CHAPTER-4

Rajasimha Style (Narasimha Varman-II)

His reign was very peaceful. He constructed Kailasanath temple.

His queen Rangapataka raised a Siva temple.1 He got 250 birudas being
found on the walls of the Kailasanath temple alone. Some of these are,
Sankarabhakta, Sri Vidyadhara, Sri Agamapriya, Siva Chudamani
Isanasarana etc. These titles are suggestive of his personal tastes, his
accomplishments and religious inclinations. Rajasimha was not a fanatic
and in the Reyuru copper plate grant2 he is also described as
Paramabhagavata, Paramamahesvara arid ParamaBrahmanya. It is said
that the saint Sundarai was his contemporary3. Among the temples built
in this period are the Siva temple at Panamalai, the Shore temple at
Mamallapuram as well as the Airavatesvara temple and in Kailasanath
temple at Kanchlpuram. Rajasimha seems to have two sons,
Mahendravarman-III Paramesvaravarman-II . Mahendravarman-III
constructed a temple in front of Rajasimbesvara temple, i.e., Kailasanath
temple at Kanchipuram. It seems that he died as a prince during the life

1.

2.
3.

nsos txn~oy;j{k.k c nh?ks fufoZfHkUu 'k=q n;s ujflag fo".kS

okYyH;ewfTZtreokI; fojktrs ;k fufTZtR; xOoZfeo iq"dj nsork;k%AA
fuekZfirkfenU/kke rFkk pUnz f'k[kke.kS%
irk (d;so) ukjh.kka jE;a jaxirkd;kaAA
Kailasanath temple third niche to the right of front entrance. Hultzsch, S.S.I., pt I.
E.I., XXIX, pp. 95-96.
M. Raghava Aiyanagar Alvargal Kalanilai, pp. 135-36.

[ 210 ]

time of his father. Hence Paramesvaravarman-II succeeded the throne.

Kasakkudi plates1 and Velur Palayam plates2 mentioned him. But the last
known inscription of Paramesvaravarman-II dated in the third year of his
reign, inscribed on a stone lying in front of the Virattanesvara temple at
Tiruvadigai in South Arcot district3. He was defeated by the Chalukyan
prince Vikramaditya4. However, it seems that his short reign lated for
three years after which he died. He followed Nandivarman Pallavamalla.
The kasakkudi plates5 inform that he was a descendent of Bhimavarman,
the younger brother of Simhavisnu. Probably, till this incident took place,
they remained as subordinate chiefs of viceroys to the Simhavisnu family.
This is the account furnished by the labels beneath certain sculptured
panels in the Vaikuntha Perumal temple.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Hultzsch, S.I.I., Vol. II, p. 357.

Ibid., Vol. 14, p. 511.
S.I.I., III, No. 331, T.V. Mahalingam, op. cit., p. 133.
Ibid., p. 134.
S.S.I., Vol. II, pp. 349 and 357.

[ 211 ]

4.1

STRUCTURAL TEMPLE
After the time period of Mahendra and Mamalla king Rajasimha

has introduced and make some alternation of construction which is called

Structural temple.Structural temple technique make a new revaluation in
Pallava Architecture. This techniques was also accepted and applied by
king Chola and Pandyas.In structural temple method stones are carved
independently in squire and rectangle shape and arranged one by one to
make walls and ceilings. Through this method they constructed Muga
Mandapa, Artha Mandapa and above the walls Vimana also constructed.
Surround the walls and pillars sculptures are carved low or high relifly.
This type of temples are constructed in Rajasimha and followed by
Nandivarman.
4.1.1 SHORE TEMPLE (MAMALLAPURAM)
The Rathas :
Five of the nine rathas, all located in Mamallapuram, form a
separate group, commonly known as Panchapandava Rathas; they are
carved from a granite rock, situated to the south of the main hill. The
Panchapandava Rathas (i.e. the chariots of the five Pandavas) are neither
chariots nor have they anything to do with the heroes of the Mahabharata.
They are simply shrinestemples for the worship of Siva, Vishnu and
Durga. Four of them stand in one line, all facing west. They arethe hutlike Draupadi Ratha and the two storeyed Arjuna Ratha, both sharing one
platform together; the oblong Bhima Ratha and the three-storeyed

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Dharmaraja Ratha. The fifth is the apsidal Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha,

somewhat apart and to the west of the Draupadi Ratha. In this grouping
of the rathas a wellplanned layout and deliberate choice of the specific
temple type for the respective rocksegment can be recognized. Other
rathas are the oblong Ganesha Ratha on top of the main hill at its
northern end, the Valayankuttai Ratha, so called after a lake of the same
name by the side of which it stands, and next to it the two Pidari Rathas,
so called after the village nearby.
The rathas, after having been abandoned by the Pallava sculptors
towards the end of the 7th century, were gradu-ally forgotten and
remained solitary and half buried in the drifting dunes for almost one
millennium. Then they reappeared in writings and records of European
visitors, now under the name the seven Pagodas. This name was first
mentioned by an Italian traveller, Gasparo Balboin 1582. The following
notice is found in his journal: About three of the clock the next morning
(May 30) we came to a place, which is called the Seven Pagodas, upon
which are eight pleasant hillocks, not very high, which are seven leagues
from Saint Thomas, right over against it, where we arrived about noon the
thirtieth of May, saluting it with three Peers of Ordinance. Obviously
they were so called by foreign sailors who named other temples on the
eastern coast of India in a similar way. The temple of Konarak, for
example, was called Black Pagoda, the Jagannath temple of Puri
White Pagoda etc. But how the name seven pagodas came into use
is not known; it was either fanciful or meant a general number of temples.

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According to other views the number seven existed because of temples

which were invisible and believed to be submerged in the sea, the spires
and turrets of which could be seen at certain favourable times of the tide.
The idea of temples being buried in the sea had a strong impact on
Western and Indian minds and appears time and again in records about
Mamallapuram.Here are a few lines of the romantic epic The curse of
Kehama, written by Southey towards the end of the 19th century:
"Their golden summits in the noonday light
Sone o'er the dark green deep that rolld between.
For domes and pinnacles and spires were seen
Peering above the sea... a mournful sight!
Well might the sad beholder ween from thence
What works of wonder the devouring wave
Had swallowed here, when monuments so brave
Bore record of their old magnificence.
And on the sandy shore, beside the verge of ocean
Here and there, a rock-hewn fane
Resisted in its strength the surf and surge
That on their deep foundation beat in vain.
In solitude the Ancient Temples stood
Once resonant with instrument and song
And solemn dance of festive multitude;
Now as the weary ages pass along
Hearing no voice save of ocean flood
Which roars for ever on the restless shores
Or visiting their solitary. Caves
The lonely sound of winds, that moan around
Accordant to the melancholy waves.

Certainly neither romantic imagination nor ignorant indifference

are the right way to approach the Ancient Temples. Indian sacral
architecture is the expression of a spiritual and religious culture and
should be seen with a vast and profound understanding, best in solitary
moments when the soul is at leisure and the mind free to receive its

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suggestions. As Sri Aurobindo has said, A great oriental work of art

does not easily reveal its secret to one who comes to it solely in the mood
of aesthetic curiosity or with a considering critical objective mind, still
less to the cultivated and interested tourist passing among strange and
foreign things; but it has to be seen in loneliness, in the solitude of ones
self in moments, when one is capable of long and deep meditation and as
little weighted as possible with the conventions of materiallife1. It would
seem that particularly the Dharmaraja Ratha in its unparalleled nobility
would demand such concentrated contemplation, to recognize the harmony
and beauty of its form and to become aware of the skill and patience and
workmanship that was put into it.
THE DRAUPADI RATHA
The Draupadi Ratha is the copy of a timber hut with flexed roof,
the latter being partly or fully covered by a thin metal sheet, into which
decorative designs were embossed. This timber model, however, was but
itself an elaborate copy of the timeless Indian bamboo hut with thatched
roof, the archetypal and primordial temple and homestead, having its
origin somewhere in the grey dawn of history. Quickly erected to house
the deity at a festive occasion and then left to dilapidate or serving as a
village shrine and being rebuilt time and again in the same way, it is the
most popular temple form of India and bound to survive all other forms
of sacral and secu-lar architecture of this age. The Pallavas did not forget

1.

Sri Aurobindo: The Rennaisance of India, SABCL 14, p. 212.

[ 215 ]

to immortalize this humble house of God in granite though immortal it

already was.
The Draupadi Ratha was designed and executed by a mastersculptor who gave the hut temple not only excellent proportions and a
well-shaped roof but was also able to complete it in almost all its
beautiful details.
The hut temple shares a common platform (upapitha) with the
Arjuna Ratha, which is carried by recumbent lions and elephants. Above
a well-shaped base rise the four walls with corner pilasters, whose corbel
brackets supported the roof in the original structure. Three walls of the
temple, facing north, east and south have central niches (or blind doors),
which contain figure sculptures of Durga. On the fourth and western side
is the actual door leading into the shrine. In the niche on the eastern side,
the goddess stands on the severed buffalo head, one of the earliest
representations of this kind, which was to become a frequently seen motif
in late Pallava temples and practically obligatory in every Chola temple.
Entrance door and niches are spanned by the beautifully shaped and
proportioned makara toranas of the period. Works of religious art, however,
are not exclusively meant to please men but usually serve a deeper and
invisible purpose. These niches too, facing three directions of the universe
with the shrine. Door on the fourth, are not purely ornamental, but are
meant to radiate the beneficent influence of the deity (Durga) inside the
shrine. This is also the idea and meaning of the innumerable divine
figures found on other temple walls, emanating in all directions the divine

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force, stored in the central image of the shrine. Even where a great
number of human figures is represented viz. (Dharmaraja Ratha, Arjuna
Ratha), the central and main niches (deva-koshta) are always occupied by
the image of a divine figure officiated to the deity in the shrine.
Beneath the eaves of the roof is a bhuta gana frieze. Its four corners
are ornamented on top with scrollwork, the design of which suggests that
the original model was covered by a thin metal sheet into which such
patterns were embossed. The stupi was carved separately as usual and sits
now on the platform in front of the temple. Two rock-cut steps lead to the
shrine entrance, which faces west. The niches on either side of the
entrance contain dvarapalikas, female doorkeepers, leaning on their bows.
From the back-wall of the small shrine chamber, a panel of Durga is
carved. The goddess is standing on a lotus pedestal with two warriors
kneeling on either side of her, one of them about to cut off his head as
an offering to the goddess. His desperately determined face reflects the
highly dramatic moment. The scene resembles that of the Durga panel in
the Varaha cave temple. In the upper region of the panel are four flying
ganas, two of them with moustache and grim faces and dressed like
warrior-ganas, perhaps protectors of the offering scene below. Their
marked individual features remind one of certain yaksha figures at
Buddhist stupas (Sanchi, Amaravati). Durga is seen in a static pose
missing the habitual gracefulness and flexibility of Pallava sculptures.
Shrine chambers in cave temples and rathas are usually found without
sculptures or any object of worship (except for later installed lingas),

[ 217 ]

having only a small pedestal cut into their rear-wall in which the
contemporary image of the deity was placed. These images, according to
local tradition, were made of clay, wood or terracotta. Here, as well as in
the Trimurthi cave temple, the first exception to this principle was made
and the image of the worshipped deity carved from the back-wall of the
shrine.
THE GANESHA RATHA
This is the most elegant of all rathas, the harmony of its forms
being equalled alone by the majestic grandeur of the Dharmaraja Ratha.
Situated at the northern end of the large granite hill, at quite a distance
from the other rat has, it is the most completed of all. Like the Bhima and
Sahadeva Ratha, the Ganesha Ratha represents the oblong temple type
(salavimana) with a barrel-shaped roof, the ridge of which is decorated
with nine intact stupis and at either end of them with a head which bears
a trident.
A long inscription in the elegant letters of the Pallava Grantha
script is engraved into the back-wall of the small verandah on the right
side of the shrine entrance. In it, the temple is called a house of Sambhu
(Siva) and its name is given as Atyantakama-Pallavesvaram-Griham. The
same name is found in the shrine of the third storey of the Dharmaraja
Ratha. Atyantakama (he whose desires are boundless) is a biruda of King
Paramesvara to whom this temple is ascribed. The inscription, largely in
praise of Siva to whom the king is likened, is an interesting example of

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its kind. The last verse in which everybody in whose heart Rudra does not
dwell is cursed is identical with verses found in the Dharmaraja Mandapam,
the Ramanuja Mandapam and in a slightly abbreviated form in the Adi
Varaha Mandapam cave temple, all built or completed by King
Paramesvara.Every detail of this little temple is exceptionally finethe
squatting zyalas which once had beaked faces; or their counterparts, the
zyalas at the foot of the facade pilasters at either end of the verandah; or
the graceful form of the pillars growing out of the Vyalas with the padma
bandha, a decorative band, right over their heads; or the figures of the
dvarapalas who stand almost shy in their niches, a thoughtful smile on
their faces; or the clear form of the pilasters carved from the recessed
walls of the ground floor and surrounding the temple on three sides.
The overhanging cornices, carried around the temple on each of the
two talas, are ornated with kudu-arches with little heads inside. The string
of miniature shrines above them consists of karnakutas and salas. The
!ong side of the barrel roof has three prominent nasikas, the central one
being raised above the other two and each one crowned by a head bearing
a trident.
In the Ganesha Ratha worship is still held. The rectangular shrine
cell behind the verandah houses an image of Ganapati now. It seems that
once a linga was installed there which has been removed, but even this
linga was probably not the original object of worship, and had perhaps
substituted the image of the deity installed there in Pallava times.

[ 219 ]

THE BHIMA RATHA

The Bhima Ratha, an oblong two-storeyed temple with a barrel
roof has an uncommon, almost archaic look, making the timber form of
its original model very distinct. This impression would have been
strengthened if the stupis on top of the roof and the trident finials at the
gable ends had been inserted, as it was planned. The oblong form with a
barrel roof and gable ends is called sala and resembles the model of a
Buddhist assembly hall represented in sculptural panels of early stupas.
But its origin could be sought in the Dravidian architecture as well, where
it may have functioned as a local assembly hall. As in other rathas and
cave temples of the period, Buddhist and Dravidian style elements mix
with each other and cannot be separated anymore. This oblong temple
type (sala) is found among the types of miniature shrines in the roof
portion and in the following centuries among the parivara shrines too.
Parivara shrines are small temples for subsidiary deities, surrounding the
Dravidian main shrine in a temple compound. There the sala form houses
either the reclining figure of Vishnu or the Saptamatrika group (the seven
Mothers). In the 10th century, out of this oblong form with a barrel roof,
the superstructure over the gates of a temple compound, called the
gopuram, began to develop, growing higher and higher in course of
centuries to become the dominant and skyscraping mark of the South
Indian temple complex.
The ground floor or aditala of the Bhima Ratha is approximately in
the same state of incompletion as the Dharmaraja Ratha. The upper

[ 220 ]

storey, however is completed in almost all its details. The pillared hall
was designed to surround the oblong shrine chamber with an ambulatory
passage. This shrine chamber was to house the reclining figure of Vishnu,
the rough outlines of which can be made out in the rock. The shrine was
designed to be open to the west in its full length with only two pillars on
the front side. The mandapa was to surround the longitudinal shrine like
a verandah with a circumambulatory passage. Its lion-based pillars are in
various stages of completion, whereas the corner buttresses are just
roughly hewn out.
The ground floor is topped by a well-shaped cornice with kuduarches-very impressive in its uncommon length which emphasizes the
outlines of this temple form. The string of miniature shrines above the
cornice consists of salas and karnakutas with harantaras.
Left between the miniature shrines and high wall of the clerestory
(griva) is enough space for an aisle. The griva pilasters seem to support
the roof (a function they must have had in the original structure) and form
five niches, iliegrivakoshtas, which are all crowned by prominent
kudu-arches in different sizes, projecting boldly from the long face of the
roof. They are called nasikas and in the original structure they served for
the ventilation. The large central naszka and the two smaller ones on
either end have an entablature with cornice, beam ete. which makes them
look like small temples. Particularly in the roof portion, the wooden
original with its beams and rafters, meticulously copied in stone, is very
distinct.

