Chronology of the Astrology of the Middle East and the West by Period Second Edition, Revised and Expanded ee eR es? neg ee Written and Compiled by Robert Hand ARHAT©Copyright 1998 Robert S. HandChronology of the Astrology of the Middle East and the West by Period Compiled by Robert Hand for ARHAT The following is not intended to be a complete history. It is only to give a rough idea of the times and order of major developments in the history of astrology, a list of the major astrologers, and events in the historical background. Preamble The origins of astrology are lost in time. Virtually every ancient people from ancient Mesopotamians to native Americans conceived of the idea that there is some kind of correspondence between events in the heavens and those on earth. However, these were all omen-based astrologies. The positions of the stars and planets were examined at certain times and scrutinized for unusual phenomena, arrangements or other strange appearances. Typically these observations were not limited to strictly astronomical phenomena but might include weather phenomena such as halos, red moons, etc. Most important were observations of lunar phases and then later on the appearances and disappearances of the planets (“wandering stars”). No effort was made (or at least no successful effort) to predict any of these phenomena in advance except possibly for the phases of the Moon. Rather, celestial phenomena were observed and to some extent measured as they happened. The alignments of Stonehenge suggest that it was just such a device. While it may have served as an eclipse predicting device (and this is still somewhat controversial among scholars) primarily it and other such observatories were more like clocks in that they told the peoples who used them what time of year it was rather then when something in the future was going to happen. The central point that needs to be made here is that the basic astrological impulse, the desire to correlate celestial and terrestrial events, was nearly universal among ancient peoples. However, a distinguishing mark of what we call astrology as it is practiced today is that celestial phenomena are computed in advance of their occurrence so that, whatever correlation there may be between the earth and the heavens, events derived from such a correlation can be anticipated in advance. In order to bring about such an astrology it was necessary to observe heavenly movements for a long time so that these movements could be computedin advance. As far as we can tell only one group of ancient peoples ever did this, the various peoples who lived in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), especially the Sumerians, the Babylonians (later known as Chaldeans), and the Assyrians. Since we know of no other ancient peoples who did this, we have to assume that these peoples were the most likely to have given birth to astrology as we know it. Final Comment: This chronology does not at this time include developments in the history of Jyotish or Hindu astrology. This is not to slight the considerable history of the development of that system of astrology. It is simply that here I am concentrating on the history of our system of astrology in the West. But I do note times and events which might have been involved in the interaction between Middle Eastern astrology and Jyotish.Early Period — This is the period during which astrology in Mesopotamia evolved from its omen-based roots into the immediate ancestor of horoscopic astrology. See the essay “On the Early Roots of Horoscopic Astrology” at the end of this chronology. A. Before 15,000 B.C.E. The precise date is uncertain, but early human beings appear to have recorded the phases of the Moon by making scratches on pieces of bone. These would appear to be the earliest astronomical observations. B. €4000 B.C.E. Mesopotamia, the "Land between the Two Rivers," is one of the so-called "cradles" of civilization, along with Egypt, China, and the Indus Valley. It also appears to be the oldest of these. The oldest known people in Mesopotamia were a people known as the Ubaidians. We know virtually nothing about these people except that at a fairly early period another people began moving into the area and intermarrying with them. These were the Sumerians who became dominant and whose language replaced whatever was the language of the Ubaidians. C. 63400 B.C.E. The development of a notation system for numbers in Egypt. D. 63200 B.C.E. Archaic Period in Egypt. Hieroglyphic writing dates from at least this period. E. €3000 B.C.E. The Sumerians developed cuneiform which is done by impressing wedge-shapes into soft clay. F. 2755-2255 B.C.E. Old Kingdom in Egypt. G. 62500 B.C.E. Beginning of Indus Valley culture in India according to conventional scholarship. H. 2330 B.C.E. Sargon of Akkad conquered the Sumerians and created the first of several Semitic empires in Mesopotamia. The Akkadian Empire fell in 2218 B.C.E. leading to a period of anarchy in Mesopotamia until the rise of the first Babylonian Empire and the early stages of the Assyrian Empire in the later second millennium B.C.E. I. 2134-1784 B.C.E. Middle Kingdom in Egypt. J. 1792-1750 B.C.E. Hammurabi’s reign in Babylonia. This is beginning of the First or Old Babylonian Empire. K. 1646 B.C.E. The Venus Tables of Ammizaduga, the oldest surviving tables of systematic observations of planetary movements. These contain not only the astronomical data but also omen lore concerning the phases of Venus. L. 1570-1070 B.C.E. The New Kingdom in Egypt.OZ U. . €1500 B.C.E. Stonehenge, the Sarsen stone circle (the large standing stones) was erected. The entire structure as it survives today was erected between the 3000 and 1000 B.C.E. 1350 B.C.E. The rise of the Assyrian Empire. 730-650 B.C.E. Assyrian Empire controls all of Mesopotamia, parts of Persia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. This is also notable as the first time that Egypt and Babylon were under the same regime. 687 B.C.E. Mul Apin, the oldest known star catalog. Little evidence at this time of a twelve-fold division of the zodiac by constellations of either equal or unequal length. However, several of the later zodiacal constellations were already described, but not yet codified into the “twelve signs of the zodiac.” 612 B.C.E. The fall of Assyria and the rise of the Second Babylonian Empire. The Babylonian people that brought this about were also known as Chaldeans, hence the term Chaldean Empire. €650 B.C.E. Enuma Anu Enlil, a series of omen observations in something like its final form, although parts are almost a millennium older. This indicates the presence of a very old astral religion which provided the ideological and philosophical motive behind the development of astrology. €650-€450 B.C.E. The development of a twelve-fold zodiac with equal 30° signs. True horoscopic birthcharts do not yet seem to exist. 539 B.C.E. The conquest of Babylonia by Persia. For a second time Egypt and Babylon came under one regime. Mesopotamian planetary astronomy and astrology could have begun coming into Egypt at this time. This is only supposition as evidence is lacking. 410B.C.E. The oldest individual birthchart. It is in cuneiform. Il. Early Greek Period — Note overlap in dates with the preceding. A. €624 B.C.E. Birth of Thales, regarded as the first of the Pre- Socratic philosophers. In 585 B.C.E. he is believed to have forecast an eclipse. This is regarded by some as questionable. €611-547 B.C.E. Anaximander postulated a cosmic scheme involving cylinders that held the stars and planets. 585 B.C.E. Birth of Pythagoras. Pythagoras was believed toIl. have gone to Babylon in about 530 B.C.E. D. 6490-430 B.C.E. Empedocles who set forth the first known codification of the four element theory which survives in astrology. 4702-399? B.C.E. Socrates 460-377 B.C.E. Hippocrates 6432 B.C.E. Meton expounded on the Metonic eclipse cycle. This was apparently known earlier to the Babylonians. 