states. There in the technical office of the
Revolutionary Command Council in the autumn of 1952 the Aswan High
Dam scheme was consummated, and after intense international controversy, bitter environmental and technical criticism, and objections from independent African states, completed on January 15, 197l. Hursts century
storage for Egypt and Sudan and Morrices Nile Valley Plan for all the
states of the Nile basin appeared very dead indeed.
The determination to build the High Dam was a unilateral decision by
Egypt, but its construction could not be undertaken without an agreement
with Sudan whose riverine lands in Nubia would vanish beneath the reservoir and whose expanding population required a substantial increase in the
amount of water for irrigation. Contentious and competitive negotiations,
which transcended the years from the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium into
those of the independent Sudan, were characterized by unproductive discussions among British, Egyptian, and Sudanese engineers and acrimonious, rhetorical exchanges between their leaders. The Egyptians sought to
bargain approval for their dam at Aswan in return for additional water behind the Sudanese dam at Roseires. No Sudanese minister in the euphoria
of independence was willing to accept such an exchange until Major General Ibrahim Abbud, a gentle pragmatist, was invited to take over the Sudanese government from impotent politicians three weeks before the
257
Soviet Union offered to finance the High Dam. Negotiations between Cairo
and Khartoum were immediately restarted, stimulated by Britains feeble
attempt to reassert its historic position in the Nile Valley by a desperate call
for an international conference to establish an International Nile Waters
Authority in which Great Britain would be a nonriparian member. More
decisive was the decision in May 1959 by Eugene Black, president of the
World Bank, that Sudan could expect no financial assistance from the West
for Roseires or a dam at Khashm al-Girba for the displaced Nubians without a Nile Waters Agreement with Egypt. The agreement for the full utilization of the Nile waters was concluded with all deliberate speed on November 8, 1959, amidst handshaking, hugs, and kisses.
The agreement not only made possible the construction of dams at
Aswan, Roseires, and Khashm al-Girba, but it established the principle of
sharing on an equal basis any additional water obtained by future conservancy schemes, the old Cory Award, which the Nile Waters Commission of
1921 had refused to adopt after strenuous Egyptian objections. Both Egypt
and Sudan unashamedly staked out substantial increases in their historic
and established rights to the waters of the Nile, 7.5 billion cubic meters
for Egypt, 18.5 billion cubic meters for Sudan. Since none of that additional water could be expected from Ethiopia, who not surprisingly was ignored, the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement dramatically revived the Equatorial Nile Project, the completion of which was quite impossible without the
Jonglei Canal. In order to excavate the canal and to build the lake reservoirs to feed it, the agreement created the Permanent Joint Technical Commission, with its headquarters symbolically in Khartoum, to plan and implement all the conservancy schemes in the Upper Nile required for the
completion of the Equatorial Nile Project. For the first time since the resignation of Sir Murdoch MacDonald in 1921, there was now a single body
given the responsibility for directing Nile Valley water development, except, of course, in Ethiopia.
When Hursts century storage (the Equatorial Nile Project) was conceived, the principal riparian territories in the Upper Nile basin were under
British administration. Political unity made possible the comprehensive
and rational development of the region, and this assumption was implicit
in the Nile Valley Plan proposed by the independent Sudan in the spring of
1959. No sooner was the ink dry on the Nile Waters Agreement six months
later than the British colonies of Tanganyika, Uganda, and Kenya became
independent in 1961, 1962, and 1963, respectively. As the first British East
African territory to become liberated, Tanganyika promptly asserted its
sovereignty by invoking what came to be known as The Nyerere Doctrine: Former colonial countries had no role in the formulation and conclusion of treaties done in the colonial era, and therefore they must not be assumed to automatically succeed to those treaties.16 Tanganyika specifically
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Contemporary Voices
informed Great Britain, Egypt, and Sudan that it did not recognize the
Anglo-Egyptian Nile Waters Agreement of 1929 and neither did Uganda
and Kenya after independence. Egypt, not surprisingly, responded firmly
that the agreement was in full force and would act upon its terms where
applicable. The Nyerere Doctrine was not a new idea and in fact had been
proposed in the context of that agreement by none other than Morrice in
his capacity as the hydrological consultant for the British East African territories. The Nyerere Doctrine clearly undermined the legitimacy of the
Equatorial Nile Project in international law, for henceforth any conservancy schemes in the great lakes would have to be negotiated by Egypt
and Sudan with those states surrounding their shores.
Suddenly in 1957 the long shadow of the Ethiopian highlands spread
across the plains and deserts of the Nile Valley. At best patronized, at
worst ignored, the Ethiopians had been aroused by the independence of
Sudan in 1956, concerned by the subsequent Nile waters negotiations between Khartoum and Cairo, and were soon to become thoroughly alarmed
by the Nile Waters Agreement of 1959. In 1956 the imperial government
had informed Cairo that Ethiopia reserved its rights to utilize the water
resources of the Nile for the benefit of its people; the following year an
indignant Haile Selassie decided on more aggressive action by enlisting
the support of his American ally to launch a major study of the water resources of the Blue Nile for irrigation and hydroelectric power. 17 In August 1957 the United States Bureau of Reclamation of the Department of
the Interior signed a contract with the Ethiopian Ministry of Public Works
and Communication to begin a massive study of the water resources of the
Blue Nile.
The Blue Nile Plan required five years of intensive investigation; it is
in striking contrast to the more methodical, plodding, British-inspired
studies of the Egyptian Irrigation Service. With characteristic conviction
the Bureau of Reclamation included not just the river but the whole of the
Blue Nile basin. A multitude of stream-flow measurements along the
length of the river and its many tributaries were completed as well as aerial surveys and extensive mapping. Although a brief encounter compared
to the efforts of the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works, in terms of pounds
the seventeen volumes and appendices of Land and Water Resources of the
Blue Nile Basin: Ethiopia outweigh the tomes of The Nile Basin.18 The
conservancy scheme espoused by the bureau would eliminate the annual
flood of the Blue Nile by impounding its water behind four dams with a
hydroelectric capacity three times that of Aswan so that the flow of the
river out of Ethiopia would be constant. If managed as designed, the
amount of water available to the downstream riparians would actually increase. Because the Blue Nile dams would be managed in conjunction with
the Roseires reservoir, now freed from debris and siltation, water could
259
then be released in May as timely water without sustaining the enormous

loss by evaporation at Aswan. Egypt, however, would no longer be the
beneficiary of additional water in years of high flood that would be stored
in Blue Nile reservoirs with their low rate of evaporation and not at
Aswan. Moreover, lowering the level of Lakes Nasser and Nubia to limit
evaporable loss would concomitantly reduce hydroelectric power, but in
return Egypt would receive additional water for irrigation to confirm the
historic economy of Egypt as an agricultural nation with only marginal industry, a prospect the Egyptians could not be expected to view with equanimity. Ethiopia could, of course, malevolently withhold water it did not
need in a year of low rainfall to threaten disaster in the Nile Valley.
Such a prospect could not but rekindle ancient Egyptian fears of
Ethiopian control of the life-giving watersa historic fable, to be sure, but
one that is still firmly believed and which concrete could only make a reality. Here were the ghosts of Friar Jordanus, Prester John, Jean de Lastic,
Ariosto, and James Bruce emerging from the mists of the past in the
bizarre form of the Bureau of Reclamation to bestow upon the Ethiopians
the plans by which to control or at least to intervene in Egypts established
rights to the Nile waters. This historic paranoia now came into conflict
with the vigorous nationalism of the riparian states. First the demands of
the Sudanese for additional water, then the Nyerere Doctrine, and finally
the Blue Nile Plan all loomed as a threat to Egypts precious water. And
the Ethiopians would not let them forget. At the UN Water Conference at
Mar Del Plata in 1977, Ethiopia reasserted its rights to the waters of the
Blue Nile and in June 1980 at the meeting of the Organization of African
Unity in Lagos.
While the scientists and engineers of the Bureau of Reclamation were
toiling through the Blue Nile gorge, nature was capturing the attention of
the hydrologists at the equatorial lakes. The sudden and unpredictable increase in the rainfall on the lake plateau of 20 percent between 1961 and
1964 raised the level of the equatorial lakes by 2.5 meters, producing extensive flooding around their shores and the disastrous inundation of the
sudd floodplain. The East African countries studiously did nothing to alleviate the flooding of southern Sudan. In fact, they sought to relieve the
areas surrounding Lake Victoria by an increase of 125 percent in the outflow at the Owen Falls Dam to the grief of the Nilotes downstream. Although the independent East African governments displayed little more
than sympathy for their own flood victims, the extraordinary deluge
elicited a proposal from the World Meteorological Organization for a hydrometeorological survey of the lake plateau financed by the UN, which
the East African states promptly joined and in the spirit of African unity
invited Egypt and Sudan to participate in as well. 19 This gesture was eagerly accepted, for Egypt and Sudan were only too happy to participate in
260
Contemporary Voices
a project by which they might obtain future claims to Nile water. As for
the East Africans they were not interested in storing water for Egypt and
Sudan but rather how to get rid of it in order to ameliorate the damage inflicted upon citizens of new and unsteady states.20
The prospect for Nile basin cooperation for water, or for that matter
any concern, soon proved illusory. In 1977 Egypt and Sudan invited the
East African states to join with them in a commission of all the riparian
states to plan the development of the water resources for the whole of the
Nile basin. The Africans were, not surprisingly, suspicious of any organization of nine sovereign states, seven with little power and less experience
in matters hydrological that would be dominated by Egypt while their own
hydrological energies were being committed to the development of the
Kagera River basin. They resolved this dilemma by deflecting Egyptian
and Sudanese interests without offense into the UNDUGU group, from the
Swahili ndugu (Brotherhood), consisting of Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, Zaire,
Rwanda, Burundi, and the Central African Republic, which soon delved
into many furtive and unproductive conferences and ministerial meetings.
Kenya, Tanzania, and Ethiopia were conspicuously absent, and without them
there was little prospect for Nile basin cooperation. With financial assistance
from the UN a consortium of Norconsult of Norway and Electrowatt from
Switzerland began a detailed study of the Kagera basin reminiscent of the
Bureau of Reclamation study in Ethiopia. In 1977 they produced a thirteenvolume report recommending a Kagera Basin Organization that was duly
confirmed in the Rusumu Agreement of August 24.21
Rebuffed but determined (particularly the Sudanese), Egypt and Sudan
continued to press for a Nile basin commission, but despite numerous meetings of ministers, heads of state, and a team from the Permanent Joint Technical Commission, which aggressively toured the capitals of the riparian
states, their leaders stubbornly refused to gather collectively at the negotiating table. Egypt had little to offer the upstream states and as in the past,
turned inward to proceed with its own ambitious master water plan unveiled in 1981.22 Perhaps to emulate the Bureau of Reclamation the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works produced seventeen ponderous volumes. If
the Americans had confined their investigations solely to the Blue Nile
basin, the Egyptians appeared to be possessed by the spirits of Garstin,
MacDonald, and Hurst, for they concentrated their search for new water on
the Upper Nile basin. Ethiopia was ignored, for its Blue Nile Plan, like
Sudans Nile Valley scheme, was unacceptable and therefore irrelevant to
any proposition to acquire water from the equatorial lakes. There were to be
dams at Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert, and regulators on the Bahr alJabal and on tributaries in the Bahr al-Ghazal. Diversion canals coursed
around the sudd to connect the Bahr al-Arab and drain the Machar marshes
into the White Nile. It was all very grand but dependent upon the Jonglei
Canal to bring down the waters of equatorial Africa.
261
At the beginning of the twentieth century as well as at its end, Nile