[ 221 ]

The face of the gable arches is decorated with a floral design,

ending in a makara on either outer end. Inside the gable arch and
surrounded by cantilevered brackets is a small one-storeyed shrine (ekatala
vimana) with a circular sikhara.
In the Bhima Ratha, more than in any other of the rathas one has
the feeling that the work had been left abruptly. There are the vague
outlines of the reclining figure of Vishnu in the shrine, or of some pillars
which were about to be shaped out of the rock, whereas other architectural
details are in a state near to completion with hardly anything left to be
doneall this points to an inexplicable and sudden abandonment of the
work. And strangely enough, the vibration and atmosphere of intense
work and endeavour seems to linger on, clinging to all this incompleteness
around; it can be felt by the sensitive visitor, who wonders which bell it
was that rang to call off the work.
NAKULA AND SAHADEVA RATHA
The fifth in the group of rathas named after the Pandava twins,
Nakula and Sahadeva, is simply called Sahadeva Ratha. For the first time
in Pallava architecture the apsidal plan appears, borrowed from the model
of a Buddhist chairya hall where the stupa was enshrined at its circular
end. The Ikshvakus in the Krishna valley were the first who are known
to have used the apsidal form for Brahmanical temples, viz. the
Pushpabhadraswami temple in Vijayapuri. Some centuries later the apsidal
form is met with in Chalukya architecture, in the Durga temple of Aihole

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surrounded by a verandah. Among the structural temples of the Pallavas

and Cholas in the subsequent centuries, the apsidal form is found but
re-mains the exception. As its barrel-shaped roof strongly resembles the
back of an elephant, such temple types are called gajaprastha. As if to
emphasize this similarity, a huge elephant was carved from a granite
boulder just by the side of the Sahadeva Ratha.
Ferguson sees the importance of this ratha in the fact that the upper
storey represents, though on a small scale, the exterior of a rock-hewn
chairya cave of which, as of all rock architecture, only the interior and the
facade are visible. He further regards the pyramidically ascending structure
as a miniature representation of a Buddhist monastery with three halls
above each other, each smaller than the previous one, the uppermost with
a barrel roof. Such multistoried monasteries did in fact exist. According
to his view, the miniature shrines are imitations of monk cells which were
grouped around a prayer hall (chazrya) here, however, employed as a
decorative element and the whole structure serving the requirements of a
Hindu temple. Ferguson was surprised to find the replicas of Buddhist
plans and forms deep in the south ofIndia. In 1880 he wrote: Under these
circumstances it is an exceptional piece of good luck to find a petrified
Buddhist village on a small scale it must be confessedand applied to
the purposes of another religion, but still representing Buddhist forms just
at that age when their religion with its architectural forms were perishing
out of the land where it arose. At the same time, no one who has paid any
attention to the subject can, I fancy, for one moment doubt that Arjuna

[ 223 ]

and Dharmaraja Rathas are correct models on a small scale of the

monasteries or viharas of the Buddhists, that the Ganesha temple and
Bhima Ratha are, in the like manner, models of the salas or halls of the
Buddhists, that the Draupadi Ratha represents a hermitage and Sahadevas
chapel belonging to the votaries of that religion. The forms of the last two
names have fallen into disuse, their purpose being gone but the other two
have been adopted by the Dravidian Hindus, and repeated over and over
again throughout the south of India and continue to, be used there to the
present day in all the temples of the Brahmans2.
The ratha faces south. It is entered by a small verandah, the roof
of which is supported by two lion pillars. The two pilasters which frame
the shrine entrance have elephants at their base feature which is found
nowhere else in the architecture of Mamallapuram. Pilasters in different
stages of completion are carved from the walls of the temple on all three
storeys. The origin of this design is to be sought in a wooden-framed
structure whose interstices are filled with brick and plaster. Though the
exterior of the temple is apsidal from base to top this form is not being
repeated in the interior which contains a small rectangular shrine. Prominent
in this beautifully carved little ratha are the overhanging cornices, two in
number, fully formed and each demarcating one tala or storey and running
around the whole structure. They are decorated with kudu-arches from
which gandharva faces look out. The miniature shrines above these
cornices are of the karnakuta and sala type and in the second storey two
apsidal shrines. The ridge of the roof must have been decorated with
1.

'Cave temple of India', p. 139.

[ 224 ]

stupis as in the Ganesha and Bhima Ratha. A small ornamental temple

fills the arch of the gable end. Kudu-shaped nasikas of different sizes,
with shovel ends, protrude from the long side of the barrel roof.
THE ARJUNA RATHA
At first view there is a great similarity between the Arjuna Ratha
and the Dharmaraja Ratha, the former looking like a small copy of the
latter. In fact, the Arjuna Ratha has only two storeys, but otherwise both
temples have much in common the body of the temple being square of
plan with pyramidical ascending storeys, crowned by an octagonal cupola
(sikhara). Horseshoe-shaped windows (nasikas) project from between the
edges of the cupola, topping and integrating the griva pilasters. A flexed
cornice with kudu-arches is carried around each tala and above it rises the
string of miniature shrines, consisting of salas with karnakutas at the
corners, connected by harantara sections. In the wall niches of the upper
storey, framed by pilasters, are beautiful figure sculptures of divine
couples, here only carved down to the waist. All these features determining
their outer appearance are similar in both temples. The storeys of the
Arjuna Ratha, however, are neither functional nor accessible as in the
Dharmaraja Ratha. Here, the miniature shrines adjoin directly the wall of
the temple without any intervening space for an ambulatory passage being
left in between. Such temples with non-functional and inaccessible
storeys were to become the most frequent temple type of the South, as
they allow technically high and lofty super-structures. In fact, temples
with functional storeys are very few in post-Pallava times.

[ 225 ]

A crack running through the temple indicates that some mishap

occurred during the work and the boulder could not stand the carving.
The small shrine chamber, facing west, has a tiny veranda in front with
(simhapada) lion-pillars. A pedestal is carved from its rear-wall for the
image of the deity. Probably in later times a socket hole for a proportionally
much too large linga was cut into the floor of the shrine together with a
crude water outlet for the abhisheka water in the northern wall.
The adhisthana or base of the temple is of the padabandha type; the
square holes in it were probably meant to receive separately carved
vyalas. Vyalas friezes are a common motive in Pallava and Chola temples
of the following centuries, but there the vyalas are monolithic, carved
from the stone of the temple itself. The strongly recessed walls are offset
thrice, at the two corners and in the middle of each side, their niches
being framed by the slim pilasters of the Mamalla period.
The most interesting feature of the Arjuna Ratha, similar to the
Dharmaraja Ratha, are its figure sculptures in the numerous niches of the
ground floor. Emanating from the stonewalls of the temple as if impelled
by a centrifugal force they invite the devotee for the pradakshina. All
central niches (devakoshtas) contain divine figure the south it is Siva
Vrisabhantika, leaning on his bull, to the east Skanda is riding on his
elephant and to the north Vishnu is mounting his vehicle Garuda. Other
niches contain royal couples, kings and queens expressing by their
presence not only their close relationship to the divinity of the shrine, but

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also by their bearing the culture of the Pallava court. In the corner niches
we see princely youths, perhaps doorkeepers in pensive and devotional
mood. On the east face are probably two royal ladies, who pose not
without coquetry for the sculptor; especially noteworthy as a sculpture of
the typical Pallava spirit is the bearded rishi with his disciple who walks
enraptured towards some unknown goal.
About one of the princely doorkeepers of the Arjuna Ratha Sri
Aurobindo remarked: This example from one of the great styles and
periods shows, as is justly said, and shows very perfectly, the Indian
principle in the treatment of the human figure, the suppression of small
particulars and trivial details in order to secure an extreme simplicity of
form and contour, the best condition for accomplishing the principal
object of the Indian sculptor which was to fill the form with the utmost
power of spiritual force and significance. The figure of this princely
doorkeeper of the temple in its union of calm, grave, sweet and restful
serenity with a latent and restrained heroic energy in its stillness, is
indeed equal in its dignity and repose to any Greek statue, but it carries
in it a more profound and potent meaning; it is a perfect interpretation of
the still and intense Godward feeling, seized in one deep mood, in one
fixed moment of it which was the soul of the great ages of Indian religion.
There is here a perfection of from which a perfection of significance. This
restraint in power, this contained fullness opening an amplitude of infinite
suggestion is not on exceptional. It is a frequent greatness in the art of
India.

[ 227 ]

THE ADI VARAHA CAVE TEMPLE

The Adi Varaha cave temple is certainly the most exceptional and
interesting creation of the Mamalla period-exceptional because of the
high maturity of some of its sculptures, and interesting because of its
contradictory and somewhat enigmatic inscription. It is carved into the
western face of the large granite hill at its southern end, having a vast
landscape in front, which in ancient times could have been a riverbed or
a lagoon. It is not impossible that Narasimhas new harbour was located
there as it would be an ideal place for ships to ride at anchor. The
centuries have changed the face of the landscape so much that it is
difficult to imagine the original scenery. In an early Chola inscription of
the time of Rajendra I (11 th century AD) the cave temple is called
Paramesvara-Maha- Varaha- Vishnu Griham indicating that it was
completed and consecrated by King Paramesvara.
The Adi Varaha cave temple (as it is now called to distinguish it
from the Varaha cave temple at the northern and upper end of the hill)
marks a culmination in Pallava cave architecture and sculpture. The fact
that two large and dominating panels in its interior represent Pallava
kings, indicates that it must have been specially patronized by the royal
family. Though favoured in those princely days, it was doomed to
obscuration by unsightly structures in later centuries and to oblivion and
neglect in modern times. James Ferguson wrote in the middle of the last
century, ...it is not accessible to strangers, and its contents are only
known by hearsay and what can be seen from outside. Even though at

[ 228 ]

present it is accessible to everyone, it is hardly known as its gates are

locked except for the short time of the morning puja. And thus, this
precious jewel of a great school of art remains hidden and enclosed and
its sculptural treasures are generally known only from photographs.
The most outstanding panels in its interior are a Gaja-Lakshmi
group, perhaps the most beautiful in Indian art; a rare scene with a
dancing Durga; two compositions with sculptures of Pallava kings and a
fine Gangadhara panel.
The Siva Gangadhara is found on the northern wall of the mandapa
hall in its left corner niche, where he stands in elegant tribhanga, retaining
a tremendous strength with graceful ease. This strength will enable him
to catch the impetuous river goddess, Ganga, (seen on the upper left
corner of the panel) in one of his tresses, which he (holds out with his
upper right hand.1 The sculpture strongly reminds one of the Gangadhara
in the Lalitankura cave temple of Trichy, with which it shares the
masterfully represented inner poise. In both panels, the cobra is found
(here coiled around the waist of the god) with its head raised in agitation,
the helpless creature being caught by the tension and thrill of the momentsensations which are playfully mastered by the god. Sivas tall crown is
elaborately formed out of his tresses and kept in place by a plaque.
According to the fashion of the time he wears two different ear ornaments
on either side and the tight fitting cloth around the hips. The human type

1.

The story of the 'Descent of the Ganga' is told on page 69.

[ 229 ]

is exceeded in this figure; in its nobility and clarity it belongs to the great
masterpieces of the time.
The sculpture of Brahma in the corresponding niche on the opposite
and southern wall has a certain similarity with the Gangadhara, regarding
the jatamakuta or the mudras of his hands. Brahma with three of his four
faces visible, wears a diaphanous cloth reaching down to his ankles with
a fold in between the legs. Both his ears are pierced and elongated, but
without ear ornaments.
By the side of the Gangadhara sculpture on the northern wall is the
large bas-relief of a king, sitting on a throne-like stool with lion legs. His
right hand is raised in the chinmudra, indicating spiritual wisdom, while
his left is clenched in a fist and placed on his left thigh. He is attended
by two ladies, perhaps his queens, who stand respectfully, almost shy, at
either side of him. The king, a serious and orintal figure, wears no
ornaments, except for a short crown (kirita makuta) and a heavy necklace.
The inscription in Pallava Grantha script above the panel reads: Sri
Simhavinna pottr athirajan.
In the corresponding niche on the opposite and southern wall is
another royal group, though of a very different kind, not static and
symmetric, but full of life and movement. A king is leading his two
queens towards the shrine chamber of the temple. All three figures move
perfectly free and natural and are linked together by a strong vibration of
joyous expectation. The king, in a simple dress and almost unadorned

[ 230 ]

an excellent representation of an ancient sovereignapproaches the

shrine in gentle reverence, his face shining in deep happiness. His ladies,
slim and courtly, are obviously sharing his anticipated joy. Their heads
with the tall crowns are most gracefully turned outward, as if they were
trying to spot the object to which the king is pointing. In their light and
diaphanous garments they look almost nude. Amazing are their enormous
ear ornaments, different on either side and dangling down below their
shoulders. Such natural charm as represented in this group is rare in
Indian art. An inscription above reads: Sri Mahendra pottr athirajan.
The two large niches on either side of the shrine front, contain
compositions of GajaLakshmi on the northern and Durga on the southern
side. The GajaLakshmi group is almost the exact copy of that in the upper
Varaha cave templehere too, the goddess is dominating the scene,
sitting on her lotus throne and being attended by four maidens while
cloud elephants pour water over her. Not only is the conception of the
figures slightly different, but also their execution seems to be more
mature. There, she and her reluctant girls are clearly strangers in this
gross material world into which they have emerged from the milk ocean,
whereas here, the maidens are fully conscious of themselves, and their
faces illumined by a smile of reverence and joy, betray that they are
perfectly happy on this earth. Not clustered together in shyness as in the
upper Varaha panel, they walk separately behind each other, each one an
independent and fully formed personality. They are extremely beautiful,
of an unearthly charm and grace, and certainly belong to the finest figural

[ 231 ]

representations of the time. GajaLakshmi too is a sovereign goddess here,

proud and imperious, and fully aware of the power, with which she
permeates the world. She and her girls are clad in a shore1 almost
invisible cloth around the waist. Gajalaksmis crown is a karanda makuta,
formed by her hair, whereas her maidens wear a kirita makuta. All have
the large ear ornaments of the time (patrakundala) and all wear simple
bracelets, anklets and necklaces.
The eightarmed Durga on the southern side of the shrine is slim and
tall and stands with her right leg bent in graceful tribhanga on the severed
head of Mahisasura actually she looks as if she were dancing on it.
Relaxed and serene, nothing but the weapons in her hands points to the
terrible fight between her and the buffalo demon. Behind her, a pillar with
a trident on top is visible. At the two extreme upper corners behind the
flying ganas are the head of a lion and an antelope, often found in Durga
panels in the South. The two maidens on either side of her are certainly
dvarapalikas, one leaning on her bow while the other is holding a short
sword. A warrior-like figure kneels at her feet, holding a sword under his
arm and piercing his left palm with a dagger as a sort of blood sacrifice.
Perhaps this manual offering is the first step of the sacrificial ceremony
of offering flesh from the nine parts of the body (navakhanda), before the
final head-offering is performed, as narrated in the Mallam hero stoneinscription of Kampavarman Paliava.2 Opposite this figure of the warrior,
1.

2.

Dr. Sivaramamurthi interprets the scene in a different way. According to him, it

represents Siva as Kirata and the submis sive. Arjuna receiving the pasupata
bow which he identifies as the serpent-like object in Siva's hands.
K.R. Srinivasan in 'Cave temple of the Pallavas'.

[ 232 ]

another devotee is kneeling with his right hand raised in adoration and
holding a lotus flower in the left. Dr. Minakshi in her book Administration
and Social Life under the Pallavas, expresses the opinion that the
warrior figure is about to cut and offer the head of the devotee opposite.
It would then be the scene of a human sacrifice, the practice of which was
nothing unusual in Pallava days. The purpose of such sacrifice was the
propitiation of the goddess.
Six corresponding narrow niches on either side of the shrine
entrance contain a standing Vishnu and opposite a Harihara, a standing
naga figure with a five headed serpent hood and a similar figure on the
other side with-out a hood; in the two niches flanking the shrine entrance
are dvarapalas (partly enclosed by a modern brick-wall) facing each other
with one hand raised in adoration. The shrine chamber contains a large
and fine stucco basrelief of Bhu Varaha, the boar incarnation of Vishnu
with Bhu Devi in his arms, the origin of which is not to be sought in
Pallava times. Of the image installed at the inauguration of the temple
nothing is known.
An interesting inscription in the large florid characters of the
Pallava Grantha script is carved into the floor of the mandapa. It is an
imprecatory verse, cursing six times those in whose hearts does not
dwell Rudra, the deliverer from walking on the evil patha strange
statement indeed in a Vishnu temple. The inscription is identical in text
and script with others found in the Ganesha Ratha, Dharmaraja Mandapam
cave temple (not the same as the Dharmaraja Ratha), the Ramanuja

[ 233 ]

Mandapam cave temple, all built and completed by Paramesvaravarman

and all dedicated to Siva1.
The first inscription cursing everybody who is not worshipping
Rudra, in a Vishnu temple, is a sort of incompatibility in itself. Without
entering a scholarly debate we may assume that the temple at the time of
its inauguration was dedicated to Siva and only at a later time taken over
by the Vaishnavas, who named it Maha Varaha Vishnu Griham adding the
name of Paramesvara, who built and inaugurated the temple: ParamesvaraMaha-Varaha-Vishnu Griham. Even in the distribution of Vaishnava and
Saivaite sculptures in the mandapa, nothing points to a predominance of
Vaishnava figures. The inscription, enumerating the ten avatars of Vishnu,
must have been engraved some 150 years later when the temple was taken
over by the Vaishnavas. The Pallavas between 6th and 7th century were
staunch Saivas, particularly King Paramesvara, and it is most unlikely
that a temple affiliated to the royal family in a special way should have
been dedicated to Vishnu during that period.
Some Architectural Details: The cave temple consists of a large
pillared hall (mandapa) with a rectangular shrine chamber adjoined to it.
There are two rows of pillars: four facade pillars with a pilaster on either
end, partly enclosed by a modern brick wall and two pillars in the interior,
which divide the hall into the front mukha-mandapa and a rear
1.

Another long inscription over the niche south to the shrine entrance enumerates
the ten incarnations of Vishnu and is the earliest known enumeration of the kind,
especially interesting in that it has not included the name of Krishna but that of
Buddha in the ten avatars.