6428-€347 B.C.E. Plato 6408-355 B.C.E. Eudoxus who developed the first known theory to account for planetary motions and retrogrades. This is the theory based on concentric planetary spheres which was also adopted by Aristotle. J. 384-322 B.C.E. Aristotle. mm Om Hellenistic Period — During this period, beginning with the conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great, astrology in something like the form we know it developed very rapidly. While most of the writing was in Greek, most of the authors were not Greeks but Egyptians and Semites. It was during this period that we know for certain that astrology came into Egypt and developed in a manner characteristic of the Egyptians. It is this astrology which forms the basis of the Greek language astrological writings that came in later centuries. A. 356-323 B.C.E. Alexander the Great. B. 331 B.C.E. The conquest of Mesopotamia by Alexander the Great. The entire area became dominated by Greek language and culture. The Seleucid dynasty descended from Alexander's general Seleukos ruled the area including Mesopotamia. C. 6310-€250 B.C.E. Aristarchus of Samos who first proposed a heliocentric solar system much in the manner of Copernicus. D. 6300 B.C.E. Zeno of Citium founded Stoicism, a philosophy that later became very influential in the history of astrology. E. €290 B.C.E. Berossus of Cos, Chaldean (Babylonian) priest who settled on the island of Cos and is said to have first introduced natal astrology into Greece. No extant writings. F. 263 B.C.E. The first cuneiform (or any other type) chart with degrees given. G. €200 B.C.E. Nechepso & Petosiris. Legendary Egyptian pharaoh and his priest, said to have invented astrology. Anextensive astrological textbook bearing their names was evidently written or translated into Greek around 200 B.C.E. €200 B.C.E. Hermetic writings. Roughly contemporary with the Nechepso and Petosiris writings these works were a diverse group of writings most of which were attributed to Hermes, but a few to other Egyptian sages such as Anubis and Agathodaimon. €200 B.C.E. - €200 C.E. The introduction of horoscopic astrology into India. The general view of Western scholars (and for that matter academic scholars in India) is that horoscopic astrology came into India from the Middle East. It is probable that a type of native horoscopic astrology was coming into existence prior to this based on the Nakshatras or Lunar Mansions, but the Babylonian type based on 12 signs and houses appears for the most part to have superseded the native development. The Nakshatras were however blended into the new synthesis. It is not clear when in this period this process started but it is clear that the creation of a largely independent Hindu tradition was completed by 200 C.E. I am aware that there are those who dispute this view attributing great antiquity to the Hindu tradition and who believe that India is the font of all horoscopic tradition, but this is not the view of most scholars. Lest I be accused of Eurocentricism, I do not claim that the Greeks gave India her astrology, but rather it was the Semitic Middle East and Egypt. It is true, however, that many of the authors of the Middle Eastern tradition did write in Greek. It is also apparent that much of the Middle Eastern influence on Hindu astrology comes from non-Greek speaking sources. €190-120 B.C.E. Hipparchus. He was the first Greek and possibly the first one of any of the ancient peoples to deal consciously with precession. It has often been stated that older peoples knew of precession, but it is not clear that they understood that it was an orderly and rational phenomenon. And there is no evidence that they had any idea of its rate. Hipparchus also composed a star catalog listing some 1000 stars. 69-30 B.C.E. Reign of Cleopatra. With her death the Hellenistic Era technically came to an end as she was the last independent Greek ruler descended from the generals of Alexander the Great. However, because there was no great break in the cultural traditions of the Eastern Mediterranean, it has beenconventional to refer to later Greek language astrology as Hellenistic even though it was technically of the Roman Era. The first real break in the history of the Eastern Mediterranean came with the advent of Christianity and then Islam. 68 B.C.E. Last surviving cuneiform birthchart. 62 B.C.E. Oldest known surviving Greek chart. Antiochus I of Commagene, another of the last of the Hellenistic rulers placed his birthchart on his tomb. It dates to about 62 B.C.E. This does not mean that there are no earlier charts. They may simply have not survived. N. ¢30B.C.E. The Denderah zodiac in Egypt. zr IV. The Roman Era — As stated above this is really just a continuation of the Hellenistic Era culturally speaking. The Romans made little or no contribution to astrology as a people. And there are only two Latin authors in astrology, Manilius and Julius Firmicus Maternus. A. 44B.C.E. The assassination of Julius Caesar. B. 27 B.C.E. Augustus Caesar became emperor. This was the beginning of the Roman Empire, as opposed to the Roman Republic. C. 7-4 B.C.E. Somewhere in here is the likely birth of Christ. It was most probably 7 B.C.E., hence the abbreviation B.C.E. “Before the Common Era.” D. €10 C.E. Manilius. Wrote the Astronomica in Latin, a long didactic astrological poem still extant. I am personally somewhat skeptical that this is an authentic work. Here are my reasons. 1) The work is not referred to by any contemporary. Nor was it known in the Middle Ages, whereas the work of Firmicus Maternus was known. The work was not known until the Renaissance. 2) The only copy of the manuscript that survived in the Renaissance was mysteriously lost and only a new copy survived. 3) The Latin is complex and difficult, far more so than most Classical Latin poetry. This is often a sign of Renaissance Latinists displaying their “erudition.” 4) Its astrology is very different from any other astrology of the period even with respect to texts that should be quite close to it in age. E. 36 C.E. Death of Thrasyllus. A scholar from Rhodes who became a major influence under Augustus and Tiberius. He was principally an advisor to Tiberius, an astrological advisor as well as a personal and political one.1* Century C.E. Dorotheus of Sidon. Wrote the Pentateuch, a long and important astrological poem in 5 books. Dorotheus (if he is dated correctly) is the oldest source for the three triplicity tulership system. 1* Century C.E. Teucer of Babylon. Tradition has it that he was the first to delineate the decans astrologically though this may be an incorrect tradition. Late First Century C.E. Balbillus. Son or nephew of Thrasyllus and almost as eminent. He managed to survive as an influential advisor through the reigns of Caligula, Claudius, Nero and probably into the reign of Domitian. 76-138 C.E. Hadrian reigned 117-138 C.E.. He was a patron of astrology and his birthdata have apparently survived. 100?-170? C.E. Claudius Ptolemy. Ptolemy was an Egyptian by birth although possibly descended from ethnic Greeks. He was also probably a Roman citizen although he wrote in Greek. 120-199 C.E.? Galen the great physician and author in whose writing there is considerable astrological content. 146-211 C.E. Septimius Severus who reigned 193-211 C.E. was the first emperor to practice the worship of the Sun. This cult eventually led to a state religion which employed astrology as a central practice. . 6150-185 C.E. Vettius Valens. Evidently a younger contemporary of Ptolemy's, he compiled the Anthology, a long writing dealing with most facets of Greek astrology. The dates given here are not his birth and death dates, which are uncertain, but rather the apparent dates of his career. Somewhere between the rule of Hadrian and the late third century C.E. Antigonus of Nicaea. He is mainly known for having written a description of a horoscope that appears to be that of the emperor Hadrian. Late 2™ Century C.E. Antiochus of Athens (probably). Made a large collection of excerpts from earlier astrologers. Part of this consisted of a Thesaurus of technical astrological terms. 150-215 C.E. Clement of Alexandria one of the first major Christian Platonists. . 205-270 C.E. Plotinus, one of the first and the most important Neoplatonists. In his work, the Enneads, Plotinus addressed many of the philosophical problems raised by the astrology of his time. Often cited as a foe of astrology, in fact Plotinus merely< xx os questioned the doctrines of astral fatalism. In reality his views on the subject of astrology and fate were not terribly different in principle from recent humanistic astrologers such as Dane Rudhyar. 222 to 235 C.E. Pseudo-Manetho. Responsible for a didactic poem in 6 books. A fair portion survives, but the editor of the Greek text has doubted whether the attribution to Manetho was genuine. 232-304? C.E. Porphyry. A disciple of the Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus. A commentary on Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos is attributed to him. 245-313 C.E. Diocletian, reigned 284-305, the emperor who first begin the administrative division of the empire into an Eastern and Western half. He also was a fierce opponent of Christianity. €250-330 C.E. Iamblichus, Neoplatonist of Syrian birth who attempted to create a Neoplatonic religion combined with magical practices of a tantric nature somewhat in the manner of Tibetan Buddhism. In De Mysteriis (a work either by him or written under his influence), Iamblichus deals directly with the problem of “malefic” planetary energies and how their quality is derived from shortcomings within the soul rather than from the intrinsic nature of the planet. 