Lobes of the cerebellum

Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebellum into lobes.

Surface lobes of the cerebellum

Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
Specialized areas of the cerebrum
Primary somatic sensory area
Receives impulses from the bodys sensory receptors.
Located in parietal lobe.

Brocas area

Involved in our ability to speak.

Primary motor area

Sends impulses to skeletal muscles.

Located in frontal lobe.
Regions of the brain: cerebrum

Cerebral areas involved in special senses

Gustatory area (taste)

Visual area
Auditory area
Olfactory area

Interpretation areas of the cerebrum

Speech/language region.
Language comprehension region.
General interpretation area.
Layers of the cerebrum

Gray matter(cortex)

Outer layer in the cerebral cortex composed mostly of neuron cell bodies

White matter- fibers tracts deep to the gray matter

Corpus callosum connects the hemisphere

Basal nuclei- islands of gray matter buried within the white

matter

Regions of the brain: diencephalon

Sits on top of the brain stem.

Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres.
Made of three parts.

Thalamus.
Hypothalamus.
Epithalamus.
Diencephalon: thalamus
Surrounds the third ventricle.
The relay station of sensory impulses.
Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for
localization and interpretation.
Diencephalon: hypothalamus

Under the thalamus.

Important autonomic nervous system center.

Helps regulate body temperature.

Controls water balance.
Regulates metabolism.

An important part of the limbic system.

The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus.

Diencephalon: epithalamus

Forms the roof of the third ventricle.

Houses the pineal body(an endocrine gland)
Includes choroid plexus- forms cerebrospinal fluid.

CHAPTER 15: SENSE ORGANS.

SENSORY RECEPTORS:

Sensory receptors allow the body to respond to stimuli caused by changes

in our internal or external environment.
Receptors response:
General function: responds to stimuli by converting them to nerve
impulses.
Different types of receptors respond to different stimuli
Receptors potential
The potential that develops when an adequate stimulus on a receptor; a
graded response.
When a threshold is reached, an action potential in the sensory neurons axon
is triggered.
Adaptation: receptor potential decrease over time in response to a
continuous stimulus which leads to a decreased rate 0f impulse conduction
and a decreased intensity of sensation.
Distribution of reception
Receptors for special senses of smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium
are grouped into localized areas or complex organs.
General senses organs of somatic senses are microscopic receptors widely
distributed throughout the body in the skin, mucosa, connective tissue,
muscles, tendons, joints, and viscera.
Classification of receptors
Classification by location
Exteroceptors
On or near body surface
Often called cutaneous receptors (pressure touch pain)
Visceroreceptors (interceptors)
Located internally often within body organs or viscera
Provide body with information about international environment (pressure,
stretch, chemical change, hunger, thirst.)
Proprioceptors: special type of visceroreceptor.
Location limited to skeletal muscle, joint capsules, and tendons.
Provide information on body movement, orientation in space, and muscle
stretch.
Two types: tonic and phasic proprioceptors provide positional information on
body or body
Classification by stimulus detected
Mechanoreceptors: activated when deformed to generate receptor
potential.
Chemoreceptor: activated by amount or changing concentration of certain
chemicals(taste and smell)
Thermoreceptors: activated by changes in temperature
Noncireceptors: activate by intense stimuli that may damage tissue
sensation produced in pain.

Photoreceptors: found only in the eye respond to light stimuli if the

intensity is great enough to generate a receptor potential.
Osmoreceptors: concentrated in the hypothalamus activated by changes in
concentration of electrolytes in extracellular fluids.
Classification of receptors

Classification by structure: divides sensory receptors into those with free

nerve endings or encapsulated nerve endings.
Free nerve endings:
Most widely distributed sensory receptor
Include both exteroceptors and visceroceptors
Primary receptors for heat and cold.
Six types of encapsulated nerve endings; all have connective tissue capsules
and are mechanoreceptors.
Sense of smell
Olfactory receptors: olfactory sense organs consist of epithelial support
cells and olfactory sensory neurons.
Olfactory pathway: when the level of odor producing chemicals reaches a
threshold level.
Sense of taste

Taste buds: sense organs that responds to gustatory stimuli; associated with
papillae.
Chemoreceptors stimulated by chemicals dissolved in the saliva.
Gustatory cells: sensory taste buds; gustatory hairs extend from each
gustatory cell into taste pore.
Sense of taste depends on the creation of a receptor potential in gustatory
cells because of taste-producing chemicals in the saliva.
Taste buds are similar structurally; functionally, each taste bud responds
most effectively to one of five primary taste sensations: sour, sweet, bitter,
umami, and salty.
Adaptation and sensitivity threshold differ for each primary taste sensation.
Sense of hearing and balance.

