contents introduction 6 how to get the most out of this book 8 a brief history 10 a few basics 54 letterforms 80 The history of type 12 Typefaces and fonts 56 Type families / 82 Cuneiform tablets 14 Typeface anatomy 57 Typeweight variations __ 83 Hieroglyphs _ 15 Relative and absolute Frutiger’s grid 84 Ideogram-based languages 16 measurements 58 Types ofserif 86 Phoenician characters 18 X-height a 61 Fractions 88 The Greek alphabet 20 Basic terminology 62 — Superscript and subscript 89 Cyrillic languages "22 Majuscule and minuscule 64 Numerals ae 90 ‘Semitic and Aramai Set width 65 Punctuation ot languages 24 Baseline grid 66 Diacritical marks 92 The Roman alphabet 26 Thegolden section —_ 68 Dashes SO*~CS~S~S« The modern alphabet 28 Fibonacci sequence 69 Character spacing ‘05 Moveable type, 1436 30 Standard paper sizes 70 Expert sets and zi The effect of printing The page — how we rea 74 — special characters 96 in Europe 32. Dividing the page 76 ligatures, dipthongs The Industrial Revolution, 1800s 34 and sans serif logotypes 98 ‘Arts and Crafts Movement, 1850s 36 Drop and standing capitals 99 Modernism, 19108. Small captals 1950s (true and false) 400 1960s Italic and oblique 107 1970s aa ‘Type classification systems 102 1980s ‘Type classification in practice 108 1990s Graphic design since 200052 Newspaper text faces 110words and paragraphs 112 Calculating line lengths 114 Kerning and letterspacing 116 ‘Automated kerning tables 117° Alignment Se Word spacing, hyphenation and justification 4122 Type detailing 123 Leading 124, indents 126 Indexes SE ‘Type size 128 Display type 129 Reversing type 130 Wraps and runarounds 131 using type Hierarchy _ Colour Surprint, overprint and knockout Printing and type realisation Type onscreen Grids and fonts Generating type Legibiity and readability Texture ‘Type as image Conerete poetry, typograms, trompe I'll and caligrammes ‘Type in the environment Scale Vernacular Appropriation Typographic democracy ‘Ownership 132 134 136 138 140 144 146 148 150 62 64 156 158 160 162 164 166 167 Proof marks conclusion contacts. glossary index font index 168 170 171 172 174 176introduction Language is the Samuel Johnson Typography surrounds us: it adorns the buildings and the streets through which we pass, it is a component part of the ever-expanding variety of media we consume - from magazines, to television and the internet — and we even increasingly sport it on our clothing in the form of branding and symbolic messages. The typography that is a fundamental part of our lives today is the culmination of centuries of development, as the letters that comprise the written word evolved and crystalised into the alphabets that are in common usage. Technology has played a central role in this development, affecting and changing the way that the marks we recognise as characters are made and presented, Through the development of the printing industry, technology gave birth to the concept of typography, the many different presentations of the same character set. dress of thought While this book provides a deep insight into the essence of typographical development from the base of its historical roots, it goes much further, as by necessity it deals with language and communication, ‘two concepts to which typography is inextricably linked. As the 18th-century English writer Samuel Johnson said, ‘Language is the dress of thought’. That being the case, typography can be viewed as one of the swatches of fabric from which that dress is made. It is hoped that this volume will serve as a valuable source of typographical information with which informed design choices can be made, to add depth and context to a work. This book is also intended to be a source of creative inspiration through the visual exploration of typefaces over the ages.B peel Pree ee ag co eee] ee tte al none) oe oon ey peered Prone VA [oer j See Panty = 2 Peace Coan co cnt cn q ose nes Peet] oer] See coe “There are thousands of fonts vallable and wed toughour the world and they each have a story to tell This simple A-Z pe ee ee ee ‘Semonstates the many nuances, sys, historical and cultural et eeehow to get the most out of this book This book aims to give readers a thorough grounding in the fundamentals of the wide-ranging field of typography, from best practice guidelines to creative experimentation. IV XLC DM ivxtledmype oben ofr hited on he Secnpmncprent el eine tay ope Mayen ee age fs plate ne Horizontal movement across the page. in contrast to vertical solidity [Relative and absolute measurements Tach subsequent chaps focuses on ‘one aspect of typography sch as the basics or ming type The book te logic and progsesive, with cach chapter providing an information base forthe next Explanatory text ese with serous ‘amples of typefaces and the use of ype in context, with some snayical commentary Key concepts ate exphined in detain ppllout boxes and worked Pr DAIRY ® Seen “The fone index and gener index at the back ofthe book enable the ‘book to be used as an easy Typography wes two eypes of measurements, abate measwemens and relive messtements. Its unportane to understand the differences ‘esween these co underseand many of the typographic proceses. i «2036 gg ~ faType has developed over the last 600 Ree ee Le Set mary have been developed over a much longer Ree ee Ce RR ae Pesce cg a brief historySHV MeRNS lt (Oh agThe history of type ‘The Fundamental of Typogsephy The hisory of ype Type is the means by which an idea is written and given visual form. Many typefaces in use today are based upon designs created in earlier historical epochs, and the characters themselves have a lineage that extends back thousands of years to the first mark-making by primitive man, when characters were devised to represent objects or concepts. This section is an introduction to the complex origins of type. An appreciation of typography naturally involves understanding how written language developed. While a general timeline is presented here, many elements and the technological advances that made developments possible ‘overlap between epochs. For instance, moveable type is generally credited to Johannes Gutenberg, 2 German goldsmith and printer, in the 1440s. Counter claims to the invention include Laurens Janszoon Coster in the Netherlands and Panfilo Castaldi in Italy. The true origins of this lay moch earlier though, with the forerunner of Gutenberg’ revolutionary system being invented by Bi Sheng in China between 1041 and 1048, Further refinements were made during the Goryeo Dynasty of Korea by Chwe Yun-Ui in. about 1234, where metal was first used instead of brittle clay or easily damaged wood. [As type mechanics, and typography as an art, developed simultaneously in several pockets of the world it can be hard to be definite. This section aims to be as comprehensive as possible, bt itis impossible to be conclusive. One of the wonders of typography is this fluidity its ability to adapt to circumstances, technological advances and cultural shifts. Type's key role in somsmunication means that i can often be Hed vo a specific event in hiory o eukral epoch, Picated (left to sight) an eaely ‘Germma Bible; the US Declantion of Independence signed 4 July 1776 4 postage samp fiom the Nasi regime; and the Vieenam War Wall Memorial, ‘Washington DC. ‘Type occupies a formal role in the reconling of history. The permanence ofthe carved word and the value of the printed iter ae inseparable fom. font cltural heritage 3¢ type helps us to record, celebrate and remember13 ‘The Fundamentals of Typognphy The hisory of ype Language is not static Letters, language and indeed typography develop and left, the symbol was turned on its side, Under the Greek. change over time as the dominant power inherits, alters, civilisation this character was turned again as the Greeks adapts and imposes its will on existing forms. The modern generally (though not always, see page 20), wrote from left Latin alphabet is a result of this ongoing transition that has to right. Finally the Romans turned the ch: been petformed over several millennia. For example, the giving it the form that we recognise today modern letter“A’ was originally a pictogram representing ter full-cieele, an ox’s head, but as the Phoenicians wrote from right (0 ram cf a ox Dead has een tired onside by Rotated by the Gree sul euned upright bythe the Phoenicians Romans, form dhe oder ‘A atin Arabic Chinese Boustrophedon oad ld ET ESS EE Ca [Sa ET =a EE —— ST Reading direction The direction in which text is read varies and is based on with a pen (or right-handed people) is moving from left to historical factors such as how text ued to be written. For right. Pictured are outlines for four systems: Latin, Arabic, example, Chinese calligraphers use a paint brush to dravr Chinese and the Greek boustrophedon system, ideograms and so it is easier to write down the page. Carving stone tablets by moving from right to left allows you to read what you have written, while the natural motion for writingAbove (Cuneiform, the eutiese known form of wring om 2 clay sable Right (Cuneiorm able deta, Fer sight ‘Mesopotamia, modeen Syn where cuneiform originated. “ ‘The Fundamental of Typopmply Cuneiform tablet Cuneiform tablets CConeiform uses a wedge-shaped stylus to make impressions into a wet clay tablet and is the carliest standardised writing system, which was developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the region that is now east of the Mediterranean, from about 4,000 BC until about 100 BC. Early forms of cuneiform were written in colamns from top to bottom, but later changed to bbe written in rows from left to right. With this change the cuneiform signs were turned on their sides. Cuneiform began to die out as other language systems such as Aramaic spread through the region in the 7th and 6th centuries BC, and as the use of Phoenician script incressed. Some terms to be familiar with ‘There are many terms used within this book that you'll need to be familiar with, many of which are often confused. PHONOGRAM SYMBOL A written symbol, letter, character or other mark that ‘A graphic element that communicates the ideas and concepts represents 2 sound, syllable, morpheme or word, that it represents rather than denoting what it actually is. IDEOGRAM PICTOGRAM A graphic element that represents an idea or a concept. ‘A graphic element that describes an action or series of ICON actions through visual references or clucs. ‘A graphic clement that represents an object, person or something else15 The Fondamentals of Typogeapty _Hieoelyphs Hieroglyphs Hieroglyphs are a pictogrammatic writing system developed by several cultures including the ancient Egyptians and Incas. Each pictogram represents an object such as an animal, tool or person rather than vocal sounds. In Egypt they were developed by scribes to record the possessions ‘of the Pharaoh, by drawing a picture of a cow or a boat for ‘example, As more complex ideas needed to be recorded, ‘written language became more complex as more pictograms ‘were needed. Eventually there were over 750 individual Egyptian pictograms Hieroglyphs can be written from right to left, left to right, ‘or downwards, which can be discerned by seeing which, way pictures of people or animak face. The text is read towatds the faces, For example, if they are facing to the left, the inscription is read from left to right Right icroghyphs on papyrus, reading downwatd indicted by the bender ins, Top loft - Depiction ofthe god Anubis at The important Queen Hathepin temple, Eeyps Coreen) Bottom left i Hierglyphs and ceiling panting in Hashepar’s temple, Der el Babar (Thcbe), Eevee en eee Penne asan sa Coonan = Perens Fierogiyphs on obelisk. Dae Feet Sanat ie Seat ear eet eens16 “The Fundamentals of Typography Ideogram-based languages Ideogrammatic languages use characters or symbols to tepresent an idea or concept without expressing the pronunciation of a particular word or words. Ideogrammatic, Tanguages have a one-to-one relation between a symbol and an idea that fanctions in a similar way to the red road sign, with a horizontal white bar that means ‘no entry’, The meaning is understood but there is no indication of how this is vocalised. Ideogrammatic languages, traditionally written down the page, inclnde Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Thai dcogram-based langoages Berean developments in Reece ta Pelee] Coors nreC tert Parcomncen Cea aes pceneeees a eG |” Abore Above Wh “These Chinese ideograns represent the four seasons le to vght) ‘These Chinese ieograms present (Jct right) ake, beawtifal and sushi, ‘pring, summer, autumn and winter. Far left Hiragana and Kang Jspanese chante Lett Korean word for (op to bottom) peace, angel sir, charm and beauty ~all made with ideograms. Right ‘The Japanese Katana alphabet Far right Stamp fiom ChinaChinese and Japanese scripts Written Chinese assigns a single distinctive symbol, or character, to each word. Many symbols have remained fundamentally the same for over 3,000 years even though the ‘vriting system has been standardised and stylistically altered. The system became word-based to express abstract concepts, swith ideogeams representing sounds rather than concepts. Shi Huangel, the first emperor of unified China, enforced a standardised writing called small seal. This developed into regular and running scripts in the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220). Printed! Chinese is modelled on the standard script Fh, biel VY Watashi Kanji Hiragana WN7TH at YW Nie en UM Dw TS H>ONYWY SABE IISA NI 4 The Fundamentals of Typography Tdeogeam-based Languapes panese writing began in the 4th century, using imported Chinese script. A system emerged in which Chinese characters were used to write Chinese words and their Japanese equivalents, and were also used for their phonetic values to write grammatical elements. These were simplified and eventually became the syllabic scripts (an alphabet consisting of symbols for consonants and vowels) Hiragana and Karakana, Modern Japanese is written with these two scripts and/or up to 10,000 Chinese Han or Kanji characters. Texts may also inclade Romaji, the standard way of transiterating Japanese into the Latin alphabet. The Japanese use Romaji characters fon computers that are converted to Kanji, Hiragana or Katakana characters by software Katakana Romaji English18 ‘The Fundamentals of Typognphy Phoenician charcte Phoenician characters The Phoenicians lived in the eastern Mediterranean in what is modern day Lebanon. They developed the basis of the modern Latin alphabet around 1600 BC and formalised a system of 22 ‘magic signs’ or symbols that represented sounds rather than objects. The symbols could be put together in different combinations to construct thousands of words, even though the alphabet only contained consonants and had no vowels. Phoenician was written horizontally from right co let without spaces between words, although dots were sometimes used to denote word breaks. The Phoenician alphabet is the bedrock for many subsequent writing systems including Arabic, Hebrew, Greek and Latin, and ultimately, for the modern European alphabet that is used today. The important developments in summary: 22 symbols representing sounds not objects Coupling of sounds to form words eC cna & & eee ee eee ee Renan Sid Some terms to be familiar with Linguistics ~ the science of language — uses the folowing terms to describe va jous elements of language and speech. Phoneme ‘Morpheme Syllable Lotter ‘A phoneme describes Armorpheme is a distinctive A syllable is a unit of A letter is a mark or a speech sound or sign ‘group of phonemes that spoken language consisting _ glyph (symbol) used in an clement — the basic form the smallest language of a single, uninterrupted alphabetic writing system unit that distinguishes unit that has a semantic sound.This may be formed to indicate a sound, between different words interpretation. A word can by a vowel, diphthong, a For example, the phonemes _be broken into a series syllabic consonant alone, DISCREDITED ‘o’ and“x’ come together ‘of morphemes, with each or by any of these sounds to make ‘ox’ having a distinct meaning, accompanied by one or ‘The word ‘discredited’ has __-more consonants. The DISCREDITED three morphemes;‘dis’ word ‘discredited’ has ‘credit’ and ‘ed’. four syllables DIS CREDIT ED DIS CRED IT ED19 ‘The Fundamentak of Typeyeaply Phoenician characters ‘The 22 magic signs The Phoenicians were responsible for what is arguably ‘The 22 signs are pictured below along with their Latin the development of the greatest invention of humanity. The ‘equivalents and dhe objects that they are believed to have alphabet of 22 magic signs (below) that they are believed to originally represented. Many characters such as‘O’,"W’, Inve developed at Byblos and left to the world were the basis “K’ and "X’ are perfectly recognisable and have changed (of subsequent languages such as Greek, Hebrew and Latin. litte through the centuries. a RB © D E F z H TH 1 K os se Tiwi Door Window Hooke igen Fre ken Hand Pal of ad L M N 5 ° P Ts Q R SH i Oxgoad Pal Pastor Ep ‘Mouth Juveln Kot Head Toth More sipport ron Byblos Byblos (modern day Jubayl in Lebanon) was a Phoenician Mediterranean seaport that exported papyrus, and from which, the word Bible is derived. It is thought that the residents of this city reduced the number of symbols in the Phoenician alphabet to the 22 pictured above. Far Ie “Modem day Beirut, Lebanon, 2001 Left 1 detail fromm the Bie» The Greek