274-337 C.E. Constantine the Great, the first Christian (more or less) emperor. Reigned 306-337. . 313 C.E. Christianity became the state religion of the empire although paganism was still tolerated. 325 C.E. The Council of Nicaea. €331-363 C.E. Julian the Emperor called the Apostate. He reigned from 361-363. In his brief reign he attempted to disestablish Christianity and institute a new state religion based on the teachings of Iamblichus. 347-395 C.E. Theodosius the Great, reigned 379-395. He was the last Roman Emperor to reign over both halves of the empire. In his reign Christianity was declared to be the only tolerated religion although Paganism survived for a long time afterward. AA. 6350 C.E. Firmicus Maternus. His work is called the Mathesis. Julius Firmicus Maternus was the only other author who wrote in Latin aside from Manilius. His text was known through the Middle Ages and is a rich trove of late Hellenistic techniques.10 Apparently in later life he became a Christian. BB. 354-430 C.E. St. Augustine one of the more articulate opponents of astrology in ancient times, although even he did not dismiss the influence of the planets upon historical and natural events, only upon individual human beings. CC. €378 C.E. Paulus Alexandrinus. Wrote the Introductory Matters, which survives more or less intact. It is still a good introduction and overview to mainstream Greek astrology. DD.379 C.E. Anonymous of 379. Wrote a work on the natal EE. FF, delineation of 30 bright fixed stars, the same stars Ptolemy used in his Phases. 410-485 C.E. Proclus. The tradition attributes an extant anonymous paraphrase of the Tetrabiblos to Proclus. However, it is almost certainly not by Proclus. Much more importantly Proclus was the last of the great Neoplatonic philosophers of the Classical Era who attempted to systematize the philosophy of the ancients into a coherent and axiomatic system. He also attempted to clean up some of the philosophical shortcomings of the astronomical theories of Ptolemy and his successors. €415 C.E. Hephaistio of Thebes. Wrote a clearly organized Apotelesmatics. In this text he did his best to reconcile the traditions of Ptolemy and Dorotheus and his text is the largest source of actual fragments of Dorotheus. It is also useful because he is one of the earliest interpreters of Ptolemy still extant. GG.476 C.E. The End of the Roman Empire in the West. The Byzantine Period — In this section we will only deal with the early Byzantines who carried on the Hellenistic tradition in the West prior to the advent of Islam. A. B. 483-565 C.E. Justinian the Great, Byzantine emperor who reigned from 527-565. Justinian nearly succeeded in expanding the Eastern Empire back to the borders of the old combined Western and Eastern Empires. He was a zealous Christian who closed the philosophical schools of Athens (after almost 1000 years of continuous existence) and succeeded in driving many remaining pagan philosophers into the East to Persia and India as well as to Harran. Justinian was also responsible for reforming and codifying Roman law in a form in which it survives to this day. €564 C.E. Olympiodorus. An important commentator onAristotle, Olympiodorus is now regarded as the author ofa series of lectures on Paulus’ /ntroductory Matters originally attributed to one Heliodorus. It is important to notice that Olympiodorus managed to continue the teaching of astrology under the increasingly hostile influence of Justinian. C. Early 7 Century. Rhetorius of Egypt. Madea large collection of excerpts from early astrological writings. VI. The Classical Period in the Middle East — In this section we list events and persons that might be of importance to our understanding of the divergence of Hindu and Greek astrology, as well as the possibility of there being a third tradition arising directly from continued Mesopotamian development under Parthian and Persian hegemony. A. 126 B.C.E. The Parthians, an Iranian people, conquered Mesopotamia. This ended the Greek domination of this area. Except for a brief period in the 2" Century under the emperor Trajan, this area was not united again with the Semitic peoples of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt until the Arabic conquests. This also drove a cultural wedge between the Greek areas of the coast and Greeks who were left from Alexander’s time living in what is now the Punjab. These latter Greeks continued to hold out until they gradually disappeared into the Hindu population. They are probably the Yavanas referred to in ancient Jyotish texts. B. 227C.E. The Sassanids, a people from the central area of Persia, overthrew the Parthians and established the Second Persian Empire, or Sassanid Empire. Under this empire astrology flourished and Zoroastrianism was restored. C. 634-642 C.E. The Arabs under Islam conquered the Semitic areas of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt reuniting these areas with the Mesopotamian and Persian heartland of astrology for the first time since the Parthian invasions. This along with the next event in this list led to a grand synthesis of the Egyptian, Late Hellenistic, and Persian traditions along with some small influence from India. This synthesis turn became the basis of later Arabic Era and Western Latin medieval astrology. Of these historical components it seems as if the Persian component was the most dominant. D. 635 C.E. The Arabs overthrew the Sassanid Empire and llMesopotamia came under the rule of various Caliphates. VII. The Arabic Era — In this time astrology flourished on a grand scale 12 (after some initial hostility from Islamic clerics) largely under the influence of the Syrians, remaining Greeks, Egyptians and Persians, as well as a number of significant Jewish writers. A. Late 8" Century C.E. Theophilus of Edessa. An important bridge between Greek and Arabic astrology B. €770 C.E. Astronomical works from India were brought to Baghdad. Although Arabic astrology appears to have been largely Persian in method and style, it did derive its early astronomy from India which had in turn gotten it from the Middle East in an earlier time. C. 770-6815 C.E. Masha’allah, Messahalla in Latin. He flourished under the Caliphs al-Mansur and al-Mamun. Author of many works. D. d.815C.E. Omar of Tiberias Also flourished under al-Mamun. Probably translated Dorotheus from Middle Persian to Arabic. Very Hellenistic style of astrology. E. Early 9" Century C.E. Abu Bakr, in Latin Albubather. F. d. between 822 & 850. C.E. Zahel. Zahel was one of the more Hellenistic (with respect to his methods) of the Arabic Era astrologers. G. 6854 C.E. Abu ‘Ali al-Khayyat. Student of Masha’allah and author of The Judgments of Nativities a work strongly influenced by the work of Dorotheus. H. d. after 863. Al-Farghani, Alfraganus in Latin. d. after 870 Al-Kindi. Author of On the Stellar Rays among other works. This work was more influential in the history of Magick and metaphysical Neoplatonism than in astrology. Its influence appears in Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon, as well as John Dee. This tradition is known as the Light Metaphysics because it is a metaphysical system that regards light as the means for the transmission of forms. J. d.886 C.E. Abu Ma’shar, Albumasar in Latin. With this author we have the full-blown Persian astrological tradition. He was one of the most important and prolific of the Arabic era authors. A Persian himself, he wrote in both Arabic and Persian. His works include The Great Conjunctions, The Greater Introduction to Astrology, The Abbreviation of the Introduction to Astrology and HZz VIL. a work known in Latin as de Revolutionibus. A short work known in Latin as the Flores Astrologiae was also influential in mundane astrology. 834- 901 C.E. Thabit ibn Qurra. Notable as an author who came out of Harranian tradition of Magick, Neoplatonism and late Hermeticism. 820-912 C.E. Qusja ben Luga, in Latin Costa ben Luca or Quosti filius Luce. . 865-932 C.E. Ar-Razi, in Latin Rhazes. d. 967 C.E. Al-Qabisi, in Latin Alchabitius. He of the house system, although he did not actually invent it. The system dates from the late Classical Era. Al-Qabisi’s /ntroduction to Astrology was one of the most popular works in Latin translation. d. after 1040 C.E. Aliibn abi r-Rijal, in Latin Haly Abenragel. One of the most influential of the Arabic era astrologers in later Latin Astrology. Wrote an extensive treatise on astrology. 973-1049 C.E. Al-biruni. Largely unknown to Latin astrology, Al-Baruni was one of the most literate and skilled Arabic Era astronomers and was also extremely knowledgeable on astrology. His Book of Instruction in the Elements of the Art of Astrology is available in English. 