Auricle or pinna: the visible portion of the ear

External acoustic meatus: tube leading from the auricle into the temporal
bone and ending at the tympanic membrane.
Middle ear
Tiny epithelium-lined cavity hollowed out of the temporal bone.
Contains three auditory ossicles.
Malleus(hammer) attached to the inner surface of the tympanic membrane
Incus (anvil) attached to the malleus and stapes.
Stapes( stirrup) attached to the incus
Openings into the middle ear cavity

Opening from the external acoustic meatus covered with tympanic

membrane.
Oval window: opening into inner ear; stapes fits here.
Round window: opening into the inner ear; covered by a membrane.
Opening into the auditory (Eustachian) tube.

SENSE OF HEARING AND BALANCE: THE EAR

Inner ear

Structure of the inner ear

Bony labyrinth: composed of the vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular

canals.
Membranous labyrinth: composed of utricle and saccule inside the
vestibule, cochlear duct inside the cochlea and membranous semicircular
ducts inside the bony semicircular canals.
Vestibule a semicircular canals organs are involved with balance.
Cochlea: involved with hearing
Endolymph: clear, potassium-rich fluid filling the membranous labyrinth.
Perilymph: similar to cerebrospinal fluid; surrounds the membranous
labyrinth, filling the space between the membranous tunnel and its contents
and the bony walls that surround it.
Cochlea duct
Divides the cochlea into the Scala vestibule, the upper section, and the Scala
tympani, the lower section; both selections filled with perilymph.
Vestibular membrane: the roof of the cochlear duct
Basilar(spiral) membrane: floor of the cochlear duct
Organs of cortis: rests on the basilar membrane; consist on supporting cells
and hair cells; also called spiral organ
Axons of the neurons that begin around the organ of corti and extend in the
cochlear nerve to the brain to produce the sensation of hearing

Sense of hearing

Sounds is created by vibrations

Ability to hear sounds waves depends on volume, pitch, and other acoustic
properties.
Sounds waves must be of sufficient amplitude to move the tympanic
membrane and have frequency capable of stimulating the hair cells in the
organ of corti(spiral organ)
Basilar membrane width and thickness varies throughout its length.
High-frequency sounds wave vibrate the narrow portion near the oval
window.
Low frequencies vibrate the wider, thicker portion near the apex of the
cochlea.

Each frequency stimulates different hair cells and facilitates perception of

different pitches.
Perception of loudness is determined by movement amplitude; the greater
the movement, the louder, the perceived sound.
Hearing results from stimulation of the auditory area of the cerebral cortex.

Pathway of sound waves

Enter external auditory canal

Strike tympanic membrane, causing vibrations.
Tympanic vibrations move the malleus which moves the incus and then the
stapes.
The strapes move against the oval window, which begins the fluid conduction
of sounds waves.
The perilymph in the Scala vestibuli of the cochlea begins a ripple that is
transmitted through the vestibular membrane to the endolymph inside the
duct, to the basilar membrane, and the organ of corti.
From the basilar membrane, the ripple is transmitted through the perilymph
in the Scala tympani and then expends itself against the round window.

VISION: THE EYE

Eyebrows and eyelashes give some protection against foreign

objects entering the eye: cosmetic purpose.
Eyelids consist of voluntary muscle and skin with a tarsal plate
Lined with conjunctiva, a mucous membrane.
Palpebral fissure: opening between the eyelids.
Angle or canthus: where the upper and lower eyelids join.
Lacrimal apparatus: structure that secrets tears and drain them from
the surface of the eyeball.
Muscles of the eye.

Extrinsic eye muscles: skeletal muscles that attach to the outside of the
eyeball and bones of the orbit.
Named according to their position on the eyeball.
Include the superior, inferior, medial, and lateral rectus muscles and superior
and inferior oblique muscles.
Intrinsic eye muscles: smooth muscles located within the eye
Iris: regulates sixe of pupil
Ciliary muscle: control shape of lens.

Layers of the eyeball: three coats of tissues make up the eyeball

Fibrous layer: outer coat.

Sclera: tough, white, fibrous tissue

Cornea: the transparent anterior portion that lies over the iris: no blood
vessels found in the cornea or in the lens.
Scleral venous sinus (canal of schlemm): ring-shaped venous sinus
found deep within the anterior portion of the sclera at its junction with the
cornea.
Vascular layer: middle coat.
Contains many blood vessels and a large amount of pigment.
Choroid: pigmented membrane lining more than two thirds of the posterior
fibrous outer coat.
Anterior portion has three different structures
Ciliary body: thickening of choroid; fits between anterior margin of iris;
cilary muscles lies in anterior part of ciliary body; ciliary processes fold in the
ciliary body.
Suspensory ligament: attached to the ciliary processes and blends with the
elastic capsule of the lens to hold it in place.
Iris: colored part of the eye; consist of circular and radial smooth muscle
fibers that form a doughnut-shaped structure; attaches to the ciliary body.