control of the equatorial lakes was dependent upon the Garstin Cut without which all the dams would be reduced to unrecoverable reservoirs. The
heavy rains between 1961 and 1964 had demonstrated natures ability to
produce an amount of water Hurst had calculated would take decades. The
High Dam had resolved, rather wastefully to be sure, the quest for century
storage. Everyone from Garstin to the Permanent Joint Technical Commission had assumed a Jonglei Canal, but no one had devised the means to
dig it. During the twentieth century canals were excavated by dredgers and
draglines. Draglines were more efficient than dredgers, but to dig the
longest navigable canal (280 kilometers) through the sudd of Sudan would
require twenty years at enormous expense and demand the primacy of the
Lake Albert Dam, not just for storage but as an essential regulator to control the outflow into the Bahr al-Jabal. The invention of the bucketwheel
dramatically changed all these worrisome assumptions. Adapted from iron
strip-mining in Germany by Orenstein and Koppel for the French conglomerate Compagnie de Constructions Internationales (CCI), and then
modified for use in the sudd by Pierre Blanc and Guy Charlre, the bucketwheel could excavate the Jonglei Canal at a rate of 2 kilometers every
six days at only l4 percent the cost of dredgers and draglines. The bucketwheel suddenly made Jonglei economically possible in less than one-third
the time previously required to dig a ditch that would carry 25 million
cubic meters of water a day and eliminate the need for the Lake Albert
Dam as a regulator.
Now technically and economically feasible, the more Delphic political
negotiations resumed to a successful conclusion on July 28, 1976, when
the Egyptian and Sudanese ministers of irrigation signed a contract with
CCI to excavate a canal 50 meters wide, 7 meters deep, and 280 kilometers long to increase the annual yield at Aswan by 3.8 billion cubic meters,
all for a pittance of $43 million.23 The Jonglei Canal was extended to Bor
for a total length of 360 kilometers when it was learned that the Bahr alJabal river bottom between Bor and Jonglei was unstable. The revised cost
of the canal increased to $125 million, precipitated by the dramatic rise in
the price of fuel, for the bucketwheel consumed 40,000 liters a day. 24 Even
before the bucketwheel had taken its first bite of the infamous cotton
soil at the mouth of the Sobat in June 1978, however, the reality of a
Garstin Cut produced three dramatic reactions: the understanding of sudd
hydraulics in relationship to the canal; the environmental concerns and exaggerations; and the political awakening of southern Sudanese to political
realities, until then the preserve of southern elites.
J. V. Sutcliffe had carried out the research for his doctoral dissertation
at Cambridge in the sudd during the 1950s. Twenty years later the effects
of the proposed Jonglei Canal upon the hydrological workings of the sudd
had to be recalculated as much to determine the amount of water saved for
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Contemporary Voices
Egypt and Sudan as for the impact the revised hydraulics would have on
its inhabitants and their environment. His studies revealed the dynamics of
the sudd. Because the volume of water lost by evaporation is determined
not by the rate of evaporation, which is constant, but by the area of flooding over which the evaporation takes place, whatever the volume of water
entering the sudd at Bor, the outflow from the edge of the sudd at Malakal
is relatively constant. The greater the flow from the equatorial lakes, the
greater the flooding, and thus the greater the volume lost by a constant rate
of evaporation so that the discharge will not increase in proportion to the
inflow. In years of large flows, the Jonglei Canal would act as a regulator
to limit flooding, and in the years of low flows it would draw off released
water from the lake reservoirs.25
The environmental hue and cry over Jonglei began in 1945 when Morrice had been sent to Malakal to begin an assessment of the effects of the
canal on the region, which was followed by the establishment of the Jonglei Investigation Team led by P. P. Howell, a former Nuer District commissioner, whose report, published in 1954, laid the foundation for all subsequent environmental impact studies of the Upper Nile. A remarkable
account of the hydrology, ecology, and the peoples of the Upper Nile and
the consequences of the canal upon them, the report was in fact to provide
the information by which to assess damage and hence the monetary compensation to the Sudanese government and its Nilotic citizens.26 It had
nothing to do with Nile control. Thorough and thoughtful the Jonglei
Investigation Team may have been in the early 1950s, not so the environmentalists of the late 1970s. Emanating from the UN Environmental Programme in Nairobi, a steady stream of copy, sometimes sincere, often strident, and frequently ignorant, poured forth from the media, led by a
coalition of environmental groups in Europe and the United States known
as the Environmental Liaison Center, demanding a moratorium on construction in the canal zone. In 1977 the UN Conference on Desertification
held in Nairobi provided a global forum for those who grimly denounced
the canal for turning the sudd into Africas next desert.27
Much of the criticism about the canal was nonsense, but it directly
contributed to the political ferment in southern Sudan. Two years before
the signing of the contract Jonglei had become the rallying cry, not only
for southern resentment against northern Sudanese but a call by the opposition in the southern regional government led by Equatorians to bring
down the government of Abel Alier and his fellow Nilotes. When the
rumor that 6,000 Egyptian fellahin were being escorted by Egyptian troops
to settle in the canal zone, students and Equatorians from Juba rioted for
two days, leaving three dead and much damage. The regional government
stood firmly behind the canal. Abel Alier declared that if he had to drive
his people to paradise with sticks, he would do so for their own good and
263
the good of those who come after them. He was quick to promise ambitious programs for social and economic development to be planned and
implemented by agencies that were never provided with the skilled personnel or the resources required to create paradise. By 1983 the canal had
become a reality by means of the bucketwheel, but there was not a single
viable socioeconomic project in the canal zone. The southern regional government had been dismantled by a contemptuous President Jafar Numayri;
drought now decimated the people and their herds who had perished
twenty years before from floods; and Colonel John Garang and his followers in the Sudan Peoples Liberation Movement resumed the war between the governments in Khartoum and the southern Sudanese, now more
determined than in the previous conflict between 1955 and 1972 to preserve for the southerners the newfound oil and water of the sudd from the
ill-disguised designs of the northern Sudanese. Garang had argued in his
doctoral dissertation at Iowa State University that the future agricultural
development for the south could only be achieved by rain-fed, mechanized
agriculture and not irrigated water from the Jonglei Canal.28 In order to
demonstrate his thesis, capture the sympathies of his disgruntled Nilotes,
and strike a blowboth symbolic and tangibleagainst Numayris government, he unleased the Sudan Peoples Liberation Army, which promptly
destroyed the CCI base camp at Sobat on February 10, 1984, and immobilized the bucketwheel. The excavation of the canal ceased. All that remained of the Jonglei Canal was a big ditch and shattered dreams of Nile
control.
While the bucketwheel collapsed like a dead elephant at kilometer
267, Nile planning accumulated just about as much rust. Jonglei had been
the lynchpin for the Egyptian master water plan as it had been for Hursts
Equatorial Nile Project, and the prospect of its revival appeared remote in
a land consumed by war and whose survivors now perished from disease
and starvation. The spirit of African brotherhood and unity, during which
the flame of cooperation among the riparian states had flickered briefly in
the 1960s, was dissolved within the decade by growing distrust and fear
over fundamental differences for Nile water development between Arabs
and Africans, northerners and southerners, Muslims and Christians. Internally, rebellions and civil war in the lake plateau paralyzed the development of East African water resources, leaving the Kagera River basin plan
dormant amidst genocide. The Nile Waters Agreement of 1959 officially
bound Egypt and Sudan together, but their cooperation, symbolized by the
Permanent Joint Technical Commission, died with the bucketwheel. In the
1990s the regime of General Umar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir in Khartoum
has remained anathema to the Egyptians and hydrologically hostile for its
support of Ethiopias demands for Blue Nile water and a unilateral declaration for a dam north of Khartoum.
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Contemporary Voices
In 1971 the East Africans had deflected the initiative of Egypt and the
Sudan for an international Nile agency of all the riparian states by the creation of the UNDUGU commission, which held sixty-six meetings at the
technical and ministerial level between 1977 and 1992 with more rhetoric
than results. This dismal record of achievement could not continue despite
civil strife in the lake plateau. The 250 million people living in the Nile
basin were rapidly increasing at 3.6 percent a year, and the extensive environmental degradation could no longer be ignored. Egypt responded to
these needs with a policy of confidence building by offering assistance for
regional projects in the upstream states as much to divert their attention
from the fundamental but contentious issue of the division of available
water as to curry their goodwill. In 1993 at their sixty-seventh meeting in
Aswan the ministers for water resources reorganized UNDUGU into the
Technical Cooperation Committee for the Promotion of the Development
and Environmental Protection of the Nile (TECCONILE) to meet annually
as the Nile 2002 Conference.
TECCONILE was at first concerned with the water quality of the
equatorial lakes and then drafted the Nile River Basin Action Plan,
(NRBAP) which was not so much a plan as an expression of commitment
by the basin states, but enthusiastically approved at the third meeting of
the Nile 2002 Conference at Arusha in February 1995.29 During his opening remarks to the conference Cleopa Msuya, the Tanzanian prime minister, announced that his government was committed to the principle of equitable entitlement to the water resources of the Nile, which formally
challenged the opposing Egyptian principle of historic needs and established rights.30 This fundamental difference has always been and always
shall be that which determines the projects for Nile control. Like the Nyerere Doctrine in 1961, the principle of equitable entitlement advocated by
Tanzania in 1995 elicited strong support from its neighbors. The following
year, in May 1996 at the fourth 2002 Nile Conference in Kampala, an international basin association was proposed to include Eritrea, the members
of which fervently blessed the spirit of cooperation, on the one hand, while
defending their self-interests, which would destroy it, on the other.
Nine months later in February 1997, at the seventy-first meeting of
TECCONILE held in Cairo to approve twenty-two projects mostly for environmental protection contained in NRBAP, Egypt strongly supported the
U.S.$100 million needed to carry out the NRBAP activities, hopefully to
placate the opposition to its historic needs and to demonstrate confidence
building among the upstream riparians who would gather a week later at
Addis Ababa for the fifth annual Nile 2002 Conference. Egypts cooperation and support for the environmental concerns of their upstream neighbors could not disguise the fundamental issue of Nile controlwho was
going to obtain the Nile waters and how? In his opening address to the 300
representatives from the ten riparians and international agencies, Shiferaw
265
Jarso, the Ethiopian minister for water resources, insisted that as a