1092-1167 C.E. Avraham Ben Meir Ibn Ezra (the son of Meir, the son of Ezra) Ibn Ezra was a Jewish scholar of great importance in addition to his astrology. Author of The Beginning of Wisdom and The Book of Reasons among many others. An extremely influential author in the Latin West. Latin Period — Medieval. This covers the astrology of the Latin West which was almost entirely derived from the astrology of the Arab era. No serious effort was made to modify the Arabic tradition although the better Western astrologers did pick and choose on the basis of their own experience. Note: From here on we will assume that all dates are C.E. and will no longer use the abbreviation. 560-636. Isidore of Seville. Fragments of astrology survive in his work. 650. The Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain more or less complete. 672-735. The Venerable Bede. An Anglo-Saxon cleric, his writings show some survival of astrological ideas in the Dark 1314 “mo Ages. 742-814. Charlemagne, who reigned 768-814 as King of the Franks, was later crowned Roman Emperor on Christmas day. His reign is often referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance although there has been considerable debate as to how much of a “renaissance” it was. 8152-877? John Scotus Eriugena. Early medieval Platonist. One of the first serious philosophical writers of the Middle Ages. 9" and 10" Centuries. Norse invasions bring culture in Europe to the lowest ebb of the Middle Ages. 1066. Conquest of England by William the Conqueror. 1079-1142. Peter Abelard. 1119-1151. Translations by Hugo of Santilla from Arabic. The most notable of these is the Book of Aristotle Containing the Totality of All Questions, both Genethliacal and Revolutionary, Srom the Two Hundred and Fifty-Five Volumes of the Indians. This book has nothing to do with Aristotle and shows little or no evidence of influence from Hindu sources. It is nevertheless a remarkable compilation of Arabic era methods not found in many other sources. €1125. Adelard of Bath An Englishman who went into the Islamic world and learned much about its culture. He was one of the first to translate Arabic astrological texts into Latin, most notably Abu Ma’shar’s The Abbreviation of the Introduction to Astrology. This is a difficult text in part because of corrupt transmission, but also because Adelard’s translation does not use the same kind of terminology that was used in later translations so there is ample room for misunderstanding. 1138. Plato of Tivoli’s translation of the Tetrabiblos from Arabic into Latin. The first in the Middle ages. €1150. John of Seville. Early and prolific translator from Arabic. He also wrote a treatise on astrology himself making him one of the earlier writers of original works on Astrology in Latin in the Middle Ages. . 1175-1253. Robert Grosseteste. An English Bishop who worked in Optics and discussed theories of light. He was part of the Al-Kindi to John Dee lineage of the Light Metaphysics. 1193-1280. Albertus Magnus. Teacher of Thomas Aquinas and one of those who was most responsible for bringing Aristotelianism in its Arabic form into Western thought. Also2< widely regarded as being involved in Alchemy and Astrology. The latter at least is quite certain as he is generally regarded as the author of the Speculum Astronomiae, a book which amounts toa critical bibliography of the then available astrological works and an examination of which doctrines in them were and were not in harmony with Christianity. €1210- 1290. Guido Bonatti. Author of one the most extensive Latin treatises, the Liber Astronomiae. This work is a grand and encyclopedic summary of the Arabic tradition composed in Latin. One of its major virtues of the work is that Bonatti subjected the material that he had learned to a critical analysis based on his own experience. €1210-1296. Campanus of Novara. He is the one to whom that Campanus house system is often attributed. It is known, however, that these houses were used in the Arabic Era. 1214-1294. Roger Bacon. An English Franciscan who also wrote extensively on Optics and the Light Metaphysics. Closely associated with Robert Grosseteste. 1225-1274. Thomas Aquinas. The most important scholastic philosopher of the Middle Ages who codified the Aristotelian- Christian synthesis that is still the basis of Catholic doctrine. 1226-1284. Alfonso X. King of Leon and Castile who sponsored the creation of the Alfonsine Tables, planetary tables on which the Middle Ages relied for astrology and astronomy. d. before 1236. Michael Scot. Astrologer and Natural philosopher at the court of the Emperor Frederick II. Regarded in the Middle Ages as a major magician. Leopold of Austria (No dates found but seems to have been roughly contemporary with Bonatti.) Another early Latin author. 1266-1308. John Duns Scotus. Major scholastic philosopher. . Late 13", early 14" Centuries. Peter of Abano. Involved in magic and astrology and wrote much on astrological images. His longest work, the Conciliator, contains many scholastic questions which discuss astrology and astrological medicine. He also corrected and translated the Old French translations of Ibn Ezra from Old French into Latin. Early 14 Century. Andalo di Negro. An aristocrat and astrologer. d. 1379. John of Ashenden One of the first English astrologers 15of note. He only worked in political and mundane astrology. Strongly influenced by Abu Ma’ shar. Z. d. 1400. Antonio de Montulmo. Wrote On the Judgment of Nativities and on astrological magic. IX. Renaissance — For most of this period the traditional Arabo-Latin 16 style of astrology continued unchanged, although there is an increasingly eclectic quality resulting in more techniques and a somewhat less systematic coherence than in the earlier material. There was also a greater emphasis on Ptolemy and a widespread conviction that Ptolemy’s was the only true astrology and the rest was fantasy created by the Arabs. As a result toward the end of the period there is a tendency to “reform” astrology, sometimes along the lines of the “New Science” as in the work of Kepler, and sometimes along traditional medieval scholastic lines such as with Placidus. Then there is also the Aristotelian but highly innovative reform of Morinus. A. 1410-1502. Laurentius Bonincontrius. Author of the Treatise on Elections. B. 1433-1499. Marsilio Ficino. Translator of the Corpus Hermeticum, Plato and Plotinus into Latin. He was patronized by Cosimo di Medici and others and participated in the establishment of a Platonic style Academy. He was interested more in Natural Magic and astrology applied to such than to horoscopic astrology. Author of the Three Books on Life among other works. C. 1436-1475. Johannes Regiomontanus. Did an epitome of the Almagest and was partly responsible for the rebirth of German astronomy in the late Middle Ages. The house system named after him was not his creation but was an Arabic Era system. He never claimed to have invented it. He and most of his immediate followers simply referred to it as the “Rational System.” D. 1455-1522. Johann Reuchlin. One of the first serious scholars of Hebrew and the Kaballah. He was also a defender of the rights of Jews in Europe. E. 1463-1494. Pico della Mirandola. Originally a student of Marsilio Ficino, he leamed Hebrew and studied Kaballah. But toward the end of his short life he became a follower of the zealot Savonarola and appears to have changed his views. He wrote (probably in part as a result) the Disputations Against Divinatory Astrology which became the bible of later astrologyOZ debunkers even though his reasons were largely religious and not especially scientific. The Astrologers apparently got revenge. They correctly predicted his early death. This has been disputed by some scholars. 1475-1558. Lucas Gauricus. Very involved with church hierarchy, and he predicted that a friend would be elected Pope. The friend was, and Gauricus became a bishop. Author of several astrological works. 1473-1543. Copernicus, the first to create a coherent system of mathematical heliocentric astronomy. Author of de Revolutionibus. 1477-1547. Johannes Schoener. The main astronomer- astrologer responsible for propagating the writings of Regiomontanus. Compiled an annual ephemeris and wrote the Opusculum Astrologicum and Three Books on the Judgment of Nativities. 1483-1546. Martin Luther. 1486-1535. Cornelius Agrippa, the author of de Occulta Philosophia. 1492. Discovery of the New World (if we ignore Vikings and other such). 1497-1560. Philip Melanchthon, Luther’s main associate in the Lutheran movement. He was also a great patron of astrology and rendered the first Latin translation of the Tetrabiblos from the original Greek of Ptolemy (as opposed to the Proclus Paraphrase). He was also close to Schoener and his circle. Melanchthon’s religion was a bit to the left of the rest of the Lutherans, and after Martin Luther died, Melanchthon was regarded as a heretic by other Lutherans. His teachings were influential in the spiritual Lutheran movements in which Jacob Boehme and others were involved. 