alphabet The Grecks adopted the characters ofthe Phoenician system, such 28 aleph (a) and beth (6), from which they developed their alphabet. Indeed, the word alphabet is the union of the Greek characters alpha and beta (cight). By around 800 BC the Grecks had added other characters to their alphabet, which became the basis of the modern day Hebrew and Arabic scrips. Early Greck was written in the boustrophedon soyle (we oppesite page) where rather than proceeding fiom left to right as in modern English, or right co let as in Arabi alternate lines must be read in opposite directions. Many ancient Mediterranean languages were typically written in this style. The development of punctuation allowed writing to move away from the boustrophedon style towards a system, that reads left to right. As this happened, many symbols were rotated to make them easier to write Many Greek letters have a legacy in everyday speech such as alpha male’ and ‘beta testing’ s their symbols ae used a8 mathematical symbols i. pi (n). Writing became more standardised around 500 BC when the character set became fully recognisable as that which we know today in both the Greek and Roman forms. Above AA Grock inscription on the Xanthian obelisk in the ruined Lycian city of Xanthos, Turkey The text is presented without lertrspacing and without the use of punctuation, “The Fundamental of Typography Aleph Beth Alpha Beta AlphaBeta Alphabet “The tamskion of Ph The Greek siphabet cian characters into Greek a lmately, into words we recognise today once er tcer eet ky Net Pe ees cei Alpha © Omicron Beta x Pi y Gamma p Rho d Delta © Sigma © Epsilon + Tw c Zea v Upsilon 1 Ea Phi 0 Thea % Chi Tota yo Ps x Kappa © Omega 2 Lambda Ma vy Nu = Xiorsi Above “The 24 characters frm the modern Greek aiphaber and cher Greek names,2 ‘The Fundamental of Typography The Greek alphabet Boustrephedon writing The boustrophedon writing style is called method’ because the lines of text are write ‘opposite directions. The text maves across the ‘ox plough from left ie Page ind then comes back from righ to right, drops down a lis to left and so on down the page as shown in the diagram. This is not as simple as it may seem as there are three methods of doing chis: the lines reverse, the lines and swords reverse, or the lines, words and letters all reverse ‘A modern example of boustrophedon writing is the word ‘Ambulance’ that is written backwards on the bonnet ofan ambulance so that it can be read correctly when seen in the rear-view mirror of cars in front of it SJQUVAIVEMA Vowels and spaces The Greeks developed vowels, which created a complete and flexible phonetic alphabet. The insertion of sp between words and dia tical marks (cee page 92) was a further development that helped facilitate reading and comprehension &\ 18; 1 Q CNYRDTHS CAN YOU READ THIS Above 8 ese of vowel and spaces males text eater wo rad and understandCyrillic languages Cyrillic alphabets are those based on Glagolitic (an alphabet developed by missionaries during the 9th century to translate the Bible for the Great Moravia region) and used for Slavic languages such 2s Russian. They are named after Byzantine missionary St Cyril and developed from Greek between the 8th and 10th centuries, possibly by St Kliment of Ohrid for the Old Church Slavonic language. The current Cynilic alphabet was adopted in 1708 during the reign of Peter the Great of Russia, with a further modification in 1917/18 when four letters were eliminated, The Cyrillic alphabet is the basis of over 50 diferent languages in Russia, Central Asia and Eastern Europe, many of which vs that have been adapted om standard Cyrillic letters, with others taken from the Greek or Latin alphabets additional characters Cyrillic languages include: Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Avar, Azeri, Balkar, Belarusian, Bulgarian, Chechen, Chukchi, Church Slavonic, Chuvash, Dungaa, Evenk, Gagauz, Ingush, Kabardian, Kazakh, Komi, Kurdish, Kyrghyz, Lezgi, Lingua Franca Nova, Macedonian, Moldovan, Mongolian, Old Church Slavonic, Rusian, Ruthenian, Serbian, Slovio, Taik, Tatar, Turkmen, Ukrainian, Uighur, Uzbek, Yakut and Yupik, ore a eco IER VETO an ‘The Fundamentals of Typogzephy Cyrillic Inguages 8 mit “The Russian MIR orbital station, The reversed ‘N' denotes the lees"? anid 9°P” sounds eR Right Deel fom 2 Russian dictionary demonstrating are adapted fiom other alphabesicl systems. This Phi yo Pi (P that reappears asthe hat some Cyilic characters rowing’ occurs with sever characters sch athe G Cyrille chaacter“P', an uptuened Latin ‘Van inverted Rand a numenl ‘3 Below left A Ruslan stamp showing Cyril characters The Cyrillic alphabet ‘The Cyrillic alphabet has 33 letters, including 21 consonants and ten vowels, and two letters without sounds that represent hard and soft signs. It is used to write six natural Slavic languages (Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian and Ukrainian) in addition to many other languages of the former Soviet Union, Asia and Eastern Europe. Late medieval Cyrillic letters tended to be very ‘all and narrow, with strokes often shared between adjacent letters Peter the Great mandated the use of westernised letterforms, which have been adopted in the other languages that use the alphabet. This means that modern Cyrillic fonts are very similar to modern Latin fonts of the same font families Lowercase Cyrillic letterforms are essentially smaller versions of the capitals, apart from the ‘a’,‘e’ and ‘y’ that are Western shapes, rather than straightforward reductions of capital letterforms,23 ‘The Fandamentle of Typosrapy The Russian alphabet ‘The 33 Russian Cyrillic lowercase and uppercase letters are shown in magenta, with their English transliteration in black, Russian punctuation follows similar conventions to German, such as the use of comunias €0 offset subordinate and coordinate clauses, and spacing of letters in different ways to show emphasis. a i ¢ s ¢ b i t v k u 9 ' f F qd n m kh e e a L ts e e ° ch zh Pp u sh z r u heh eee >2 Efe FE@TEO“ AB SO” ee . AKC AAROUOUAEIOUaasionouAeion eee ore nolo and AB CDEFGHIJKLMNOPORST UVWXYZ ABCDEFGHILMNOPQRSTUVZ29 Accents and stresses Various accents and streses, called dinrivcal manks, have developed over time to provide visual guides to the pronunciation of letters and words by indicating how Acute Giroarnflex Z e€ the Latin ants ean, ‘snap’ represents a vowel is close or tense has hig or rising pitch, that a vol is Tong, or tat the syllable in which the wows! sppeus is stressed, Acute accent around’ has along sound, Grave x e From the Latin gravis meaning “heww' it isa smusk placed above a vowel to iat ste ‘or special promciition syllable, From The 0 Modern numbers derive from Arabic characters and their adoption brought the'0’ with chem. The numerals themselves originated in India and came into use in Arabic around 1000 AD. Common usage in Europe did not occur until, the Renaissance period. Dineresis / Umlaut A ce rom the Latin ceva meaning ‘bent the ciel indists that a vowel ic ‘Typical in Germanic languages the emt indicates tha a vowel sound changes by sssmlating the vowel sound ofthe folowing be German nn, meaning around! or‘akention’, and lat, messing ound. ‘The Fundamentals of Typognpty ‘The modern slphaber the letter sound is to be modified, Pictured below are some of the common accents used with the Latin alphabet, which will be discussed om prage 92. Breve v Z From the Latin bre, which meant ‘shox, {his symbol placed over a vow incites ‘hae ie has ashore sound, Tilde n From the medieval Tan stale meaning ide’, de placed over a lever indicates ‘hea more masl pronsacinion i required such a the Spanish, thats pronounced lie the ‘ayia easy Simplification ‘Modern European digits were created in India in the 6th century or earlier, but were introduced into the Wese by Arab scholars. As chey represent place-based values and have a value for zero, calculations can be performed with relative ease, as adding the numbers (below right) will prove. Another advantage is that numbers of infinite length can be formed, whereas Roman numerals soon meet with limitations M ic VI IV 1000 50 6 as30 Movable type, 1436 "This is a piece of movable type for the ‘g’ character. Many typographical terms originate with the different characteristics ‘of these type blocks. The physical dimensions of the block dictated spacing and made negative spacing impossible, whereas computer technology makes spacing more flexible While digitised type still adheres to the same conventions of the bounding box (pictured) in terms of measurements, digitisation allows these boxes to overlap, and indeed have negative tracking, Gutenberg Johannes Gutenberg (c. 1400-1468) was a German printer ‘who developed the first printing press and the use of movable: type. The development of the printing press allowed the mass production of books that previously had to be written by hand. Movable type farther improved this development by allowing text characters to be reused, providing further time and cost savings. This technology remained the basis of the printing industry until hot metal printing. Right ‘This 2 photograph of metal type stim block tht wat used by printing prestes until well nto the 20ch century. Opposite ‘This sa handwriten vellum from a 1490 edition of the Book of rours prayer book that was used for private devotion from the 12 ‘enn Vella thin sheet of specially prepared leather used for ‘writing, thar is superior in quality to parchment ‘The Fundamentals of Typogeaphy Moveable ype, 1436 Lott A pre selecting type fom a ype cae Picured belo are movable type blocks and the mesure they vw be stn,Blackletter, 1150-1500 Block, Blackletter, Gothic, Old English, black or broken typefaces are based on the ornate writing style prevalent during the Middle Ages. These ornate qualities can be seen. in the woodblock leiters pictured right. Newadays these typefaces appear heavy and! difficult to read in lange text blocks due to the complexity of the letters and the fact that they seem antiquated and unfamiliar to us. Blackleteer typefaces are commonly used to add decorative touches such as initial caps and on certificates. readability Above ‘This is Blacletter 686, « modern fone crated by Bistrem Inc and based fon London Text scrips fom the Middle Ages that wese written with feather quille‘The clean lines ofthis fant real in an engraved eect. MeL ti tl z nets ‘The Fundamentals of Typography Moveable pe, 1435, Above oscar 100,000 Relebamac, Right ‘Martin Luther’ mandation ofthe Bible into German, Readability Readability traditionally refers to how well the text is ‘written and prepared, so as to facilitate reading. Readability depends on many factors including the colour of text in relation to its background, spacing, typeface, ine length, jusificazfon, paragraph density and the grammar used. Increasingly however, readability refers to the impression 4 piece of text creates. In this context, text set in an illegible typewriter font still conveys a cersain eadsbility due to the other elements ofits presentation, Legibility The ability to distinguish one character from another, to turn letters into words and words into sentences due to qualities inherent in the typeface design is known as legibility2 The Fundamentals of Typography The effect of printing in Eusope The effect of printing in Europe As printing spread it gave rise to various typographical styles, with particular hotspots being France, where Blackletter developed, Holland and Italy: Many printers adopted the Venetian model as interest in Italian Renaissance art and ‘culture grew, Parisian printer Claucle Garamond (€. 1480- 1561) established the first independent type foundry Letterforms from this period were more representative ofa pen, and utilised the greater detail that working with metal offered Old Style typeforms superseded Blackletter as people in Renaissance Europe began to favour classical forms, These are more condensed than the Carolin preceded them, but rounder and more expanded than Blickletter-These fonts have low contrast, with diagonal stress and serifs with rounded brackets. Many of these fonts feature redrawn characters based on those For example, Caslon is a font that was redrawn to give a romanticised impression of the characters itis based on. sd in earlier times, bore A book printed and publshe! in the 16th century Above Above This is adel fom aca, 16ch-centry Latin law manasrip printed in This is adel fiom De La Coumographic by Jounnes Kepler (1571-1680, Paris. Nosie how the ink Sills in, probably de tothe porosity ofthe paper The shapes of the characters are exaggerated 0 compensate forthe stock The characters therefore needed t be cut ro remain legible at small, Aefciencies ofthe printing proces and paper stock so thut they seman sizes even with ink spread The ices, se page 110. principle is tll wed in newspaper readablesTypognphy The effct of pri ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ apex ofthe rode! by numerous type fous ABCDEF oo MNOPORSTUVWXYZ Baskerville SeThe Industrial Revolution, 1800s ‘The Industrial Revolution brought mechanisation that allowed printing to speed up, photo-engraving which replaced. handmade printing plates and ine-casting machines that revolutionised typesetting and allowed for ever-increasing levels of detail and intricacy. The use of points as the ‘measurement system was cemented during this period. Technological development also meant that font creation took less time, which opened the doors for the development of a wider range of typefaces and also made extending font families easier. One development of the time was the introduction of BOLDFACE, Experimentation with serif saw them become thinner and thinner until chey wlimately disappeared. William Caslon’s great grandson William Caslon IV cat the first sans serif font in 1816, called English Egyptian. The absence of serifs was so unusual that other typographers called it grotesque, a name that has stuck and is still used to describe some sans serif fonts. Transitional fonts from this period typically have vertical stress and more conteast than Old Style typefaces, in addition to horizontal serif. Towards the end of the Industrial Revolution, tcanstional types began to adopt the characteristics that ate seen in modern typefaces ‘The Rosetta Stone ‘The Roseta Stone exibited in dhe Beith Museum, London) seas caved in 196 BC wih an inscription in Egyptian hiwoglyphs, demote and Greek that was found sear Rosetta (Rashid) in 1799 ‘The three scripts of the same text provided a valuable hey that helped to decipher hieroglyphs. ‘The first sans serif typeface, 1816 rmiror the constriction ofthe pysumids DISPLAY FACES GROTESQUE Wills Caslon developed » sae serif rypefice called Egyptian in reference to public interest in Eaype fallowing Napoleon campaign. 1k was not well received, however and was called ‘grote’ and ‘Gothic’ (astyle of architecture going though a revival a the time). Egyptian as since come to refer to sab sri ypelaces, perhaps because the slabs The Fundamentals of Typogeaphy The Intra] Revolotion, 1800s Pantographic punchcutter, 1885 ‘The pantographic punchcutter, invented by Linn Boyd Benton in 1885, made possible the manufacture of composing, ‘machines. As an operator traced a brass pattern of a letter with one part of the device, its cutting tool engraved the letter on to the punch. Line-easting machine, 1884 Invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler in 1884, the line-casting machine produces a metal slug with a single line of type, with characters input with a keyboard like a typewriter. The machine assembles brass matrices into a line, which it then casts American Typefounder ATR, 1892 The merger of 23 type foundries to form American Type Founders Company created what would become the largest type foundry in che world with a monopoly on the type industry until movable type became obsolete. The Notre Danse cathedral in Pacis, completed in 1250, i considered the foremost exaniple of Gothic acitecruze, which characterised by dender vertical piers, countebaaneing bute, ‘wulting and pointed anche,The Fundamentals of Typography The Indstrial Revolution, 18005 SIMPLICISSIMUS Commercial art Lithography was invented in Austria by Alois Senefelder in 1796, Following refinements, by 1848 the process had been refined to print speeds of 10,000 sheets per hour, which made mass production of designs economically viable. Lithography allowed the merging of art with industry to produce posters and colour putes for books. ‘The first person to mass produce posters with lithography was Jules Chéret (1836-1933) in Paris. Other eatly protagonists include Thomas Theodor Heine (1867-1948) Lautrec (1864-1901), Despite these sphie design’ does not appear and Henri de Toulouse. developments the term tuntil the 1950s. Monotype character caster, 1893 The revolutionary monotype caster cast single letters in Tead and composed them into a page. This allowed corrections to bbe made at the character level rather than having to recast a whole line with linotype. Monotype could also produce leads s explained on page 95 and quads for spacing. Spacing Simplicissins, 1896 (right) Thonn Theodor Heine cteted this iustation fr the cover of the German sitcal magazine Simplus that he co-founded in 1895. AVIANARONEVISSINE 1904: RA Vii Anitoze (Savoy Taare. ;eSMDRCT Toi ‘The Chiefiaios by EC. Burmand Aristide Broant at Lex Poster for an Airshow, and Arther Sullivan, 1895 Ambassadeurs, Toulouse forms se rendered, Typogeaphy 4 The oversized terminal (I, & E) Lantree, 1892 creating a logotype tater chan a ter in this ithogriph poster and cros bars (3) axe used for The “pated Fererfoens in his tide i this ihogeaphs poe, The rounded’ moderae’ scares dramatic effect inthis lithograph __—thograph poster create a singular of the Zeppein are transposed pos fore combining text and smage on tothe oerArts and Crafts Movement, 1850s ‘The Victorian Arts and Crafts Movement developed as a rejection of heavily ornamented interiors with many pieces of furniture, collections of ornamental objects and surfaces covered with fringed cloths. The Arts and Crafss Movement favoured simplicity, and good craftsmanship and design. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijkimnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 (Cheltenham, Bertram Goodhue, 1896 Originally created by Bertram Gromenor Goodhue for the Cheltenham Pres, New Yor this serif font that was stronger in appearance than the ‘popslar xt eypes ofthe ime, aided by «large x height tha aes oe legibly ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ, abedefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 Century Schootbook, Morris Fuller Benton, 1901 Bascd on his her Century font, Mortis Fuller Benton made other ‘versions incnding Century Schoolbook in shout 1919. Fes round, open and sturdy Although heavicr in appearance than many other sriffons, ci very legible ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 1234567890 Copperplate Gothic, Frederic Goudy, 1905 Originally created by Frederic Goudy successive weights were dean by. (Claeace Mazder for American Type Founders Iti. wil ithe gare, monotone Gothic with small hsinine serif reminiscent of the edges on letters that were engraved ia copperplate The chaactxs impart fel of seriows busines thats undexsated and refined Wide and open, it legible at small es. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abedefghijkimnopgrstuvwxyz 1234567890 Goudy Old Style, Frederic Goudy, 1910 Inspired by leering on 4 Reassance painting, Goudy Ola Style forms the basis fora Inge family of varios. Highlights ince the upward pointing ear ‘of the g, the damond sluped dots ove dhe nd jad the rounded upward -ovllingof the horizontal sos atthe bas ofthe Ean‘ ‘The Fundamental of Fypography Arts and Crafl Movement, 1850: British artist and architect William Morris was a leading ‘exponent of this new style that sought to re-establish a link: between beautiful work and the worker, by rediscovering an honesty in design that is not found in mass-produced items ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdetghijkimnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 Franklin Gothie, Morris Fuller Benton, 1904 Designed for American Type Founders this Gothic or grotsaque font gives & {ik monotone look. I has subtle stroke contrat, with the thinning of round sos thoy merge ino stem. The font includes « ewostory “g- Is various ‘eights give it a Jot of vers, making it ideal for newspapers ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 1234567890 Century, Linn Boyd Benton, 1906 Bed on an orginal 1894 design by Linn Boyd Beaton (Sher of infloental ‘ype designer Morris Faller Bonton) for periodical Comury Magezine, with thin charctes to tight column, [san exemely gible font tha is suitable for uabooks,mngatinds and other publictions, Penny Black, 1840 The world fist postage stamp, the Peay Black, ws cd in 1840, ‘he leer n the bottora let and righthand corners denote the stamp position om the printed Shcet,AB,AB, AG ete Royal Allert Hall, 1870 In 1870, Quoea Vitoria opened the Royal Albert Hall m London ‘he terrcota ize running the circumference depicts"The Triumph ofthe Ares and SciencesITC RENNIE MACKINTOSH WAS DESIGNED IN 1996 BY PHIL GRIMSHAW FOLLOWING RESEARCH AND COLLABORATION BETWEEN THE INTERNATIONAL TYPEFACE CORP AND GEASGOW SCROOL OF ART. THE EETTERFORMS ARE BASED ON THE HANDWRITING AND DRAWINGS OF SCOTTISH DESIGNER CRARLES RENNIC. MACKINTOSH, WHO PRODUCED HIGHLY ORIGINAL BUILDINGS, INTERIORS AND FURNITURE AT THE TURN OF THE 22TH CENTURY. THE FONT FAMILY IS UNUSUAL AND OFF BEAT, AND A GOOD CHOICE FOR PRODUCT PACKAGING, ADVERTISING, AND GRAPHIC DESIGNS WITH A PERIOD FLAIR. Rennie Mackintosh, Phill Grimshew; 1996 ‘The lesteforms of Rennie Mackintosh are based on the bancwriting and deswings of Sconish designer Charles Rennie Mackintosh 4 named, Mortis ‘The Fundamentals of Typognply Arts and Cras Movement, 1850s THE ECKMANN FONT FAMILY US NAMED AFTER DESIGNER OTTO ECKMAN. WITH A ChEAR SUGENDSTIL INFLUENCE THROUGH THE FLOWING FLORAL CONTOURS, THIS FONT WAS MADE FOR LARGER POINT SIZES FOR USE Ol POSTERS. WHILE RELATIVELY LEGIBLE, JT IS NOT MEANT FOR SMALLER PRIN. ECKMANN IS OFTEN USED TO GIVE A NOSTALGIC FEELING. Eckman, Otto Eckmann, 1900 fsiner Otto Eckmann, the chara provide a nosalgic feeling The Copperplate Gothic Copperplate Gothic ‘Ars and Crafts to deta found in theModernism, 1910 Modernism through the cubist, surrealist and Dadaist, movements was shaped by the industrialisation and urbanisation of Western society. Modernists departed from the rural and provincial zeitgeist prevalent in the Victorian cra, ejecting its values and styles in favour of cosmopolitanism. Functionality and progress became key concerns in the attempt to move beyond the external physical representation of reality through experimentation in a struggle to define what should be considered ‘modern’ ‘Modernist typefaces often sought to force viewers to see the everyday differently by presenting unfamiliar forms. Loft ‘Modernist wndencies can be seen in Poni of Beatie Hastings by Ielian painter and sculptor Amedeo ‘Modigian shat features the deliberate tortion of featunex andthe we of large ates of fat colour Above The Pompidou ars conte in Pari, eresed by Renzo Piano anid Richaed Rogers in 1977. eis 2 modernist building that follows the manta ‘of form follows function’ and is aesthetie are intel eo it function, ‘The Fundamentals of Typogrply Modernism, 1910 A RECREATION OF THE ROMAN TYPE CUT BY NICOLAS JENSON IN THE 15TH CENTURY, ROGERS WAS COMMISSIONED TO DESIGN AN, EXCLUSIVE TYPE FOR NEW YORK’S METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART. NAMED AFTER THE CENTAUR, THE TITLE OF A BOOK BY MAURICE DE GUERIN WAS THE FIRST DESIGNED USING THE TYPE. type: It is named aler The Centr by Maurice de Guéti, the fst book to te the font. De Stijl, 1917 Anart and design movement founded around the magazine of the same name that was founded by Theo Van Doesburg, De Stijl used strong rectangular forms, employed primary colours and celebrated asymmetrical compositions. Constructivism, 1918 ‘A modern art movement originating in Moscow in 1920, characterised by the use of industrial materials such as glass, sheet metal and plastic to create non representational, often geometric objects. Russian constructivism was influential to ‘modernism through its use of black and red sans serif typography arranged in asymmetrical blocks.“The Fundamentals of Typography Modernism, 1910 F101: O"qL 5 == LONDON UNDERGROUND IS A SANS SERIF DEVELOPED BY EDWARD JOHNSTON FOR THE LONDON UNDERGROUND SYSTEM IN 1916, CHARACTERISED BY WIDE, ROUNDED CHARACTERS WITH AN EVEN STROKE WEIGHT THAT GIVES HIGH LEGIBILITY. Johnston Underground, Edward Johnston, 1916 ‘This rikng sans serif ft wat enated hy Edvard Johnston for use on the signage ofthe London Underground. Originally called Underground, it bas abo been called Jolinston’s Ralway Type and Johnston, Typographer Eric Gill studied under Johnston, who is considered the father of the 20th century typography sevival and this connection is cer to seein Gil Suns, which urtber cements and contains 2 distinctive cpial“R’ and eyepas lowercase nes the London Underground font. ill Sant has more chsisl proportions, geometric GILL SANS FURTHER REFINES THE SIMPLE LINES OF JOHNSTON’S ORIGINAL FONT. The Bauhaus, 1919 The Bauhaus opened in 1919 under the direction of renowned architect Walter Gropins, Until forced to close in 1933, che Bauhaus sought to initiate a ffesh approach to design following the First World War, with a focus on functionality rather than adornment. Left 1 1923 Ruslan Waly Kandinsky, 4 tutor on the Bauhaus Basic (Coes roped tiatthecemes sonivers reaionibip heween the thrce baie shapes and the tree primary colours, withthe yellow trang boing the most ative ta dynam, cnough to the pasive, old blue cise40 Dadaism, 1916-1923 Ay ATlistig Qné Lilflaly mOVpaiEt (1916—23} What EELOPE FOLLO wimg WOFLE wat I and sOzght [O discOVEl an GalhiEntic TEALIy WATOugh WE @bOLitiOn OF (aktiOnaL celle and SEtARic FOTms~ Dalim blOcpAt foo itfas, malfli@Ls and al feliOn bal oil LillLE EqifOTmily. Its pincidlfs off OF ELibplalE MANALI. Anal ehy Ani gnigitne Ani Vie TEifciOn OF Laas Of bEaaly.” Dadaisis Liv in WHE mOnignl And FOF UAE mOmfnt Dade, Richard Kegler, 1995-1998 Inspire 1 crated Dads Dada sypogeaphy and poetry, Richard that there appears to be litle congroence fm one Iter to the net. The Fundamentals of Typography Marni, 1910 Bayer Universal (top), Bayer Fonetk (bottoms), Herbert Bayer, 1925 Hsbert Bayer embotied the modernist Ssre to reduce designs to 3¢ fay element 3s possible and repeitedly experimented with rypogsanby to reduce the alphabet toa single cae bayer universal bayeR fonetik Basi Alphaber (bel with wont written ike they sound, and with slen eters dropped.The in some way try ta visually expres the sounds they represent, lon) wae a iether experimentation si ngs hid cements are reduced. Capital ate inked with an tandeneore for example basik alfabet kabel KABEL metric forms ach as ces, squares and ‘cial. rt Deco elemente sc 3th cmingly awkward anges of some ‘ofthe curves makes Kabel appear very difrent fom other geomezi modernist rypefices. Based on an ealer design by Ruidoiph Koch in 1923, ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ_ abcdefghijkImnopgrstuywxyz 1234567890 Perpetua, Eric Gil, 1928 Eric Gil bese thi de Soll diagonal 3.0m he characters Goes ok engravings 2 medieval number tad a element of foemslty to the typece ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abedefghijklmnopqrstuywxyz 1234567890 Taught by Edward Jobnton, who designed the London Underground signage, Ene Gil give Gill Sans more casa proporsons than Johnston’ sign. He included a Bred cpital’R’ and eyegls lowercre ‘inthis Jnumanst sans serif chat has geometric touches.a The Fundamentals of Typography Modernism, 1910 BODONI POSTER TT toe | BOLDFACE constructivist orientation ofthe Baulhass movement Typagraphe Pral futura Scnipt Renner based the characters on the simple forms of cic triangle and squat, bat sfiened them to be mote legible and to creste a news modern Poster Bodoni, Chauncey H. Griffith, 1929 ‘ype that wa more than an old revval-The long elegant ascenders and Based on an 18th century desga by Ginbattista Bodoni this isa modern descenders benefit fom generous line spacing and help create his srking | font characterived by sitline seri that are subely bracketed and heavy and radical typeface that tong and elegant. dviratrokes that give a powerful verti sess Nazi Germany, 1931 The dictatorship of Adolf Hitler promised Germany Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Pier! (One people, one empire, one leader!),a message dramatically reinforced through the visual arts, ‘The Nazi regime actively promoted Blacklettr type as the offical type-style for Germany, linking it with a nostalgic idea of German culture, until 1941 when Blackletter was outlawed in favour of Roman type. The Nas also liked the modern, industrial look of Bauhaus typefaces, which they endorsed in the 1940s, when it was thought that a Roman typeface ‘would have more international appeal. The Second World War, 1939-1945 ‘A global war in which Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, the United States, China, and other allies defeated Germany, Italy, and Japan. Designs created under bboth forces were geared towards propaganda and featured symbolic and/or aie heroic images to help their ARMY NURSE CORPS respective war effors. One of the effects of this war was the displacement of designers, architects and other creatives from Europe to the USA YOU ARE NEEDED N Barcelona Pavilion, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, built 1928-192, aemolished 1930 ‘This tel Same, glans and palidhal stone building was emblematic ofthe dem movement The original se of materials expreed the ideal of modmy though is geometry, the precision ofthe pieces constructed and ‘he chrcy oftheir asembly,1950s Following the Second World War a new optimism emerged as 4 consumer boom erupted in the USA.The cultural scene also expanded, boosted by many European creatives and intellectuals who had fled Nazi Europe, and the teenager emerged as both a market and creative force. Design became more elaborate, with bright colours that celebrated life — a5 personified in cars such as the candy-coloured. Ford ‘Thunderbird. The demand for wider choice and the emergence of photosetting helped typography develop. Typographers such as Hermann Zapf led the humanist movement, with the lines between serif and sans serif typefices blurred as organic lines were reintroduced into typography. Humanist fonts have forms that are based on classic Romans, but without the serif. Ford Thunderbird Taonched in 1955, he Thundeid fs the quitexential 19505 two-seat conserble American ca that defined the Insury car market. ‘The Fundamentals of ‘Typography 19506, Helvetica, Max Miedinger, 1957 (Created by Mase Miedinge - the forgoten designe -Helvetics is one of ‘the mos famous and popular typfices in the woeld. With clean, no- nonsense shapes based on the Akzidene-Grotsk font. Origialy called Haas Grotesk, is mame changed to Helvetica in 1960. he Helvetica family has 4 weights and the Neue Helvetica as 51. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijkimnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 Univers, Adrian Frutige, 1957 ‘With stanly, clean forms Univers expresses cool elegance and rational competence It is valable in 59 weight that combine well with other fonts. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ. abedefghijkimnoparstuvwxyz 1234567890 GGQOyyaa Picered in bac is Helverca and in magenta is Univers. Alehouah both se sans Serif Fons, there are noticeable diferences sich 28 the absence of & tall on the Univers'G',’ ands, the more open, rounded counter on the Univers and the bisecting til ofthe Hlelvenca"Q Cold War (eft and below) Following the Second Would War, the Cold Ws, a ideologies condi, developed besween the USA and the USSR. This was chametersed by intense dirs the build upof nuclear weapons snd _ge0-poital manoeuvering Guggenheim (ett) (One ofthe woods lading modern se maseums the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum was founded in New York City in 1939 and noted fr the spinl building desgned by archivect Frank Lloyd ‘Wright and pened in 1959ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ abedefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 Palatino, Hermann Zapf, 1950 [Named fier Giambatia Palatino, a master of calligraphy Som the days of sao Vinci Paltino i a univerally admired Zapf typeface 113s optimised for logit, with open counters and caclly weighted strokes based on casical Ialian Renaisiance forms that wee legible ever fon the inferior quality papers avilable flloning the Second Wosld War, ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 Melior, Herm eee apf, 1952 epee eet Seeeice and descendes, specifically for leterpres and oft printing I has 2 sobust chancter with clic and objective forms, andi versatile and extremely legible based on handwriting Mistral, Roger Excoffon, 1953 A looee rang script bated on the handwriting of typogeape Roger Escofon, who wanted to crete a typeface wih the variety znd non-uniformity of handweting International Style (Swiss) International or Swis Style was based on the revolutionary principles of the 1920s such as De Sei, Bauhaus and Jan Tschicholds The New Typophy that became firmly ‘established in the 1950s. Grids, mathematical principles, rinimal decoration and sans serif typography became the norm as typography developed to represent universal usefulness more than personal expression Je Tichichold, 1902-1974 ‘an Techicholds Die Neue Tpeeaphe (The New Tipaguphy), published in 1928, expormnded the ie of simpy clarity and fancy sa er {ont and seymmetn'Techichold was driven bythe desire to make ecient ich a ding away ith uppercase characters, Escaping Novi Germany to Soitedand, ie later recanted some of his eater prescriptive ies, fcling they were too snr to the thought control of Neca and Sasi The Fundamentils of Typography 1950s Santa Croce Santa Croce, completed in 144 5s the largest Fancscan church Fo sca se the staple with a nave and eo ies THE GOLDEN RATIO Optima, Hermann Zapf, 1958 ‘Opin ws inpied by Ieters Zap sketched on ewe 1,000 lize bank nots, a clauch in lorence, Opts it humanist sans sea bended with Roman n grave phtes cut, 1530 that he saw whale visting the Santa Croce sad ellignapie ses, making ita smooth read and general purpose fot, hich became his most sccesfl typeface. Lttevforms ac in the ratio is discussed age 8, proportions of the golden rio. The gold Asyrametrieal Ann ssmimetricl Inyo features 2 grid dati the sane on Bodh che recto and verso pages std typically bas bis rowai onesie ofthe page In the ilusation above, he grids biased rowart the right1960s The world of culture went pop in the 19608 