[ 234 ]

ardhamandapa. The facade pillars are vyala-based, showing all the parts
of the classical Mamalla pillar, all having an octagonal form, even the
virakantha, which carries the corbels with large decorative rolls (taranga).
The erected tails of the vyalas form a double loop, frequently seen on
lions and vyalas of the Mamalla period, perhaps first on the lion panels
of Siyamangalam. Above the corbels runs the beam and the flexed cornice
of the facade with kudu-arches, all partly or fully enclosed by modern
structures. Above the cornice a line of miniature shrines becomes visible,
indicating from outside that a cave temple is hidden behind the cluster of
unsightly buildings.
The two pillars in the interior have a large gap between them,
leaving the hall wide and spacious. They are plain and without vyala base,
throughout octagonal with a band in the middle height of the shaft
(madhya bandha) and another at its top (padma bandha). A moulded
base, about two feet high, runs around the shrine and extends further to
the walls of the hall. A flexed cornice with kudu-arches extends over the
shrine front, the rear walls at either side of the shrine and further on to
the northern and southern walls of the hall.
THE DHARMARAJA RATHA
The material in which we work makes its own peculiar demand on
the creative spirit, lays down its own natural conditions, ...and the art of
making in stone or bronze calls for a cast of mind which the ancients had
and the moderns have not or have had only in rare individuals, an artistic

[ 235 ]

mind not too rapidly mobile and selfindulgent, not too much mastered by
its own personality and emotion and the touches that excite and pass, but
founded rather on some great basis of assured thought and vision, stable
in temperament, fixed in its imagina-tion on things that are firm and
enduring. One cannot trifle with ease in these sterner materials, one
cannot even for long or with safety indulge in them in mere grace and
external beauty or the more superficial, mobile and lightly attractive
motives. The aesthetic self-indulgence which the soul of colour permits
and even invites, the attraction of the mobile play of life to which line of
brush, pen or pencil gives latitude, are here forbidden or, if to some extent
achieved, only within a line of restraint to cross which is perilous and
soon fatal. Here grand or profound motives are called for, a more or less
penetrating spiritual vision or some sense of things eternal to base the
creation. The sculptural art is static, self-contained, necessarily firm,
noble or severe and demands an aesthetic spirit capable of these qualities.1
The Dharmaraja Ratha has been designed and shaped by masterarchitects and sculptors. It is the largest and most elaborate of the rathas
and widely regarded as the best architectural achievement of the Pallava
period. (It is therefore treated here at some length.) K. R. Srinivasan says,
The rhythm of its receding talas has never been excelled nor has the
marvellous sikhara, which so gracefully tops it. Its strong timber-look,
combined with the high fineness of its stone carving, its perfect proportions
generate a sense of architectural transcendence, that goes well beyond its
1.

Sri Aurobindo: The Rennaisance of India, SABCL 14, 228.

[ 236 ]

formal origins.1 But the Dharmaraja Ratha has not only reached a
singular per-fection of formit is also replete with rare iconography and
fine figure sculptures, some of them belonging to the best of the Pallava
period. Moreover, it is an excellent example of the perfect coalescence of
build-ing and sculpture, so unique in Indian Art, the latter not being an
added ornament, but emerging from the material of the structure itself. It
was probably started by Narasimhavarman Mahamalla late in his reign
and the work extended far into the time of Paramesvara 1. It was he who
introduced the Somaskanda panel in the sanctuary of the upper storey and
named the shrine Atyantakama Pallavesvaragriham. He obviously
inaugurated it though the lower parts of the temple were still incomplete.
The Dharmaraja Ratha is a three-storeyed monolithic temple (tala
a vimana), all storeys being accessible and each conceived to have a
shrine chamber. The temple is square up to the architrave (prastara) of its
upper storey and octagonal in the part of its clerestory (griva) and roof
(sikhara). The string of miniature shrines on each storey are separated by
an aisle from the richy segmented walls of the temple, leaving a passage
to walk around. The niches in the walls on all three storeys, flanked by
slim pilasters, contain a large number of figure sculptures. The temple
faces west and has a short vestibule (mukhamandapa) in front. This type
of temple, a stone replica of an ancient Dravidian shrine, square in its
base with pyramidically recessed storeys and crowned by a domical roof
is not only beautiful as such, but became the model of innumerable South
Indian temples which evolved from it in various ways.
1.

Encycl. of Indian Arch., K.R. Srinivasa: The Pallava, of Kanchi.

[ 237 ]

As the work proceeded from top to bottom, the ground floor or

aditala was shaped last and is the most incomplete, except for its eight
life-size figure sculptures, two at each corner. It was conceived to have
a pillared hall (mandapa) around the central shrine with entrances on all
four sides, the principal one opening on to the west. The lion-based pillars
and pilasters are all incomplete, whereas the entablature above them,
con-sisting of beam and cornice are cut in full detail. Beneath the cornice
(kapota), decorated with kudu-arches, is a frieze of bhuta ganas. On top
of the kapota are figurations of prostrate beings, monkeys, lions and
humans, forming open water chutes, a novelty in early Pallava architecture.
The ground floor architrave is terminated by a vyala frieze, which is the
base of the miniature shrines of the first floor or madhyatala. They consist
of karnakutas, salas and panjaras, all interconnected by harantara members.
The rear parts of the miniature shrines, adjoining the ambulatory passage,
are not fully shaped, but cut down vertically in order to get the maximum
width for a person to walk around.On the western side of the first floor
or madryatala is a shallow shrine chamber hewn out of the rock with a
small-pillared vestibule in front. The recesses on either end of the shrineentrance contain the fragmentary sculptures of doorkeepers. On the east
side of this tala is a double stair-case, one at either side with a flight of
steps, cut laterally into a central landing and providing access to the third
floor.The third floor or uparitala, being of a lesser square and lesser
height, repeats essentially the same features of the madhyatala but with
the sanctuary fully completed. It is dedicated to Siva in the form of

[ 238 ]

Somaskanda, the panel of which is sculptured into its rear-wall.

Doorkeepers are cut into the recessed niches on either side of the shrine
entrance.
The octagonal clerestory rises from behind the miniature shrines of
the uparitala, with eight corner pilasters which end in projecting kuduarches (nasika). In the original structures the nasikas were windows in the
roof serving for ventilation. Beneath the edges of the roof is a bhuta gana
frieze, interrupted at each corner by a rearing ryala. The flexed roof
(szkhara) forms a dome of excellent proportions and is regarded as the
most perfectly and gracefully shaped Pallava szkhara. The floral designs
over its eight corners are typical of embossed brass-work and suggest that
in the original structure the roof was fully or partly covered by metal
sheets. On top of the sikhara is a lotus base, into which the stupi was to
be inserted. The stupi was carved separately and is found at the bottom
near the east corner of the temple. It has not been fixed, as the placing
of the stupi is done simultaneously with the inauguration of the temple.The
Sculptures of the Dharmaraja Ratha: A rich variety of sculpturesdivine,
semidivine and humaover the recessed walls of the Dharmaraja Ratha,
conveying a highly interesting picture of early Pallava sculpture and
iconography, many of the representations being marked by the ingenious
and inventive freshness of a youthful era. Their general features are those
generally found in Pallava sculpture of the 7th centurydear outlines and
a natural grace of forms and movements, tall and slim bodies with
somewhat elongated faces. Ornaments and accoutrement are simple and

[ 239 ]

sparse, the sculptor concentrating mainly on form and expression. The

entire series of fifty sculptures was carved in situ out of the granitoid
rock, which, in the Dharmaraja Ratha with its narrow aisles in the upper
storeys, involved the most difficult work for the sculptor. The majority of
divine figures are Saivaite, personifications of Siva as the main deity of
the temple representing him in his various aspects. A few examples are
given below :
The Vrsabhantika motif, Siva leaning on his bull Nandi, symbol of
the relationship between God and God-lover or bhakta is a particularly
favourite subject of the Pallavas in this period and appears twice in the
madhyatala of the Dharmaraja Ratha. In one of the two panels at the
southern side Siva, an elegant and courtly appearance, is leaning in
graceful and relaxed tribhanga on Nandi in his human form. Nandikesvara
was the son of a rishi, given to him by Siva in response to his severe
austerities; actually he was an emanation of Siva himself in a human
body. Grown up, the boy, who was of dwarfish appearance, became an
ardent follower of Siva, whom he served with great devotion and in
return, the god endowed him with many superhuman qualities. The name
Nandikesvara means the tawny coloured dwarf. In later times, Nandi is
usually represented as Sivas bull and vehicle, whereas in earlier and
rather rare representations, as here, he is also seen in his human form in
accor-dance with the Puranic story. Sivas noble face shines with a smile
of love and benignity. The same motif is shown again at the northern side
in a somewhat different and very intimate conception-Siva caressing

[ 240 ]

Nandi in his bull-form, while leaning on him, his face absorbed in deep
inner contemplation, indicating his state of oneness with Nandi (and all
creatures). Another panel on this tala shows Siva in his aspect of
annihilation, overwhelming the asura Andhaka. At a certain time, Andhaka
was the terrible chief of the asuras. One day, he came to Mount Kailash
with the in-tention to carry away Parvati, whereupon a violent encounter
with Lord Siva ensued. When Siva shot an arrow at the asura and blood
started to flow out of his body, each drop of it assumed as it touched the
earth, the shape of another Andhaka asura. Thus, thousands of Andhakas
arose to fight against Siva. Immediately Siva thrust his trisula through the
original Andhaka and Vishnu, who assisted Siva in this terrible battle,
destroyed with his chakra the asuras, who had sprung from the blood
drops. Then, from a flame issuing out of his mouth, Siva created a sakthi,
called Yogesvari, who caught with a bowl the blood falling on the earth.
Thus, the further multiplication of asuras was stopped. In the panel we see
Andhaka who lies wailing at the feet of Siva, his face terrors truck and
marked by the dreadful fight. Siva however, in spite of his powerful
stance is completely detached, even unaware of Andhaka, whom he seems
to have forgotten, as is shown by the fact that his deadly weapon, the
trisula lies loosely and reversed in his hand. Typical in Pallava sculpture,
here too, neither the terrible or Hgra aspect of Siva is shown nor the
violent climax of the battle itself. Sivas face is not marked by the triumph
of the victor, but reflects unfathomable thought and the self-restraint of
infinite power. A rare example of Saivaite iconography is Siva as Guru,

[ 241 ]

embracing his beloved and foremost disciple Candesaa unique scene of

intimacy between the divine friend and guide who pours out tenderness
and support and his disciple, shown in a state of utter submission the
Adorer and Adored, self-lost and one.1 Another very rare piece of
iconography is Siva as Natacarya or Master of Dance, instructing the sage
Tandu in the art of dancing (hence the name of his dance Tandava).
Divine figures other than Siva are Vishnu who is represented only
twice (and once in the Somaskanda group of the shrine in the upper
storey). One panel shows him with his typical high crown, mounting the
kneeling Garuda, who, like Nandikesvara, is seen as a young boy.
Brahman is represented only once in the aditala (and once.in the above
mentioned Somaskanda group). Chandra (Moon) is found at the northern
face of the madhyatala and Surya (Sun) at the eastern face of the same
tala or storey.
Among the semi divine figures the dvarapala of the upper storey
(upparitala) is noteworthy because of his expressiveness. Wearing his
kauPina and the loosely coiled vastra around the thighs with great charm,
he leans on his club, beaming with expectancy and joy, perhaps waiting
for a devotee to come and enter the transmuting presence of his lord.
The human figures are mainly represented by sculptures of devotees
in attitude of utter reverence and adoration, usually holding a flower in
their hand. Not only the face, the eyes, the pose but the whole body and
1.

Dr. Sivaramamurthi interprets the scene in a different way. According to him, it

represents Siva as Kirata and the submis sive. Arjuna receiving the pasupata
bow which he identifies as the serpent-like object in Siva's hands.

[ 242 ]

every curve and every detail aid in the effect and seem to be concentrated
into the essence of absolute adoration, submission, ecstasy, love, tenderness
which is the Indian idea of bhakti. These are not figures of devotees, but
of the very personality of devotion. Yet while the Indian mind is seized
and penetrated to the very root of its being by this living and embodied
ecstasy, it is quite possible that the Occidental, not trained in the same
spiritual culture, would miss almost entirely the meaning of the image and
might only see a man praying.1 A singular feature of this ratha are the
four figures behind the landing of the staircase on the east-side of the
madhyatala, representing the most important persons of the temple
servicethe serene head priest or arcaka with a basket of offering
flowers, the enraptured bard or stavaka with his vina, the bearded and
dutiful paricaraka, ringing the bell and the complacent cook or svayampaki
with a food bowl on his shouldersall of them expressing intensely the
work connected with their service for the temple. Figures representing the
temple servants on the walls of the shrine are rare in Indian art and not
found in any other Pallava temple.The most beautiful figure, however,
and among the fifty, the only feminine one (except Uma in the Somaskanda
group), is a girl carrying a basket with offerings towards the shrine of the
madhyatala. Her young and slim figure is covered by nothing but a piece
of cloth fastened around her thighs. Earnest and composed, concentrating
on her encounter with the god of shrine, she represents all that is best in
Pallava sculpture graceful-ness, inwardness, dignity and the beauty
which roots in an inner state of being.
1.

Sri Aurobindo: Hour of God, SABCL 17, p. 280.

[ 243 ]

The eight sculptures in the corner niches of the ground floor differ
somewhat in style, costumes and expression from the figures above,
forming a group by themselves. They are probably made by a different
team of sculptors and belong to a slightly earlier period. All of them are
marked by a static pose and certain heaviness, perhaps somewhat similar
to the figures inside the shrines of the Trimurthi cave temple. Especially
noteworthy for their expressiveness are Harihara and Siva Ardhanarisvara.
A portrait sculpture of King Narasimha Mahamalla is seen at the southwest
corner of the temple.
Inscriptions: There are a number of inscriptions (altogether 38)
above the sculptural panels distributed at random over the talas. Except
for the names Narasimha and Mahamalla, they consist mainly of cognomens
or titles (birndas), which can be assumed as already mentioned by more
than one king in succession. By epigraphicalevidence it is presumed that
the birudas on the Dharmaraja Ratha refer to King Narasimha Mahamalla
and King Paramesvaravarman I, his grandson.
Among the birudas are:
srimagha

the possessor of the world

apratihatasana

he whose commands are un-opposed

sthirabhakti

the firmly devoted

mayanamonahara

he who is pleasing to the eyes

atyantakama

he whose desires are boundless

prithivisara

the best on earth

sribhara

the bearer of prosperity

[ 244 ]

4.1.2 MUHUNDANAYAR TEMPLE

Muhundanayar temple is located in mahapalipuram hill.
Avantisundari kathasaram written by Dandi who florised in simhavishnus
court stated that in muhundanayar temple no frances of all these temple
on main deities of these temple are visible probably all temples were built
with breaks and the main deities were painted on the back wall of the
sanctum and all have perished by the ruthless hands of time.
It also confirmed by the inscriptions on the wall of Laksitayatana
cave tamples of mandapattu. There he inscribed The brickless, timberless,
metalless and mortarless mansion of Laksita was caused to be made king
Vichitrachitta for Bhahma, Iswara and Vishnu. This inscription shows that
this is the first temples of this type in Tamil Land. It is clear by this
inscriptions that before the temples did exist but they were constructed in
perishable Materials like, brick mortar, timber, etc. This is the first time
he executed solid rock and the stone sculptures also originated with.
4.1.3 SHIVA TEMPLE
Various forms of Siva adorn the walls and the devakulikas of the
Kailasanath temple. Among them the Lingodhava murtI Siva is well
preserved. Probably, the figure is the first representation of its kind during
the Pallava period. The story behind this figure is very interesting and
also psychological. As in human beings so among the Gods we find the
ambition for supremacy. At the time of deluge Vishnu alone was floating
in the water on the Sesanaga and from the lotus of his navel Brahma was

[ 245 ]

born. He saw nothing except water. Then he came down and saw Vishnu
with four hands. A quarrel started between these two deities for supremacy.
While they were arguing in the timeless void a Lingam with infinite
measure appeared between them. Both looked amazingly at the Lingam.
They could imagine neither its height nor its depth. Then Brahma soared
high on his Hamsa Vahana to find the top end while Vishnu in his boar
form plunged into the earth to find the root. Both efforts failed. Vishnu
agreed that he could not find the beginning, but Brahma spoke a lie that
he had discovered the end. In the meanwhile the Lingam burst out in the
middle and Siva revealed himself and proclaimed his own supremacy.
Brahma is deprived of his worship in the temples because of the lie he
spoke. This story is explicitly illustrated in this Lingodbhava murti.
However, instead of the cylindrical type of the Lingam as in the chola
figures where this scene is very common, the Pallavas introduced a
rectangular frame in which Siva appears in his human form. Visnu in the
form of Adivaraha with his four hands digging the earth, is carved under
the Linga and Brahma appears flying up in his original form in the upper
portion of the right side of the Lingam. Siva appears in his Chandrasekhara
form with eight hands having parasu and trisula in the right and left
hands respectively. His other two hands are in the Abhaya and Varada
mudras. We cannot determine his other attributes. The crescent moon
embellishes his crown. In the lower portion the niches of right and left
contain figures of Brahma and Vishnu in the attitude of paying homage.Siva in this myth is represented as winning a momentous victory over the