1501-1576. Jerome Cardan. Mathematician, magician and astrologer. 1503-1566. Nostradamus. 1517. Luther published the 95 Theses beginning the Protestant Reformation, although other reformers had preceded him by several centuries. 1523-1590. Franciscus Junctinus. Author of the Speculum, a particularly encyclopedic work. 1524-1574. Cyprianus Leovitius. Frequently cited astrologer of 17this period. R. 1527-1608. John Dee. Astrologer and alchemist. Closely associated with Elizabeth I of England. An early commentator on Euclid, Dee was also heavily influenced by the Light Metaphysics of Al-Kindi, Grosseteste, and Roger Bacon. S. 1530-1575. Johannes Garcaeus. Author of a comprehensive collection of nativities. T. 1530-1594. Claude Dariot. One of the major influences on Lilly and English astrology in general, a French writer. U. 1546-1601. Tycho Brahe. Compiled the most accurate star catalog to date and made extensive and highly accurate planetary observations which became the basis of the calculations by Kepler that led to Kepler’s laws and the first reasonably accurate planetary tables. V. Late 16" Century. Heinrich Ranzovius. Compiled a reference work of delineations which consisted of quotations from the major sources of his time. W. 1550-1617. John Napier. The inventor of logarithms which appear to have been invented in part to make astronomical and astrological calculations simpler. 1564-1642. Galileo. d. 1617. Ioannes Antonius Maginus. One of the first advocates of the house system later known as Placidian. Z. 1558-1628. David Origanus. A compiler of ephemerides and almanacs. AA. d. 1629. Valentine Naibod. Predicted his own death, correctly as it turned out. He is the source of the Naibod rate in directing. BB. 1570-1657. Andreas Argolus. Wrote on medical and basic astrology. CC. 1571-1630. Kepler. The great astronomer and reformer of astrology. DD.1572. The “New Star” observed by Tycho Brahe and others. Brahe and others realized that the supernova (as we would now call it) was a true star and therefore demonstrated that the sphere of the fixed stars was not immutable. This had been a basic teaching of astronomy since Aristotle and was one of many factors that led to the decline of Aristotelianism. Also curious is that, based on the “New Star” and major conjunctions that followed, Brahe appears to predicted the Thirty Years War and pinpointed with some precision the career of the Swedish King xX ¥:Gustavus Adolphus. EE. 1583-1656. Morinus. A French astrologer of the court of Louis XIV. Attempted to reform astrology. The English Period and the Decline — In this section we have a time in which the English were the most active in astrology, but I also cite continental persons who lived in this time. This is the beginning of the end of the high period of astrology. Only in modern times and ina much more underground manner has astrology regained anything like its prominence in this time and the prior periods. A. ™ ZO aH 1602-1681. William Lilly. An astrologer in the medieval tradition and a great horary artist. The greatest of the English school and the font of the modern revival of traditional astrology. 1603-1668. Placidus. Took up the system of Maginus and Arabs before him now known as the Placidian system. Also attempted to create a scientific astrology based on Ptolemy and Aristotle. It was a bit late to do so. 1617-1692. Elias Ashmole. Patron of several English astrologers including Lilly, and whose legacy led to the founding of the Ashmolean Library at Oxford. 1616-1654. Nicholas Culpeper. Wrote the herbal and numerous works on astrology. Culpeper was instrumental in disseminating medical knowledge to the people so that they could learn to treat themselves. 1617-1681. George Wharton. Royalist opponent of Lilly in the pamphlet wars of the English Civil War period. 1628-1704. John Gadbury. Royalist and Catholic astrologer. Originally a student and later enemy of Lilly. 1633-1707. Henry Coley. Lilly’s student and successor. 1642-1660. The English Civil War, and the Commonwealth, later dominated by Oliver Cromwell. 1643-1727. Isaac Newton. 1644-1715. John Partridge. Attempted to purge astrology of “medievalisms” which were really more like things that he really did not understand. He was the single greatest cause of the loss of medieval teachings in practice because he was the last, major astrologer of this period and influenced all succeeding English astrologers. Partridge was also the one most responsible for introducing the Placidus system into English astrology. 1649. Charles I beheaded. 191653-1724. John Whalley. Did first translation of Ptolemy into English. Reputed to have been a very poor translation. . 1660. The Restoration of the Monarchy in England under Charles II. This is when astrology really began to decline in England. This was to a great extent because the astrologers were preponderantly on the Puritan side during the Commonwealth and Astrology became associated with “revolution” in this increasingly conservative period. 1751-1799. Ebenezer Sibley. Wrote the 18" Century’s most influential text. 1766-1828. John Worsdale. Wrote about the Placidian method of directing. 1770. The last academic course in astrology ended at the University of Salamanca. From here we have the revival of astrology in the 19" and 20" Centuries. 20On the Early Roots of Horoscopic Astrology The following paper is a revised version of an essay that has been on our Internet website for some time. Parts of it were also published as an introduction that I wrote to a translation from the Greek for which I served as editor a few years ago. The account which I present here is mostly derived from mainstream academic sources although I will also present some speculations in areas where there is no clear evidence. I do not present such speculations whimsically but only where internal evidence seems to justify them, and always they will be presented with clear indications that they are speculations. On the other hand, because we have drawn from Western academic sources, one could object that this account does not take into consideration possible alternate views that might be derived, for example, from the study of the astrologies of India. This might be a valid objection, but we would like to assure the reader that we do not accept academic positions on the history of astrology uncritically. We try to accept only what is consistent with the internal evidence of the texts themselves. We also recognize that what we say here is not to be taken as definitive. There is much to be learned about the history of astrology, especially now that it is being carefully studied by those who are not hostile to the subject. Based on the above considerations, it is the thesis of this author that astrology as we know it came into being only once in time and in one place; the place is Mesopotamia (roughly moder Iraq) and the time is to be discussed below. Having said this, another point needs to be made; what we mean by “astrology as we know it” is horoscopic astrology, i.e., astrology the intention of which is the picking of favorable times for doing things, the answering of questions, the forecasting of mundane events, and the analysis of individual destiny, all based on a peculiar instrument, the theme, genesis, or birthchart. And that chart has a particular degree or sign which is marked as the beginning point of analysis. It is usually the degree or sign ascending, although for particular purposes the Sun, Moon, or Lot of Fortune may be used as well. I have already remarked in the “Preamble” to the Chronology that almost every ancient people had some system of examining the heavens for divinatory purposes, Native Americans, Greeks (long before they encountered Mespotamian astrology), the peoples of India, whoever it was that built Stonehenge and New Grange in the British Isles, and the ancient Nordic peoples, to give a partial list. Much of the controversy concerning the antiquity of various peoples’ astrologies stems from confusion over this very point. The study 21of celestial omens does not constitute astrology as we know it. Mesopotamian Origins Mesopotamia, the “Land between the Two Rivers,” is one of the so-called “cradles” of civilization along with Egypt, China, and the Indus Valley. It also appears to be the oldest of these. The evidence indicates an urban civilization as early as 4000 B.C.E. The first people in the area were a people known as the Ubaidians. We know virtually nothing about these people except that at a fairly early period another people began moving into the area and intermarrying with them. These were the Sumerians