source and major contribution of the Nile waters, Ethiopia has the right to
have an equitable share of the Nile waters and reserves its rights to make
use of its water. 31 There was nothing dramatically new in this declaration
except a half century. In 1956 the imperial Ethiopian government officially declared that Ethiopia would reserve for her own use those Nile
waters in her territory.32 Now in 1997 the Ethiopians were simply demanding an equitable share. Indeed, Minister Shiferaws position at the
end of the century appears to be more in keeping with the theme of the
conferenceComprehensive Water Resources Development of the Nile
Basin: Basis for Cooperationthan the declaration by Haile Selassie
fifty years before. Neither pious pronouncements for cooperation nor clarion calls for confidence building could disguise the incompatibility between equitable shares and historic needs and established rights, which
was no nearer to a resolution at the end than at the beginning of the twentieth century. The demand for an equitable share is hopelessly obscured
by its very definition and can hardly be reconciled to needs and rights
translated in A.D. 2000 into ever more Egyptians requiring ever more entitled water to sustain them.
In that extraterrestrial year, 2001, the development of the earths water
resources in the Nile basin will undoubtedly remain shackled by historic
rivalries, ethnic and religious antagonisms, erroneous perceptions solidified by emotions, and hostilities perpetuated by ignorance. To be sure,
there have been projects to satisfy parochial populations and special interests often to the detriment of the commonwealththe High Dam, Sennar
and Roseires, Owen Fallsbut the evolution of any grand design for Nile
control has been defeated in our century by the forces of ethnic, racial, and
religious nationalism and sustained by the hypnotic fear instilled from time
to time by nature. History is awash with the ironies of the Nile civilizations and their myths; and there is no greater irony than when we stand
today, as the proverb prescribes, to drink once again the waters of the Nile
from those coy fountains of Herodotus at the foot of tall mountains in this
new century of self-determination and democracy in preparation for navigating the long and perilous passage down the river from the shimmering
surface of great lakes, through the Stygian sudd, along narrow defiles of
deep canyons, to the terror of turbulent cataracts and the sea, without the
skill, experience, and vision of an imperial river guide.
NOTES
1. Johnston, The Nile Quest.
2. Garstin, Report as to Irrigation Projects on the Upper Nile; Garstin, Report
upon the Basin of the Upper Nile.
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Contemporary Voices
3. Dupuis, A Report upon Lake Tana and the Rivers of the Eastern Sudan,
pp. 209236; Grabham and Black, Report of the Mission to Lake Tana 192021.
4. Lyons, The Physiography of the River Nile and Its Basin.
5. Sir William Willcocks to H. E. High Commissioner, Lord Allenby, 18 July
1918, Sudan Archives, Durham University, England, 108/7.
6. Report and Opinion of Judge Booth, in Report of the Nile Projects Commission. Cairo, 1920.
7. MacGregor and Suleiman, The Nile Commission Report, para. 21, Sudan
Archives, Durham University, England, 500/3/28.
8. Hurst, Black, and Simaika, The Future Conservation of the Nile.
9. Ibid., p. vi.
10. Sutcliffe, A Hydrology of the Sudd Region of the Upper Nile, and A
Hydrological Study of the Southern Sudd Region of the Upper Nile.
11. Morrice and Allan, Report on the Nile Valley Plan.
12. Hurst and Barnett, Planning for the Ultimate Development of the Nile
Valley, pp. 291, 294. IBM is International Business Machines, SOGREAH is Socit grnobloise dtudes et dapplications hydrauliques, and MIT is Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
13. Allan, Discussion on Planning for the Ultimate Hydraulic Development
of the Nile Valley, p. 314.
14. Morrice, The Development of the Main Nile for the Benefit of Egypt and
the Sudan.
15. Simaika, Discussion on Planning for the Ultimate Hydraulic Development of the Nile Valley, p. 309.
16. Okidi, International Laws and the Lake Victoria and Nile Basins, p. 422.
17. Quoted in Whiteman, Digest of International Law, pp. 10111012.
18. Land and Water Resources of the Blue Nile Basin: Ethiopia, 17 vols.
(Washington, D.C.: United States Department of the Interior, 1964).
19. Hon S. A. Maswanya, Minister for Home Affairs, Tanzania, speech at the
Meeting of the Hydrometeorological Survey, 27 February 1967, in Hydromet, Entebbe, 1968, p. 21.
20. UN Development Program and World Meteorological Organization, Report of the Hydrometeorological Survey of the Catchment of Lakes Victoria, Kyoga
and Mobutu Sese Seko: Project Findings and Recommendations (Geneva, 1982).
21. Norconsult A/S and Electrowatt Engineering Services, Ltd., Kagera River
Basin Development, Phase II, 13 vols. (New York: United Nations Development
Programme, 1976); see also Executive Secretariat of the Kagera River Basin Organization and United Nations Development Programme, Development Programme
of the Kagera River Basin, Final Report, 5 vols. (February 1982).
22. The Nile Master Water Plan, 17 vols. (Cairo: Ministry of Public Works,
1981).
23. Jonglei Canal Project, Nanterre (FR), Ministry of Irrigation and Hydroelectric Power, Sudan, 28 July 1976.
24. Jonglei Canal Project: Eastern Alignment to Bor, Nanterre (FR), Ministry
of Irrigation and Hydroelectric Power, Sudan, 13 March 1980.
25. Sutcliffe and Parks, A Hydrological Estimate of the Effects of the Jonglei
Canal on Areas of Flooding; and Sutcliffe and Parks, Hydrological Modelling of
the Sudd and Jonglei Canal.
26. Howell, The Equatorial Nile Project and Its Effects in the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan.
267
27. R. Odingo, Environmental Liaison Center Press Conference, University of