as music, art literature and furniture design became more accessible and reflected elements of everyday life, Pop art Pop art developed as a reaction against abstract art. It was often witty, purposely obvious and throwaway in its reflection of consumer culture such as advertising and comic books. Pop art's influence on typography resulted in fonts ~ particularly for display type — designed or selected according to possible associations or references in place of any particular theory regarding legibility or aes Style remained influential for body text. 1ues, while the International DISPLAY Davida, Lonis Minott, 1965 Display spetice designed Body text Letter Gothic, Roger Roberson, 1962 Originally designed raw on on IBM Selec Visual Graphics Corporstion peveriter Psychedelia Towards the end of the decade the anti-establishmen movement and ‘flower power’ counterculture saw ini use of text and artwork with a strong art nouveau in that provided a visual simile of the effect of psychedelic drugs, with distorted text and colours that challenged conventional readability Volkswagen Kombi 1950 lagen Kombi was 950 and based on 3 1947 sketch Wy Dutch diibutor Bea Pon. Although the minh Kombi was sold in 196 ios asoeiated with the hippy ovement later thi decade, The Fundamentals of Typogrsphy 1960 Letraset, 1961 The eration of Leemie dry- reser et 1g allowed anyone to do typesetting. Easy rubbed rectly onto artwork or virually any subaute it was often axed for headlines and display ype while body type was sapped va a pewnicer Leese commisioned new npefices sng Colin Brigaalls faucisic Countdown font (bel) Goumdown, Colin Brignall, Was: This typaisca davalopad for Latssat SioyTOUs with tha WSGiDs, the space race and the development of computer tachaology. ‘OCR-A, Optical Character Recognition, Adrian Frutiger and the USA Bureau of Standards, 1966 monospaced font desized for Optical Chanster ‘Recognition by electronic devices sng sanders developed by th American National SandandsIntrts i 1966 fou the processing of by banks and creditcard companies, The chistes Gt into 4 which makes therm easily ead y a scanner, even though they ae nots legible tothe homisn eye. Subsequent version OCR-B was made 4 orld standard in 1973 and x more legible to the human ee,‘The Fundamentals of Typography 1960s Eurostile, Aldo Novarese, 1962 “Eurostile festres a subtle distortion of cneular sas serif geometric oem, wth ronnie eames that look like television sts. Cente by Traian ypographer Aldo Novaes, it refer the zeitgeist ofthe 19508 and 1960s, giving text a dynamic, modern feel. arose gives text a ‘technological aura that works well for headlines and small bodies of text ‘ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijkimnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnoparstuvwxyz 1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuywxyz 1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijkimnopgrstuvwxyz 1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abedefghijkimnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 Symtax, Hans E. Meier, 1968 Syneax is 2 humanist manoline (2 rypefice witha uniform seoke wide) ‘ans serif based on Remsisance leverforms COLIN BRIGNALL DESIGNED AACHEN FOR LETRASET IN 1969 AS A TITLE FONT. IT HAS STRONG, CONCISE CHARACTERS THAT STAND OUT. AACHEN IS A BRACKETED SLAB SERIF DESIGN. FOR MORE INFORMATION ON TYPES OF SERIFS, SEE PAGES 86-87.46 1970s ‘Typography in the 1970s continued where the 1960s left off, becoming more decorative, outrageous and extravagant until the middle of the decade, when punk emerged. Punk rejected the decadent, elaborate nature of music, fishion and the visual arts in fivour of the disposable and shocking. ITC, 1970s ‘The International Typeface Corp. (ITC) was formed in New York to market new typeface designs, distribute royalties to the creators and extend rights to typographers that were threatened by the photographic copying of fonts. Prior to this, type designers had been tied to particular typesetting machine manufacturers.The formation of the ITC resulted ina drive to collect and commission new work, including, revisiting clasic fonts Anarchy symbol ‘The circled Ais an anarchist symbol popularised by the 1970s punk movement, although ie dates buck co the anatchise mia inthe Spanish Cisl Wir ofthe 1030 Early computers and photocomposition, 1970s Photocomposition improved in the 1960s and facilitated the copying and production of fonts. By projecting a character created on the screen of a cathode ray tube (ike 2 TV) dhrough a lens on to light-sensitive paper or film, it could be stored in a magnetic memory, overwritten and edited. ‘This was much faster than physically adjusting hot metal type and led to increased proliferation of typefaces and historical revivals as fonts became more international ‘The 1970s saw computers increasingly involved in this process through a mixture of photocomposition and the digital techniques that would emerge later, with several competing languages and formats. Throughout this decade the potential to design directly on screen increased, offering industry professionals more options and flexibility. ‘The Fundamenuls of Typography 1970s display Face notions of harline circi ana straight lines. the letrers have @ constructivist Feel thor is reminisce 19208. Cirkuus Is ith @ ven W oppeorance age C Avant Garde, Herb Lubalin and Tom Carnase, 1970 Designed by Herb Lublin and Tom Carmase and based on Luba’ logo for Avon! Gade magazine, chi is a geometric sans serif type reminiscent of, the work fom the 1920s German Baubaus movement, whove oometie Shapes were made with a compass and Tsquare The large, open counters and tll xcheighs seem fend, and help to make this Enly efesive for headlines and shore tens,2 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnoparstuvwxyz 1234567890 PC Souvenir, Hd Benguiat, 1970 “ype designer and caligeaper Ea Bengt produced severl fonts for IPC including ITC Souvenis (1972), IT Baukass (1975) and ITC Benguiat (097) Bengiat vas indent i the revival of art owen typefaces and created logotypes for The New rk Times, Ploy and Reudes' Digest. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abedefghijkimnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 IPC Cheltenham, Tony Stan, 1978 Originally designed by Bertam Goodhue, t was expanded by Mortis Flle Benton and completed by Stan fn 1975 with lager sight and improved italic detail, ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPGRSTUVWXYZ Imnopqrstuvuxy2 1234567890 Based on a protonpe fice dawn by Herbert Bayer in 1925,ITC Bauhaus ‘has simple geometsic shapes and monotone smoke wseehts with rund, ‘pen forms and queky geometric gyrations ‘The Fundamental of Typography 1870s ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijkimnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 Frutiger, Adrian Fratiger, 1976 ‘Adsian Frriger expanded and completed the famaly of typefaces he begs in 1968 while designing signage forthe Charles de Gaulle airport in Paris ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. abcdefghijkImnopgrstuvwxyz 1234567890 ITC Garamond, Tony Stan, 1977 Loosely based on the forms ofthe original 16th century Garamond, dis version has» allersheight and tghtr lewenpacing, making i suitable for advertsing or packaging, manvals and handbooks ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijkimnoparstuvwxyz 1234567890, ITC Benguist, Ed Bonguiat, 1977 [Named after its New York designer Bdward Benguat, this art nouvea . numbers Gum the Fibonacs sequece (opp). As art K of his selaionip,ityou remove aaquare bus pon the & shorter sid length fom the rectangle you wile lf with “s another ectanle hit alo sates the propestions of tae glen _ Gi “=. section. Brey tine you repeat chi and eniove a square based on the shorter side ofthe recengle, che raking rectangle wll have the golden section proportions. This proces ean be wed to produce paper sizes and grids with harmonious proportions° The Fundamentl of Typography Fbonacet sequence Fibonacci sequence The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers in which each number is the sum of the two preceding numbers. The series, starting from zero, can be seen below. The Fibonacci sequence is important because of its link to the 8:13 ratio, the golden section. These numbers are also used as measurements for typeface sizes, text block placements and so on because of their harmonious proportions. Pictured below i series of Fibonacci mumbers, kn each css the nest Piceured low ia bonacei spiral tht is created by drawing quarter ‘number in the sequence generated fom the sum of the two proceeding _crces dough set of FHboaaci squares The set of squares is simple to ‘nombers The infilible beauey ofthese proporcons constancy recur im nature, produce by fst drawing two soll quares together: Deaw a hid square and are evident in pine cones, ranch structures of tes, lowers and petal using the combined lenges ofthe two original squats ss one side and formations and the inner chambers of maui shells 2s shown below right. eatry on sepeaing this process and these wil form as pictured 55+89=144 89+144=233... “hase popodtons Gabe Title set at 13pt i cauicrecaintin poyapaemine rile set at 21pt redew prowl irs oop teateses its Body copy set at 13pt eype to complement ise number up on the Fbomscet oe the title size, which is one number up on the Fibonacci sequence.7 ‘The Fundamental of Typography Standard paper sizes Standard paper sizes Standard paper sizes provide a convenient and efficient means for designers, printers and others involved in printing and publishing to communicate product specifications and keep costs down. ‘The modern ISO (International Organisation for Standardisation) paper size system is based on the metric system ‘using the square root of two ratio (1:1.4142) with format AO having an area of one square metre. Paper with this ratio ‘will maintain its aspect ratio (ie. retains the same proportions) when cut in half. Today, only the USA, Canada and Mexico do not use ISO standard paper sizes : Below Below Perhaps the most common final paper sizes wed in publications ar AS, “The A series of paper sizes comprises «range in which each size dies Ad and AS, which ate proportionally reted as shown below: For example, fiom the next by a factor of eicher 2or 4, 5 shown below An AO sheet ‘0 AS pages make spread equal in size to an AA page; cwo Ads ae equal ——_—ieequal eo two Al sheets an Al sheet is equ to to A2 sheets and 10 on. oan A3 spread and soon,m ‘The Fundamentals of Typography Standard paper sizes, Paper formats fin man) Envelope formats A series formats B series formats series formats Format Size (mm) Content format 4A0 1682x2378 a = C6 1d x16 ‘Ai folded rice = A6 2A0 1189 x 1682 == — DL 110x220, 1 folded ewice = 1/3.A4 AD ait x 189 BO 1000x1414, Co 17x 1297 cocs 114x209 Ad folded ewice = 1/34 AL 594x341 BI 707 x 1000 1 648x917 12x29 ‘Ad folded once = AS AD 420x594 B2 500.707 C2 458 x 618 CH 229x324 Aa AS 297x420 1B3 353 x 500 C3 324x458 C3 324x458 a As 210x297 BA 250 x 353, C4 229x324 BE «125x176 Ci envelope AS M8x210 BS. 176 x 250 3 162x209 BS 176x250 C5 envelope AS 105x148 BG 125 x 176 Co 114 x 162 | Bt 250x359 CA envelope AT 74x 105, BY 88x 135 cP al xt Bh 280400 4 AB 52x74 BB 62x88 cs 57x81 A9 37x52 BS 41x62 9 40x57 Alo 26x37 BIOSIS (C1028 40 “Tabled ahove ars the page ste menssensons of the standard ISO paper sizes Serie A comprises a ange of paper sis that ae typely wed for magazines, letters and other publications, B series sizes are intermediate sizes and series sizes are for envelopes that can contain A size stationery > A Ata as QA] As ae a7 ABAD ren ao | 10% = 7K SOK ate W288 aKa Him ttoK TOK 2h = KSSH HAK a | 20m 1% 1008 aK a ee 2K OAK 100% ee eet eT Mm | 400% 28% 2008 IK 1K 06a Soon 00% KOK 10m TKK OH as | 800% son Hoo re a a ar | 11% — s00% 560% 008 20% = 071K As | 600% 131% 8006 2% OK IK tO a9 | 26% Loom 113 BOK BBO IK BK. TOOK TG ato | 320% 263% 00% 131% | BOOM SoH K=O IK (ie A pe Kee sti metered tb Diy ney ene rite Een ake id pointers ssn theses For ermple the An job Uelow was faced a 4,3 maton to 71 pce oft previo se. Cares oben in teesing pe tar rae elie afer aac, odo nooo caer er 10 point type an enlargement For example, 14 point pe reduces to 10 point, both of which ate cay read, ‘This amok for Binsein TY males creative we of the enbrgement proces:.The report to be mailed es oversized ype and is produced an AS document Versions sent clectonically are reduced to Ad, and a the spe wat originally oversized it can cope withthe redaction. Desgn by Studio AS. |‘Ad leteshead by Dutch design group Faydherbe / De ringer This design uses a food printed Nuorescent revere that shows though the lghe weight stock Tn keeping wath ISO stds, the designers dea are positioned ep right, with a vweb link bottom right. An ‘example of an innovative desig that fictions waitin the parameter of the ISO Standards, buts ot constained by them n ‘The Fundamental of Typography Standard paper sizes ulherbe /De Vringer Grafisch Ontwerp ‘Wout dle Vringer \ ‘ ovshaparas ‘Anatol pa sl me ge ‘ns mp 0 ace ih Tes ‘nmi a 7:2 Smee came — ies pa ‘ed pete cnc 234) a ein date SSaum 05, ISOAG ‘This sea features scaled letterhead, one is an A¢ document (vers) that abides bythe ISO standard hile the other (ecto) abides by the US eter standard The juxtposiion ofthese dierent standard allows the difference in dimension to be cleanly seen, with the Ad page being dlghty longer and ‘hiner than the shorter and wider US letr page. The exentialeifence between the two standards is that the ISO standard i mathensatialy based, which means the page will mainin its spec ratio when sled up or dowa; the relative spatial relationships will not changeThe US leer standard does noe allow this to app. The proportions of an AS leer page are sited to letter writing a the relatively narrow proporsons eoable ext to be set with a rebtively small mess «< 2. while leaving suficent mangins for binding and cae of reading The sizeof this sheet is designed <>» so that folded once (A) it ill ft nto a C6 envelope, o folded ewice(B) will tn a DL envelope. So how widespread isthe 180 A sevies sage? eis EEOTIOMFESSAYS/TATERVIEUS/ REVTERS “This isa cover of Zembla magazine creed by design studio Fro. Design. I features a age srapline ina display ope that as lock but slighnly sounded leterformsType families 2 ‘The Fundamentals of Typography ‘Type fis A type family is all the variations of a particular typeface or font that includes all the different weights, widths and italics, as can be seen opposite. Examples of families include Univers, Times Roman and Garamond. Many families are named after their creator or the publication in whi ch they were first used. ‘Type families offer a designer a set of variations that work together in a clean and consistent way and as such are a useful design tool.To achieve clarity and a uniform feel to a piece of | work, many designers restrict themselves to using only two type families for a project, meeting, their requirements from the type a ‘Roman is the bas cut of Roman typeface socalled due toi origins inthe inerptions fund oa Roman monuments, Roman is somerimes referred to a8 book, sleheugh book can also be lightly lighter version ofthe Roman fe ‘The ilies of Helvetica Neue pictured) is actually an oblique and nota true tlc This is explined farther on page 101 Extended Extended Condensed Condensed Condensed and extended variations these contain to establish the typographic hierarchy. See o. Italie Light A tre italic isa drawn typeface Light 2 lighter or thinner version based around an angled axis. These of the Roman cu. In Fratiger’s axe normally designed for serif rid (or page 4 the ightet cuts ‘ypefiees Oblgues are dated have the lowest number. versions of ne-serif ypefices rather than 3 newly drawn version, ‘Many type families include condensed and extended versions that provide additional typesetting flexibility: Condensed tight space situations. Extended ty for headlines to dramatically fil variations, from light through to b types are narrower than the Roman cut and are useful for ypes are wider versions of the Roman type and are often used space. Both of thes black. versions are often available in weight Boldface Bold, boldfice, medium, sesbold, Mack, super or poser all rer to typefice with 3 wider woke than the Roman cut. n Fruige’ ged the heaves cuts have the highest somberTypeweight variations %s The Fundamentals of Typograpby Typeweight vanations Typefaces, within the family context, can have many variations. The naming of the variations is very diverse and abstract, as the examples below illustrate. What is the difference between a semibold and a medium? Is there one? Should there be one? What about extra black, heavy and ultra black? The variety of names makes the comparison of different weights from different families difficult and confusing, and was one of the motivations for Adrian Frutiger when he developed the grid system for Univers (see page 84). Naming Gil Sans bight lel While there is no standard convention for the naming of Gill Sans Gill Sans Bold Gill sans Extra Bold Gill Sans Ultra Bo! different cuts of typeface, names tend (0 reflect what is actually happening. Heavy, black, extra and so on imply typefices with thicker strokes than the Roman, regular of book typefice. The various typefaces surrounding this paragraph highlight some of the various different names 5 that have been used to label the basic typeface weights fohotica 25 