[ 246 ]

other two supreme divinities of .the Hindu triad, Brahma and Vishnu and
this victory, if we may judge from the literary remains, corresponds to an
actual, historical development. For the earlier and classic puranas
(Vishnu-purarna, Matsyapural, Matsyapurana, Brahmapurana and others)
Siva is no more than a function or mask assumed by Vishnu whenever the
moment approaches for the reabsorption of the universe. Only in a later
stratification of puranic myth (Markandeyapurana and Kurmapurana) do
we find Siva ling to the fore to enact independently and alone all three of
the great world roles of creation, preservation and destruction.
The story also says that Brahma became the object of Sivas anger,
thenceforward he was. rived of worship. The Ketaki flower was also
exclued from the rituals because it bore false-lence in favour of Brahma.
Thus it seems the worship of Siva replaced the worship of Brahma.
The story is given a dramatic touch but the truth remains that both
Brahma and Vishnu, foremost amongst Gods, do not compressed the
mystery and the transcendent nature of Indra-Siva who is the pillar of fire
or Tower of light supporting the whole universe as the Axis nandi that
fills the interval between mother earth and father heaven. He is like an
arrow that protects the two ends of the creative substance, the supreme
reality behind the universe.
Brahma represents the approach of intellect which is equipped
with the power of argument arithmatical computation. It throws a challenge
to the mathematics of infinity. But it fails the plenum of Transcendence

[ 247 ]

does not become the vacuum of creation. Howsoever one may try squeeze
the infinite within the dimensions of the finite one can never succeed to
adjust it within the limits of the known or within the procrustean bed of
ones intellect. Ours is said to be -expanding universe expanding in Time
and space and the process of creation has not reached ends and will not
do so within our comprehension.
The other approach is that of metaphysics where the power of
intuition straight way accepts transcendence of the divine and declares it
to be beyond intellectual comprehension but only worthy of realisation
with the infinite power of the soul and operation of the spiritual laws,
hiding in the human heart.
The first and foremost representation of this form of the Lingodbhava
murti is probably the nandimallam Siva, where the full form of Siva is
carved standing on a gala. Later in Chola period agodbhava form became
common. This form is favoured mostly by South Indian artistes. In worth
it is not common, although the Mukhalingas were frequently produced in
the Gupta period. There is an Agni Linga in the collection of Bharat Kala
Bhavan (Banaras-probably ninth century A.D.) in which the flames are
carved on both the sides of the Linga and Brahma ridings swan and
Vishnu in the form of a boar going in opposite direction. It stands on a
lotus pedestal.
In this figure the right leg is lifted up as if the God is going to
thump the ground while the left leg is slightly bent and planted upon the

[ 248 ]

ground. He has eight hands, one is in the pataka pose and another is in
the Abhaya hasta. The remaining hands are in various dance poses. Out
of his Jatamukuta one of the strands branches off oil the left side and
Ganga with her folded hands is shown seated on the same. Here she looks
like a Nagin with five hooded canopy and her back portion is also like
the tail of a serpent, a reptile which is associated with representation of
water in Indian art. Hence probably the sculptor wants to show that the
water is flowing from Sivas jattas. Parvati is witnessing the dance sitting
by his side. Alongwith the Nrtyamurtis of Siva his Sarhhdrmurtis and
Anugrahumurtis are also illustrated on the walls of the garbhagrha and
also in devakulikas. Among them the Tripurasura samhara-murti (Fig.
100), the Chandesanugrahmurti, Vishnu anugrahmurti, the Kankala-murti,
etc. will be discussed here. In the Tipurasur samharamurti panel. Siva is
seated in the alidha posture wielding a bow in one of his eight hands
another hand is at the Kali but other objects held in the rest of the hands
are not clear. He is gazing in the direction of his enemy who however is
not explicitly shown here. Brahma as charioteer is sitting by his side. The
chariot is not illustrated here. A chhatra at the top shows his superiority.
According to tradition, the three demon brothers acquired special powers
by intensive penance done for a long time and constructed three cities for
themselves one in the firmament, one on earth, and one in the atmosphere
between. These three fortresses became a centre of demon chaos and
world tyranny, practically unassailable. And through the power of his

[ 249 ]

yoga he brought it about that this mighty keep should never be conquered
unless pierced by a single arrow: Siva alone could do this being an
huntsman according to the Vedic tradition. Prthvi became his chariot,
Brahma his. charioteer, Surya and Chandra the wheels of the chariot, the
four Vedas became the horses and Mallara hill his bow and Vishnu
himself his arrow. With all these cosmic equipment Siva with one stroke
destroyed the three cities. In this present composition the chariot is not
seen but charioteer Brahma is there. It was probably damaged and
restored rather in a casual manner. In Ellora the whole theme is depicted
very well. Two,handed Siva riding on his chariot in the alidha posture and
he is shooting the arrow. The chariot with the horses and its charioteer
Brahma are also shown. The three cities are executed in the exergue; the
god is shown shooting at the city demons.
The next figure represents the Gajasura Samharamurti Siva. He is
again in-the alidha posture having eight hands; he holds a bow. Behind
his is Visnu with folded hands. The plaster is applied to the attenuated
figure in such a manner that the whole figure has lost its elegance. Thus
the objects in his hands are not clear.
A number of the Anugraha murtis are also executed. Among them
the Chandesanugrahmurti and the Visnanugrahmurti are well depicted. In
the Chanddanugrahamurti, handed Siva is bestowing abhaya to Chandda.
The father of Chandesa is prostrate on the and with his- left hand in the
Vismaya pose while Chandesa is standing holding an axe. This is very
common in Chola period, but the Chola examples are shown with Siva
winding a on Chandesas head which is only a symbolic representation.

[ 250 ]

In the Visnanugrahamurti, Visnu is offering something to Siva. It is

also suggested later Siva bestowed him with a chakra. Here the figure of
Visnu is carved beautifully.
In the Kankalamurti of Siva the God is carrying on his trisula, the
dead body of the door keeper of Visnu who baned his way to the inner
apartments. This trisula goddesses the Gods shoulder. He wears Padukas
and his jata is flowing. Some of his devotees are among homage to him.
This Kankalamurti is the second example of its class, being the one on the
Dharmaraja Ratha. Later on in Chola period it became more popular. In
the praga disvara temple at Tanjore this figure was combined with
Bhikshatanamurti and the two were showed with grace and vividness.
4.1.4 VAIKUNTHA PERUMAL TEMPI.E
This building stands at the other end of the town, almost due east
from the Kailasanadha temple, and a few hundred yards west from the
Kanchipuram railway station.
In size, archreological and architectural importance, it is of the
group of Pallava templessecond to the Kailasanadha. The most important
and interesting feature in the building is the vimana tower, which bears
a distinct resembalance to the ancient viharas.1
This vimdna has a tier of three shrines, one over the othor.2
1.
2.

See Fergusson : Ind. and Eas. Arch., p. 134, pl. 67.

This arrangement is identical with that at the "Dharmaraja's Ratha" is
Mamallapuram.

[ 251 ]

The lowest shrine is surrounded by three walls and two covered

prakaras. The first or inner shrine wall encloses the three shrines through
being carried right up above the ceiling of the uppermost one. The second
wall encloses the covered first prakaras of the first and second upper
shrines and forms an open platform round the third shrine. The third wall
encloses the second covered prakara of the first shrine, is carried up and
forms an open platform round the second shrine.
The general plan is the shrine with double prakaras, enclosed in a
courtyard with a covered verandah on the four sides. The shrine enters
from the east through an ardhamandapam. On the east side of the
eourtyard is the mahamandapam entirely roofed over, and open on its east
and west sides only; a modern addition has been added to the front faade
leaving a door only, open on that side. Some distance to the east, in an
unfinished Vijayanagar gopuram; it is only carried upto the ceiling of the
entrance door. On the external sides of the entrance is a raied platform,
with a six-pillared verandah; two panels on the exterior. To the west of
the gopurambetween it, and the entrance to the temple through the
mahamandapamare a small shrine, pitam, and dhvajastambam.
The exterior of the courtyard wall is divided into bays by yali
pilasters, with pinnacles surmounting the wall. In the bays are niches,
with carved pedimental ornament over. A moulded base surrounded the
sides, and the wall head is capped by a double moulded cornice, with
carved blocks and moulded blocking course over.

[ 252 ]

The treatment of design in the niches is similar to those on cave

No. 21, at Mamailapuram.
The eastern wing of the mahamandapam is comparatively modern;
its piars are some what plain and of ordinary design. A small panel in the
same building, and one of the piers. On the inner sides of the building are
a series of six enclosed and two open chambers; these divisions are
simply formed by stone and mud walls.
The ardhamandapam is attached to, and is the porch through which
the shrine is entered. It has eight yali piers, and four pilasters of a
distinctive Pallava type. On the east side of the inner shrine wall is a
panel and other on the north and south sides of the second shrine wall.
The external prakara walls of the shrine, and ardhamandapam are also
panel sculptured. The upper portion of the tower is also similarly
ornamented; the details of the several panels will be seen on the different
sheets, and their positionon the elevations. On the base of the vimana,
are inscriptions in Tamil and Sanskrit. In the first shrine is a large seated
figure of Vishnu; in the second shrine is a relining figure of the same deity
with others; and there is also another in the third shrine. The second and
third shrines enter from the east side, off the platforms which surround the
tower at the different stages. The tower is ascended by a stone stair; and
is built of stone, plastered over.
The verandah surrounding the inner sides of the courtyard has
thirty-four yali piers similar to those in the ardhamandapam.

[ 253 ]

On the inner walls of the court is a continuous series of stone

sculptured panels, representing scenesevidently from one of the puranas,
but which it is difficult to say. The general grouping of the whole, and
style of the figures themselves, are very similar to those on the sculptured
frescoes of Arjunas penance, and the other unfinished bas-relief near
by, at Mamallapuram. The type of the figures seems very archaie, and
some representations of temples resemble the Bhimas Dharmarajahs
and other rathas at Mamallapuram. Through the action of the temple
priests in refusing admittance, to even the outer precincts, to a non-Hindu,
a description of the panels from the originals cannot be given; such
information therefore, as may be required about these and other details of
the interior, can only be had by a reference to the drawings.
4.1.5 KANCHI KAILASANADHAR TEMPLE
This building stands in the fields some distance to the west of the
town, and a few hundred yards south-west of the great Siva temple at
Kanchipuram.
As mentioned in the foregoing introductory remarks, it is, among
the group of Pallava temples, under notice, by far the most important.
For a South Indian temple, its plan is somewhat peculiar. It is
unusual, only through comparison with the generally accepted arrangement
seen in Dravidian Hindu temples; but these lattercompared with this are
comparatively modern; and the length of time that has elapsed from the
time to time of its building to the foundation of these others, has led to

[ 254 ]

the modifications of plan adapted to modern requirements. The plan has

undoubtedly seen, not an unusual one for Hindu temples in early days;
and similar buildings of a somewhat contemporary date, as wtill exist
leave no doubt on the subject. The excavations at the shore temple
Mamallapuram, which revealed a plan very similar. Some have supposed
that the Kailasanadha temple must, originally, have been a Jain shrine.
The popular idea is, that such was the case; but this, like some other
popular myths, will be found, on examination, to be a fallacy. In the great
wealth of sculpture represented, there is not a single figure that could by
any stretch of the imagination, be called Jain; and in a building such as
thiswhere almost every available space is sculptured with mythological
scenesthis is of itself, almost a convincing proof. If the temple had been
once a Jain shrine, we would surely have found some such figures on it,
but not a single one is so. The feature that has evidently led to this error,
is the peculiarity of the groups of cells ranged along each side of the
courtyard; and this, through a novel arrangement as far as temples in this
part of the Peninsula are concerned, is still seen in a modified form in
many or most of the large saivite temples in these districts. The cells were
originally occupied by linyas, each with its separate name, and representing
a different manifestation of Siva. Several of these still remain in position.
The usual somasutra opening, for carrying off the surplus water used in
the pujais seen through the side walls opposite each cell; they could not
face of each, give the names, either of the different lingas or titles of the
king who executed the buildings. They are all Saivite appellations.

[ 255 ]

Granting that these inscriptions (on the cells) might have been executed
afterwards, although there are no grounds for believing they have been
the very sculptures themselves, on each, leave no doubt as to the purpose
for which they were intended, or the religion to which they were devoted.
In other temples, the lingas of this sort, are arranged in a row, on a
platform along the prakara, placed side by side, but without a separate cell
for each linga. The arrangement employed at the Kailasanadha, is probably
a northern idea brought south, after some of their expeditions in that
quarter; and moreover, as it has been supposed that their sculpture was
also executed by workers from the north, this assumption may perhaps
prove correct. An arrangement, somewhat resembling the cells, is seen at
the Kailasa rock temple at Ellora.1 It is, however, evidently a later
development of the cells proper, being probably a transition between
these, and the usual verandah round the interior of the court, seen in more
modern temples. The idea of a group of minor shrines around the
principal one, is also seen in the example quoted, but differing in their
plan from that at the Kanchipuram temple.
GENERAL PLAN
The plan is comprised in a large, and a smaller courtyard, with a
central group of shrines placed towards the western extremity of the large
one. The central shrine is surmounted by a lofty pyramidal tower.
Originally, this group of shrines has stood completely detached. The

1.

Fargusson : Ind. and Eas. Arch., p. 334, pl. 186.

[ 256 ]

entrance to the central vimana has been from the east, and still is,
although now through the modern ardhamandapam.
At each corner, and on the north, south and west sides is a smaller
shrine. The original door to the vimana, on the east side, was through a
porch with a projection similar to these exterior lesser shrines. It is now
blocked up by the ardhamandapam. Each of these shrines, and the porch,
has a smaller tower, which rises up to, and is grouped alongside the
greater one. Near the base at each corner and face, between the projecting
shrines, a large nandi is placed on the ground.
On each side of the large court, is ranged a continuous series of
cells, each with a small tower and sikhara over it. These shikharas have
originally stood with their summits a appearing above the wall head of the
court, with nandis and elephants placed alternately on the wall head
between them. This would form a most effective grouping as a whole,
from the outside; but, for purposes of defence, or for some caprice or
other, the spaces between these sikharas have been blocked up with
masonry, composed of stone, brickwork and mud, so that now the outside
of this court, forms a continuous line of dead wall. The superincumbent
weight of this additional masonry, not originally contemplated, has caused
large gaps or cracks in several parts of the walls on which it is placed,
notably a few on the south side. The cell towers still show on the inside,
but not on the outer face of the courtyard wall. On the north and south
sides of this court, the cells directly opposite the central vimana are larger
than the others, and have a higher tower over them. The centre of the

[ 257 ]

western wall has an entrance gopuram, with a similar tower over; the door
is however, now blooked up. In front of the lare central shrineto the
east is the mahamandapam which has once steed detached from the
central group of shrines; but to suit modern requirements, is now joined
to the shrine by the ardhamandapam. The entrance door to this latter
building, is up a flight of steps, through a verandah on the south side; a
perforated stone window opens into the mahamandapam. This latter
structure is open on the four sides, with return walls at each of the corners
of the building. The north and south sides have simple openings, with a
pilaster on each jamb of the door, while the east and west sides, are
divided each by two massive piers. The space inside is divided into
compartments by similar supports placed at very short intervals.
To the east of the large court, is a lesser one; and to enter the
temple, it must first be passed through. A lesser temple stands in a line
with the centre of the wall dividing the two courts so that a half of it
projects into each. A door is then formed in the wall on each side of this
temple, by either of which, the large court is entered through the lesser.
The smaller court has an exterior door on its east, north and south sides.
Ranged along its eastern face are a series of eight small shrines, each with
a tower over it. They are open towards the east, and are similar in design
to some of the rathas at Mamallapuram. The shrines immediately adjacent
to the lesser court, or those immediately on each side of its eastern
entrance, are connected by the wall of the court; the others stands in a line
north and south, and have once been completely detached from each

[ 258 ]

other, through now the space between them has been filled in with rough
rubble work, blocking up the sculptured panels on their sides.
About 60 yards each of these, a large stone nandi stands on a
platform; and between it, and the rathas, is a circular wall 5 feet in
diameter- with some sculptured rakshasas cut on its walls some distance
below the surface of the ground. North of the nandi is a square reservoir
or tank, with stone steps on each of the four sides. The temple has
seemingly been originally comprised in the larger court only, and the
lesser afterwards added; the space of time between the two however,
could only have been a very few years, if even that, for the style of the
two is identical, and the addition of the lesser seems as through it had
been an after through of the builders of the large court.
That it was an addition is evident, as there are pilasters, with yalis
and riders, which return along the outside of the eastern wall of the large
court at regular intervals, and some are thus in the interior of the lesser
one. From their spacing, it is clearly seen that the north and south walls
of the east enclosure about against the yalis, in a way that would not have
occurred had the lesser court been part of the original design. This eastern
wall of the large court also bears evidence of having been partly
demolished in the centre, to admit of the placing of the temple which
stands immediately between the two enclosures. This temple must therefore
have been a later addition.
The plan bears a similarity in many respects to that of the shore
temple at Mamallapuram, as shewn by the excavations previously referred

[ 259 ]

to. In that temple, the shrines stand with a detached mandapam in front;
and on each of the sides of the court was found and raised platform with
pier bases remaining, as if cells, similar to those at the Kailasanadha
temple had been placed on them. The nandi placed on the ground at each
corner and face of the large shrine, where also sound. The two plans of
course differ in some points, even as other building-through in one style
of architecture may vary in their arrangement, according to the caprices
of their several designers. But a close examination reveals the fact that the
same general idea prevails in, and has been in the minds of the architects
of both.
In the sculptures we find- as before remarks- a complete
representation of the Saivite mythology. Siva shown as the great creator
and destroyer, with the deities Brahma and Vishnu each severally
represented doing homage to him.
The wealth of design, superiority and minuteness of execution so
largely shown, are simply marvelous. Whether the designs were suggested
by some master hand, or left to the individual sculptors themselves, is
somewhat difficult to know, but the continuity of arrangement, and
grouping of the entire series, show a through mastery of every details of
the art. Most of the carvings are covered with plaster, and this to a certain
extent hides their beauties, but in the many places where it has fallen off,
the original work is clearly seen. The plastering must have been done at
some late period, for the stonework underneath, has a weatherworn
appearance, only traceable to the action of many centuries of time. The