Nairobi, Nairobi, September 1977.
28. Garang, Identifying, Selecting and Implementing Rural Development
Strategies for Socio-Economic Development in the Jonglei Projects Area, Southern
Region, Sudan.
29. Jackson Makwetta, minister for Water, Energy and Minerals, Tanzania,
quoted in Development Plan Approved for Nile Basin States, 13 February 1995,
Xinhua News Agency, Item No. 0213102.
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20
Conclusion:
Historical Legacies and
Present Concerns
Haggai Erlich & Israel Gershoni
The chapters provided in this volume are but a sample of the historical
versatility of the Nile and of its riparian peoples. We believe they reflect
the centrality of the river in the formation and reformation of culture, religion, and national identity, and in the shaping of their interrelationships.
We also contend they assert the validity of our premise that the Nile basin
should be redressed academically as a theater of common political relevance, a civilizational microcosm of diversity and mutuality, and a cultural
polysystem.
Indeed, the general historical picture is that of continuous, meaningful
linkage among the cultural entities. Each onethe Egyptian, the Ethio pian, the Sudaneseis in itself a system of cultural diversity, the various
inner components of which contributed to and enriched the all-regional intercultural dynamism. One major theme, for example, was the religious
Ethio-Egyptian dialogue. The Islamic core of Egyptian culture had its connections and significant influence on the Islamic minorities of Ethiopia
and the Horn of Africa, whereas the Orthodox Church of Ethiopia, from its
very incipience, had been a bishopric of the Coptic Church of Egypt. We
underline such dimensions of historical mutuality for two reasons: first, in
order to emphasize our plea for an enlivened academic curiosity in the
greater Nile basin and an enhanced study of its inner multifaceted historical interconnections. Second, to observe that during the past generation or
two, some of these cultural bridges, and much of the eye contact between
the said civilizations, especially along the Ethiopian-Egyptian axis, have
been damaged and blurred.
We have not covered this contemporary rupture in the present volume.
We have merely mentioned a number of relevant cases, and briefly at that.
269
270
Contemporary Voices
Most of them developed and culminated during the 1950s. In 1959

Ethiopia opted for a complete and final disconnection from the Egyptian
Church, ending spiritual relations of political importance that had begun in
the fourth century. Turning to the then re-energized spheres of African
identity and continental diplomacy, Ethiopian leadership practically declared the old Egyptian-Ethiopian religious and cultural bond irrelevant.
The Egyptian leadership, on its part, worked to promote mutual irrelevance and in no lesser an area of ancient connection. During the same
year, the Egyptians opted for a water agreement with the Sudanese, bluntly
ignoring the Ethiopians. Constructing the High Dam in Aswan, Egypts
leaders seemed to assume that the new Lake Nasser would replace the
Ethiopian Abbay as the main source of the Nile. The Islamic EgyptianEthiopian connection, perhaps equally as old and meaningful as the Christian link, also seemed to change in 1959. The riwaq al-jabartiyya, the
Ethiopian Muslims old little corner in the Cairene Islamic university of alAzhar, had trained Islamic functionaries and religious leaders for Ethiopia
and the Horn of Africa for many centuries. During the 1950s, however, it
became the base of a new generation of Arab revolutionary nationalists
who established the Eritrean Liberation Front in Cairo in 1959. The struggle they began in Eritrea in the name of Arab revolutionarism and against
Ethiopias imperial legitimacy further alienated Ethiopians and Egyptians.
Again, in the same year, the Ethiopians retaliated by allying themselves
with Israel, importing and expanding the Arab-Israeli wall of alienation,
further heightening the dams and conceptual barriers along the Nile.
Each of these issues, as well as other realities of the contemporary
scene, deserves extensive research and should be included in future Nile
studies. In our introduction we indicated the academic change of the
1960s, which, in combination with the cultural-political rupture mentioned
above, contributed to the widening gap. We think it is high time the relevant academic communities address the greater Nile basin as a historic
polysystem, interpreting its current developments against the legacies of
its rich past.
All of the relevant countries have undergone essential changes since
that culmination of rupture. From Gamal Abdel Nasser to Anwar al-Sadat to
Husni Mubarak, from Ibrahim Abbud to Jafar al-Numayri to Hasan alTurabi, from Haile Selassie to Mangistu Haile Mariam to Meles Zenawi,
amid the ever-quickening historic pace, Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia have
re-examined and reinterpreted their very identities. Nearly all the definitions of nationalism prevalent during the 1950s and 1960s, of social revolutionarism, of religious politics, of state and society, concepts that separated Cairo and Addis Ababa some forty years ago, are no longer valid.
New definitions of self, and therefore of the other, have already contributed
to reconstructing some old bridges and reopening neighborly dialogues.
Conclusion
271
The importance of todays dialogues can hardly be exaggerated. Robert

Collinss chapter, In Search of the Nile Waters, re-emphasizes the fact
that in terms of hydropolitical analysis, the Nile is indeed a single unit. This
calls for unified action, where cooperation is perhaps the only road to survival. In coping with water scarcity and demographic increase, a shared
concept of common all-Nile discourse is vital. This, we contend, does not
contradict but rather complements the main message of this book. Only by
redressing the past, by demystifying its myths, by deciphering its legacies,
by deriving inspirations and attaining perspective can humankind better
cope with the challenges. Only by recognizing diversity and legitimizing
pluralism can regional cooperation and unity of action be achieved.
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The Contributors
Ismail H. Abdalla Associate professor at the College of William and

Mary, specializing in modern Sudanese and African history. He has published on cultural, anthropological, and medical aspects and mainly on
their connection to Islam and politics.
Benjamin Arbel Associate professor of early modern history in the Department of History, Tel Aviv University. Former chief editor of the Mediterranean Historical Review, he is the author of over fifty publications on
various aspects of European presence in the eastern Mediterranean.
David Ayalon, 19141998 Professor emeritus, Department of Islamic and
Middle Eastern Studies, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He specialized
in medieval and late medieval Islamic societies. (See also the Introduction).
Uoldelul Chelati Dirar Assistant professor at Asmara University, chair
of the Department of History. He specializes in cultural aspects of colonial
history.
Robert O. Collins Professor of history, Emeritus, at the University of
California, Santa Barbara. His various books on the Nile and the Sudan include The Waters of the Nile: Hydropolitics and the Jonglei Canal (Oxford
1990, Princeton 1996), The Waters of the Nile: An Annotated Bibliography
(Oxford 1991), and The Nile (Yale, forthcoming).
Haggai Erlich Professor of Middle Eastern and African history at Tel
Aviv University, specializing in Ethiopia and Egypt. His recent books in291
292
The Contributors
clude Ethiopia and the Middle East (Boulder 1994), Ras Alula and the
Scramble for Africa (new edition, New Jersey and Asmara 1996), and
Youth and Politics in the Middle EastGenerations and Identity Crises
(Tel Aviv 1998, in Hebrew).
Israel Gershoni Professor of history in the Department of Middle Eastern and African History at Tel Aviv University. He has published numerous
books on cultural aspects of Egyptian and Arab nationalism. His most recent books include Redefining the Egyptian Nation, 19301945, with J.
Jankowski (Cambridge 1995), and Light in the Shade: Egypt and Fascism,
19221937 (Tel Aviv 1999, in Hebrew).
Paul Henze A retired diplomat and a resident consultant with the Rand
Corporation, Washington, D.C. His publications on Ethiopian history and
culture include Ethiopian Journeys (1977), Rebels and Separatists in
Ethiopia (Santa Monica 1985), The Horn of Africa from War to Peace
(London 1991), and Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia (London 1999).
Steven Kaplan Associate professor of African studies and comparative
religion and chairman of the Institute of Asian and African Studies at the
Hebrew University, Jerusalem. His publications include The Monastic
Holy Men and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia (Wiesbaden 1984) and The Beta Israel (Falasha) in Ethiopia (New York 1992).
Nehemia Levtzion Professor of the history of Muslim peoples at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, and former president of the Israel Oriental Society. His publications include Ancient Ghana and Mali (London 1973)
and Eighteenth-Century Renewal and Reform in Islam, with J. Voll (Syracuse 1987).
Yoram Meital Chairman of the Department of Middle East Studies at
Ben Gurion University, Beer-Sheva. He is the author of Egypts Struggle
for Peace: Continuity and Change, 19671977 (Gainesville 1997), and
presently engaged in studying cultural aspects of Nasserism in Egypt.
Richard Pankhurst Founder of the Institute of Ethiopian Studies and a
history professor at Addis Ababa University. He has published numerous
books on social, cultural, and economic aspects of Ethiopian history, and
is the winner of the 1974 International Prize for Ethiopian Studies.
Yaacov Shavit Professor of Jewish history and chairman of the department at Tel Aviv University. His books include The New Hebrew Nation
(London 1987), Athens in Jerusalem: Classical Antiquity in the Making of
The Contributors
293
the Modern Jew (London 1997), and History in BlackAfrican-Americans

in Search of Ancient Past (forthcoming).
Bairu Tafla
Professor of history at the Institut fr Afrikanistik und
Athiopistik, University of Hamburg, specializing in cultural history and
oral traditions. His publications include A Chronicle of Emperor Yohannes
IV (18721889) (Stuttgart 1977) and Ethiopia and Germany: Cultural, Political and Economic Relations, 18711936 (Wiesbaden 1981).
Eve Troutt Powell Assistant professor in the History Department of the
University of Georgia, where she specializes in cultural history of the
modern Middle East.
Emery van Donzel He is the editor of The Encyclopedia of Islam. His
publications on Ethiopia include Foreign Relations of Ethiopia, 1642
1700 (Leiden 1979) and A Yemeni Embassy to Ethiopia, 16471649
(Stuttgart 1986).
Gabriel Warburg Professor emeritus of Middle Eastern history and former rector of Haifa University. He has published extensively on the histories of Egypt and the Sudan. His latest book is titled Historical Discord in
the Nile Valley (London 1993).
Joachim Warmbold A senior lecturer in the Department of Languages,
Tel Aviv University, he specializes in German colonial literature. His publications include Germania in Africa (Frankfurt 1989).
Index
Abbay River. See Blue Nile