who became dominant and whose language replaced whatever was the language of the Ubaidians. Also the Sumerians invented the oldest known form of writing, cuneiform, which is done by impressing wedge-shapes into soft clay. T] Fertile crescent (B sabylonia 00-200 Miles FE] Current political Boundaries ‘Saudi Arabia After a period of time Semitic peoples began moving into the area as well. The first of these were the Akkadians centered around their city of Akkad. In about 2330 B.C.E. Sargon of Akkad conquered the Sumerians and created the first of several Semitic empires that would dominate not only 22Caspian Sea Assyrian Empire [1] 100-6008, []] 1244-1208 ac. 639-627 BC, 0 100 200 Miles —_— Mesopotamia but also the Mediterranean coast and eventually even Egypt. The language of the Akkadians was the direct ancestor of the Assyrian and Babylonian languages, these being in fact dialects of Akkadian. The Akkadian Empire fell in about 2218 B.C.E. After this various Semitic and other peoples struggled for control of the area. This constant struggle among several peoples in fact marks the major difference between the Mesopotamian civilization and that of Egypt. Egypt had many centuries of relative peace with occasional periods of disturbance, but nothing like the chaos of Mesopotamia. After a period of time in the second millennium B.C.E. two peoples began to assume dominance, the Babylonians who had been culturally dominant for many centuries in the south, and the Assyrians in the north. As it turned out, while both groups were politically dominant at times, in general it can be said that the Assyrians were more often politically dominant while the Babylonians were culturally dominant. In fact the Assyrians even used the Babylonian dialect of Akkadian for their own official records. For additional specific dates in this period, see “I. Early Period” in the Chronology. 23Europe Persian Empire Persian Empire Mesopotamia Q 250 S00 Miles Areolan el Mesopotamian Astrology First Stages In the beginning Mesopotamian astrology was much like that of other cultures, a simple examination of the heavens for omens that might affect the kingdom. Often these observations of omens would include weather phenomena intermixed with true astronomical ones. What made the Mesopotamians different is that they began at an early time to make systematic observations of phenomena with an eye to finding regular patterns in the heavens that might correlate with patterns inhuman events. According to Van der Waerden (Science Awakening, Vol. II, Oxford Univ.Press) the earliest astronomical writings known in Mesopotamia are from the old Babylonian period, roughly the time of Hammurabi. It is not known whether the Sumerians were involved in astronomical studies or not, but it would seem plausible that they were. There are also some writings which refer to the Akkadian period and which may date from about 2300 B.C.E. Here is an example of one of these early writings. “If Venus appears in the East in the month Airu and the Great and Small Twins surround her, all four of them, and she is dark, then will the King of Elam fall sick and not remain alive.” 24The most extensive omen lore was contained in a compilation referred to as Enuma Anu Enlil. These were assembled somewhere in the second millennium B.C.E. Another collection of omens is an important work, the dating of which is extremely controversial, the Venus Tables of Ammizaduga. This consists of systematic observations of the phases of Venus combined with their omen significations, the significations being clearly based on past observations. The general belief is that these tables date from the reign of Ammizaduga about 146 years after Hammurabi. Based on the astronomy, van der Waerden assigns the following years as possible dates for the observations, 1702, 1646, 1638, and 1582 B.C.E. One of the reasons that these dates have become controversial in certain circles is that if these dates are correct, then the rewriting of history by Velikovsky and his followers is seriously in error.' That controversy is outside of this scope of this introduction however, and we will continue on the assumption that orthodox scholarship is at least reasonably correct. Still I urge readers to take the dates with extreme caution. The Babylonians themselves, much like modern Hindus, attributed an antiquity to themselves and their observations that seems fantastic by modern Western standards, hundreds of thousands, even millions of years. Such antiquity is not consistent with the evidence of scholarship but we have to keep something of an open mind. Scholars are often limited by their very specialization with the result that one discipline, such as modern astronomy for example, may often have powerful consequences for another such as archeology. The work of Gerald Hawkins on Stonehenge comes to mind. But first someone has to bring the two disciplines together. This may yet happen in Mesopotamian studies in such a way as to radically alter our historical understanding. Van der Waerden concludes that the Venus tables were compiled and preserved out of motives of astral religion, i.e., the Mesopotamians believed that the stars and planets were associated with, or were in fact themselves, the gods. Ishtar-Venus was one of the major divinities of the Mesopotamian peoples. Many other ancient peoples had similar notions. The Egyptians identified the constellation of Orion with Osiris. But Osiris was a dead god who ruled the underworld. His transportation to the heavens was very similar to other transportations made in classical mythology. The " A number of persons in astrology are also followers of Velikovsky and his theories. This author is not one of them. 25Mesopotamians seem to have been unique in their emphasis on the stars and planets as being the primary indicators of divine will in the Here-and- Now. This is the probable motive of the studies that led to astrology. Over the next centuries the Mesopotamians, especially the Babylonians, continued observing and compiling lists of phenomena. Eventually they came to the point where, based on observed recurrence cycles of the planets, they could with reasonable accuracy estimate the positions of the planets at any time in the future. Ptolemy records, and modern scholarship does not dispute this, that accurate and systematic eclipse records were kept from 747 B.C.E. onward into the Hellenistic period after the conquests of Alexander the Great. An interesting question about which there is much controversy is what kind of zodiac were the Mesopotamians using? In the earlier material they simply recorded planets as being so many degrees froma star. “19 from the Moon to the Pleiades; 17 from the Pleiades to Orion; 14 from Orion to Sirius. . .” This is de facto a sidereal observation, but it is not a zodiac! A zodiac requires a fiducial point, a point on the circle from which measurements are made. Also normally a zodiac has some fixed number of regular divisions suchas the twelve signs of the modern zodiacs, the twenty-seven lunar mansions of the Hindu lunar zodiac and so forth. But all of these early observations are like this one in using individual stars as markers for positions with no regular division of the circle into equal sectors. Van der Waerden argues that the evolution of astrology went through three phases. The first phase consisted of the omen lore that we have already described. The second phase is closely related to this but had a zodiac in the moder sense, twelve 30 degree signs. There was no personal horoscopy in this middle stage but great attention was paid to the transits of Jupiter through the signs at the rate of approximately one sign per year. From this is clearly descended the Chinese practice of assigning each year to a zodiacal sign, and probably also the system of annual profections in later horoscopic astrology. There were also of course no houses of any kind. Van der Waerden dates this middle phase as being from about 630 to 450 B.C.E. The zodiac at this point was clearly a 26sidereal one and its ayanamsha' was at least close to the Fagan-Allen value.” The third phase was horoscopic astrology. Various ancient sources mention “Chaldeans” who cast birthcharts for various persons, including Diogenes Laertius who said that according to Aristotle, a Chaldean forecast Socrates’ death from his birthchart, and that Euripides’ father also had his son’s chart read getting a forecast of his brilliant career. The reference to Chaldeans of course refers to astrologers and makes it clear that the art in this period was completely associated with late Babylonians, i.e., Chaldeans. Several birthcharts have been found written in cuneiform. Most of them date from well within the Hellenistic era, but the oldest has been dated by A. Sachs to April 29, 410 B.C.E.’ “1) Month (?) Nisan (?) night (?) of (?) the (?) 14th (2)... 2) son of Shuma-usur, son of Shuma-iddina, descendant of Déké was born. 3) At that time the Moon was below the ‘Hor’ of the Scorpion 4) Jupiter in Pisces, Venus 5) in Taurus, Saturn in Cancer. 6) Mars in Gemini, Mercury which had set (for the last time) was (still) in (visible). 7) (Month) Nisan, the 1* (day of which followed the 30" day of the preceding month), (the new crescent having been visible for) 28 (US), [the duration of visibility of the Moon after sunrise on] the 14(?)th was 4,40(?) (US); 8) the 27" was the-day-when-the-moon-appeared-for-the-last-time. 9) (Things?) will(?) Be good before you. 10)Month Du’uz, year 12, As the reader can see this is a very rough chart with only sign positions ' The ayanmasha is the difference between the tropical and sidereal longitudes of any body in the zodiac for a particular date. ? In this zodiac Aldebaran (a Tauri) is defined as being 15°60" and Antares ( Scorpii) is 15°00". > A. Sachs, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, “Babylonian Horoscopes”, Vol. VI, No. 3. 1962, p. 54. 27given, and no delineations at all. The other cuneiform charts, though much later, are almost as terse, although positions are given to much greater precision. As Cyril Fagan correctly points out, the positions in the charts also correspond more nearly to those of the sidereal zodiac using the Fagan-Allen ayanamsha than to tropical positions. But do we have at this point anything like the elaborate horoscopic astrology of the later Hellenistic era? No we do not! Although academic historians have not uncovered much concrete information about the evolution of astrology after the early Babylonian charts, there is considerable internal evidence concerning the place of origin of horoscopic astrology in the earliest texts. Many of these old texts exist in Greek. According to these texts the birthplace of astrology as we know it is Egypt! This would not have been a surprise to Cyril Fagan. He maintained almost alone that Egypt had been the birthplace of horoscopic astrology. The trouble with his theory, however, is that he believed that horoscopic astrology came into being in the Egypt of the pharaohs. For this there is very little evidence outside of Fagan’s own somewhat questionable interpretations of the evidence. It was a later Egypt that gave birth to horoscopic astrology, an Egypt that had made close contact with the ideas of the Babylonians. This could have been the Egypt that was part of the Persian Empire, although it is more generally supposed that it was the Egypt of the Ptolemies, Hellenistic Egypt. Pharaonic Egypt had a great interest in astronomy. This is evident in too many ways to mention. But it was the kind of astronomy that involved stars rather than planets. The Egyptians were masters of aligning buildings, temples, and especially the pyramids to fixed stars apparently in an effort to bring about sympathy between terrestrial structures and the stars with which they were associated. Their ability to survey and align buildings with stars was incredibly accurate often within minutes of arc of the perfect alignment. But they do not seem to have had any planetary theory, nor did they have the proper mathematical techniques. The Semitic Mesopotamians (Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians) inherited the sexagesimal system of numbers from the Sumerians, a system which used place notation in numbers much like our modern decimal system, and which had sexagesimal fractions very similar in kind to our decimal fractions. This enabled the Mesopotamians to do complex computations that would have been difficult in any other ancient system of numerical notation. The other ancient peoples paid 28Mesopotamian mathematical notation the supreme compliment. They used it whenever they had to do similar calculations of their own. Egypt of the Pharoahs had nothing like it. But they did have a strong sense of a need for terrestrial matters to be brought into synchrony with the heavens. The critical factors in the fusion of Egyptian ideas with Babylonian astronomy was one or both of two historical events, the conquest of Egypt by Persia, and the conquest of both Persia and Egypt by Alexander the Great. On both of these occasions Egypt was brought under the same regime as the Babylonians. In the case of the Persian Empire, the Persians themselves became ardent devotees of astrology which no doubt assisted the movement of astrological ideas into Egypt. As one examines many of the early Greek texts, one discovers something that is not all obvious from history texts that deal with astrology. The ancients clearly did know that astrology had something to do with Babylon (after all they did call astrologers Chaldeans) but the principle credit was given to the Egyptians. It is customary among academics to pass this off as something that was merely a fashion among ancient writers with no real historical basis. And in fact the ancient writers did often attribute astrology to persons dating back to the pharaohs such as Nechepso and Petosiris. Nevertheless, there is no reason to assume that the ancients were not correct as to Egypt’s being the primary source of horoscopic astrology; it was just that Egypt was the source somewhat later in time than the ancients had supposed. 29Mediterranean Sea Rosette Alerand a a 1? lial CANAL att au joN Henonne Giza’ = What did the Egyptians add to Babylonian astrology? We cannot say for certain but internal evidence indicates the following: The use of a rising degree may or may not have been found in pre-Hellenistic Babylonian astrology. But the Hellenistic writers attributed the use of houses, or signs used as houses to Hermes. We should understand that Hermes is a general reference to Hellenistic Egyptian sources. It is probable that aspects are also Egyptian but we cannot say for certain. The lots such as the Lot of Fortune and the Lot of Spirit are almost certainly Egyptian as well as most of the systems of planetary rulership in the zodiac. Only the exaltations have a clearly Mesopotamian origin. At any rate it is quite likely that the entire apparatus of horoscopic astrology in its Greek form was in place by 1 C.E., quite possibly several centuries earlier. One of things that has been found in studies of the Greek writers of the early centuries C.E. is that they already represent a later era of astrology. These writers have their “ancients” and they have already begun to misunderstand some of the ancient teachings. One of these writers, Vettius Valens, actually went traveling through Egypt looking for masters of the old traditions, much like modern Americans who have gone to India to study astrology and various sacred teachings. While most of the Greek writers seemed to have studied from books, Valens studied with at 30least a few living teachers of the old traditions. And it is clear from his work that much of what they taught would never have been written down but for Valens. What Happened Next Whatever may have been the language of Egyptian astrology when it first began to come into being, by 1 C.E. it was Greek. This is not to say that there were no astrology texts written in Coptic, the last form of ancient Egyptian, but no clear reference to any has survived. All of the Egyptian texts that are referred to in the later literature seem to have been written in Greek. Possibly some were translations from Coptic. The use of Greek had important consequences. Although the Persian empire was a truly cosmopolitan empire with a considerable level of equality among the races that made up the empire, no one language came to predominate. No doubt Persian was used for official purposes, but Babylonian and Egyptian also continued to be used in their own areas in preference to Persian. But when Alexander the Great conquered all of Persia and Egypt, and advanced all the way into northwest India, Greek became the dominant language not only for official purposes, but also for any purpose that involved communicating from one ethnic area to another. The original languages continued to be used for local purposes, such as Aramaic (which completely supplanted Babylonian) and Coptic. But a scholar or traveler could go anywhere from Greece in the west to India in the east and Egypt in the south and be understood. Any idea expressed in Greek could have a similar range of travel. Even after the Persian revival beginning first with the Parthians and later with the Sassanids (see the Chronology), the Bactrian peoples of what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan continued to have Greek speaking tulers until the early centuries C.E. Consequently the Babylonian methods embodied in Egyptian astrology as well as the added Egyptian methods themselves could travel into India without difficulty. This accounts for the fact that all of the technical words in Indian astrology whose origins can be found in another language are Greek, not Babylonian, not Coptic, nor earlier Egyptian. What is also interesting is that there appear to be few, if any, technical words in Greek astrology that have their origins in any other language. Below is a partial list of some of the terms in Hindu astrology that appear to have a Greek origin. 