[ 260 ]

stone floral work is most minutely cut, and, in places where the plaster
has been laid on, over the stone carvings, the work underneath has been
roughly represented by outline impressions made by some implement on
the wet mortar, resembling the work which it covers. The plaster has done
one good thing, in preserving the stonework from the effects of the
weather; for, being in a soft friable material, the carvings would, in most
cases, if not thus protected, have been almost entirely worn away.
This is seen in the Tripurantakesvara and Airavatesvara temples,
where plastering has not been resorted to, till the stone has been
considerably corroded; and in plastering over, the weatherworn hollows
have had to be filled up with brickwork before the stecco could be laid on.
Comparing the weatherworn appearance of these buildings with
other temples in the same district, of Chola date-and evidently of the
eleventh century, the difference between them is too marked to be the
result of even a few centuries only; and considering that the stone at the
Kailasanadha temple has been covered with plaster-at what date it is
difficult to say, but probably several centuries at the least-while the later
examples which, have not been so protected, it only supports the
architectural evidence of the early foundation of this temple.
RATHAS
On the east elevation of the temple, as before stated, eight small
shrines stand in a row from north to south on each side of the eastern
entrance, six on the right, and two on the left. It would seem from the

[ 261 ]

placing of these, that it has been intended to have an equal number on

each side- i.e. six on the left, to correspond with the number on the right.
The last ratha on the left-or that on the extreme south-is incomplete in its
carving, and it would seem that the intention had been to complete each
before commencing another. Or probably, those which might have stood
in a line to the left of it have been demolished to make way for the road,
which finds along the south of the temple.
The ratha1 on the extreme left, stands completely detached. It is a
square shrine, with carved panels on the back of the chamber; these are,
two figures (Siva and Parvati) in a sitting posture, and some other under.
They ae much decayed, and the design can, with difficulty be made out;
it seems to represent the same group that we find in the others, i.e. Siva
seated with Parvati on his left, and umbrellas over, held by attendants on
each side. This grouping and design are seen in many of the large
courtyard cells and shrines. It is identical with those on the shrine walls
of the Mamallapuram caves. On the exterior wall is a yali at each of the
four corners. They are only partly carved, some of the rough blocks
having been scarcely touched by the chisel; each yali block supports a
pilaster, and these have moulded caps over. On the back and sides are the
rough blocks of what were have moulded caps over. On the back and
sides are the rough blocks of what were intended to be sculptured panels
similar to the others. Between these panel spaces and the corner yalis, are
small pilasters.
1.

As these shrivas are very similar to the monoliths at Mamallapuram, known by

the name of "rathas".

[ 262 ]

A small platform is in front, with yali piers (blocks uncarved), each

having its capita complete.
The basement is a square granite plinth, and square freestone
course with semi-octagonal moulding over; the upper base is a square
granite course on which the superstructure rests on the wall-head over the
pilasters-are brackets which carry the cornice; all these are much
weatherworn. Traces of carved floral ornaments remain on the cornice.
Above, is series of small mouldings with carved projections at intervals;
each moulding is recessed on stepped back a short space from the
immediately below it. Over these, is an upright portion of wall with
carved figures in the centre of each space. On each side of the figures are
small pilasters, with seated yalis at the corners. A double cornice caps
this, and the whole is surmounted by an octagonal domed sikhara with
carved pedimental ornaments on each side. In the centre of the most of
these cornices are a series of these cornices are a series of vertical holes
about four inches in diameter. It would seem as if these had been intended
for the poles of banners placed there during festivals.
The ratha on the right of the last, it practically the same, but is in
a more complete condition. The yalis on the piers are carved. Inside the
shrine in a black stone linga. Dvdrapalas are carved on each side of the
door. This shrine is attached, at its north-west corner, to the east and south
walls of the eastern court.

[ 263 ]

The panels on the exterior of the walls are carved. That on the
south side has a seated figure of Siva with long matted hair; he sits under
a tree, with a naga on his left: some symbols in his right hand are too
weatherworn to be clearly distinguished.
Between the panel and the corner pilasters, are traces of carvings,
but almost obliterated by the action of the weather. On the north and west
walls, there are also sculptures, but the east and south walls of the court
about against them.
To the right of this shrineon the southern portion of the abutting
eastern court wall,-are pilasters placed at intervals, with a basement
under, and a double cornice over.
The doorway to the east court has yalis at the corners, pilasters on
the angles of the door and a cornice over. Above the cornice is an upright
portion of wall rising above the court walls on either side. In the centre
of this, is a panel with Siva, Parvati and attenants : Brahma and Vishnu
are shoewn worshipping them. At the angles of this portion, and over the
cornice last mentioned, nandis are placed. The whole doorway is then
crowned by a barrel-shaped pediment, lying parallel with the wall through
which the door enters. On this, are a series of leaf carvings overlaid with
plaster.
To the right of this wall, which abuts against it, is the third ratha,
numbering them successively from the left. The design of this, and in fact
the whole group of eight, are much the same as those already detailed,the

[ 264 ]

only differences being in the sculptures and their relative states of

preservation from decay. The base moulding of this (third) shrine are
much weatherworn. On the granite portion is an inscription in Pallava
Grandha characters. The yalis on the front pillars have tusks, and twisted
trunks. A linga stands in the shrine, and there is a panel, with Siva and
Parvati, carved on the back of the chamber. The dvarapalas of the door
are much decayed.
The fourth ratha from the left, has a linga in the shrine. The
basement is much decayed, as also the shrine panel, and most of the
carvings and mouldings. The yalis in front differ from those on the ratha
previously mentioned in that they have no tusks. The rathas from third to
eights, are connected by walls of modern masonry.
The fifth is generally the same as the previous one. On the semioctagonal base is an inscription somewhat illegible; another is on the
granite sur-base. On the front and sides of the projecting faade are small
elephants.
The sixth has the basement very much hollowed out. One of the
yali pillars has been removed and a plain stone substituted. A linga is
inside, with a panel on the back of the shrine. The door dvarapalas are
much worn away. Under the sub-base, a granite course of the foundation
is seen above ground. This course continues right along under the
following rathas without any break between them, forming a continuous
platform on which the superstructures rest.

[ 265 ]

It no doubt also extends in the opposite direction to the extreme

left; but, in the case of those rathas previously mentioned, it is under
the soil.
The seventh is the same as the others, except that the door
dvarapalas have elephant trunks. There are two inscriptions, one on the
granite base, and the other on the semioctagonal moulding.
The eighth, and last rathacontinuing the numbering from the
lefthas the lower base mouldings much worn; a portion of the granite
sur-course in also away. The carvings on the dvdrapalas are very distinctly
shown; in their ears are jewel holes. The left yali pillar is away. The right
pillar has no figure carved on it, and the present stone support evidently
replaces the original pier which has been removed. On the north side of
this ratha is a panel with a standing figure of Siva with matted hair; he
has two hands; a serpent is over his shoulder; and a worshipper stands on
each side, with uplifted hands joined lotus shape. Over the panelled niche
in which the figures stand, is a floral pedimental ornament, only partly
carved. The central portion shews representations of two yalis, with
drooping floral ornament on each side. This is very commonly shewn on
most of the niches in the temple; and a similar design is seen at the
Vaikuntha Perumal temple; the cave temple at Siyamangalam; and, at
some of the rathas and cave temples at Mamallapuram. It is a feature,
striking in its individuality, and shews the close connection between the
architectural period of the groups.

[ 266 ]

In the succeeding Chola, and later Dravidian temples, the same

feature is common enough, but it has a distinctly different character. Like
other details in successive developments of the primary style, he
modifications of various members are each characteristic of the several
successive periods of Dravidian architecture. The difference in each
becomes more striking as the style advances.
The spaces between these rathas beingas I have mentioned
filled up, it is impossible to see what sculptures are on their sides;
there,unless they have been damaged when the spaces were filled in
shouled be in a much better state of preservation than most of the other
panels, which are exposed to, and have suffered severely from the
weather.
Returning along the back of the rathas from the eights,or that on
the extreme northand proceeding south, I shall note the sculptures on
each in succession.
The group on the back of the eighthretaining the numbering
already givenhas Siva on an elephant; the death noose is in his left
hand; his right foot is uplifted on the elephants head; he holds in the
lower right hand a trident, and in the lower left a naga. He is represented
as stripping the elephants skin, which he waves a loft in his two upper
hands. At his sides are a standing figure of a devotee on the left, and two
gandharvas on the right.

[ 267 ]

The paneled back of the seventh ratha is similar to that just

described, but in this case Siva has six hands. Under, are some gandharva
figures. The small panel on the right has a gracefully posed female figure;
that on the left a male. These are clearly cut in stone, without traces of
plaster remaining. The ornament over the niche is covered with plaster.
The back of the sixth ratha has a figure seated on a chariot. The
vehicle is being drawn by two horses; the front is shewn, and between
them is a carved and moulded shaft. In Shivas two left hands are a naga
and trident; one of his right is held in the boon-conferring attitude
(abhayahasta); the other hands hold various symbols. In each panel on
the sides of the central one is a minor celestial being, each with four
hands. Under the granite surbase are small elephant blocks.
On the back of the fifth ratha is a seated Savite figure in the central
panel. It has eight hands and the usual Saiva symbols in each. The lower
portion in much weatherworn. In the panel on the right of the central one
is a female figure in a strikingly graceful attitude. The figure in the left
panel is too much decayed to be clearly distinguished. The ornament over,
is partly covered with plaster. An inscription is on the base.
The sculptures on the back of the fourth ratha are much decayed;
some of the symbols onlysuch as the axe and noose, held by the
principal figurecan be made out.

[ 268 ]

EXTERIOR OF THE COURT

On the north exterior side of the large courtyard are twenty-two
pilasters at regular intervals, and one at each of the north-east and northwest corners. Each pilaster has a yali, with rider seated on reverse sides
at each alternate side. A granite course runs along the lower basement of
the wall. Between the yalis are the openings for carrying off the water
from the cells on the interior of the wall.
On the west exterior side,in the centreis a gateway with a
small gopuram tower over; the door is now blocked up. An elephant and
gandharva are seated on the wall head, and an upper central panel has
Siva seated in yogasana with his hands across his knees. On this facade
of the court wall there are five yali pilasters on either side of the central
doorway. A continuous cornice runs along the top of the ancient wall;
above this is the modern portion, blocking up the cell sikharas before
alluded to.
The south exterior side of the great courtyard is spaced by pilasters,
similar to those on the northern side. Numbering from the south-west
corner there are large cracks in the wall between the first and second,
fourth and fifth, and eighteenth and nineteenth pilasters. These figures are
seemingly caused by the great weight of the modern superstructure built
on the top of the ancient wall; a mass of material, which the original
foundations were never intended to carry. It would be well, if the temple
authorities could be induced to remove it, as it would conduce both to the

[ 269 ]

stability of the court walls and add to the external beauty of the structure
in general. Should the cracks, referred to, bring down portions of the
wall,and in time they certainly will,the openings so made, if repaired
at all, would most assuredly be filled up with unsightly brick and plaster
work. Should this superstructure be removed, the sikharas, elephants and
nandis would be exposed to view, and the temple better seen in every way.
INTERIOR OF THE SMALL (EAST) COURT
On the interior side of the east wall, on each side of the central
entrance, are pilasters with figures between, three panels on each side.
The panels immediately on each side of the door have dvarapalas : the
others, figures of Siva seated with his attendeants; these are all covered
with stucco. Projecting into the two east corners of this court are the
rathas. In the north-east corner is a stone with a well-carved figure of
Siva seated on a bull. In Sivas two right hands are a trident and naga; the
left hands also hold other symbols. On the panels of the ratha projecting
into the south-east corner, are figures of Siva seated in yogasana. On a
stone of the base, on the south inner side of the east entrance; is a short
inscription in foliated characters. On each of the north and south sides of
this court is a doorway, at present blocked up with mud. A panel on the
left side of the south door has a seated yogi with kuja in his left hand; two
minor figures are under.
Next to the last panel is a sculpture representing Parvati and the
lion. She has a trident and umbrella; the figures are covered with plaster,

[ 270 ]

but the design, through smaller, seems similar In its grouping to another
of the same subject close by. This other will be described in its proper place.
On the right of the last is a small shrine, having the back panel
sculptured with seated figures of Siva and Parvati. Siva has been converted
into Brahma, by the additionin plaster onlyof a face on either side of
his original one. Attendants stand at the sides of the central group. There
have been two yali piers in front, but these are now away, and in their
places are two brick piers.
The panel to the right is a large one, and has a sculptured group of
twelve sages, who seem to be listening to the exhortations of the
philosophic Siva (Dakshinamurti), who is represented seated under a
banyan tree in a panel opposite this one, on the south side wall of the
central shrine in this court. The panel with the sages occupies a position
on the south wall of the court, and the two panels exactly face each other.
This ingenious arrangement is adopted on the opposite side of this court,
and also on the north and south sides of the large vimana.
On the north side of this (lesser) court, at the north-east corner, is
the figure of Siva and the bull already described. At the same corner is the
ratha (No. 3) corresponding to that on the opposite side of the east
entrance above noted. The panel on this one is however, different from
the other. In this, a figure of Lakshmi is seated on a lotus; she holds two
lotus buds in her hands; a zone is round her waist; a garland on her neck;
and a crown on her head: elephants pour water over her.

[ 271 ]

In the north wall of the same court is a built-up doorway, opposite

that in the south wall. On the left of this door is a figure of Ganapati, with
umbrella and two chavries over; in his left hands are symbolsone a
lotus, but the other undistinguishable. In the right are a noose, and
another which seems an elephant goad. The walls over the north and
south doors to this enclosure are somewhat ruined.
On the same wall as the last panel, and to the left, is a small shrine
attached to the wall; it stands opposite the one on the south side; and the
two are similar, with the exception that the yali piers of this one are
complete. To the left of the shrine is a large panel; it is opposite the large
one noted on the south side. The subject is much the same in both cases;
in this panel, eleven seated sages are listening to the exhortations of Siva,
who is represented in a panel on the north side of the central shrine. He is
armed with different symbolical weapons, and seems to be preaching war.
MAHENDRA VARMESVARA SHRINE
The small temple which stands in the centre of the wall dividing the
lesser and large courts bears the modern name of Narada linga temple.
From an inscription however, on the side of the stair, the ancient name
seems to have been Mahendra varmesvaragriham. The wall which divides
the two courts abuts against the north and south walls of this shrine, so
that a portion of it projects into each court; the entrance is from the east.
The lower base has two courses of granite; above these, is a
freestone course, with a row of sculptured gandharvas. These figures are

[ 272 ]

represented with their hands raised above their heads with the palms of
their hands flattened against the moulding over, as if they were intended
to be shown as supporting the building.
Over the figures is a semi-octagonal member, carved on each of the
beveled surfaces with leaf ornaments. The sur-base is recessed back from
the last, and has blocks carved into elephants heads, under each pilaster
on the facades of the superstructure: the basement is finished with an
inscribed granite course. The door enters on the east side; the granite
block on each side of the stair leading up to the entrance is carved into
a sort of scroll with the name Mahendravarmesvaragriham on the outer
sides in Pallava Grantha characters. The plan is a simple porch or adytum,
off which the shrine enters. The sides of the adytum are sculptured with
figures considerably over life size; the back walls of the porch and shrine
have also carved figure subjects.
In the interior of the porch on the right site, is a row the hasma or
sacred geese; over these, is a large kneeling figure with eight hands; the
symbols on the right side, are, a chavrie, noose, and others brokwn and
covered with plaster : in two of the left hands are two balls, probably
representing lime fruits.
The panel opposite the last, on the left inner side of the porch, has
a large finely carved figure of Jimutaketu or the cloud bannered (Siva).
He is represented with matted hair; the right knee bent; he has a circhly
carved crown, and neck, arm and leg ornaments. Over his left shoulder is

[ 273 ]

a garland, with rings, of what seem intended for bones; another has
alternate square and round ornaments, on each of which is a sculptured
skull : these reach down to his ankle. The waist ornament is broad, and
has several bands of different ornamental designs. The anklets are in
circles of balls; and on the feet are well carved and ornamented sandals,
(Padaraksha). On each sandal, the kamilor small knob between the
toesis shown. On his left side is the three-hooded naga, with its tail
twisted upwards, and resting on his band. The cloud banner is held in a
left hand over the shoulder, goes behind him and droops over the right,
down to the waist: on the opper portion of the same side isapparently
a club. A worshipping female figure stands on his right; two females are
on the left, on of which, profusely ornamented with jewels, is kneeling
and worshipping: the other female on the left side supports one of Sivas
left hands. There are some other minor attendants in the group.
This panel is remarkably striking in the arrangement and execution
of the whole design, even the smallest ornaments being clearly and
beautifully cut.
On the back wall of the porch is the door to the shrine; on either
side of it is a niche, each with a figure of Lakshmi : between the niches
and door, and dvarapalas with chauries.
In the shrine, is a large black stone moulded linga. On the back
wall, in a niche, is a panel, sculptured with seated figures of Siva and
Paravati, with Brahma, Vishnu, and attendants worshipping.