Abbud, Ibrahim, 231, 235, 236, 256
Ibn Abd al-Hakim, 18
Abdallah b. Sad, 20
Abraha, 40, 46, 51, 56n33
Abul-Khattab, 72
Abu Yusuf, Hajj Michael, 126
Abyssinia. See Ethiopia
Acculturation, 93
Adam, Guillaume, 122
Adams, William, 92
Adham, Ali, 203
Adorno, Anselmo, 31, 109
Alfonso dAlbuquerque, 32, 125
Africa: ahistorical depiction of, 6467;
cultural unity of, 79; diffusion theory
of, 6467, 69n25, 8387; down the
river theory, 9196; Egyptian
contact with, 8388; enlightened
image of, 136; European depictions
of, 6467; outside influences on,
6467, 86; regeneration of
Christianity and, 142, 143; as source
of human evolution, 86; up the river
theory, 8991
Afrocentrism, 6, 7, 57, 66, 7998
Agaw peoples, 5, 40
Agriculture, 208, 210, 229;
development of, 84, 95; history of,
81; in Nile Valley, 96; tenancy in,
67
Ahistoricity theory, 6467
Ahmad Gragn syndrome, 184,

196n5
Ahmad Yusuf, 190, 193
Akhenaten of Amarna (Pharaoh), 80
Aksumite peoples, 63, 160
Alamayyahu, Haddis, 157
Alexander the Great, 106
Alfonso V (King of Spain), 123
Algerian Front de Liberation Nationale,
220
Alier, Abel, 262
Allan, Nimmo, 254, 255
Allenby, Lord, 229, 230
Alliance Israelite Universelle, 144
Almeida, Manoel de, 125
Alpino, Prospero, 110
Alvarez, Francisco, 7, 28, 47, 49, 108,
112, 113
Amda-Seyon I (Emperor), 29, 30, 31,
41, 56n33, 124
Amenhotep IV (Pharaoh), 80
Amin, Qasim, 172
Amlak, Sagga, 68
Anatolia, 17
Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, 172,
178, 229, 256
Antonio of Castelon, 33
Arabia, 57, 61, 67
Arabism, 10, 11; Egypt and, 11;
Ethiopia and, 193194; Islam and,
211212
Arabs, 7175; conflict with Israel, 3;
295
296
Index
nationalism, 3; Palestinian revolt by,

190; Sudanese, 176, 177
Arafat, Yasser, 188
Ariosto, Ludovico, 32, 109, 118n57,
123, 124
Ark of the Covenant, 63, 65
Arslan, Amir Shakib, 194
Association of Young Muslims, 189,
190
Aswan High Dam, 3, 195, 219226,
246, 252, 256, 261; agricultural
plans for, 220; political
considerations of, 13; symbolism of,
11, 219226
Ibn al-Atham al-Kufi, 18
Ibn al-Athir, 21
Atronsa Maryam monastery, 49
Atsbaha, 40, 46, 51, 56n33
Awad, Lewis, 204, 223
Axumite peoples, 40, 54
Ayyubid dynasty, 21
al-Azhari, Isma il, 230, 231
al-Azhar Islamic University, 185
Azmi, Mahmud, 203
Bernal, Martin, 57, 66

Bernier, Franois, 127
Beta Israel, 58, 59, 60, 61, 6768,
68n11, 69n17. See also Falasha
peoples
Bicini, Hieronimo, 108
Bilad al-Sudan, 7175
Black, Eugene, 257
Blue Nile, 1, 5, 36n1, 245, 248, 251,
258; as abode of spirits, 158160;
control of, 5; decline in flow, 232;
European perspectives on, 121127;
legends about, 3941; as route of
communication, 160161; source of,
7, 3954, 121127; as symbol of
Ethiopia, 154156
Blue Nile Plan, 259
Book of Henoch, 45
Book of Jubilees, 60
Branceleone, Francesco, 108
Bruce, James, 26, 27, 28, 34, 36n1, 47,
108, 118n57, 127, 143, 167n9
Burckhardt, Jacob, 105
Butzer, Karl, 81
Baeda Maryam (Emperor), 41, 47, 49,

108
Baghdad Pact, 220
Bahr al-Arab River, 74
Bahr al-Ghazal River, 6, 74
Baker, Sir Samuel White, 127
Bakr, Muhammad Num, 190
al-Bakri, 72, 73
al-Baladhuri, 18, 19, 22
Bandung Conference (1955), 220
al-Banna, Hasan, 190
Banqo peoples, 177
Barabra peoples, 177
Barberino, Andrea da, 3132
Baring, Sir Evelyn, 246, 247, 250
al-Bashir, Umar Ahmad Hassan, 263
Battle of Gura (1876), 183
Ibn Battuta, 74, 75
Baybars I (Sultan), 21
Beke, Charles Tilstone, 47, 127
Bell, Stephen, 47, 48, 49
Belon, Pierre, 110
Bembo, Cardinal Pietro, 112
Benedict XII (Pope), 122
Berbers, 73
Beresford, J. S., 247
Cartography, 7, 114
Cerulli, Enrico, 122, 124
Charles VII (King of France), 32,
123
Cheesman, R. E., 251
Childe, Gordon, 86
Christianity, 4, 5; antagonism toward,
22; consolidation of, 3954; crisis
of, 141; Ethiopian, 3, 5, 7, 8, 25, 40,
139147; European, 31, 141;
excommunications in, 158; heretics
in, 69n33; missionaries in, 8, 115,
139147; Muslim conflict with, 7;
regeneration of, 142, 143; Sudanese,
12; symbols of, 52
Church Missionary Society, 143
Ciriaco of Ancona, 110
Civilization: African, 6, 83; cradle of,
6, 83; myths of, 66, 67; non-African,
65; pharaonic, 207; primordial, 92;
racial origins and, 8388; role of
Nile River, 81, 83, 208209
Clarke, John Henrik, 83
Climate, 96, 97, 100n17, 102n31, 145,
203
Colonialism, 131, 143, 179, 257
Index
Comboni, Daniele, 143, 145

Committee for the Defense of Ethiopia,
190, 191, 193
Connah, Graham, 92
Conti, Nicolo de, 107
Coptic Church, 3, 5, 9, 25, 29, 30, 158,
161, 162, 163, 164, 168n31, 185,
191, 195
Coronelli, Vincenzo, 115
Cory, Thomas, 250
Cory Award, 250
Cosmogony, 80, 86, 90, 91, 94
Council of Borumeda, 162
Council of Florence, 109
Council of Nicaea, 168n31
Covilh, Pero de, 47, 49, 53, 55n28,
108
Crawford, O. G. S., 115
Cromer, Lord. See Baring, Sir Evelyn
Cultural: achievements, 94; awakening,
209; barriers, 6; changes, 84, 93,
211; cohesiveness, 143;
commonality, 93, 98, 102n40;
conservatism, 211; contacts, 87;
crises, 203; differences, 94;
diffusion, 8387, 92, 98; evolution,
86, 91, 102n42; exchanges, 9, 140;
identity, 176; interrelations, 4;
isolation, 93; polysystems, 2;
reconstructions, 211; revolutions, 7;
separation, 93; similarities, 87; traits,
90; transmission, 8387; uniqueness,
10; unity, 209
Culture: African, 6, 92, 96; common,
93, 98, 102n40; European, 140;
human, 88; literate, 89; of Nile
Valley, 10; oral, 89, 89, 154;
secular, 107; separations of, 2;
shared, 59, 60, 87; social, 176;
universal, 7
da Gama, Christopher, 111, 118n57
dAlmeida, Manoel, 47, 49, 50, 56n35
Daninos, Adrian, 256
Dawit I (Emperor), 5, 29, 30, 56n34,
161
Debra Besrat monastery, 55n8
Debra Maryam monastery, 39, 41
Debra Worq monastery, 41, 42, 48,
55n14, 56n33
Decolonization, 203, 257
297
Deir al-Sultan monastery, 185, 195