Loca? ‘The three examples left Gill, Helvetica and Warnock Pena Pro — use different naming conventions for typefaces of ee different weights. The right column highlights the wide Helvetica 65 range of names used to identify the different cuts of fonts. Helvetica 75 Helvetica 85 Helvetica 95 Warnock Pro Light Warnock Pro ‘Warnock Pro Caption Warnock Pro Display ‘Warnock Pro Bold Warnock Pro Bold Caption Warnock Pro Bold Display ‘Warnock Pro Light Subhead Alziderz Grotesk Light Akzidenz Grotesk Black Baskerville Semibold 65 Helvetica Medium Hekiica Thin Warnock Pro Caption ‘Warnock Pro Display Franklin Gothic Heavy Berkeley Book Frutiger Ultra Black Optima Extra Black Rockwell Extra Bold Poster Bodoni Univers 75 Quebec R ‘Times New Roman ‘Times Ten Roman Times Eighteen Roman Optima Oblique Letter Gothic Bold 12 pitch Foundry Gridnik Medium Antique Olive Black Big Caslon Frutiger Lighta Frutiger’s grid The Fundamental of Typography Frutiger’s grid Adrian Frutiger is prominent in the pantheon of typeface designers. This is in large part due to the Univers family he launched in 1957 and the numbering system he developed to identify the width and weight of each of the family’s 21 original cuts. ‘The numbering system was designed to eliminate the confusion caused by different naming systems such a thin, black, heavy and so on. The diagrammatic presentation of the Univers family provides 2 sense of order and homogeneity through the relationships that weight and width have with each other. The grid is a modernist structure and uses numbers (something popular with the Baubaus) co identify the different cuts, Using this system ‘The grid is intended to make type selection simpler and ultimately more useful, Numbering systems Frutiger’s numbering system. has been applied to various typefaces. Frutiger’s Serif, Avenir, Glyphie and Frutiger all use this system, as does Helvetica Neue, shown ‘opposite. although it may complicated at fist glance The italic version of a font, 56, can be used seamlessly with its Roman, 35, for example. Varying character ‘width i easily achieved by moving one row down the grid from 55 to 65, or ifa bold is required, down to 75 5 55 and 65 are too similar in character weight appear “The legacy of Fratiger’s grid is that some parts of the numbering system have been adopted in common use. ‘The main numbers in Helvetica for example are 55 for Roman, 75 for bold, 35 for thin snd 25 far light while others are not commonly used. For example, 68 is still called medium condensed oblique. While this grid system may initially be daunting and quite complex to the novice, its inherent logieal organisation rmeans that it can be understood and used as productive design tool within a short space of time. Helvetica 25 In any evo gir umber, the Sst dg, o dvenatar fis to the ine waht ‘The thinnest i 2, eth line weghe eremenally geting filler upto 9, the widest (Ge lotion). The second dig fest the caste wid, with 3 being the meet extended and 9 dhe moe condensed. Fnly, ven mares indie an ale fee nd odd number represent Roman ice Helvetica 56 Helvetica 76 Helvetica 95cd licle dirtpell pli o fillet el oe elidel iil ote lite tet ie adele Sc Ink vol: H HH HH # H H’'H HH H HH HHH H HHH HH H Type weights easily combined using the grid. ‘The 65 is different enough from the 45 to stand apart from it, while moving to the corresponding italic, 46 can be done seamlessly. The difference between 25 and 95 is pethaps too exaggerated for general usage but can be used for specific stylistic effects. The beauty of the grid is dl opting for a heavier cut like 95, an italic is readily available in 96 that allows for seamless interaction. even when Visual harmony is produced by combining weights that are two apart from each other on the grid, ie. 65 and 45, or 76 and 65. Weights that are too similar, for example 65 and 55, have too litle cifferentiation to be combined effectively.86 ‘The Fundamental of Typogphy Types of ssf Types of serif Serifs are a key characteristic for identifying a typeface due to the variety of ways in which they have been employed throughout the development of typography. Serifs enhance the readability of a piece of text by helping the eye to advance from one character to the next. Many serif styles reflect the zeitgeist of a particular time, with some more ornate or bolder, while others are more discreet and refined. Some of the main serif styles are illustrated here. Horizontal movement across the page... "This Hock ise in Apollo The decorative seri sid navigation by creating honiontat ovement metric 23, at lead the eye to track aero the page in contrast to vertical solidity Unbracketed slab serif Bracketed slab serif Bracketed seri A serif without any The slab serif are supported A serif with barel supporting brackets on by subtle curved brackers noticeable supporting TS-heavy slabs, brackets. traits and design he robust, muscular qality ofan unbracketd dab ser to the delicate finese ofa hacine serif. Although at snes barely noticeable, ypogrpbica details celebrate the seule diferences they Thies Bgisiano Clase Antique (Clarendon is lo asa serif but Berkley alto has small brackets on can give a job ‘Black, which as lange sab sei Fas sll rcs that bracket the serif. i serif, which ae ofa regular size. with no supporting brackets87 ‘he Fandamentale of Typography Types of rer Left This book by Stadio KA ses an covery lange and exaggerted bracketed serif font to crate typorrphhic execution remingcent cof the 19705 Above The samp featores exaggerated avedge sri Unbracketed serif Hairline serif Wedge serif Slur serif A standard serif without A fine hairline serif without ‘The seri is shaped like Rounded serif that look brackets brackets a wedge rather than the ‘unfocused! typical rectangle or line shape. -Meampis ha regulrsied seri Poster Bodoni has din ai Cooper Black has rounded, bubbly without braces. serif hat give ia more el seri that go with its unique visual fer a give the impresion that i8 The Fundamentals ofTypogrphy Fractions Fractions Fractions (parts of whole numbers) can be represented in two ways depending upon how the bar separating the numerator and denominator is presented. Fractions may be nut or en fractions with a horizontal bar, or em fractions with a diagonal bar. ‘With ving, solide or sath ‘With proper faction bar rsetion bar Parts of a fraction Many expert sets come with complete fiactions as a unit. Bembo Expert (above), which accompanies Bembo comes with a full set of diagonal factions. Most fonts come with a fraction bar because you cannot use a solidus as the angle, length and position on the baseline is different. The fraction bar allows a designer to construct their own fractions.‘The fraction bar isa kerned character, o unlike the solidus it will not push the numerals away a fall em space. Additional kerning may be needed, but as the example above demonstrates, the fraction bar gets close without additional work. When building fractions, the character weight is lighter and so it may be necessary to build them in a medium weight, to match a regular font. thy 44 Diagonal or em fractions Horizontal or nut fractions Diagonal fractions are more pleasing to the eye and are [Nut ffactions, or horizontal fractions, are less comunon and commonly included with expert sets. These are also called have a bar that is an en in length. Over time, en fractions tem fiactions as the bar is an em in length. have been referred to 2s nut factions to avoid confusion with the em fraction,%9 The Fundamental of Typogeaphy _Supessrip Superscript and subscript Superscript and subscript are characters set at a reduced point size that are either top or bottom aligned. Text is often set in this way for notations such as footnotes and also for chemical and mathematical formulae, as shown below. True superiors and inférons Generated versions flog ears leeke ‘True and generated superiors and inferiors ‘True superiors and inferiors are sized between 50 and 70 percent of the equivalent Roman font, and the characters are redrawn so that their weight is matched, Computer generated superiors and inferiors do not have this weight matching and appear too light in comparison, Usage Superiors and inferiors commonly have two main usages as shown below: scientific notation and footnote notation lel, [Sb Neti Scientific notation Footnotes In scientific notation, superiors centre on the ascender line, Tn contrast, a superior used to indicate a footnote top aligns while inferiors centre on che baseline. with the ascender lineNumerals The Fundamentals ofTypogeaphy Numerals Numerals can be classified as Old Style (or lowercase) and lining (or uppercase) according to how they are presented. These two different styles reflect the different ways that numerals are used in text, such as in text blocks or tabular form. 1234567890 0987654321 Spacing issues As lining numerals align vertically, care needs to be taken in situations where it is not appropriate for as when dates are written. In this insta distant from a number that follows it (right). This can be kerned to reduce the space (far right) 1234567890 Lining figures Lining numerals are aligned to the baseline and are of equal height, Old Style numerals do not align to the baseline, which means they can be difficult to read. Lining numerals also have in tables fixed widths, allowing for better vertical alignr (efi). By reversing the order of the numbers, a vertical alignment is maintained. 1973 1973 Old Style numerals (Old Style numerals have descenders and only the ‘6’ and‘8) have the seme proportions as theit lining counterparts. Old Style numerals are used in running text for dates (1973 for example) as the characters function more like letterforms because they have descenders. The same date set in lining figures is much more prominent, which may be undesirable in body text.a ‘The Fundamentals of Typognphy —— Panctstion Punctuation A functional understanding of punctuation is required in order to set text accurately, both to ensure that the meaning of the text is maintained but also so that correct type detailing can be provided. The incorrect and inconsistent use of punctuation are common and detract from a job. ea ee text omission or the suspension of the text flow: Used at the : cend ofa sentence, the ellipsis i followed by a fill stop. A true clipsis has tighter points than a generated ellipsis and as itis a Non-numerical single unit, it will nor split like the generated version shown _reference marks bottom in the example left ‘These are the non- numerical reference marks ' " Primes, quotation marks and hanging punctuation and they aze used in the Primes are typographic marks that are used to indicate feet following sequence (left to and inches, and hours and minutes. These are not t0 be right): asterisk, dagger, 6 9 66 99 confused with typographic quotation marks or ‘inverted double dagger, section mark commas’, which are similar but curved to enclose the text and paragraph mark that they surround. In josdiied com, the puserstion esometines dlowed'a =o isc extend into the right-hand margin area to make the margin reference masks are esi aehee ie ed spy ele rad $ temericn punctuation is contained within the margin. references need to be + made, the convention aes Cisne Windes aed brechots sy tercacie es in eet rere ee ene eon ee ene eee eat oer eee ee used to enclose words added by someone other than the marks are needed, pal Geiaccuenatsbwenad ceed: § | caumnnooen Tie iene word eter nes oe se tab comsened togaiee AGE Sear mceney non io Seen digiad (oe pee 118) # , rercrrte I’ve [An apoumophe is uted eo indica the removal ofa leer or letters such as the ‘ha’ in ‘T have’, lef.2 ‘The Fundamentals of Typogrphy —Diacrisical marks cal marks Diacrit Diacritical marks are a range of accents and other symbols, which indicate that the sound of a letter is modified during pronunciation. These are rare in English but relatively common in other languages. a oe - , Circumflex Macron Acute . : ~ v Grave Det ‘Tilde Breve v c ° _ Hiéek ‘Ogonek Ring Cedilla ‘Types of diacritical marks Pictured above are the main discritical marks used in European languages together with their common names in English Bergére BERGERE _ BERGERE Usage Diacritical marks are available for lowercase, uppercase and small capitals, as shown above (or more on small capitals, see page 100). Diacritical marks are always used with lowercase lewers when necessary, but capital letters are sometimes presented without them. ~ Rw — VY A n Cc G Cc Generating diacritical marks Standard fonts include some letters that have diacritical marks already positioned above or below them, but it may offen be necessary to construct these manually. To do this, position the diacritical mark after the letter and kern it back until it is correctly positioned,Egos, FOUES BERGERE BALLET PANTOMIME olor ? en Trois Tableaux TURKISCHES FEST9° The Fundamentals of Typography Dates Dashes Typography provides a designer with various dashes, short horizontal rules that serve various specific functions such as em rules, en rules and hyphens. X-height Geo-graphy Re-serve Hyphens Avbyphen is one third ofan em rule and is used to link words. It serves as a compound modifier where two words become one, such as ‘x-height’; breaks syllables of words in text blocks like geo-graphy; and serves to provide clarity such as re-serve rather than reserve, 70-71 1939-1945 Kent-Sussex border En dash ‘An en dash is half of an em rule and is used to separate page numbers, dates and to replace the ‘word ‘to’ in constructions implying movement. Standard—em dash Punctuating—em dash Em dash Em dashes are used to form lines and house nested clauses. standard, joining em dash can’ ‘cause spacing issues as it has no side-bearings and fils its bounding box so that it touches the surrounding characters. A row of these em dashes would form a solid line, Punctuating em dashes are slightly shorter, providing space for surrounding, characters to breathe. A row of punetuating em dashes form a punctuated line.95 Character spacing ‘The Fundamenas of Typogrspy (Character spocing The presentation of different types of information through the use of numerals and special characters often has certain spacing conventions, as the examples below illustrate. The ultimate objective is to improve clarity to aid understanding and help communicate the information. Characters set closed-up and not preceded by a space registered” 76° Smee eee Degree snba trade mark™ 3" 8! 5m. 74 symbol set as superseript Prime (inch) mark, et, and other earn oes Characters followed by a single space @ 7pm [email protected] © Tae a ign (excep in email dave The copyright symbol Characters followed by and preceded by a single space you& me (A&E) 2+2-1=3 >4 The ampersand, except ‘Mathematical symbols informe in aeronyns. Characters not followed by a space # 50 £2.50 Pound, number or hath sigs, llr, pound, cure and other currency symbols, asterisk” 2x 2x4 Asterisk character Magnification oF Gdistng footer). dimension indicator 20% 300%e 139 4° Percent / thousandth et, (Ordinal numbers . Ci Billet poins Pilerow (paragraph mac En rules — such as this — in nested clauses Bn mules, +23% 23° S1e Pls and minus sigs indeating lus or is ign. value changes, or positive or eatie vals,96 ‘The Fundamentals of Typography Exper ses and special characters Expert sets and special characters Many different characters are available in a full character set, although not all fonts contain the full range of characters. Certain typesets, such as Braille and graphic fonts like UckNPretty (both below) contain a very limited character set. To insert what may be non-standard characters often requires the ‘use of auxiliary keys such as alt” and ‘shif, in conjunction with letters. Shown opposite are full character sets for a standard font and for an alternate set that contains fewer, but more specialist typeforms. Braille ‘The Braille characte set contains the dot combinations thatthe Beale writing system for the blind uses to represen eters and numbers abeoker Gla eimtoeT/SLOVWKYZ 2-1 § UckNPrety [UckNPretty ia font that contains no upper- or lowercase leters, and no numerls-The numerals generate akerste character s highlighted above cA R Eee 1 Time ff Swash characters Finial characters The dotloss i Ligatures ‘These have extended or ‘These have extended or A lowercase without a dot “The joining of separate ‘exaggented decorative exaggerated decorative to prevent interference with cturacer to form a sngle calligraphic swashes, sally caligrpie sashes found preceding letter. ‘unit to avoid interference in on pita om the imate (ie. bs) corti combinations, Jeter of lise XANK x arm se {iit PI characters Dingbats Bullets Accents rec eters wed 38 A collection of special decorative Fonts have diferent sized Discrscal marks tht alter the suthematial sol. characte and symbols ballet points soit may be promncition of leter necessary to use ene fom an asenate sypefie,97 ‘The Fundamentals of Typography Expert ses and special characters Standard Mac Qwerty keyboard Standard Mac Qwerty keyboard Showing Helvetica characters Showing Bembo Expert set ECE OMOUE GCl Gueooqucd CIE ocececar erereiar EAD MMM Cees. [ oo “ee = Je)6 ‘The Fundamentils of Typography Ligatares,dipthongs and sons serif logoryrss Ligatures, dipthongs and sans serif logotypes Ligatures, dipthongs and sans serif logotypes are typographical devices that join two or three separate characters together to form a single unit. They are used as a solution to the interference that certain character combinations create. fi fl ff ffi ffl fi fl ff ff ffl Ligatures Above, various character combinations are set in Mrs Eaves as separate characters (top) and with bi (above). Ligatures prevent the collision or interference of characters, particularly the extended finial of "and the dot of the '?