[ 274 ]

EXTERIOR OF MAHENDRAVARMESVARA GRIHAM

On the south side of this shrinefacing into the lesser courtis
the large panel before referred, to, as being opposite the sculptured group
of twelve sages. It represents the figure of Dakshinamurti, or Siva in his
yogi seat, under a banyan tree. He has four hands; in the upper right is
a noose; and in one of the left is a serpent; his hair is matted; and his
knees are bound together with a cloth. In the same panel are a male, and
female and two deer.
Over the niche is a central figure of Ganapati, with a yali on each
side, from whose jaws, carved foliage spreads along either side of the top,
and droops down, forming a canopy over the principal figures of the
panel below. On each side of the large panel is a set of three small ones;
in the right lower are two figures seated cross legged; they have matted
hair, and are seemingly yogis; the panel over has a lion and two
gandharvas; the top panel has a musician playing to amuse Siva.
The lowest of the three panelson the left of the central onehas
two figures, one of which is a yogi with beard, matted hair and crown:
the upper tier of panels is similar to the right side.
The features of all these figures have rather a marked from of
countenance; the noses are pointed and flat, and give a curious expression
to the face. They are similar in this respect to the figures on the bases of
the piers at the Kachchesvara temple, and probably represent the type
common among some of the tribes in early times in the courty.

[ 275 ]

On the east exterior face of this shrine, the central feature is the
door, with a large dvarapala on each side. At each of the north-east and
south-east exterior courners of the building is a large yali.
The north side has a design similar in its main features and
grouping, to the south side. The principal figure is Siva, but, in this case,
he is shown is a fierce attitude, armed with numerous symbolical weapons,
and seemingly preaching war to his disciples seated in the panel directly
opposite. He has eight hands, the upper right and left support and
elephants skin over his head; in the right, are drum, club and trident; one
of the left touches his crown; another has a noose, and the lowest is
empty. Over the figure is a row of gandharva, and a cornice with carved
blocks.
EAST DOOR TO THE INNER COURT
Mention has already been made of the east wall of the larger court
which abuts against the north and south walls of the temple just described.
Through this wallone on either side of this shrineis a door, entering
from the small into the greater court.
The door on the south side has, on its right jamb, a few remaining
letters of an ancient inscription. The left jamb has a boldly carved
representation of Parvati and the lion. She has sixteen hands; over her
right are an umbrella and two balls; the right have noose, shield, and
drum; two hands bend her bow, which is large and extends right across
her body from top to bottom of the panel. On the same side is a three-

[ 276 ]

hooded naga. On the left side are a trident, a portion of the bow, war club,
and conch; one hand is under the umbrella, and the remaining hands on
this side are unarmed. The lion is shown with much vigour of expression;
the tusks and claws are all clearly cut, and the neck and body of the
animal are decorated with minutely carved jewels.
This panel is free of plaster, and the striking attitude of the figures,
arrangement and grouping of the different members, and the artistic finish
of the workmanship can be distinctly seen. The design, grouping and
general effect of this panel are exactly similar to the wellknown sculpture
at Mamallapuram, representing Parvati on the lion, fighting the bullheaded Mahishasura. In the Kanchipuram sculpture, the latter figure is
omitted, but it is otherwise almost identical with the left half of the one
at the Seven Pagodas.
The east door entering the large court on the north side of the
Mahendravarma shrine, has the remains of a long inscription on the left
side. On the other is a panel, similar in style and execution to that just
described; the subject is however different. The other showed Parvati,
this represents Lakshmi seated on a lotus, with her feet resting on another
of the same flowers; she has also a lotus bud in each hand. On each side
stands a female attendant with chaurie. Over Lakshmis head are, what
seem to be the five hoods of a snake; and an elephant with water pot is
on either side. There are traces of colour on this panel.

[ 277 ]

INNER COURT
Entering the large court, the first sculptures are those on the back
of the Mahendravarma shrine.
The base moulding round the back of this shrine is the same as that
on the sides already described; the upper member of the basement on this
side is also inscribed.
The central back panel is a large one; the principal figures are Siva
and Parvati seated on a throne, with three chaurie-bearing attendants. On
each side is a yali, and niches, with figures of Vishnu, Lakshmi, and
gandharvas; under the panels are two large elephants heads represented
as supporting the groups. At each of the corners of the building are yalis
with riders and gandharvas. Over these sculptures is an elaborate conice;
the lower member is sculptured with a row of supporting gandharvas; a
pedimented and double cornice over; and above the last, on the first
storey of the tower is a set of three panalled sculptures. The central panel
has Siva as a yogi, with an attendant on right and left, and two detached
yalis in front. The panel on either side has each a many-armed figure. The
upper portion of the tower is formed of three sets of corices, the top tier
having a central figure of Narasimha; the figure is covered with
comparatively modern plaster work, so it is difficult to distinguish what
it may have been originally. The whole tower is crowned by a barrelshaped sikhara with leaf ornaments and finials.

[ 278 ]

CELL SCULPTURES
In proceeding with the sculptures on the series of cells on the four
side of the large court, it will be convenient to being with those
immediately to the south of the Mahendravarma shrine on the east side of
the court, and continue the numbering in succession, round the south
west, north and north half of the east sides, returning to the starting point.
All these cells have originally has their sikharas appearing over the
old wall-head of the enclosing well nandis, and elephants alternately,
between each. Some of the sikharas are now rained, and their place has
been plastered over; this is notably the case on the east wall, which is
thicker than the other three, so that when the modern work was added to
the wall head, and carried up-with the same thickness as the ancient
substructureto overtop the small towers, it almost completely covered
them. The animals placed between the cells towers, only appear out of the
thickness of the recent masonry, at intervals.
All the cells have had inscriptions on three members of the
basements, though some have now been worn a way; the lowest isin all
casesfoliated.
No. 1 cellImmediately to the south of the Mahendravarma shrine,
is open in front, and has paneled seated figures of Siva, Parvati, and
child.Space between Nos. 1 and 2.Siva and Parvati.
No. 2.Open in front; same as No. 1.

[ 279 ]

Space between Nos. 2 and 3, same as No. 1.

No. 3.Same
Space between No. 3 and south-east corner recess, same.
The recess in the south-east corner is not a shrine proper like the
others, so it may be omitted in the numbering; it is open towards the west
and has a bas-relief of Ganapati.
Returning along the south wall, the space between the south-east
corner recess and no.4 cell has parvati seated under a banyan tree one
large and two small elephanta are on the left side. A yogi sits with his
knees bound on the back of the large animal. A female attent is on the
right.
No. 4 is open towards the east as also are the others on this wall,
the sculptures are on the outer front of the screen walls enclosing them
from the prakara of the court. This cell has parvati and the left door
between the two courts. Inthis panel an additional grandhara figure part
has the stone exposed, and shown its delicate cutting.The space between
No.4 and No.5, has the usual panel of the Siva and Parvati.
No. 5, Open towards the east it has a seated saivite figure, with
four hands and symbols, these latter are

undisinguishable thought a

covering of Plaster.
Between No.5 and No.6 Siva and Parvati .

[ 280 ]

No.7 A large saivite figure with four hands on a chariot drawn by

two horses, over the hourse head is a pillar supporting a bull. Over the
bull is one and on the extreme right of the figure are two Granharvas. On
the left of the charioteer, and in front of the vehicle, is a Bharma.
Between No.7 and No.8 Parvati seated under a tree, a Deer is on
her left, and two are underneath; a bird probably a peacock is on a branch
of the tree, a female attent is on her right.
No.8 Siva riding on a bhuta, Four figures with various symbols
are on the left.
Between No. 8 and 9 Siva and Parvati.
No. 9 Is rather a curious group, the principal figure is Narasimha,
he is supported by a figure on the right, andthey fight with another one
of the left, a pedestal stands in the centre.
Between Nos. 9 and 10.Parvati under a tree; a female attendant
is on her right and a yogi on her left; beneath the last are three bulls with
long curved Horns.
No. 10. Has a number of figures with arrangement and attitudes
very spirited and well designed. Two chief figures occupy he centre of the
panel; one is Brahma on the right, supported by six-armed gandharvas
who spring from a lotus flower with leaves and buds under: a worshipping
figure kneels beneath the lotus. Another on Brahmas right is being
pushed towards him by a figureprobably Yama the god of death. Two

[ 281 ]

others occupy positions near Yama, evidently waiting their turn.

Between No. 10 and 11. Parvati under a tree, attendant, bird and
two elephants. His left foot is stretched up, measuring the hanging head
of a snake; two figures are on his left. On the left of the panel is Vishnu
in his drarf incarnation (Vimana), with the king and queen. A Jambavantu
is in the upper portion of the panel.
Between Nos. 11 and 12.Siva and Parvati. This panel shows the
churning of the ocean. The five-hooded serpent is coiled round the base
of the mountain (Mandara). Vishnu, on the left, holds the mountain; and
the Devas on the right, who are represented by five figures, twist the tail
of the serpent. At Vishnus left hand, and between him and the hill, stands
a Deva, on whom Vishnu places one of his hands. Four gandharvas are on
the mountain. A horse, probably Indras, (Urhchaisravas), which has just
spring from the ocean, is on the extreme left.
Between No. 12 and 13 Parvati and attendants, birds, and two
elephants.
No. 13.A central figure of Siva with five gandharvas worshipping
under. A male, holding a symbol, stands on his left, with a gandharvas
over. Above these, is a five-hooded naga, as also another on Sivas right.
Between Nos. 13 and 14. Same as between Nos. 12 and 13.
No. 14.Shows Siva cutting off one of the heads of Brahma, and
holding it in one of his left hands; Brahma sits in a dejected attitude on

[ 282 ]

the left. A devoteewith arms crossed in amazementsits under Siva on

Brahmas right. In Sivas right hands are sword, trident, snake and noose;
in his left are Brahmas head, and broken symbols. There is not much
plaster on the panel, and the deep and bold cutting is seen to advantage,
giving five effects of light shade.
Between Nos. 14 and 15.Siva and Parvati.
No. 15.Shows Sivaas a hunterfighting with, and slaying the
king, who was after wards turned into a pig. Two figures are shown with
right and left legs advanced. An animal on the under right side of the
panel seems to represent Varaha.
Between Nos. 15 and 16.Parvati with an attendant on her left;
two elephants, and a bird on her right.
No. 16.Siva in yogasana, resting on the shoulders of a devotee.
Two yogis sit in meditation on what seem to be clouds.
Between Nos. 16 and 17.Siva and Parvati.
No. 17.Siva with club, bow, trident and noose, stands on a
platform supported by a devotee, and the five-hooded human-faced
Adisesha. Vishnu on an attendant, worships Siva; two hands are closed in
adoration; other two hold his emblems, the conch and discus.
Between Nos. 17 and 18.Sivaarmed with a large cluband his
wife Parvati.

[ 283 ]

No. 18.Siva kills a double-headed rakshasa with his trident. A

figure sits under the weapon; three others, and a snake are on his left; the
head of another appears on the right. A figure on Sivas leftmidway up
the panelhas a tigers legs, and probably represents Vyaghrapada. On
the upper right portion of the panel, Siva is seen seated with his wife
Parvati, soaring through the sky.
Between Nos. 18 and 19Parvati stands, with two figures on each
side. On the west side of this space are two representation of Brahma
one kneeling, and the other standing; over are two gandharvas.
No. 19.Is a large cell, open in front. It has a yali dvarapala on
each corner; and two yali pillars on the platform in front. On the back of
the cell, Brahma sits with a figure on each side; and two gandharvas over,
and higher than the others, surmounts this shrine.
Between Nos. 19 and 20.Parvati placing her foot on the head of
a buffalo. An attendant kneels on each side. Parvati is armed with a
dagger, trident, discus, and club in her right; and sword, conch, serpent,
and axe in her left hands. On the left side of this space are worshipping
figures of Bramha, an attendant and two gandharvas.
No. 20.Siva with twelve hands, each armed with the usual
Saivite emblems. On his right is an attendant, and four others are on his
left.
Between Nos. 20 and 21.Nine devotees site in contemplation,
with an umbrella over each. The two figures on the extreme left side are

[ 284 ]

Ganesa and Siva, armed with their several symbols. In continuation of

thesebut on the backare the other seven; the first hasin the stone
sculpturebeen a female figure, but in the overlaid plaster work, two
additional faces have been added, to convert it into Brahma. The next
three, are female devotees; the others areNandikesvara; a female; and
the last, Siva.
No. 21.Siva treading on Vyadhi, the lord of sickness. The latter
is on his back, with head hanging down; a three-headed naga stretches its
hoods over the recumbent figure; Sivas are rests on the back of the snake.
Siva has eight hands; in his right is a rool of beads. A small animal
resembling a catrests on the kness of the fallen Vyadhi.
Between Nos. 21 and 22.A seated Siva, with eight arms, holding
snake, bell, trident, axe, etc.
No. 22.Siva, armed with the usual weapons, sits on the back of
an elephant. A female devotee is in front.
Between Nos. 22 and 23.A yogi with four attendants.
No. 23.Sivawith Parvati standing by his side, supports, and
places in his hair, Ganga, the goddess of the river Ganges.
Between No. 23 and South-west corner cell.Siva and Parvati
with five attendants.The last panel completes those on the south side of
the court. The elevation of the complete group.

[ 285 ]

CELLS ON THE WEST INNER SIDE OF THE COURT WALL

Returning along the inner west side of the large court, and continuing
from the south-west corner, the first space between the corner cell and
No. 24 has - on the back - Siva and Parvati.
On the left side is Siva, armed with is different weapons, dancing
on a serpent; Parvati stands near, and rests her hand on one of two
kneeling gandharvas.
No. 24.Siva, Parvati, and child.
Between Nos. 24 and 25.Siva, and Parvati, with attendants.
No. 25.Siva, and Parvati, with attendants, one of whom seems to
be Brahma.
Between Nos. 25 and and 26.Siva and Parvati.
No. 26.Siva, and Parvati, with attendants.
Between Nos. 26 and 27.Siva, and Parvati, with attendants.
No. 28.Western doorway (built up). On one side is a dvarapala;
in the inner side are two yali pillars somewhat different from those on the
fronts of the cells; the figures on the piers, with hands clasped, kneel on
a round lotus base; a five-hooded naga is above each; and over it rests the
pillar.
Between Nos. 28 and 29.Siva and Parvati.

[ 286 ]

No. 29.Siva and Parvati.

Between Nos. 29 and 30.Siva and Parvati.
No. 30.Siva and Parvati, with child and umbrella over.
Between Nos. 30 and 31.Siva and Parvati, with umbrella over.
No. 31.Siva, Parvati, child, and umbrella.
Between Nos. 31 and 32.Siva and Parvati, with umbrella.
No. 32.Siva, Parvati, child, and umbrella.
Between No. 32 and north-west corner.Siva, Parvati, child, and
umbrella.The above completes the panels on the west side. It will be
observed that they are less varied than those before described.
CELLS ON THE NORTH SIDE OF THE COURTR
eturning along the north side, the space between the north-west
corner recess, and No. 33, has the usual panel of Siva and Parvati seated.
No. 33.Two figures of Siva; one rests on an attendant with an axe
over his shoulder; the figure on the right has his left foot resting on a
platform.
Between Nos. 33 and 34.Parvati under a tree, with attendant and
chauria.
No. 34.Siva and Parvati seated by the side of a pillar. Three
figuresone a devotee and the others, two gandharvas, kneel under; one
of the latter has a serpent, and the other a bow.

[ 287 ]

Between Nos. 34 and 35.Parvati holding a parrot; an attendant

is behind, and two elephants underneath.
No. 35.Siva seated in yogasana Ander a banyan tree; his right leg
rests on a deer; two gandharvas are held up on each side in his hands.
Two yogis kneel under.
Between Nos. 35 and 36.Elevan yogis are seated in a row on a
platform; at each end of the group is a yali.On the right side is a panel
with Parvati under a tree, and chauria bearer on each side.
No. 36.Siva in a kneeling posture; he has ten hands each armed
with a different symbolical weapon.
Between Nos. 36 and 37.Blank.
No. 37.Is a large panel. The principal figure is Vishnu, seated
with a wife on each side; over are two attendants, who hold umbrellas,
chauries, and symbols; on one side is a made, and on the other a female
dvarapala. Vishnu seems to be seated in contemplation of Siva, who is
sculptured on a panel exactly opposite this one on the north wall of the
vimana.
Between Nos. 37 and 38.Siva and Parvati; on the left side is
another Saivite figure with five attendants.
No. 38.Siva as a yogi, seated with Parvati, two gandharvas
support the pedestal on which they sit. Brahma sits on the left of the panel
and aids in supporting the pedestal. Another figure, over Brahma, sits
with hands crossed in contemplation.

[ 288 ]

Between Nos. 38 and 39. Parvati playing on a vina; a parrot is

on the left side; attendant with chaurie on right, and two elephants
underneath.
No. 39.Siva and Parvati attended by two servants and a gandharva.
Between Nos. 39. and 39.Parvati playing on a vina; a parrot is
on the left side; attendant with chaurie on right, and two elephants
underneath.
No. 39.Siva and Parvati attended by two servants and a gandharva.
Between Nos. 38. and 39.Parvati playing on a vina; a parrot is
on the left side; attendant with chaurie on right, and two elephants
underneath.
No. 39.Siva and Parvati attended by two servants and a gandharva.
Between Nos. 39 and 40.Parvati, holding in her left hand a
flower, on which sits a parrot; an attendant is on her right, and a figure
sits cross-legged under.
No. 40.Siva, Parvati, and three attendants, supported on a lotus
by Brahma.
Between Nos. 40 and 41.Siva and Parvati.
No. 41.Siva, Parvati and two attendants, supported on a lotus by
Vishnu. Siva has Brahmas head placed on the top of his own. An
attendant of Vishnu stands by, holding his conch and ckakra.