Diffusion: cultural, 8387, 92;
heliocentric, 86; theory, 6467,
69n25
Dima monastery, 41, 48, 56n33
Diodorus Siculus, 81, 100n17, 101n24,
108
Diop, Cheikh Anta, 57, 66, 79, 87, 89,
91, 94, 96
Down the river theory, 9196
Drought, 3, 26, 100n17, 101n18, 165,
232
Du Bois, W. E. Burghhardt, 88
Dupuis, C. E., 248, 251
Egypt, 1, 4; in Abyssinian Crisis,
183196; agriculture in, 81, 85, 229;
Arabism in, 11; Aswan High Dam as
symbol, 219226; authoritarianism
in, 192, 225; British occupation, 172,
174, 183, 204; concepts of race and
ethnicity in, 171180; conflict with
West, 220222; contact with Africa,
8388; Coptic Church in, 3, 5, 25,
30, 162, 163, 164, 185, 191;
cosmogonical systems, 80; cultural
differences in, 79, 80; dependence on
Nile, 25; de-racing, 178180; foreign
policy, 220; Free Officers, 219, 230;
French occupation, 171; influence on
Africa, 8996; Islam in, 10, 185,
189, 211212; Judaism in, 58; loss
of independence, 185; Mamluks in,
5; military coup in, 219; Nasserite
revolution in, 13, 219226;
nationalism in, 9, 10, 11, 178, 183,
191, 192, 229; nationalization of,
202, 221, 222; Nile as source of life
in, 2; as origin of African culture, 6,
8996; pluralism in, 191; political
strife in, 204; racial comparison with
Sudan, 171180; relations with
Ethiopia, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 2535,
161165, 183196; relations with
Soviet Union, 220; relations with
Sudan, 10, 11, 164165, 171
180, 204, 206, 227234;
Revolutionary Command Council,
231, 256; revolutionary symbolism,
219226; Suez Canal and, 221,
222
298
Index
Egyptianism, 10, 11, 191193

Egyptian Nationalist Party, 173
Eleni (Empress), 41, 47, 4849, 50,
56n35
Elephantine settlement, 5861, 68n11,
106, 246
Epstein, Abraham, 57
Equatorial Nile Project, 254
Eritrea, 143, 144, 164, 167n6, 183, 195
Erosion, 165, 166
Eshembethel, 61
Ethiopian-Egyptian War (1875), 183
Ethiopia, 4; in Abyssinian Crisis,
183196; ahistorical depiction of,
6467; Arabism and, 193194; Blue
Nile as symbol of, 154156; British
disregard of, 251, 257, 258, 260;
Christianity in, 5, 7, 8, 25, 40,
139147; control of Nile and, 2535,
121127; Coptic Church in, 9, 25,
29, 158, 168n31; Derg rule in, 43,
54n5; drought in, 3; Egyptian
disregard of, 195; foreign policy,
148n9, 153; Islam in, 8, 10, 185,
188190; Italian occupation, 184,
185, 187188; Jesuits in, 33, 47, 50,
125; Judaism in, 4, 6, 5768;
medieval rulers, 2931; missionaries
in, 108, 139147; modernization of,
185, 186, 195; nationalism in, 141;
negative aspects of Nile in, 2, 9; oral
tradition in, 89, 68, 154; Orthodox
Church in, 50, 158, 162, 163, 164;
political life in, 41; relations with
Egypt, 6, 8, 9, 10, 2535, 161165,
183196; relations with Middle East,
9; silt from, 25; spirit influence,
158160
Eunuchs, 18, 21, 22
Euphrates River, 80
Europe: Blue Nile legends in, 121127;
image of Africa in, 147; interest in
anti-Muslim allies, 108
Evans, Sir Arthur, 84
Faruq (King), 221, 222

Fasilidas (Emperor), 50
Ibn Fatima, 74
Fatimid sultan al-Mustansir, 26
Fawzi, Mahmoud, 221
Francastoro, Girolamo, 112, 113, 115
France, 221, 229, 247
Frumentius, 40
Fuad (King), 186
Future Conservation of the Nile, The
(Hurst), 252, 254
Falasha peoples, 6, 40, 57, 60, 61,

6768, 69n30, 69n33, 143. See also
Beta Israel
Famine, 28, 121, 160, 165, 232
Ibn al-Faqih, 72
Fargis, Raymundus Guilelmi de, 122
Hafiz, Sabri, 225

Haile Selassie (Emperor), 3, 52, 154,
164, 184, 185, 186, 187, 190, 191,
192, 195, 248, 258, 265
al-Hakim, Tawfiq, 223, 224
Halayib Triangle, 227
Gabriel, Giovanni, 127

Gabriel (patriarch), 26
Gadl (Lalibala), 28
Galawdewos (Emperor), 49
Gallioli, Luigi, 256
Garang, John, 232, 263
Garstin, Sir William, 246, 247, 249
Garstin Cut, 247, 250, 253, 261
Gastaldi, Iacopo, 112, 114
Geography, 7, 10, 81; civilizatory, 202;
historical, 202; missions and, 139;
myth and, 140; nationalism and,
199213; Renaissance literature on,
105116; total, 202
Ghana, 72, 73, 74
Gheresghier, Tobia, 149n27
Ghistle, Joos van, 32
Gihon River, 106, 107, 109, 114
Gojjam, 41, 48, 154, 156, 157, 248
Gondar Utopia, 8, 131137
Gordon, Charles, 175
Gorgoreyos, Abba, 33, 34
Gragn, Ahmad, 49
Great Britain, 229; occupation of
Egypt, 172, 174, 183, 204;
paternalism of, 10, 184; in Sudan,
10, 11, 173
Great Hymn to the Aten, 80
Guidi, Ignazio, 57
Guillebert of Lannoy, 31
Guma, Muhammad Lutfi, 192193
Gumuz peoples, 5, 40
Index
Halevy, Joseph, 143

Halfawi peoples, 235242
Hamad, Khidr, 231
Hamitic peoples, 207
Hana, Milad, 228
Hancock, Graham, 58, 64, 65, 66
Haqqi, Yahya, 223
Ha-Reuveni, David, 112
Harff, Arnold von, 32
Harkhuf expedition, 82
al-Hashimi, Taha, 194
Haylu, Alaqa Lamma, 158, 159, 160
Heberer, Johann Michael, 109
Hensen, B. H., 251
Herodotus, 81, 96, 100n17, 101n18,
101n24, 105, 106, 108
Hezekiah (King), 62
Hieroglyphs, 115116
Hilliard, Asa G., 8990
Howell, P. P., 262
Huddleston, Sir Hubert, 255
Hurst, Harold Edwin, 252, 253, 254,
255, 261
Husayn, Abdallah, 192
Husayn, Taha, 203, 223
Huzayyin, Sulayman, 10, 199213
Hyperdiffusion theory, 88, 95, 96
Ibrahim, Sunallah, 225
Identity, 1; cultural, 176; modern, 9;
national, 4, 148n9, 188; racial,
171180; redefining, 143;
stereotypes, 143, 177
al-Idrisi, 73, 74
Illuminatenorden, 132
Imperialism, 179, 183, 188, 192, 204,
220, 222, 229
Inan, Muhammad Abdallah, 192, 193,
203
India, 17, 18, 54, 109
Indian Ocean, 27, 74, 108
International Nile Waters Authority,
257
Iraq, 17, 193
Iron tools, 90, 104n74
Irrigation, 231; gravity, 240;
introduction of, 210; perennial, 246;
projects, 223, 228229, 239, 241;
systems, 90, 121; techniques, 96
Islam, 3, 4; acceptance of, 211;
Arabism and, 211212; Christian
299
conflict with, 7, 144; conquest of

Ethiopia by, 10; Egyptian, 10, 185,
189; Ethiopian, 8, 185;
fundamentalist, 188; geographic
literature of, 6; institutionalized, 4;
mistrust of, 162; al-najashi, 189; in
Nile Valley, 1722; perceptions of
Ethiopia, 188190; political, 5, 227;
radical, 12, 140, 174, 190; spread of,
4, 1722; Sudanese, 12, 1722;
threats to, 121
Ismail (Khedive), 9
Israel, 3, 195, 221; Defense Forces,
220
Italy: Ethiopians in, 108, 109;
hydrological work in Sudan, 249;
occupation of Ethiopia, 184, 185,
187188
Iyasus, Amha, 27, 28
Iyyasu I (Emperor), 126, 162
Jacopo of Verona, 31, 122
Jaqmaq (Sultan), 30
Jerusalem, 40, 64, 109, 122, 146
Jesuits, 33, 47, 50, 125
John of Lastic, 32, 123
John of Marignola, 122
Joinville, Jean de, 106
Jonglei Canal, 12, 232, 254, 255, 260,
261, 262, 263
Jonglei Committee, 254
Jonglei Investigation Team, 254, 262
Joseph (patriarch), 26
Josephus Flavius, 62
Josiah (King), 60
Judaism, 40; in Egypt, 58; Ethiopian, 4,
6, 5768; Gentile adherents, 64;
Helenistic, 58; migration theory of,
59; sources of, 57
Kagera Basin Organization, 260
Kagera River, 260, 263
Kamil, Mustafa, 173174, 175
Kebra Nagast, 63
Kennedy, M. Ralston, 249
Kenya, 257, 258, 260
Kessler, David, 58, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66
Kete Asante, Molefi, 83, 95, 98n3
Khasm al-Girba project, 235242, 257
al-Khuwarizmi, 71, 73
Kidana, Wald, Alaqa, 158, 168n31
300
Index
al-Kindi, 18
Kinship, 94
Kircher, Athanasius, 125
Kitchener, Sir Herbert, 172, 246, 247,
250
Knigge, Adolph Franz Friedrich
Ludwig von, 132137
Kogel, Jrg-Dieter, 134, 135
Krapf, Johan Ludwig, 131, 143,
149n27
Kush, 61, 62
Lake Albert, 248, 253
Lake Albert Dam, 261
Lake Chad, 74, 85
Lake Kuri, 74
Lake Kyoga, 253, 255
Lake Nasser, 3, 12, 195, 231, 235
Lake Tana, 2, 7, 40, 41, 58, 67, 123,
154, 160, 248, 250
Lake Tana Dam, 184, 195, 254
Lake Victoria, 245, 253, 259
Lake Zway, 27
Lalibala (Emperor), 2628, 30, 122,
127, 160
Land: competition for, 67; measurement, 81; ownership, 223; reform, 223
League of Nations, 248
Lebna Dengel (Emperor), 30, 41, 49
Lefkowitz, Mary, 66
Le Grand, Joachim (Abba), 34, 128n22
Lengherand, Georges, 32
Leo Africanus, 111, 112, 192
Lima, Rodrigo de, 28, 108
Literature: Ethiopian, 153166;
fictional, 131137; geographic, 6;
postcolonial, 136; Renaissance,
105116; travel, 105116
Lithgow, William, 32
Lobo, Jeronimo, 125, 127
Louis XIV (King of France), 126
Ludolf, Hiob, 8, 26, 33, 34, 125, 126,
127, 135
Luzzato, Philoxene, 57
Lyons, Sir Henry, 249, 252
MacDonald, Murdoch, 247, 249, 250,
253
Mahmud, Abbas, 223
Mamluks, 5, 18, 19, 29, 106, 115, 122,
209
Mannan (Empress), 163