-A ligature typically replaces wo or three characters with a single unit Above Above ‘This identity created by Stadio ‘Onepae desis sto formed ‘sng non-standard igacore that Joins the doe of the ands This signage by Studio Myerscough nites series of ligatures through its neon tube constuction. ‘Trump Medizval Dipthongs Dipthongs, the fusion of two vowels into a single character that represents a unique pronunciation, are rarely used in print today. An example is encyclopaedia, in which the dipthong is commonly replaced bya single “e’. However, dipthongs do sill appear in names, like trump medizeval (above) ‘Above double zero county’ Bicentenary in 2010, fn adiion 29 are tr of the Chilean fi fl Sans serif logotypes Many sans serif fonts include ligatures although these do not usually fase the letters, Although technically these ‘may have more in common with logotypes or symbols still ftion as ligatures in that they replace two characters with a single hese characters BICENTENARIO 1810+ 2010 This sa logo created by Chilean design studio Y&R Diseio for the orang the colour eight gate forthe” Drop and standing capitals ‘The Tundamenti of Typoguphy Drop and sanding capital Dynamism can be added to a text block through the use of a drop or standing capital to lead into it. These create a strong visual entrance, although certain letters are more suitable than others. For example, letters with square shapes such as‘H’ work best as drop capitals. Curved letters that bend away from the text black create a space that can look awkward and so are les suitable. This is not such a problem for standing capitals that create a lot of space to surround them. rop capitals are enlarged initial capitals that drop D Gn greed Rese era This paragraph begins with a three-line drop cap. Drop caps create a strong visual starting point due to the hole they punch into the text block. es depth of a drop cap can be altered to create a more subdle or more dramatic entry point for the start of a paragraph, although two or three lines is standard, t can be started with drop cap variations that make a greater visual impact such as the use of a three-letter drop cap here that pushes the body text much further across the page. These are formed in the same way a drop cap but with more letters. S tanding capitals or pop caps are enlarged initial capitals that sit on the baseline of the text. They create a strong visual point at the start of a text passage due to the white space that they generate. Tks reception and menu created by Webb & Webl design sedi fearues decorative sanding cape picked out in re,100 ‘The Fundamental of Typography Sul capitl (me and fle) SMALL Capirats (true and false) Computer programs can generate small caps for a given typeface, but these are not the same as true small caps. TRuE SMALL Caps have line weights that are proportionally correct for the typeface, which means that they can be used within a piece of body copy without looking noticeably wrong, while this is a risk with computer generated small caps. FAKE SMALL CAPS, or computer generated small caps, adjust the character size, but not the width, and may look out of place as they result in a capital that looks heavy when compared to the text that surrounds them. Rear Smart Capirats have line weights that are proportionally correct. The advantage of this is that SMart Caprrats can be used within a piece of body copy without looking out of place. In contrast, GENERATED SMALL CapiTats adjust the character size, but not the width. The disadvantage of this is that GENERATED SMALL CAPITALS will look incorrect, as the line weights have been manipulated, giving a heavy capital letter in comparison to other characters. (hor sndthe onpecs pincaca eaten neen MATRIX SMALL CAPS MatRIx SMALL CAPS101 The Fendamentle of Typogrphy Tie and oblique Italic and oblique A true italic is a drawn typeface for a serif font, based around an axis that is angled at somewhere between 7-20 degrees. Italics have a calligraphic style and can sit compactly, in part due to their use of ligatures. An oblique is a slanted version of the Roman face to accompany sans serif fonts, which by nature have fewer calligraphic traits. Confusion between the two often arises when obliques are named italics. ad aad Italie Oblique ‘Thue italic typefaces are specifically drawn and Obliques are slanted versions of the Roman font include characters chat can visually be very different, such hhas this‘ Italics derived from the subtly angled calligraphic typefaces used in 16th century Italy. Early italics were drawn to accompany fonts and were based on the upright Roman forms. This font, Novarese, is based on older italic forms. Note that the capitals are standard Roman capitals.102 The Fundamental ofTypogaphy Type casifcation systems Type classification systems Type classification aims to instil a meaningful order to the plethora of typefaces that exist. The different classification systems allow a designer to make more informed typographical decisions and obtain a better understanding of type. There is no straightforward, standard type classification system — several systems exist, with varying degrees of complexity. Typefaces can be classified according to their inherent characteristics, the time period in which they were developed, or their typical usage. A simple classification could be serif, sans serif and decorative. Serif Sans serif Serif fonts are those Fonts that do not have in which the characters small serif strokes are contain small strokes at called sans serifs. These the end of the main vertical are more modem fonts or horizontal strokes. that typically have less ‘These strokes help lead stroke variation, a larger the eye across a line of x-height, and less stress text and facilitate reading. in rounded strokes. Serif fonts are generally the older, more traditional This is Helvetica Neue fonts, although new serif fonts are still produced ‘This is Bembo103. The Fuodamentils ofTypography ‘Type csifeation sytems Simple grouping classification ‘The McCormack type clasification system uses five basic instructive, this system does not differs tegories, as shown below. While ind sans serif fonts, which is perhaps the primary means of distinction berween fonts. However, this system is the most used system dlue to its simplicity. Ro mM an. Pe ceeepanctvcrac Gotessc Meanie serif and Lines. Shown is Groteige MI tate between serif ty spaced leer and seri, and was Script typefaces ar designed ts inate Randoriting ao thst when printed the characters appeae to be joined up. As with handwriting some vations i exer to ead thin abies, Showa tos Graphic typeftes contain characters that could be considered images in fiend 1 for specifi, themed prpose, they can proide an image onmeeton tothe subject matter Shown i Tre Cameo.Classification by date The Alexander Lawson type classification system is based. fon date. The names of many type styles derive from the epoch in which they first appeared, for example Old English, and so this method is closely linked to the development of typography. ‘An understanding of this development timeline, as expressed through Lawson’ system, can help a designer choose rype to be consistent swith or convey the impression of a certain period. For example, we may be transported back to the Middle Ages through the use of Blackletter type 108 14008 1475 1500s FIIO 1750 1775 1825 1900s 1990s ‘The Fundamental of Typogrphy ‘Type clasifcation sytem Blackletter ‘Bhckleer typefaces ae based on the orate writing syle prevalent daring he Middle Ages. Abo called Block, Gothic, OM Engh, Black and Broken, Shown is Goudy Text MT. Old Style ‘This syle refers to Roman fons created in 15th and t6th-centucy Italy which have alight stoke contrast and an oblique ses. This group includes ‘Venetians and Gaal, Shown it Dante MIT Taalie Dased on Tain handwriting fom the Renaisance period, letterforms are ‘more condensed, Originally 8 veparate ype category they wore ter developed to accompany Roman forms. Shown i Minion Talis Script Font that atempr to reproduce engraved calligraphic forms, Shown i Keene Serpe Meum, ‘Transitional Transitional rypefices are those that marked a divergence fom Old Seyle ums towards more modern fora atthe end ofthe 17th century Their suaruterites ineinde increasing stoke contest, and greater vertical sess in corvedleters. Shown s Bakerile Modern, Typefaces fom the mid-18th century with extreme stroke cones ‘ypided by the widerpead use of hunines and unbesceed serif, Shown i Bodoni BE Regula: Slab serif ‘These ypefaces have lite stroke weight variation and thick, square sexi Shown is Clarendon MT. Sans serif ‘Typefaces without serif and Ile aoe weight variation fis introduced by ‘Willm Caslon in 1816, Shown is News Gothic MT. Serif / Sans serif! This recent development encompass typefces that inde both sri and sans serif elphabets such as Rotis. Shown is Rots Seri SerifClassification by type ‘The Vox system was devised by Maximilien Vox in 1954 to modernise type classification. It has nine divisions as shown right and places graphic fonts into a separate category. Ieattempted to make a simpler classification system that was detailed enough to be useful 10s, Humanist Garalde Transitional Didone Slab Serif Lineale Glyphic ‘The Fundamental ofTypography Type lasifeation sptems “Typoficsimpired by clasieal and Roman leterfoms such as Centaur and Ilan Old Sele Shown is Centaar MT (Od Stplesypeices fom L6th-centiny France and thet Tian predecasos consisting of subtle contas and steeply angled seri, such 2s Bembo and Garamond, Shown is Bembo, Teanstioaal typefaces are those shat matked a divergence fiom Old Sele ams tows inoce modern foram at the end ofthe 17s century They festure increasing roke cones, and greater verti ses in curved lees, suc 6 Baskerville and Fournier, Shown is Baskerils Didone i term that ewe in place of modern’ given that modern pes ‘ere those created in the 18th century such 2 Bodoni Shown i Bodoni BE Regul Shibserif ypefices are distinguished by anges square seri Wat were considered tobe holder than those of ther predecessors. Aso called Egyptian ‘oe Antique Shown i Memphis Mediu, Linede fonts ae sans seri with farther divisions of Grotesque, 1th-cearary types, Neowgrotesgue and scent version, such Univers and Gill Sms Shown ie Futue, Fonts with elyph type exif uch as Afbertus, Shown i AMbertos MT. ee eae ere tga a eee eating eer ters appeat to be joined up. A with han ng some variations ate cierto read chan others. Shown is Berthold-Serpt Resi Graphic ypefaes contin characters that could be considered images in dele ‘von right and cis category contsins the mous diverse array of syle, Oca esigned for specifi, themed purposes, they con pride an image connection to the abject mater Shown i Stealth106 The Fondamentals of Typography Type classification sytens| In detail Presented here ate examples from the Vox classification system categories. NX ei ou Old Style follow the design characteristics of Old Style fonts The ots re converte chaces acl anid med meus olen coining ees from different spe sls. Tilly, ard Benguit, 1974 (on acalyaration of two eater designs, Ronaléson and Caxton) A e 1 Oo u ‘Transitionals developed during the 18th century included john Baskervil Zap International Hermann Zapf, 1977 1 Modern fonts became more stylised 0eh-century revivals drew inspiration Koza Giambatista Bodoni work inthe 18¢h century and share the characte Fenice, Aldo Novae, 1980 A e i ou Clarendon Neo was first created in the 20th century 1a pla eh ct wil ger ih (Cheltenham, Tony Stan, 1975, ines of Didone faces (ve previo pa) A 7 Clarendon Legibility premiered in the 1920s ST Oke a oe ea cea colon eg eee CensuryToay Stan, 1975 e A e i Oo Uu Slab serifs have no, or very slight, bracketing "Wille ornoeksinco tb ocky Sah wei, eile rch with virion hen, Colin Brignall, 1969107 The Fandanentils of Typo pseation systems Ae i oO U Glyphic types reflect inscription rather than calligraphic style They poses triangular seria are draw rm apidry inscriptions chang engraved ques, Novaree, Aldo Novarse, 1980 1 Sans Serif Neo Grotesque rather than a dowble-torey,and 2G’ with a chin, Alcsidens Grote 03 ACiolne = splayed acu Kabel, Radoiph Koch, 1976 NCOU—S eee leweroens. Humanistic fons ako Geshard Lang ss spayed characters, but they have greater stoke weight conta and a doublesiony's Frutger Adrian Pratiges, 1976 TACT OI ee ee Zapf Chancery, Hermann Zapf, 1979 A e ill Oo u Graphic typefaces do not easily fit into any category ts of text. American Type Joel Kaden, 1974ssification i dl 4 type and leads to more inforn ABEDEFGHUKEMNOPORSTUVWXYZ abedefghijkimnoparstuywxyz1234567 890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzl234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMINOPORSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPORSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijkimnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890109 ‘The Fundamentals of Typography Type often has to be used within a higorical contest sich a in the poster (right about the sherorie ofthe Second World War Th such ceses icy be pertinent w we ‘9pe fom the The booklet ft) was created by Angus Fglnd at Pentagram for The Globe Theatre in London and uics Minion, a fone chosen to tunspor the reader to the Elizabethan age Pune left i a puead from Zonbla maparie — = Gesign sto Frost Design, == The gorilla spread (ight) features a wedge serif SAVE THE = |EDRILLA me a = lasfction in practice Pieraed (left and cents) 8 to posters cested by Peter and Past design studio that we eypography inspired by neon sign fora logotype for Pog The Gismonda poster (ar lef) was created by Alphonse Mucha i 1894 and uses an ar nowveas syle that expla the beauty of the curved line, in both type and imageno The Fundamentak of Typography Newspaper text ices Newspaper text faces Many of the typefaces we are familiar with today were originally developed for use in newspapers. Given that newspapers print large text blocks at a reasonably small size, this puts demanding needs on a typeface — it needs to be legible and should not cause the eye to become tired. Newspaper types are nealy always serif fouts as the extra definition that seri provide help the eye truck across the page, although sans-serif fonts have been developed specifically for newspaper usage. A newspaper font also has to stand out against newsprint — low-grade paper stock that may have poor printing qualities. The style of the typeface also helps define the personality of the publication, for example whether it is conservative or modern, oe ig ly Counters Legibility X-height Ink wells Newspaper fonts tend to ‘Newspaper fonts have high Large x-heights help make Ink wells or ink traps are have large counters (the stroke weight contrast and newspapers legible even exaggerated cuts in certain enclosed circular parts of condensed forms to ensure though this can reduce the characters that are intended letters such as ‘o"). Given efficient use of space and to visual impression of space to fill with ink during the high volume, and low be readable in blocks at between text lines. printing. Print process quality stock, of newspaper small sizes. Shown is Excelsior. control has advanced to production, small counters. Shown is Excelsior: the extent that these are may not reproduce well now seldom needed, as they are liable to fill although many fonts still with ink include them. Shown is Ionie MT Shown is Bell Centennial11 The Fundamentls of Typography ‘Times New Roman ‘Times New Roman fits appeared in 1932 and has become one of ‘the world’s most suecesfl Iypelaces, Ii narrow compared to its apparent size, with a erisp and clean appearence, and an even colour is maintained through the ‘management of weight and density. Times Small Text was specifically Times Tenisaversionorte font ‘Times Eighteen is a version of designe for van ox body copy. Th designed for use under 22pt r has an xcheight almost as big as which has wider characers with the font designed for use as a cap height, asiniing cas ible, i iia allowing i headline at 18pt and over that sccuonial nti of typta narrow measure, has subtly condensed characters with finer hairlines. Excelsior Created by CH. Griffith in 1981, Excelsior reads easily fn small sizes like dp. CGrifdith consulted studies by optometrists about optimal legibility before starting the esign, which has high stroke contrast and evenly weighted letterforms that produce a calm effect on the page. Based on an 1821 design by between thick and thin strokes and bracketed serifs, Together with a large xcheight, strong hairlines and serifs, it hea been a popalar newspaper font.ragraphs, some of the basic words and paragraphs“This san invitation crested by ‘Mace Thought design studio for an exhibition by contemporary design and manufacturing company -Esablhed & Sons Ie fextres several stall text paragraph that ae presented in diferent fants, sites and colours to communicate information about the show. ESTABLISIIEL Kan INVITE YOU TO ba. W i THEIR UK EL: DURING DESIGN MDs ON THURSDAY 22 SEPTEMBER 2005 sPM—2AM earns ee eee mera pee ee cic lace cama eel TEC) Soe Friday 23 Septe o Roa pitas pie ee Beets eee oe ea Pench ry ius ese k Soraya nkosi ea tues ak ena ees ie enRGRenela RUe Mere a gue akon Ope Rea ere bes es islet aes unless. se eae cect ame ae roe prec cenices18 Calculating line lengths The Fundamenals of Typography Calculating ine lengths Line length relates to the measure, the type size and also the typeface as this section will show. The measure is the width of the text column being set. re, type size and typeface are linked in that a change to any of them means that an adjustment may be needed in the others. As types of a given size do not share the same width (see page 65), switching from one typeface to another will ater the setting of the type. abcdefghijkImnopqrstuvwxyz abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz Above ‘These fonts, Times New Roman (top) and Bookman Old Sele (bottom) have dierent st wih, which meas chat when they ae lowed into a measure each font consis 2 diffrent amount of characters per line, shown below. Type set using a font with a narrow set width will look different to text set with a wide set width. Changing the typeface will alter the width setting and may call for adjustment of the measure. While one type may give a relatively comfortable fit in the measure, another may have awkward spacing issues, particularly in justified text, as shown here. Below ‘Times New Roman has a narrow set width and comfortably ls the -meatute to produce 1 compact text block (ef). Bookman has 3 wide st wad, which means tha is more prone tothe appearance of unsightly white pace in a jonsed text Bock (blow) Type set using a font with a narrow set width will look different to text set with a wide set width. Changing the typeface will alter the width setting and may call for adjustment of the measure. While one type may give a relatively comfortable fit in the measure, another may have awkward spacing issues, particularly in justified text, as shown here.115 ‘The Fundamentals of Typography Calculating lise lng There are several methods for determining the optimum line length for typesetting, Calculating using the lowercase alphabet The width of the lowercase alphabet can be used as a reference, with the measure being 1.5-2 times this width abcedefghijkImnopgqrstuvwxyz The above alphabet, set at 18pt, has a As type size decreases, so does the optimum measure width. Here, 1Opt width of 213 points. Multiplying this by type has a narrower measure of around. 