[ 289 ]

Between Nos. 41 and 42.Parvati, with attendant, parrot and two

elephants.
No. 42.Siva, with Parvati on his right. On the right of Parvati
are an attendant and gandharva. A female figure, probably Ganga, stands
on Sivas left hand. On the same side are Surya, Brahma, and a female
with umbrella over.
Between Nos. 42 and 43.Parvati, attendant and two deer under
a tree.
No. 43.Siva, and Parvati, with two gandharvas and two attendants.
Between No. 43 and 44.Siva, and Parvati, a haloin plaster
is over Sivas head.
No. 44.Siva dances, and supports a large five-hooded naga with
human head; the snake is coiled round his head. Underneath, are two
dancing gandharvas.
Between Nos. 44 and 45.Parvati, attendant, bird and two
elephants.
No. 45.Siva and Parvati seated; under, are two attendantsone
standing, and the other kneeling. A gandharva, on the under side of Sivas
right, holds a mace, which extends up, and supports a yali bearing a lotus,
over which is a gandharva with a halo.
Between Nos. 45 and 46.Parvati, attendant, bird and two deer.

[ 290 ]

No. 46.Siva stands with his left foot raised, and resting on a
pedestal. He holds a musical instrument across his body. Two devotees,
one with knotted hair, and the other periodstand on his left. Two bulls
are seenon the left of Sivaascending the sky, with Siva and Parvati
on each.
Between Nos. 46 and 47Siva and Parvati.
No. 47.Siva seated on Nandikesvara. Above, on each side, is a
gandharva; and below, two attendants.
Between Nos. 47 and 48.Parvati with an attendant; a yogi is
underneath.
No. 48.Siva,with Parvatiplacing Ganga on his head. A
kneeling devotee supports another, who with uplifted hands is adoring
Siva.
Between Nos. 48 and 49.Siva and Parvati.
No. 49.Siva, Parvati and child; Brahma and Vishnu, with
gandharvas under, are worshipping the triad.
Between Nos. 49 and 50.Parvati, attendant, bird and bull.
No. 50.A standing Saivite figuresix armedis being worshipped
by Brahma and Vishnu.
Between Nos. 50 and 51.Siva and Parvati.
No. 51.Siva, as a yogi, preaching to four devotees. Siva has a

[ 291 ]

beaded waist belt; and sandals with bead on each passing through
between the toes.The panel is entirely free of plaster, and the different
details show the usual deep and bold cutting.
Between Nos. 51 and 52.Parvati, attendant, elephant and bird.
No. 52.A large figure of Brahma supporting Hanuman in his left
hand. Hanuman is worshipping a linga.
Between No. 52 and the north-east corer, is a seated figure of Siva
armed with a club.In the north-east corner is an illegible inscription.These
complete the panels on the north side of the court.
EAST SIDE OF THE COURT
Returning along the east side, from the north-east corner, the first
space between that corner and No. 53 has a back panel with Siva and
Parvati; also another with Siva on the left side.
A detached Saivite image stands in this space.
No. 53.Siva and Parvati.
Space between Nos. 53 and 54Siva and Parvati.
No. 54.Siva and Parvati.
Between Nos. 54 and 55.Siva and Parvati.
No. 55.Siva and Parvati.

[ 292 ]

These panels complete the series on the interior sides of the large
court and bring us to the right east entrance to the enclosure. This door
has a duarapala on each side. A few of these figures have holes in their
ears, evidently intended for the fixing of metal jewels; other also,
probably have them, though they may be hidden under the plaster. This
has been previously remarked on.
ARDHAMANDAPAM
This building calls for only a passing notice; it is not contemporary
with, or has any features in design common to the original building. The
north and south walls are quite plain, without ornament of any kind; on
the south side is a four-pillared raised verandah, a door through which,
enters the building. The east wall is built close to, and covers the
sculptures that undoubtedly exist on the west wall of the mahamandapam:
a perforated window in the wall opens into the latter building. The inside
is divided by two rows of six slender pillars of Vijianagar date. Several
old inscribed stones are built into the floor and ceiling of the building.
The principal shrine enters of the west end of the ardhamandapam. On
each side of the shrine entrance is a chamber; these two are the original
recessessimilar to those on the exterior of the vimanabetween the
north-east, and south-east corner shrines, and the east entrance to the
great central shrine. Original they would be visible from the outside; and
the weatherworn appearance of their sculptures shows they have bee. In
the right recesson the back wall,is a fourarmed Siva dancing; below,
are his attendants; the minor panel on his right has Vishnu; and on the left
panel is Brahma, both worshipping.

[ 293 ]

The left side of the recess has Parvati on the lion, with attendants,
and gandharvas on each side. The right side is covered with masonry.
The left recess has panels similar to the other, with Siva and minor
worshipping deities on the back; Parvati is on the right side of the recess,
and the left is blocked up with masoury. This is a portion of that forming
the north and south walls of the ardhamandapam. The panels blocked up,
are those on the south side of the north-east corner shrine, and those on
the north side of that at the south-east corner.
On the right side of the entrance to the main shrine containing the
Kailasanadha linga, is a dvarapala. On the back interior wall of the shrine,
is a panel with seated figures of Siva, Parvati and child. Some brass
figures are used on festival occasions.
The vimana has the principal shrine in the centre; on the exterior
is a lesser one at each corner. And another on each face, except the east,
where the entrance to the central shrine is, and has always been. It now
enters through the ardhamandapam, but before that building was erected,
the entrance would be through the porchsimilar to the exterior vamana
shrinesdirect from the open, and up a flight of steps.
Around the vimana, and in the recesses formed by the projecting
exterior shrines, are a series of nandis placed on the ground, and facing
the different quarters. The identity of this idea with that at the
Mamallapuram shore temple has been noted.

[ 294 ]

At each of the corners formed by the projecting shrines and

extending around the vimana, is a series of triple yalis and riders,
intended to represent a support and guard to the temple.
In describing the panels on the exterior ground storey of the
vimana, it will be convenient to adopt a course similar to that used in
noting these on the courtyard cells. Commencing, therefore, with the
panels in the south-east corner shrine,which enters on the east side,
the back panel represents a large kneeling figure of Sivawith eight
armsholding the usual weapons, noose, trident, sword, serpent and
others undistinguishable.
On the left side is Brahma paying homage; under him, are two
gandharvas, and what seems like a mountain with a figure seated on it,
is on his left; two gandharvas are on his upper left side.
On the right side of the shrine is Vishnu and attendants, also
worshipping Siva; the panel is too much weatherworn for the details to be
made out.
On the south exterior side of this shrine is a four-armed Siva, with
Parvati. Beneath Siva, are gandharvas, and over, an elephant. Above, is
a small panel with an eight-armed Siva and gandharva.
On the south exterior wall of the central shrine, and in the space
between the south-east corner shrine and that on the middle of the south
side, are a six-armed Siva, and Parvati, seated with their feet on Vyadhi
the god of Sickness.

[ 295 ]

The panel on the right side of the same recess is supported on yalis,
and represents Lakshmi, with lotus buds. On the top, are gandharvas
surrounded by a finely-cut floral ornament.
On the left side of the same recess is the entrance to the shrine on
the centre of the south faade of the vimana. On the left side of the door
is a dvarapala; over, are eleven sishyas. In the shrineon the backis
Siva seated with his left foot on a gandharva; the platform on which he
sits is supported by two yali pillars. Brahma and Vishnu are in attendance,
worshipping. On the left interior side, is Sivain bridegrooms dress
seated on a bull, with attendants; a gandharva leads the animal.
On the right side of the shrine is Parvati seated on a pedestal
supported by a yali on the left, and two gandharvas. She is shown dressed
as a bridge. The two panels seemingly represent the marriage of Siva and
Parvati.
On the south outside face of this shrine is Siva is a yogi seated
under a tree; he has four arms; in one of his left is a torch; beside him
are birds, two deer and a snake under. The panel is supported on an
elephants head. The side panels have yogis under, with yalis and
ornament on top.
The west exterior side of the shrine has Vishnu seated with his foot
on a pedestal he and his attendants are worshipping Siva who is shown
on the next panel.

[ 296 ]

The panel referred to, on the back of the recess formed by the
shrine on the centre of the south faade of the vimana, and that at the
south-west corner, is an exceedingly standing one; it shown Sivg standing
in a diamond-shaped recess; he has eight arms, which hold, in his right,
serpent, axe, and noose; and in his left a large trident and other symbols;
he wears the sun as a crown. The lesser panels adjacent to this central
one, are occupier by various minor worshipping deities, with Brahma and
others on the left, Vishnu and gandharvas on the right. Siva is supported
by Vishnu, in his varaha avatar, with yali resting on the ground, and other
two holding the conch and discus.
The left side of the recess is occupied by worshipping attendants.
The shrine at the south-west corner has, in the panel on the south
exterior side, Siva as a beggar, with sandals on his feet; two females and
Yogi are worshipping. The whole is supported on an elephants head. The
panel over, has a ten-armed Siva, each hand with a symbol.
The south-west corner shrine enters from the west. The panel on
the back of the interior is similar to that on the left side of the porch of
the Mahendravarma shrine. It shown a Saivite figureconsiderably
larger than life size; he has matted hair, and carries a cloud banner, and
three-hooded naga; with trident and axe on his right, and a sun on his left.
A female stands on each side, probably Parvati, and Lakshmi.
The right interior side of the shrine has a panel with three male
attendants; and the left side, three females with a cornice over.

[ 297 ]

The first space on the west side of the vimana, between the southwest corner shrine, and the one on the centre of the west elevation, has
Siva kneeling on a platform; a threehooded snake is coiled round his right
leg. He has ten arms; in his right are trident, drum, noose, and one
supports a long thin shaft, which extends up on the right, into what looks
like a chavrie,but may be a cloud banner,and goes behind the figure,
right across the panel. In the left hands, are axe, torch, serpent, and
another symbol somewhat like a skull. Three dancing gandharvas, armed
with swords, are under. The minor panel on the right has Parvati with her
foot resting on a bull; two gandharvas are over. The minor left panel has
a figure with a crown seated on two gandarvas, one of whom plays a flute
and the other a conch: an attendant is in the upper right side of the panel.
The group is supported on an elephants head.
On the right side of this recess is an eight-armed dancing Siva. On
the left site of the same recess is Ganapati, with two gandharvas over. A
female attendant stands in a panel on his left.
The shrine in the centre of the west side of the vimana enters from
the west side. It showson the back of the interior-a large figure of Siva,
with six arms, and Parvati. Siva holds in his right hands a dog, garland
of skulls and serpent; a chaurie-bearing gandharva is under. The upper
left hands support Ganga, and an elephants skin. The left foot rests on an
attendant.

[ 298 ]

On the right side of this shrine is Vishnu armed with conch and
discus; some attendants wait on him. The left side of the shrine has two
attendants.
In the back of the recess between the centre shrine on the west
facade of the vimana, and the shrine at the north-west corner, is an eightarmed Siva dancing, with Nandikesvara on his left, and a small gandharva
on his right; Siva has a naga coiled round his neck. The gandharva is
completely free of plaster, and shows very minute carving, the eyes,
eyebrows, and teeth in the mouth are all cut in the stone. The lesser panel
on the right of the central one, has Vishnu; in the panel on the left is
Brahma.
On the right side of the recess is Siva seated on a platform,
supported by a gandharva. A long musical instrumental rests across the
left shoulder, and a serpent across the right.
The sculpture represents Siva as Arddhanarisvara, (half male and
female). A female attendant occupies each side panel.
On the left side of the recess, a worshipperholding a threehooded serpentsits on a mountain. They are supported by two gandharvas
playing the flute and conch.
The shrine at the north-west corner of the vimana, has in the back
interior panel, an elght armed Siva seated on a chariot, drawn by two
horses; the heads of the horses, and front of the vehicle are shown
towards the front, with a wheel on each side.

[ 299 ]

The right side of the shrine, is occupied by a tier of two panels

five figures above, and seven below. The left wall has five figures in the
upper half, and six in the lower. On the north exterior side of the northwest corner shrine is Siva crushing Vyadhi; above is a panel with two
Saivite figures.
On the north wall of the vimana, in the recess between the northwest coruer shrine, and that on the centre of the north face, is Siva and
Parvati. Siva has eight arms, and various symbols, including noose, bow,
and umbrella : three dancing gandharvas are under.
The minor panel on the right, shows Parvati seated on a lion. That
on the left shows Lakshmi seated on a pedestal. A lion supports the group.
On the left side of the recess is Siva as a begger; an attendant and yali
are in panels on each side. On the north side of the central shrine, on the
north faade of the vimana, is Siva in yogasana seated over a bhuta : these
are supported on an elephant. The lower side panels have worshipping
figures of Bharma on Sivas right; and Vishnu on his left. In the two upper
side panels are a yali and rider.
The shrine in the centre of the north side of the vimana enters from
the east. Inside, is a granite platform for an image, with basement cornice
moulding. The parel on the back interior is the same as that in the centre
shrine on the south faade of the vimana. It represents Siva supported by
gandharvas, and yalis, with worshipping figures of Brahma, and Vishnu.
The panels on the two interior sides are the same as those on the shrine
referred to.

[ 300 ]

The recess on the north faade, between the north centre and northeast shrines, showson the back panelParvati on a lion; the design is
similar to those of the some subject already noted. She has ten arms; and
carries an umbrella, with trident, noose, and sword in her right hands; one
of the lower right rests on her thing; the other is shown in abhayahasta.
The left hands hold an axe, shield and serpent, while two other hands
grasp and bend a long bow. She is ornamented with jewels on wrists,
ankles, etc. The smaller panel on the left of the central one has a stout
figure of Parvati; over her right is Nandikesvara; on her left is a female
attendant. The lesser panel on the right of the larger, has Parvatiin this
instance, represented with a slender waistseated on a pedestal supported
by a pillar. On her right is Simha; on her left, what appears to be a bull.
On the left side of the recess is a dvarapala.
On the north exterior side of the shrine at the north-east corner of
the vimana, are Siva and Parvati. Siva has four arms, and rests one foot
on a lotus. Two of his hands hold the elephants skin over his crown.
The shrine enters from the east, and inside is a pitham for an image.
The back and side panels are the same as those in the corresponding
shrine on the south side of the vimana i.e., a kneeling Siva, worshipped
on the side panels by Brahma and Vishnu.
These complete the sculptured panels around the exterior of the
vimana.

[ 301 ]

VIMANA TOWER
The basement is formed of a granite sub-base; carved gandharva
plinth, ornamented semi-octagenal base, small carved elephant blocks,
in freestone; and sur-base in granite with Pallava Grantha inscriptions.
In the recesses formed by the exterior shrines are the series of
nandis already noted. These are large, and each cut out of a single block
of freestone. The walls above the base, are covered with the sculptured
panels just described. At each of the angles of the walls, and on each side
of the panels are pilasters; those on the corners have yalis.
The general elevation of the superstructure, is a small tower over
each of the exterior shrines at the corners and facades; the sikharas over
those at the corners are square; over those on the facades, they are semibarrel shaped. Above these, on the main tower, is a storey with a series
of two weather-worn sculptured panels, on each face of the central
projection, and one at each corner; pilasters are at the corners. Over this,
is a double cornice, with small sikharas; the storeys above are successively
stepped back, forming a slight platform between each. The sikharas over
the double cornice mentioned, are one on each face, and one at each
corner. Over this, is a square portion with cornice, a nandi at each corner,
a seated figure on each front1, and a finial over. The tower is capped by
an octagonal sikhara with small pediment on each front.

1.

At the Mamallapuram "shore" temple, these nandis are replaced by figures

playing corches. he nandis are show all the Kanchi Pallava temples.

[ 302 ]

The whole tower is plastered over, but except in some of the details
of the sculptures, there is no doubt but that the original design has been
faithfully followed in the covering process. In many places where the
plaster has been detached, but still partly adhering the underlying stonework
is generally the same as the plaster which covers it. The principal
difference between the plaster and the stone is, that, where sculptures
have been covered, the plaster work is much coarser in its execution, and
only attempts to reproduce in outline or in a general way, the design of
the stone sculpture underneath. The stone carvings are, without exception,
beautifully and minutely chiseled, whereas, when these have been covered
over, the small details of jewels or other ornaments have only been
imitated by rough incisions in the wet plaster by a knife of some such
instrument. The design and treatment of the various details of the tower
are identical in style with similar features at he Dharmarajas and other
rathas at Mamallapuram. There is an archaic peculiarity above these and
other works of a like date, not to be mistaken.
4.1.6 TYAGISHVARAR TEMPLE
It is small, very attractive chapel where a different layout was
attempted indicting that by now the Pallava architects were familier with
the technique and basic plans of pallava rock, architecture and ventured
further to realize new ideas. The simplicity here is not the austere
bareness of mandagapattu but intentional.