Manoel I (King of Portugal), 32, 125
al-Maqrizi, 22, 29
Marcus, Louis, 57
Marxism, 164, 165
Masad, Bulus, 194
Massaja, Guglielmo, 143, 144, 149n27
al-Masudi, 19, 22
Matewos, Abuna, 164165
McMillan, W. N., 251
Medieval period, 2, 7, 9, 1775
Mediterranean Sea, 3, 17, 21, 97, 108
Membre, Filippo, 112
Menelik of Shawa (Negus), 156
Menelik I (Emperor), 39, 163, 185,
190, 248
Mero, 6164, 162
Meroite peoples, 19
Mertule Maryam monastery, 5, 4154
Meschino, Guerin, 123
Michael of Alexandria (Patriarch), 26
Middle Nile, 82
Migration, 8387, 160; constant, 93;
non-African, 87
Milk Abbay (Wetct Abbay), 39
Milton, John, 122
Miracles of Mary, 6, 30
al-Mirghani, Sayyid Ali, 230
al-Misri, Ibn Wasif Shah, 121
Missionaries, 8; background and
training, 147; budgetary constraints
on, 147; Catholic, 140, 141, 142,
147, 149n24; conflicts and rivalries
among, 147; effect on missionary
activity, 139147; in Ethiopia, 108,
139147; expulsion from Ethiopia,
115, 149n27; increase in, 141, 142;
mortality rates, 145; Nigerian,
148n12; Portuguese, 115; Protestant,
141, 142, 147, 149n24; relations
with church hierarchies, 147;
strategies of, 143
Mitchell, Timothy, 172
Monasteries, 5, 39, 4154, 55n14,
56n33
Monges, Miriam Maat-Ka-Re, 92
Morrice, Humphrey, 254, 255, 262
Msuya, Cleopa, 264
Mubarak, Husni, 227, 232
Muhammad, 20, 188
Muhammad, Muhammad Awad, 204
Index
Muhammad Ali, 191, 209, 229, 245,

246
Mnster, Sebastian, 109, 114
Musa, Salama, 192, 203
Muslim Brotherhood, 190, 204, 230
Mussolini, Benito, 10, 184, 185, 187,
190, 192, 193, 194, 197n26, 248
Myers, Charles, 171, 172, 175, 176
Myths, 2, 95, 98n3; of bon sauvage,
148n11; of creation, 81; darkest
Africa, 137, 146; Ethiopian identity,
148n9; geography and, 140;
resurrection of Osiris, 80; Semitic
Ethiopia, 141
Naakuto Laab, 28, 30
al-Nahhas, Mustafa, 230
Najib, Muhammad, 230
al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalaun, 29
Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 3, 11, 13, 195,
200, 220, 221, 222, 230, 231, 256
National Islamic Front, 227, 233, 240
Nationalism, 178; Arab, 3; Egyptian, 9,
10, 11, 183, 191, 192, 229; Eritrean,
143, 144; Ethiopian, 141; geography
and, 199213
National Unionist Party, 230
Nebese region, 41
Niccola of Poggibonsi, 31
Niger River, 6, 72, 73, 74, 75, 85, 143,
145
Nile Basin, 205, 264; as single
hydrological system, 12
Nile Commission, 249
Nile Commission Report, 251
Nile Control (Willcocks), 250
Nile Duel, The, 245
Nile of Ghana, 74
Nile of Maqdishu, 74
Nile River: Arab geographers of,
7175; conservation projects, 228;
control of, 7, 2535; cultural
representations of, 2; direction of
flow, 7998, 205; diversion of, 8,
2535, 121127, 162, 169n25; in
Egypt/Sudan relations, 227234; in
Ethiopian literature, 153166;
festivals, 99n4; flooding, 80, 81,
100n17, 101n22, 113; geographical
diversity of, 2; growth of demands
on, 228; in heaven/on earth, 80;
301
interference with flow of, 5, 2535;

life-sustaining features, 100n17;
missionary activity and, 139147;
myths of, 2, 2535; natural obstacles
in, 82, 101n21, 101n24, 156158;
object of scientific investigation,
110115, 175176, 199213;
Renaissance image of, 105116; as
route of Judaism, 5768; sacred
character of, 105; secular interest in,
109115; as seen by outsiders, 6, 7;
sources of, 6, 7, 12, 71, 73, 106,
245265; symbolism of, 3, 9,
219226; as unifying factor, 7998;
as water route to inner Africa, 81,
82; water storage, 246, 252, 255. See
also Blue Nile
Nile River Basin Action Plan, 264
Nile 2002 Conference, 167n1, 264
Nile Valley: agriculture in, 96; as
channel of communication, 65, 82;
common human identity in, 10;
cultural structure, 208209; culture
of, 10; environmental effects, 210;
ethnography of, 10; European
perspective on, 3135; historical
development, 10, 209212; as home
of one civilization, 10; human
structure, 206208; independent
cultural record in, 94; Islam and,
1722; migration in, 8387; origin of
peoples in, 89; physical structure,
205206; population changes in,
8788; as source of slaves, 18, 21;
trade routes and, 84, 85, 102n26;
travel literature on, 105116; unity,
3, 9, 11, 7998, 199213, 204, 228
Nile Valley Plan, 255, 256
Nile Waters Agreement, 231, 248, 257,
263
Nilo-Saharan peoples, 93
Nilotic theory, 6, 11, 5768
Noldmann, Benjamin, 132
Nora, Pierre, 225
Nubia, 61, 63, 91; military attacks on,
17; as source of slaves, 21;
subjugation of, 82; Weny expedition
to, 82. See also Nubians
Nubian Dam, 6, 9, 10, 13, 1722
Nubian-Muslim Treaty, 20
Nubians, 4, 5, 12; Arab praise for, 20;
302
Index
military decline, 21; military skills

of, 18, 19, 21, 23n19; resettlement
project, 235242
Numayri, Jafar, 231233, 263
Nyerere Doctrine, 257, 258, 259, 264
Organization of African Unity, 195, 259
Orlando Furioso (Ariosto), 32, 109,
118n57, 123
Oromo peoples, 49, 50, 143, 145, 146
Orthodox Church, 50
Osiris, 80
Oviedo, Gonzalo Fernandez de, 112
Owen Falls Dam, 259
Paez, Pero, 47, 50, 114115, 118n57,
125, 127, 245
Paganism, 5, 18, 50, 51, 140, 141, 142,
143
Paiva, Alfonso de, 108
Palestine, 101n18, 122, 190, 193
Pan-Arabism, 193, 194
Peoples Republic of China, 220
Permanent Joint Technical
Commission, 260, 261, 263
Philippe of Mezieres, 31
Philo of Alexandria, 81
Pietro of Naples, 30, 123
Pigafetta, Filippo, 114
Pison River, 107, 112
Pliny, 106, 114
Portugal, 32, 108, 111; foreign policy,
124, 125; missionaries from, 115
Prester John, 7, 8, 30, 31, 32, 107, 108,
122, 123, 141
Propaganda Fide Sapeto, 146, 147
Ptolemy, 6, 71, 72, 73, 106, 107, 109,
114, 115
Queen of Sheba, 39, 61, 62, 63, 69n17,
160
Qutb, Sayyid, 203
Radwan, Fathi, 192, 197n26
Rainfall, 2526, 113, 127, 259
Ramusio, Giovanni Battista, 111112,
113, 115, 118n38, 118n39, 118n45
Ranzano, Pietro, 108, 117n15
Raphael, Abba, 30
Rauwolf, Leonard, 110
Red Sea, 5, 65, 67, 127, 146, 183
Religion. See specific religions