180 points 1.5 gives a measure width of 320 points. ; Alternatively, multiplying this alphabet width by 2 gives a measure of 426 points. Both these calculations give a comfortable type measure in that it is not so short as to cause awkward returns and gaps, and not so long as to be uncomfortable to read. =< > Mathematical calculation ‘This measure has 247 points so the optimum type size Slightly more complex is to make a measurement in pias. will be 247 points divided by 2 or 2.5, This will Im this insance, there should be a relationship of 2:1 t0 2.5:1 produce a type size value in picas of either 96 or 120 between the measure in picas and the type size in points.For Divided by 12 (12 points to pica) gives a type size of § example, 16-20 pica measure for Spt type, 20-25 picas for or 10 points, This calculation can be performed in Opt type and 24-30 picas for 12pt type. reverse to find the optimum measure size. Using 10pt type it is: 10 x 12 points, x 2 or 2.5. Character calculation Another simple formula i to select a specific number of Around 40 characters per line, or six words of characters per line, sich as 40) characters (not les than 25, around six characters. There are 38 characters in Jn for about six words of the top line. This is about optimum.16 ‘The Fundamentis of Typography Kering and letterspacing Kerning and letterspacing Kerning is the removal of space and letterspacing is the addition of space between letters to improve the visual look of type. Both can be performed manually or automatically. With traditional print processes that set text in blocks, kerning or tracking was not possible However, digitisation means that letters can be set close or even over each other. In practice, combin ‘of space may be necessary to achiowe an optimm revs The tacking vale of text block apples equsl spacing aver apiece of body copy ly Pp ous iz e ime che Kerning Typ e S l WA e scl ceo fete tk Type size affects white space ‘ype sie lets white space Above As type size increases, 0 does the quantity of white spice between character Text set small may appear very tight while text set lange may appear quite loose atin the rw lines above. As text gets larger, more kerning may be requze.7 The Fundamental of Typography Automated keming ibes Automated kerning tables Manual kerning can be used to tidy up display copy, headlines and other short text passages but is impractical for large text blocks of running copy. ‘Automated kerning table allow for problem pairs of characters to be altered so that the information is stored and applied to every occurrence of that pair. PostScript fonts have ¢his information built into them, but problematic combinations can still occur Applying automated kerning values ‘The texts below are both set in Helvetica Neue. The list on left, set in Helvetica 65, clearly sh pair at the end of all the words as the problem character a c and 'y' touch. This conid be dealt with manually, but would be time consuming. The list on the right contains the same words but is set i Helvetica Neue 85 with its kerning table altered to comy for the‘? and 'y' collision. Once altered, the values are applied over every instance of ° the combination, including future occurrences. As problem characters are noticed the san be altered and forgotten about Below, Heletica Nowe 65, no keaning sped Below, Heleeica Nove 85, kerning applied accessory archery accessory archery story cursory story cursory discretionary poetry discretionary poetry constabulary rotary constabulary rotary contemporary obligatory contemporary obligatory military hoary hoary arbitrary scary arbitrary scary dictionary hairy dictionary hairy library fairy library fairy intermediary participatory intermediary Participatory18 Alignment The Fundamentals of Typography ‘Alignment Alignment refers to the position of type within a text block, in both the vertical and horizontal planes. Horizontal alignment Horizontal alignment in a text field ean be range left, range right, centred or justified. ‘Adres tel fmt Adtauabili orators ferment ‘cas Zotheas aapit ‘dui, Zothes sugars, ‘aco dc, Adal ontri etn dai Adil eto dgeiee ogi nena ageireret omg et maizoni Ponpen adguriet yr, ca Pompe agree yey, etm Agu Sul deeper ve “Agoe Sle desir ve ee eee Oot rotnies agricole, Octrios foster crcamgreict peat finer chennai optic panimonia xed, cewngie panimoni ald, tounge bral epepntr. ‘unbracl eslerenter: Fash left, sngged right Centred ‘This alignment flows the principle Centred aligns each line horizontally fofhandovitng, with ext ight ancl in dhe cere to forma a symmetrical signed to dhe 14 margin and ending, sbape om the pags, wih lise sagged on the right beginning and endings ragged. Raggednes an be contoled to. cetain extent by adjusting fine endings, Vertical alignment ‘Text can align vertically to the centre, top or bottom. ‘laut ort ferment fic, Zetec slat gutereobifap ¢ macinonit ‘erecunde snncor Oct Addaudabils orator ferme gues oi ttre ‘Top aligned ‘Vertically centeed ‘This ext aligned to the top "This text aligned wo the centre of the text block ofthe text block ci. Zetec slag scons Bd Adib onto sgeiere nage mation ‘eecunde apnicor Oct, Popa aduiee sys, eam "Aatae Sus deipret ix pein hs tine Flush right, ragged left Right aligning texts les common 28 cs more dificult to sea. Te sometimes wed fo picture eapoons and other accompanying tet ait Js clealy distinct fom body copy Adah orton erent Slain. Zotbec sane sare dnc EM cet gureret oa ot mato Bottom aligned This texts aligned wo the hotom ofthe text bck, fives, Zothec sao sata fu fiduchs. AdGbils ents Nevecunde agasscor | Ocavius Pompeii adguirret aye, etm deer Gtk detect oni ethos, tcungue wa ol nglegene. Justified horizontally “ose rexe allow the appearance of rvers of white space to appr. ican cause plagues of hyphenston if words ae alowed to split wo prevent tis (ae page 122), Auebis itor fermentet, Sidi. Zotben sagas ‘etn Educa Adi ono sr Justified verteally “This ext has been verily Josie 0 force the lines to distribu chroughout the text block,Characters requiring vertical alignment ‘Some individual characters need additional alignment when used in certain circumstances as the examples below illustrate, ¢ Set in a list * set in a list ¢ set in a list Bullets A builler set ina list looks balanced ‘when set next to a capital (top), but when the text is minuscule (middle) the bullet appears to float. An adjustment to the baseline shift of the buller is necessary to lower it (bottom) for a more balanced look. club-med CLUB-MED CLUB-MED Hyphens ‘A hyphen set in lowercase type looks vertically balanced (top) but when set between majuscules it appe: lower (middle). To compensate for this the hyphen can be raised using baseline ‘The Fundamentals of Typography ligament (For example) (For example) (For example) Parentheses Parentheses can appear too low (top and middle), which can be corrected m a centre alignment by giving d on the cap height. Broadside ‘This is text that is aligned to read vertically such as for tabular matter or where the page orientation conilicts with the text to be set,This example by design studio Frost Design demonstrates the dynamic results of typography set this way1» ‘The Fondamentals of Typognphy Alignment Alignment in practice A design will often feature text aligned in several different ways to differentiate the information it contains or to unify the presentation of the information, as the examples on. this spread show. Right ‘This brochuse as created by desig sudo Unie for Iniva and festnes «combination of a le type with contents and uding information set broadside (text sew read sera). Cohesion ofthe text ements 's maintined through the ws ofthe same reference points such a the margins and messne provided by a common grid The font cove features a brighs, Rley-erque ‘ypographic optical Musion running broadside. Below ‘This publication was sated by Untied design studio for London barristers Chambers 18 St Joba Steet The type align lef bt et to the exreme right margin co ofet a strong pasepartout (a fame or image around the Sesign) phov,| Una linea marcata unisco camiciao cravatia,122 The Fundamentals o(Typognphy Wand spacing, hyphenstion and justification Word spacing, hyphenation and justification The use of word spacing, hyphenation and justification functions allows for greater control of word spacing in a text block by controlling the space between words. ‘Word spacing, thespace between words ‘Word spacing, the space between words Word spacing, the space between words Word spacing, the space between words Word spacing, the space between words Justification |ustifcation uses three values for type setting: minimum, ‘maximum and optimum values. The fist block (below lef) is set standard, which introduces a hypho (see page 123) The block next to that (second left) is set tighter, allowing, the type to contract more. This removes the hypho in the last line, In justified type, word spacing on separate lines is inregolar, unlike range left type where all lines have the same spacing. Pompeii cixcumgeedict catell. Pompeii circumgrediet cate Unis cathedtas ferment agrice— Jue. Aegee Dell sui incredibiler Uline catherine fermentetagrieo de, Acgre bellus suis incredible comiter deciperet_quinquennalis chirographi, Vix tlitae saborre comiter decipeet quinguennai ci rographi. Vix utiltar aburte sen senesceret plane tremulus ures eceret plane temas rores Bim iam sactoms apparaus bells viz setosun appara bells vix spinon spinoses amputat Aguae Sas Aegre ampatit Aquae Sli. Aogse bell suis increaiblter comiter decpeset, quinguennalis chirographi bellus suis incredibliter comiter deciperet ‘ana inguennalis[Ehie Word spacing ‘Tracking adjusts the space between characters while word spacing adjusts the space between words In the examples to the left, the word spacing increases with each line of text.The first two lines have pared back spacings the midll line is set to the default settings; and the last two lines have extended spacing. Nore that the spaces berween the characters within the words remains unchanged: Hyphenation Hyphenation controls the number of hyphens that can appear in a text block, Hyphens in justified text allow spacing issues to be resolved, but can result in many broken words. However, the number of consecutive lines that are allowed to have broken words can be specified as more than two looks ugly.The point at which words break (usvally on a syllable) can also be controlled, for example, trans-formation, ‘The text block below left has spacing problems on nearly every line, and the only way to solve this without rewriting is through the use of hyphenation. Pompeli| crcumgrediee cael, Pompe circomgredietcateli, Use Uilits [jeathedsas[ifermentet ies cathedns fermenset agricole sgricolae, | Aegre [bells] suisAegre bellus suis incredibilter incredibilter | comiter deciperet__comiterdeiperet quinquenaals ci winguennals | chisogeaphi, | Vie uilias saburre [senescent plane tremula nutes |) Etiam saeosus rographi. Vie wtitas saburre sen ceiceret plane tremhie nas Exam ‘sewn appartus bells vi spinoses apparatus bells vie spinosusamputst_ amputat Aquae Solis, Aegze bells Aquie|/Sulis/ Aegte "bells! suis suis increibiliter comiter deiperet, incrediblter | comiter deciperet__guinquennalischirographi bes StepType detailing 3 The Fandament ofTypogaphy Type dealing Text can rarely be flowed into a design and left without further adjustment. Different sized paragraphs and the inclusion of graphic elements all pose challenges for setting a visually pleasing and coherent text block, This page identifies common problems and the type detailing solutions that can address them. Acgre panimonis agiclie sock ‘aie Sal, que eel ampuaeapes- tat ba, i gE Groomgredice ie ios tall Zovkec fiat guage Zeshecas cere mit Totes senmcent quips guumgein con faking joe apps Bes Acgre eomulas agiodie oxubiom samet don, wewngue Octave grincor chrogrighi ue mueimonit invert Ey eae ‘deeper as, quan ppants bel stip oncom expen quate: inset concubine apt vera oer die sie Ineestlier ems filucas conampere: Pompei. Aquae Sais pacmuniet quinquenais cones ‘be am vic pasimona ducts bere sscerepeeonss rer ut sburre CSrimgriat stkec, eae mes eee eee ae fea good iced ad ils othe vine sete oes Seton cated age pants Fi, semper pep rues agnacor ‘sa ‘Augucs micere vis alanis agricola. tage bln apparatus bl. renee elie ia lel et arson copebine eneert belie Imsrimoni Zachct conabi ee Spier seamceretwmbesel Sacco ageele pramit Medi, ied els coneabine ier cis Cathe Agile opti clesier Premera ae cae un ‘quenalisagricoe ieee spin- os sect als aie Phneprtois nbc inp sneer adausiie cose, tam aor a prt lis se Quingsconas sere deipse jie, Usa dacs ccumgretiee concubine, et Augusis amuse Ichi chen, semper consabine eee ee Sate aie fetieas, ae fags barre oem i nea = ‘Widows, orphans and hyphos Justified text can be visually very unforgiving due to the creation of widows, orphans and even Lote Various detailing errors have been highlighted in the box (ef) including two widows (top and midale) and a hypho (bosom), CChiogrpbi seconde near alibi sin Ineiier emis Glace ‘omumpeet Pompe agate Sle ramunice gunguennats couabia, fan ie prsinonia Gluck te ete pits tne, bare camped ‘odie, earn natemonl comblum eee sus Lascivius mation infhier tocar urea, quod wzetater luda 2otees dram sec ras Sacro exhedrs ade appr bli semper pep HUE SCO cate Aust vs aba gre. Rivers Rivers typically occur in justified text blocks when the separation of the words leaves gaps of white space in several lines. A river effect is created where white space gaps align through the text, These can be easier to spot by turning the text upside-down or by squinting to unfocus your eyes Rags Rags cczur hen igh noceile shape fr by the ie endo ‘worse, the hypho. A widow is a lone word at the end of a paragraph. An orphan is the final one Sahu cum "Te on ‘or two lines of a paragraph separated from the main paragraph to form a new column, and ‘ple eniterropied should be avoided at all costs. A hypho is a hyphenated widow that leaves half a word on a line. reading, Rage ca nclade ‘Seapets pes oF nosieable incine. Generally speaking, text set range right creates fewer widows, but to remove them requires text to be pulled back to previous lines or pushed forward to fill the line out. In exeme exes words an apps to overhang oer Hines oF fest cresting uh and ‘The same principle applies to removing orphans, but often far more text is needed to alleviate __sotcae gps et ok, the problem. This can cause additional problems, as shown on the right. Words cn Be manly reruraed rp make the parle noticeLeading ‘The Fundamentals of Typogriphy Leading Leading is a hot-metal printing term that refers to the strips of lead that were inserted between text measures in order to space them accurately. Leading is specified in points and refers nowadays to the space between the lines of text in a text block. Leading introduces space into a text block and allows the characters to ‘breathe’ so that the information is easy to read. Leading in relation to type size and fonts To achieve a balanced and well-spaced text