3132 Table 1. Zodiacal Signs Kriya i Krios Aries Tavura Tauros Taurus Jituma Didumoi Gemini Kulira Karkinos Cancer Leya Leon Leo Pathona Parthenos Virgo Juka Zugos Libra Kaurpi Skorpios Scorpio Taukshika Toxotes Sagittarius Akokera Aigokeres Capricorn Hridroga Hudrochoos | Aquarius Chettha Ichthues PiscesTable 2. Planets Hemnan Hermes Mercury Asphujit Aphrodite | Venus Heli Helios Sun Ara Ares Mars Jeeva Zeus (Jove) Kona Kronos Saturn All of the above had Sanskrit equivalents which probably preceded the introduction of the above words into India, and which also eventually completely displaced these words of Hellenic origin. The following are terms for which there are no previous Sanskrit roots and appear to have come completely from Greek. These words have remained standard astrological terms in India to this day. Table 3. House and Aspect Words Hora Hora Hour Liptaka Lepta Minute Hipaka Hupogeion Imum Coeli Jamitra Diametros Diameter Mesurana Mesouranema | Midheaven Menyaiva Meniaios Monthly Trikona Trigonon Trine Dyuna Dunon Setting Kendra Kentron Angle Panaphara Epanaphora Succedent Apoklima Apoklima Cadent Drekana Dekanos Decan Sunapha Sunaphe Applying Anaphara Anaphora Separating Dauradhura Doruphoria Doryphory Kemadruma Kenodromia Void of C. 33¢ Macedonia Hulearis chankianin? Paees lonian Is. tthakik Gh ity Kefallinia : = Corin Ionian ¥ 120 Piraeus Sea nies ot po L ilos * aE Mls oP Koger ¥e, * lageRis arog] Broded Sea of Crete ie : Khania $ Mediterranean iraklion Dy st Sea ee: decan® 40 A As the heading at the top of Table 3 indicates, these are all house and aspect words, indicating that this was an area of Hindu astrology on which Hellenistic astrology had great impact. The question of the debt or lack thereof of Hindu astrology to Hellenistic is an extremely controversial one. Many authors of the Hindu school would like to deny that there was any at all. This position is a bit hard to support given the above, and also given the very frequent references to the “Yavanas” who were Greeks or more precisely Greek speaking persons of various ethnic extractions. On the other hand there are Westerners, of whom this author is not one, who believe that Hindu astrology comes entirely from the West (or more precisely Middle East). David Pingree in his study of the Yavanajataka does an extremely thorough job of cataloging the parallels between the astrology of that work and that of the Greeks, and even he is forced to admit that there are many differences. However such differences do not require two different origins. All it requires is a period of isolation between two branches of a tradition after an earlier period of unity, such that the two branches can diverge, and one, the eastern, merged with native traditions already in place. While we do not insist that Hindu astrology is entirely or even principally an offshoot of Hellenistic 34astrology, it must be said that the required period of isolation did occur which could have caused a single tradition to become two. After 126 B.C.E. the Parthians, a Persian people, rose up against the Seleucids who succeeded Alexander the Great, and they re-conquered most of the old Persian Empire except for the portion near the Mediterranean, and the portion in the northwest of India. The Parthians were extremely hostile to the Greeks (and later the Romans) and effectively cut off communication (or at least cut it down to a trickle) between the main body of Hellenistic peoples toward the West and the Bactrian Greeks in Afghanistan and Pakistan, who in turn remained in power until the early centuries C.E. The Bactrian Greeks eventually converted to Hinduism and their language disappeared. However as of about 200 C.E. they still existed as an identifiable group. These are the Yavanas of the Yavanajataka. Still later the historian Kay mentions Hindu records from the 4th and Sth Centuries C.E. ofa new Sun God cult coming in from the West. Given that Christianity displaced the worship of Sol Invictus, the Unconquered Sun, it is tempting to postulate that Hindu astrology received a second burst of input from a new group of “Yavanas” fleeing Christian persecution in the West. [] Roman empire 117 4.0. © 250 son Mes — The central problem is how much of Hindu astrology is indigenous and how much comes from the West. Other than the few suggestions I 35have made here, this is not the place to attempt an answer. In any case it is very clear that whatever the Hindus got from the West they did not just take and passively apply it. They altered, modified, and quite possibly improved whatever they may have received from the West and combined it with their own native traditions. There is one other consequence of the Parthian separation. The Persian peoples had always been enthusiastic astrologers. It seems logical to conclude that they must have developed their own traditions from the astrology that they had inherited from the Mesopotamians and the Greeks. Then in 227 C.E. the Parthians, who were themselves an Iranian people, were overthrown by the Sassanid Persians who would have continued the development of the Persian traditions of astrology. Unfortunately when the Arabs came, almost all of the literature of the Zoroastrian Sassanids was destroyed. This includes their astrological works. However we do have a strong clue as to what their astrology must have been like. Most of the greatest astrologers in the Arab era were Persians! And the astrology they taught is quite different from both the Hindu and the Greek. It had orbs of aspect, the Great Cycles of Jupiter and Saturn, all of the elaborate systems of planetary interactions such as Refrenation, Frustration, Abscission of Light, Translation of Light and so forth. While Arab era astrology clearly owes a large debt to Hellenistic astrology, it is also clear that in the two or three centuries between the last known Hellenistic astrologers and the first known Arab era ones, something new had come into the stream. This could have been, and probably was, the Persian stream of astrology. And Arab era astrology is the immediate ancestor of the Western astrology of today. Our astrology may be in fact the offshoot of that third stream of ancient astrologies. A Final Note on Zodiacs We have mentioned previously in this essay that the first Babylonian birthcharts were cast in the sidereal zodiac. Also it has been traditional for Hindu astrologers to use one or another sidereal zodiac. This whole matter is as controversial as the issue of the indebtedness or lack thereof of Hindu astrology to Middle Eastern astrology. But there is not enough space in this essay to go into the matter at this time. In previous writings we have stated that the zodiac did not seem to be an issue of great import to the ancients. We still hold that position. But at some point in a future introductory essay we will go into that matter in some depth. For the moment it will have to suffice to say that the matter is far from closed in 36favor of either zodiac. 37Bibliography Abu ‘Ali al-Khayyat. The Judgements of Nativities. Translated by James H. Holden. A.F.A.: Tempe, AZ, 1988. Al-Biruni, Abu'l-Rayhan Muhammed ibn Ahmad. 1029. The Book of Instruction in the Elements of Astrology. Translated by R. Ramsay Wright. Luzac and Co.: London, 1934. Campion, Nicholas. An Introduction to the History of Astrology. Institute for the Study of Cycles in World Affairs: London, 1982. Dreyer, J. L. E. Tycho Brahe. Dover: New York, 1963. Fagan, Cyril. Astrological Origins. Llewellyn: St. Paul, Mn, 1971. Neugebauer, Otto. 4 History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. 3 vols. Springer Verlag: Heidelberg, 1975. Neugebauer, Otto and H. B. van Hoesen. Greek Horoscopes. American Philosophical Society: Philadelphia, 1959. Pingree, David. The Yavanajataka of Sphujidhava, vol. 2. Harvard Univ. Press: Cambridge, Mass., 1978. North, J. D. Horoscopes and History. Warburg Institute: London, 1986. Thorndike, Lynn. A History of Magic and Experimental Science. Eight volumes. Columbia University Press: New York, 1923-1958. Van der Waerden, B.L. Science Awakening, vol. 2. Oxford Univ. Press: New York, 1974. The Encarta Encyclopedia on CD-Rom from Microsoft was used as a reference for general historical information and for the maps. 38AKBAT Archive for the Retrieval of Historical Astrological Texts P.O. Box 2001 Reston, VA $4.95 US Astrology ISBN as, r 3.9