Renaissance period, 7, 105116
Revolutionary Command Council, 231,
256
Rey, C. F., 47
Rida, Muhammad Rashid, 189
Rifat, Muhammad, 203
Rodd, Rennell, 248
Rombulo, Pietro, 108, 117n15
Roule, Lenoir du, 34
Rusumu Agreement, 260
Sabbara Dildi, 41
Sabbath observances, 60
Sabra, Abba, 68
al-Sadat, Anwar, 11, 231233
Said, Amin, 194
Said, Edward, 141
Saladin, 21
Salafiyya movement, 189
Salama, Abuna, 163
Salim, Qapudan, 245
Salim, Salah, 231
Salt, Henry, 28
Santo Stefano degli Abissini church,
109
Santo Stefano Maggiore dei Mori
church, 140
Sapeto, Giuseppe, 146
Saracens, 2728, 31, 123
Sayfa Arad (Emperor), 29, 30
al-Sayyid, Ahmad Lufti, 10, 172, 178,
179, 180
Scott-Moncrieff, Sir Colin, 246
Seligman, Charles, 86
Senegal River, 6, 72, 74
Sennar Dam, 250, 251
Septuagint, 58
Sesostris III (Pharaoh), 82
Shabandar, Abd al-Rahman, 193
Shari River, 6, 74
Shenuda (Patriarch), 164
Shiferaw Jarso, 264265
Shukriyya peoples, 235242
Shuqayr, Naum, 9, 176, 177, 178
Sigoli, Simone, 122
Slavery, 18, 21, 22, 92, 143, 145
Smidt, Heinrich, 131
Smith, Anthony, 199
Smith, G. Eliot, 86
Social: bonds, 206; crises, 203; culture,
Index
176; order, 96; organization, 94,

203
Solomonic period, 5
Solomon (King), 39, 63
Soviet Union: arms deals with, 220,
221; relations with Egypt, 220;
relations with Sudan, 11
Spencer, Diana, 48
Stack, Sir Lee, 229, 251
Stone Age, 92
Strabo, 81, 100n17, 106, 107
Sudan, 1, 4, 89, 91, 154, 160, 161, 205;
as Anglo-Egyptian Condominium,
172, 178, 229, 256; Arabization of,
17; Christianity in, 12; de-racing,
178180; development projects,
235242; Great Britain in, 10, 11,
173; independence, 11, 227;
instability in, 227; Islam in, 12,
1722, 211212; Nile as bridge and
barrier, 2; Peoples Liberation
Movement, 232, 263; population
characteristics, 176178; racial
comparisons to Egyptians, 171180;
relations with Egypt, 10, 11, 12, 13,
164165, 172, 204, 206, 227234;
relations with Soviet Union, 11;
Resettlement Commission, 236;
resettlement project, 235242; selfdetermination, 230231; UN
sanctions against, 227; viability of,
234
Sudheim, Ludolph, 107
Suez Canal, 184, 246, 247;
nationalization of, 221, 222, 226n3
Suriano, 109
Susenyos (Emperor), 47, 50
Sutcliffe, J. V., 253, 261
Swahili Brotherhood, 260
Syria, 17, 164, 193, 194
al-Tabari, 18
Tadesse, Memhir Habte Mikael, 4245
Tafari Ras. See Haile Selassie
Tafur, Pero, 107
Tagale, Eserunan Haile Maryam, 45
al-Tahtawi, Rifaa, 172
Takazze River, 28, 29, 167n7, 167n8,
168n10
Takla Haymanot, 34, 126, 156
Tamrat, Tadesse, 29, 31, 48, 122
303
Tamre Maryam, 45, 55n12

Tanganyika, 257258
Tanzania, 260, 264
Tellez, Baltazar, 33, 125
Terrorism, 227, 234n1
Tewodros (Emperor), 184, 185, 190
Thenaud, Jehan, 32, 124, 125
Thevenot, Jean de, 126
Thutmose I (Pharaoh), 80
Tir Maryam feast, 4446, 48
Tis Abbay, 158
Tisisat Falls, 39
Torah, 60, 61
Totemism, 94
Treaty of Versailles, 131
Trevor-Roper, Hugh, 64, 65
Trivisan, Polo, 110111
al-Turabi, Hasan, 227, 232
Tusun, Umar (Prince), 190, 191
Uganda, 205, 249, 254, 257, 258, 260
Umar, Muhammad, 176
al-Umari, 29
Umar I (Caliph), 20
Umar II (Caliph), 20, 21
United Nations (UN), 195; Conference
on Desertification, 262;
Environmental Program, 262;
Security Council, 227
Upper Niger River, 72
Upper Senegal River, 72
Up the river theory, 8991
Urabi, Ahmad, 183
Uthman (Caliph), 20
Varthema, Lucovico di, 110
Vossius, Isaac, 125
al-Wahab, Muhammad, 223
Walda-Selassie, Heruy, 186, 196
Wayto peoples, 5, 40, 160
al-Wazzan al-Zayyati, Hasan ben
Muhammad. See Leo Africanus
Weny expedition, 82
White Nile, 1, 232, 247
White Nile Canal, 13
Willcocks, Sir William, 246, 247, 249,
250
William of Boldensele, 107
Wolseley, Sir Garnet, 246
World Bank, 220, 221
304
Index
Yamesserach, Alaqa, 158

al-Yaqubi, 18
Yaqut, 22, 23n19
Yeshaq (Emperor), 29, 123
Yohannes IV (Emperor), 9, 162, 183,
184, 185, 190
Yohannes XI (patriarch), 30
Yoruba peoples, 89, 90
Young Egypt movement, 192, 197n26

Zaghlul, Ahmad Fathi, 172
Zaghlul, Sad, 186, 191, 229
Zara Yaqob (Emperor), 30, 32, 41,
48, 108, 123, 169n25
Zorzi, Alessandro, 30, 111
Zwaditu (Empress), 248
About the Book
Intercultural relations have revolved around the River Nile throughout

recorded history: sharing the rivers waters, Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Sudanese have developed rich dialogues of mutual cultural enrichment, as
well as misconceptions and conflicts. This volume represents a rigorous
scholarly attempt to trace these complex relations, exploring the multifaceted representations of the Nile, both in the region and in the West, from
early medieval times to the present.
Underlying the authors analysis is their recognition that the resurgent
nationalism and sociopolitical revolutions of the present have aggravated
historical conflicts and often reinvented traditional images. Their hope is
that reconstructing the continuum of the Niles history, its changes, and its
cultural reciprocity will enhance mutual understanding as the region faces
the acute water problems predicted for the future.
Haggai Erlich is professor of Middle Eastern and African history at Tel
Aviv University. Israel Gershoni is professor of Middle Eastern history at
Tel Aviv University.
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THE NILE

Published in the United States of America in 2000 by

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Printed and bound in the United States of America

The paper used in this publication meets the requirements

In memory of David Ayalon,

PEOPLES AND IDENTITIES IN MEDIEVAL TIMES

The Spread of Islam and the Nubian Dam

Ethiopias Alleged Control of the Nile

Consolidation of Christianity Around the Source

Did Jewish Influence Reach Ethiopia via the Nile?

Arab Geographers, the Nile, and the History of

THE NILE AS SEEN FROM A DISTANCE

7 Up the River or Down the River? An Afrocentrist Dilemma

Renaissance Geographical Literature and the Nile

The Legend of the Blue Nile in Europe

The Gondar Utopia

The Nile as a Gateway for Missionary Activity in

OLD WATERS, MODERN IDENTITIES

The Father of Rivers: The Nile in Ethiopian Literature

Brothers Along the Nile: Egyptian Concepts of Race

Egypt, Ethiopia, and The Abyssinian Crisis, 19351936

Geographers and Nationalism in Egypt: Huzayyin and the

The Aswan High Dam and Revolutionary Symbolism

The Nile in Egyptian-Sudanese Relations, 19561995

Removing the Nubians: The Halfawis at Khashm al-Girba

In Search of the Nile Waters, 19002000

Conclusion: Historical Legacies and Present Concerns

The Nile: Histories, Cultures, Myths was first conceived as a conference

and geographers, completing the picture up to the late nineteenth century.

Literature. He asserts that the Blue Nile, or Abbay, our father in

their cultural uniqueness. But, according to Troutt Powell, the pioneers of

a matter of virtual existencewas inevitable, was indeed consonant with

1898. By abolishing the Nubian Dam, they were in a position to create a

Peoples and Identities

The Spread of Islam

Peoples and Identities in Medieval Times

The Spread of Islam and the Nubian Dam

Al-Masudi, in giving the account of the Muslim-Nubian fighting,

Peoples and Identities in Medieval Times

especially when we consider that Islam developed and expanded through

The Spread of Islam and the Nubian Dam

Peoples and Identities in Medieval Times

served as a source of supply of slaves and eunuchs. However, we do not

The Spread of Islam and the Nubian Dam

Si dice che il Soldan, re dellEgitto,

FAILURE OF THE ETHIOPIAN RAINS AND THE NILE FLOOD

The first interruptions in Ethiopian rainfall are reported in the Masahaf

Peoples and Identities in Medieval Times

BRUCES STORY ABOUT KING LALIBALA

Ethiopias Alleged Control of the Nile

realize one of the favourite pretensions of the Abyssinians by turning

Peoples and Identities in Medieval Times

Ethiopias Alleged Control of the Nile

THE EMPERORS OF ETHIOPIAS GOLDEN ERA (12701540)

Peoples and Identities in Medieval Times