block, leading usually has a larger point size than the text it is associated with, for example a 12pt typeface might be set with L4pt leading, Different fonts, however, occupy differing amounts Of the em square. This can make equally set fonts (same size same leading) appear different. Shown right are two fonts, Aachen (tight) and Parisian (far right) Iris clear that Aachen ‘occupies more of the vertical space of the em square, ‘while Parisian, with its much smaller x-height, appears ‘much lighter These are Futura (left) and Foundry Sans (right), both set at 18pt on 20pt leading. There is more space between the bottom of a descender and the top of an ascender in_ Foundry than there is in Futura, which gives the illusion of more space and looser leading. These are Futura (left) and Foundry Sans (right) both set at 18pt on 20pt leading. There is more space _ between the bottom of a descender and the top of an ascender in Foundry than there is _ in Futura, which gives the illusion of more space and looser leading.Indents 126 The Fundamentals of Typography Indents Text blocks can be indented so that some or all of the text lines are moved in from the margin by a specified amount. Traditionally, the first paragraph is not indented, with indentation commencing with the second paragraph. lll Indentation provides the reader with an easily accessible entry point to a paragraph. The length of the indent can be related to the point size of the type such as a one em indent. Alternatively, indent points can be determined by the grid, such as in the basic grid produced from the golden section. Four basic indent types exist, as explained below. Technically speaking an indent is an attribute of a text line rather than a paragraph, bu most design programs handle indents through the paragraph characteristics function, First-line indent Toa fst lie inden, che exe is indented from the left margin in the fs line ofthe sean and subsequent paagaphs The fist paragaph ina document fllowing a beading, sbbead or croshend isnot normaly indented a this intro although thie ean be dons 2 Ina Gt line inden, the text an awhwvard space, is indented from the left manga in theft line ofthe second and subsequent paragraphs The Gist paragraph ina document following 1 heading subead or eroshead is noc normaly iene this fnoduces an awkward space, although this ean be dons, Running indent A sunning indent ie a indentation fiom the If or ight margin, which affects several text Hines. This may be done 1o fame along quotation |A ramming indent is an indentation from the Tet for right margin, which feces several txt lines Tis may be done to fame long quotacon, Hanging indent A banging inden simile to running indent excep the fist line of the text not indeed On a point indent The indoneation oF on 2 point indent is located at a specific place according fae eceemnran ee oe esiga, such 3 he Sst sword in a kt,127 Indexes The Fundamentals of Typography Indexes Indexes provide a means of easily locating information within a volume. They are traditionally set solid, i.e. 9 on 9pt, but additional leading can be used. ‘Types of indexes Indexes can tke one of two formats: indented and run-in. A run-in index is more economical with space, whereas an indented one is easier to navigate. The choice between them depends ‘upon the space available and the complexity of the information to be indexes Indeed index R Entry cight (on) Entry one, 12 Thind-entry, 201 Sub-enty, 5 ‘Thind-entey, 154 Entry two, 14 ‘Third-entey, 15, Sub-entry, 86 Third-entry 47 Sub-entry 87 Think entry, 74 Third-entry, 145 Thizd-enwry, 20, ‘Think cay 24 ny nin, 2 Sabet 75, Sibeeey 5 remy ee, ney tna? Sub-enuy 31 Sabet 86 Sab-ey. 73 Stbcenay 7 ney oon 3 Thiet 15 Entry fre 70 Thiet 27 Ent 89 Subnenty 26 Ent seven 12 nay leven 17 Sakny, 86 Sica 15, Saber 7 Sab-enay 71 Thinker 1 Thin 24 Thien 137 Think-eny 25 Baty gh cy tsi, Sabrent 86 Suen 45 ‘Subventy. 87 Thind-entry. 94 Tiedenty, 76 Eney chirteen, 30 Sub-enty, 86 Sub-enty 87 Indented index ‘An indented index is hierarchical, with entry, sub-entry and subsequent descending levels of subsidiarity presented ‘on their own line with an equal indent. Entries are set as entry, comma, page number. References to other entries are set in italic, With the use of indents, care needs to be taken not to leave widows or orphans. Ifa widow occurs over a page-break the convention is for the lst superior entry to be repeated (including any indent) and follow it with cont, or continued. as shown below. nin index R Entry eleven (ont Entry one, 12; Sub-entry 45 Eniry twelve, 12; Sub-enty, 43 Entry ewo, 14; Subsentey. 86; -Enuy thirteen, 30; Sub-enty, 86; Sabet. 87 Tan MS; Seb 87 Tandon 34 Subenna 75 Bay time 3 Sab nny A oe Entry ve, 70 Entry x, 89 Eur seven, 12; Sub-entry, 86; Sub-enty 87; Thirlentry, Lt Third-enry. 187 ery eight, 88; Sab-entry, 86 ‘Sub-enty, 87; Third-enry, 94 Thi entry,76;Thid-enty, 201; Thud-enuy 154, Thi ‘ey, 15, Thind-enuy, 47; Third-entry, 74; Third-entry, 20 ney nin, 12; Sub-enery, 45 Try ten, 7; Sub-enty, 86; ‘Sob-enty, 87, Thitd-eny, Thiet 7; Sven, 26 amy eleven, Sohn 5 Subsea, 7; Thad em y Run-in index ‘The run-in index format has sub-entries following the main entry and separated by a semicolon. On page-breaks, the last keyword is repeated and followed with cont. o: ‘contimed.The example index above shows how much space can be saved by using run-in index rather than an indented index.128 The Fundamental of Typography ‘Type size Type size The existence of extended type families mean that it is easy for a designer to use several different type sizes coherently within a design. However, it should be noted that the tracking (letterspacing) and leading may need to be adjusted to compensate for any increase or decrease in type size. ‘Type size and tracking In the example below, as the type sizes increase the tracking _As type size increases, the physical space between letters also appears to get looser, which means that it may be necessary increases. Although proportional, this can make a text line to decrease the tracking for the l oint sizes. The type in appear loose.’This can be remedied by reducing the tracking, the bottom line has had the tracking reduced to tighten it or leterspacing. ‘Type size in relation to tracking Type size in relation to tracking Type size in relation to tracking Type size in relation to tracking Type size in relation to tracking ‘ype size and leading As type gets bigger the line space, or leading, can appear to grow, which means that larger text may need to be set tighter to look comfortable, As ype gets bigger cares" "As type gets bigger the line space, titties” Or leading, can appear to grow, which means that larger text may need to be set tighter to look comfortable.2 Display type The Fendamenta of Typegnphy Dinghy ype Display faces are designed to create a visual impact in headlines and standfirsts, and are not intended for use in long text passages. FRUTIGER ULTRA BLACK 3 OLD FACE WIDE LATIN Above Picrated hese a various exatnples of HEADLINE MT BD POSTER BODONI VL Jay sypefaes set a 8pt-They a very different and ave dsincecharsctertic and qualities, such a exaggerated sez They would all be dificult wo read ist a6 body copy Although they arc all set at the same point sie, they all make a very diferent vival ime Asymmetrical leading Type is normally set with one particular leading value, such, 2s 10pt type on 12pt leading. Display type poses certain leading difficulties. As the type size increases, leading anomalies became more apparent, which is particularly noticeable in lines af copy with few ascenders or descenders, Below Te text Block below lett how the abeence of cenders and descenders ‘can create the ition of eymmetrical leading Thies not sch a poobleo in body copy like that belo, buts more noticeable i headline copy (eight) Apparatus bellis circumgrediet incredibiliter syrtes. Augustus insectat optimus quinquennalis zothecas, a main vase on a car means one @ core man sees use. Catelli insectat optimus quinquennalis. Zothecas, Quadrupei suffragarit quinquennalis. Octavius, qnamquam syrtes sufftagarit tremulus ures, iam imputat quadrupei, iam pretosins oratori agnascor. as demonstrated below, whereby the leading may look much bigger in some lines."To prevent this optical distortion, the leading values of some lines needs to be tweaked (below right) to restore a visual balance. Below The headline below looks 3 chow it has uneven leading due to ascendor ee eee ere ee ee ete oe eee the lie spacing between ines Land 2 To fix errors one can use a bit of spacing To fix errors one can use a bit of spacingReversing type The Fundamentals of Typogrphy Reversing ype Type is usually printed in colour on to a substrate. It can also be reversed out of a solid colour that is printed on to a substrate, although there are some practical limitations to bear in mind. For example, heavy ink coverage can bleed into the white of the reversed lettering, particularly when absorbent papers or small type sizes are used. Optical illusion An optical illusion can appear to reduce the apparent type size, In the example right, the reversed out type can appear to be slightly lighter than its black on white counterpart (right) Compensation The use of a type with a higher weight can compensate for the reducing effect of the optical illusion. For example, the use ofa reversed out Univers or Helvetica 65 from Frutiger’ Grid (see page 83) may look balanced against 55 set normally. This is Helvetica 85 set normally. B ary ern other ‘are available in @ renge id and medium, which can be use tandard book vs ht. This ie Foundry Pees Black & White BI asics Font selection and letterspacing The type of font that is used for reversing out can make a difference to the result, Many fonts appear to be tighter when reversed out, Designers typically add a litle more letterspacing and leading to compensate for this. See os gd POOP eer Men cd Pe era ee CU Sane eae) Ce ua hapa FONTS WITH FINE FEATURES LIKE BODONI'S SERIES DO NOT Par Sepa semen men ESTE131 ‘The Fundamentals of Typography Wraps and runarounds eee eee Text blocks are often shaped to accommodate pictures or other graphic elements in a design, particularly in magazines, using wraps and runarounds. Constructivist typographers used these methods to great effect to create decorative elements from text Blocks. Creating wraps and runarounds is easily done with computer progcams, although care needs to be taken with type detailing to produce neat and tidy results, al op BP Wraps [A wrap is where the text margin is formed to take the shape of another page element such as the picture (below right). skews A shew i where the text margins are staigh hot not vertical, sch as those that form the pallelogram above, ext that surrounds the Runaround A runaround is the amount of space surrounding. picture element, which prevents cext ffom sitting directly next to it, as shown below (centre) Wraps ‘Wrapping text around shapes ca he trek ‘Their inclusion in a text Block eflecuvely redoces the mesure. This allows ugly spaces to appea ‘which can be difcule vo remedy Trying to force text oft avery specific shape may hereto eure pars oF to be rewrite to Sess dimensions i val problems cmnor be solved using Iphenation and otber type dealing conta Diliter quinquennalis oratori imputat on vix patsimonia fiducias Iucide senesceret Fragilis chirographi libere pracmuniet sui chirographi, etiam cathedras_imputat Saetosus. matrimon: santet_suis Octav:— othecas Suis senesc Verecundus coneut suis, ut pessimus be pei spinosus deciperet Caesar, utcungu fermentet utlitas fiducias, ut quinquennal bere iocari optimus sactosus suis. Bess fiducias deciperet. sytes. Snis circumgrec adfuhilis_mamimonii,_quad_aegee_gule Picture boxes Aor ean be located intext block with diffrent ‘mounts of runaround on exch side. The box ahove fis verily om ro the baseline grid, bur is brought down half division to align withthe text ap height (wide magenta Ine). Additional runaround is added to the righ-hand side, pushing the text the same distance fom the image athe text above and below itSe Ce ed ee ets creative results in a design. using typeaaahrey The Fundamental of T Hiertely Hierarchy Hierarchy is a logical and visual way to express the relative importance of different text elements by providing a visual guide to their organisation. A text hierarchy helps make a layout clear, unambiguous and easier to digest. In this hierarchy, the title is set in the largest, boldest typeface to reinforce its importance. Dropping down a weight for the subtitle distinguishes its subsidiarity to the title while allowing it to remain prominent. Text can be presented with a different type size, but with the same weight as the subtitle. Finally, captions can be formed using an italic that has less prominence on the page Allocating a hierarchy Manuscripts are often supplied with 2 coding system corresponding to a different typographical specification that indicates how the diferent elements are to be typeset, through the use of different typefaces and/or weights. such as A heads, B heads and so on. Each code refers to an In the example below, only two weights and two sizes element of the text hierarchy, with A taking prominence are used, to convey four levels of hierarchy. over B,B over C and so on, with each level of the hierarchy A heads in Futura Bold 34pt B heads in Futura 34pt C heads in Futura bold 14pt Body copy in Futura 14ptWorking with a hierarchy The key to working effectively with a hierarchy is to have an ‘understanding of the types of information being, dealt with Not all publications, screen projects or print items have, or need, complicated hierarchies. If one type weight will su then why use two? If the information requires additional eee ae as gE ew The Fundamentals of Typography Haerachy Mittwoc hskino separation, a second type weight can be introduced and additional colour, indentation or graphic devices can be used. Any added device should ultimately be able to justify its presence. [Fit is not needed, do not use it Above left In hs broth for chase PR by George & Ver design studio, the abience ofa te lerrehy allows «harmonious Bolanee of text and eo ae eer Above This the fst poster dat [Neville Brody designed for HidKAW.A defined focus concicely liseminates the information while retaining eypographie elepance and ‘overall ly Left A imple hierarchical spe onder is defined by geographical page spacing, pe weight and ype in this und sa Itarhoad cated by George & Vers design & ‘odio fea protons company136 Colour The Fondamentls of Typogniphy Colour Colour works with typography in many ways to perform a number of roles that both help impart information and contribute to the overall visual effect of a design. Colour can be used to provide a logical, visual hierarchy for text, in addition to providing definition, contrast and added ‘meaning to text elements.This applies to the colours printed and the substrate upon which they are reproduced.’The ability {In typography, colour can also describe the balance between black and white on a page of text. As different typelaces have different stroke widths, x-heights and serif styles, fonts set in the e, with the same leading and other dimensions will produce varying degrees of ‘colour’ coverage on the page, and ‘lve the impression of different colours. Although this is an extreme example, it illustrates the point well. Slab serif Specifying colour Most desktop publishing programs allow type to be specified according to different colour systems, notably Pantone and Hexachrome. When preparing work for on-screen use, designers employ the RGB (red, green and blue) colour selection, and when preparing for print they use CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow and black). Any special colours can be specified separately, from specific colour schemes, for example Pantone Metallics. When mixing colours from the CMYK, 100% M 100% ¥ 100% C 100%Y 100% © 100% M High values of two colours give 2 strong, definite colour. Colour associations of foil to pick up and reflect colours around it can alko be used to add dynamism to typographical elements ‘Aachen has broad strokes and appears very black on the page as the ink dominates. /c=r=s%, -Shsica 25 has inter As ters fs 8 rk on the page he whe and ghes xchat set for use with type, the strongest colours are produced using high percentages of one or more of the colours. For example to get a strong red, use 100% magenta and 100% yellow, or for a deep rich blue 100% eyan and 100% ‘magenta. Lower value mixes tend to produce inconsistent colours, in which dot gain is clearly visible, As a general rule, ifall the values of the CMYK mix exceed 240, the resulting colour will be muddy and dull 0% C 60% M 70% 40% K EE High aggregate value result in Low vale tints can cause problems 2 mandy colour, dot gain becomes visible There are thousands of colours to choose fiom but itis important to highlight chat certain colours are associated with particular meanings. For example, red is used in China for ‘weddings and funerals because it represents celebration and luck.The same colour in Eastern cultures represents joy, while in Western cultures it represents danger: Blue is a sacred colour for Hindus as it is the colour of Krishna. It is also a holy-colour in the Jewish faith, while the Chinese link blue to immortality In Western culture, white is a colour of purity used for weddings, but in Eastern cultures it is a colour of mourning, symbolising death.