[ 303 ]

The basic idea obviously was to focus attention on the Shrine by

projecting it from the back wall of the temple and leaving the space in
front of it. Unobstructed by the otherwise almost ohligatary second row
of pillars. Thus a small but well Proportioned empty hall was created. The
projection of the shrine is further emphasized by the rounded cornice
above and a moulded base below. No further ornamentation was needed
for this kind of design and even the duarabalas have been amitted here.
Into the sourthern wall the inscription by which the temple gained fame
is carved. Through badly damaged with big pieces of gnanite missing
here and there indicating that at least part of the multilation was arbitrary,
it is yet a unique document from which much valuable information can
be gained. The faade of the temple consists of two pillars and two
plain plasters at either end. The lower Sadurams of the pillars are
considerably higher then the top ones, the later looking almost odd in
their reduced height. The Kattu in between in elongated. In to the top
to bottom. Sadurams circular lotus medallions in a square froming are
carved. The single shrine chamber is excavated well above the level of
the hall and entered by the two rock. Steps with the semi circular stone
at the bottom. A plotform with a squire pit is carved from the back wall
of shrine. Traces of old paint and plaster are found all over the walls. The
corbels of the pillars, for example, are decorated with painted circular
lotuses against a red background, similar to the ceiling pattern in
sittanavasal. The gnanite of the temple is dark ended and eroded and
shows arbitrary mutilations in places.

[ 304 ]

4.1.7 OTHERS
THE DESCENT OF THE GANGA
Pallava sculpture is at its best when communicating the sentiments of
delight and pious rapture in the expres-sions and gestures of beingshuman
or nonhuman. An excellent example is the little potbellied gana in front of
Siva, his face so deeply illumined by an unearthly joy in this great moment
when the boon is granted and the earth will be rescued from deep calamity.
Sculptured on a huge rock in the open, he is one of the multitudes of beings
who hurry in various states of bliss and expect-ant joy towards the vertical
cleft which breaks the sur-face of the rock and forms its centre. In this
miraculous moment, celebrated by the whole creation, the heavenly river
Ganga will descend to the earth. Gently will her purifying waters flow into
the world, their destructive force being broken in the maze of Sivas hair.
And all this happened in response to the prayer and austere taparya of the
royal yogi, the sage and king, Bhagiratha.
The huge rock-composition contains more than one episode of the
story-the taparya of King Bhagiratha and the flowing down of the waters.
Bhagiratha in his first stage of taparya sits, emaciated, in deep meditation
in front of a small temple. Here, Lord Brahma grants him the boon, that the
heavenly waters should hence-forth flow on earth. The next stage of
austerities, ad-dressed to Siva, were accomplished in the mountains, the
Himalayas. Here, Bhagiratha is represented again in a realistic study of
emaciation, standing on one leg and stretching his arms upward in a yogaposture. On his right is the large figure of Siva, all divine benignity and
grace, assuring his help and bestowing the boon.

[ 305 ]

The waters of the Ganga are thought of as having de-scended through

the central vertical ravine. On top of the rock are cut a number of small
channels leading to the cleft, an indication that a cistern was installed up
there. On festive occasions it must have been filled with water which was
then allowed to flow down. A giant serpent-king followed by his queen and
a large snake surge up from the depths, both blissfully folding their hands in
adoration and we can imagine the artistic effect, when water drops sparkled
on their faces. Beings from all spheres, gods, demigods and humans and the
manifold world of animals hurry from both sides to the cleft to behold the
miracle. The brahmin youths are among the first to take their bath in the
holy waters, and now they stand awestruck, their faces shining and their wet
cloths still dripping from their shoulders. Deities and heavenly beings express
their reverence with uplifted hands. Their bodies being made of subtle matter
(suksma sanra) are carried through space by their own lightness. The ani-mals
regard the spectacle with intense concentration and participate in the general
mood of exaltation in a digni-fied aloofness; only the cat is carried away by
her enthu-siasm and imitates Bhagirathas taparya while mice are playing
at her feet.
The panel is best seen during the late morning hours between 10 a.m.
and 12.30 p.m., when due to the shadow line around the figures, they seem
to emerge from the rock and become filled with a subtle breath of life. The
large open-air relief, which is here described under the title The Descent of
the Ganga was seen and interpreted by different scholars in different ways.
A short review of the various conceptions may be found interesting.

[ 306 ]

4.2

MONOLITHIC RATHAS
A Temple or mandapas carved a single free-standing rocks are

called "Monolithic Rathas".

4.2.1 NARASINGA PERUMAL TEMPLE
The Narasingapermal temple is two storeyed with barrel roof has
an uncommon, almost archie look making the timber form of its original
model very distinct. This impression would have been strengthned if the
Stupis on the top of the roof and the trident finials at the gable ends hand
been inserted, as it was planned. Te oblong form with a barrel roof and
gable ends is called Sala and resembles the model of a Buddhist
assembly hall. As in other rathas and cave temple of the period.
Buddhist and Dravidian style elements mix with each other and cannot be
separated anymore. This oblong temple type (sala) is found among the
type of miniature shrines in the roof portion and in the following
centuries among the Parivara Shines too. Parivara shirines are small
temple for subsidiary deities, surrounding the Dravidian main shrine in a
temple compound. There the Sala form houses either the reclining figure
of Vishnu of Saptamatrika group out of this oblong from with a barrel
roof, the superstructure over the gates of a temple compound, called the
gopuran began to develop, growing higher and higher in course of
centuries to become the dominant and skyscnaping mark of the south
Indian temple complex.

[ 307 ]

The ground flour or aditala of the Ratha is approximately in the

same state of incompletion as the Dharmaraja Ratha. The upper storey,
however is completed in almost all its detail. The pillared hall was
designed to surround the oblog shrive chamber with an ambulatory
passage. This shrine chamber was to house the reclining figure of Vishnu,
The rough outline of which can be made out in the rock. The shrive was
designed to be open to the west in its full length with only two pillars on
the front side. The mandapa was of surrounded the longitudinal shrine
like a verandah with a circumbulatory passage. Its lion-based pillars are
in various stages of completion. Whereas the corner butternesses are just
roughly hewn out.
4.2.2 KUDUMIYA CAVE TEMPLE
It is a very small cave temple suituated top the hill. Every detail of
this little temple is exceptionally fine, the squatting vyalas which once
had beaked faces, or their counter parts the vyalas at the Root of the
faade pilasters of Either end of the verandah, or the graceful form of
pillars growing out of the vyalas with the padma bonda a decorative
band, right over their heads, on the figures of the dvarabalas who stand
almost shy in their niches, a throughtful smilae on their faces. The clear
form of the plasters carved from the recessed walls of the ground floor
and surrounding the temple on three sides.
The over hanging carnices, carried around the temple on each of
the two talas are ornated with kudu arches with little head inside. The

[ 308 ]

string of miniature shrines above them consists of karnakutas and

salas. The long side of the barrel roof has three prominent hasikas, the
central one being raised above the other two and each one crowned by a
head bearing a trident. The rectangular shrine cell behind the verandah
houses an image of Shiva. It seems that once a linga was installed and
had perhaps substituted the image of the deity installed their in pallava
times.
4.2.3 THIRUMANGALAM PERUMAL TEMPLE
This temple is very small in size and mostly unfinished it is situated
in thirumangalam and roughly portrayed sculptures area available. Some
of the portion are little bit complete. This Raths is squire on plan its tower
portionis incomplete, particularly the pillars of the protruding muha
mondapa which were to have vylas (or else lion) at their base. The
northern elevation which is most exact designed segmentation of the
temple wall. Two protruding niches with slim plaster topped by the
seprate cornic are froming the central niche (devakoshta) which is
spanned by a makara torana thus simulating a stambha torana entrance.
The torana with four makaras and two volutes supported by a central
pracket stone shows the typical design of the pallava period.
Over hanging cornices and above them the strings of miniature
shrines mark the first and second floor. A aquare sikhara beautifully
shaped has the typical ornamental design of the period and in the centre
of its four sides large kudu shaped nasikas with shoval finials.

[ 309 ]

4.2.4 TRICHI CAVE TEMPLE

In trichi the Lalitan kura cave temple is located in almost on top of
the sleep rockhill in the midst of Trichirapalli shortly called trichi. It was
constructed by king Lali-tamkurence a biruda of king mahendra. Later
some of the cave temples are constructed by the time of Rajasimha. But
all the caves are mostly incomplete. These cave have no any main deities
and the outer walls covered by roughly made sculptures.
4.2.5 MAHISHASURA MANDAPA
Mahishasura is described in the Devi Mahatmya as ardhniskanta
half buffalo and half-man. Who shake the three wored by his might. Here
he has human body and buffalo head. His face and his posture are
suggestive of his firmness and brutal force. While holding a club with
both hands, he has along sword tied to his belt. One of his servants is
holding a Royal parasol. Another is fighting and one is retreating while
some others are killed. Through the battle scene is yet indecisive one can
Expect the result by the attitudes of the adversary. The entire grouping of
the figures and the depiction of the incident is forceful and graphic.
Through it is vigorous, yet gentle in representing the brutal dramatic
scene of the battle. Thus they followed the Devi mahatmya version. This
is not merely a sculptural panel but a moving pictures of living battle. But
no where else is a female figure depicted with such grance and power, and
breating such a sense of trumph. This is irresistibly cosmic and even the
Devi mahatmya hardly gives a truer concept of the victorious mother than

[ 310 ]

does this stone relief. The delineation of the whole composition displays
human sublimity, grance and excellence.
This form also indicated some other panels also for an example is
in the sculpture at the Rameshwara cave at Ellora, generally in painting,
the Devi is represented killing mahishasura in his mahisa form. In these
case she cuts the trought of mahisha by the trident and then the asura in
his human form energes out of his neck. The asura in These case is
smaller in proportion, probably to express the difference between the
cosmic and earthy forces.
These are the main portions and rest of portion, are still unfinished.
4.2.6 VARAHA MANDAPA
When entering a Pallava cave temple, one is usually amazed to see
the smallness of its dimensions. The pillared hall is neither light nor lofty
as in a Greek temple, but rather compact, even oppressiveas if the
pillars would have to press against the mass of rock to obtain some space,
enough for a man to stand in. Thus, a rock-hewn cave temple maintains
the character of a mountain cavern. This is particularly striking in the
Varaha Mandapam, one of those small, intimate cave temples in which
space seems to have been wrested from the unyielding gran-ite. The
sculptural panels of its walls surround the spectator so narrowly that he
himself seems to become part of the mythological event.
The Varaha Mandapam cave temple is one of the finest of the
Mamalla period with all the features of a well -developed architecture and

[ 311 ]

complete in almost all its details. It has been spared the sad fate of having
been obscured and disfigured by later structures. Its masterly carved
pillars with their specific timber-look throw deep shadows in the soft light
of the afternoon sun, covering even the panels in the interior with a warm
hue.
The cave contains four sculptural panels, one of them representing
Vishnus incarnation as a boar (Varaha avatar), holding the earth in the
form of a young goddess in his arms; on the opposite and southern wall
it is Vishnu in his dwarf incarnation (Vamana avatar or Trivikrama),
measuring the universe with his fateful three steps; on the back-wall of
the mandapa, on either side of the shrine, it is a beautiful Gajalakshmi,
emerging from the milk ocean and a representation of Durga in a headoffering scene.Vishnus Boar Incarnation or Varaha Avatar: One of the
earliest references to the earth having been lifted up from the depths of
the lower regions by a boar is found in the Satapatha-Brahmana, where
the name of the boar is Emusha. In the Ramayana, the Rishi Vasishta,
when he speaks about the origin of the worlds, says that all was water out
of which the world has been formed and out of the water Brahma arose,
became a boar and uplifted the earth. According to the Ramayana,
therefore, the uplifter of the earth was Brahma. Also in other Puranas,
Brahma is mentioned as the uplifter of the earth from the ocean, but there
he is identified with Vishnu:
At the close of the past padma-kalpa, Brahma, the Lord, endowed
predominantly with the quality of goodness, awoke from his night

[ 312 ]

slumber and be-held the universe void. He is the Supreme Lord Narayana,
who cannot even be conceived and exists in the form of Brahma, the deity
without beginning, the source of all things. He (Narayana), the lord,
concluding that within the waters lay the earth and being desirous to raise
it up, created another form for that purpose, and as in the preceding
kalpas, he had assumed the shape of a fish or a tortoise, so in this he took
up the figure of a boar. Having adopted this form he, the supporter of
spiritual and material beings, plunged into the ocean.
The Goddess Earth, beholding him thus descended to the
subterranean region, bowed in devout adoration and thus glorified the
god: Hail to thee, who art all creatures, to thee, the holder of mace and
shell, elevate me now from this place, as thou has up-raised me in days
of old. Hail to thee, spirit of the supreme spirit, to thee soul of the soul,
to thee who art discrete and indiscrete matter, who art one with the
elements and with time. Thou art the creator of all things, their preserver
and their destroyer, in the forms Lord, of Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra, at
the seasons of creation, duration and dissolution. The auspidous supporter
of the world, being thus hymned by the Earth, emitted a low murmuring
sound, like the chanting of the Samaveda, and the mighty boar, whose
eyes were like the full blown lotus, and whose body, vast as the Nila
mountains, was of the dark colour of the lotus leaves, uplifted upon his
ample tusks the Earth from the lowest regions.1
1.

Dr. Sivaramamurthi interprets the scene in a different way. According to him, it

represents Siva as Kirata and the submis sive. Arjuna receiving the pasupata
bow which he identifies as the serpent-like object in Siva's hands.

[ 313 ]

In later writings the boar avatar is treated exclusively as one

assumed by Vishnu.
The panel of the Varaha avatar here is one more example of the
highly evolved sculptural maturity of the Mamalla time. Devoid of any
dramatic movement or the display of action or tension found in other
contemporary compositions of the same theme (for example, the Varaha
avatar panels of Aihole and Namakkal), here the typical Pallava mood of
rapture and calm joy is pre-dominant. The great cosmic event, the
uplifting of the earth from the waters, has already taken place; it was a
smooth and effortless action and no physical exertion is expressed
anywhere; the figures are relaxed and participate in the general mood
with gestures of praise and adoration.
Rising from the centre of the panel across its full height and
dominating it by his mighty figure, stands Varaha who holds Bhudevi
with infinite tenderness in the curve of his right arm, while his left hand
clasps her ankle. He regards her with deep joy and love, his snout close
to her breasts, as if sniffing them, and she, almost a child, shy and sweet,
the young virgin Earth in the arms of her Lord, looks at him in
earnestness and wonder. On these two figures, turned towards each other
in rapt contemplation, the whole composition is focused. Alone, Brahma,
next to Varaha, leans slightly away and stands by himself in deep
concentration, as if impelling and directing the whole event by his yogic
force. In the texts it is said that he is one with Narayana, and that it was
he who wanted the new creation and took the form of Varaha to raise the

[ 314 ]

earth from the waters. Varahas bent right leg, on which Bhudevi is
seated, is placed upon Adiseshas head. Adisesha, his hands in anjali,
emerges from the waters in order not to miss this unique moment when
his lord reveals himself in his greatness.
The waters, in which he dwells, are indicated by rippled, wavelike
lines and lotus flowers. The lady next to him, obviously also emerging
from the waters, is probably his wife for, according to the texts, in such
composi-tions he should always be shown with his wife. The two sagelike figures at the outer ends of the panel are yogis in the attitude of
adoration. Two half figures, emerging from the clouds above are the Vedic
gods, Chandra (Moon) and Surya (Sun), often present in early
compositions. All figures are modelled in clear and simple out-lines with
details like ornaments or dresses being indi-cated only in a general way
without any emphasis given to them.
Vishnus Dwarf Incarnation or the Trivikrama Panel the Trivikrama
theme, the story of Vishnu outpacing the universe was popular among
kings and priests and common men of those days and represented time
and again in sculptural panels. It is the story or image of an over-powering
force of expansion, the story of the dwarf Vishnu who, with one stride fills
the whole earth with himself and with the next stride, the heavens. This
image can be seen in different ways and on different levels. The kings, in
whom the old idea of the worldconqueror and world-ruler (chakravartin)
was still much alive and who were even thus addressed in their inscriptions,
felt themselves strongly attracted by this expanding form of Vishnu. The

[ 315 ]

Vaishnava priests, always in a certain rivalry with the Saivaites whose

iconography contained the powerful image of Siva being immanent in the
infinitely growing world-pillar (Siva Lingodbhava), were eager to represent
their god too in this soaring and spreading form, in which his Supreme
Divine Nature would become manifest. But also philosophically and
spiritually, the image is deeply meaningful this bursting out of a dwarfexistence, and its growing and attaining higher and higher states of being,
vast and luminous regions (satyaloka) of Truth and Consciousness and
Bliss.
Let us briefly recall the Puranic story of King Bali, the asura, who
was a great devotee of Lord Vishnu. King Bali had attained immense
power and strength by his austerities and had driven Indra out of his
heavenly kingdom. This pained Aditi, Indras mother, so much that she
prayed to Lord Vishnu that he might be born as her son in order to defeat
the asura and restore the celestial order. Vishnu fulfilled her wish and was
duly born as her son in a dwarfish body. When he was still young, he
went to the place where King Bali lived, who was just then conducting
a sacrifice for Lord Vishnu. Bali seeing the dwarfish brahmin boy and
duly honoring him, asked, what he wished to have from him as a
sacrificial gift. Sukra, the Guru of King Bali, having realized that the
young Brahmacharin was no other than Vishnu himself, warned his
disciple to be careful in making promises. The noble and generoushearted Bali paid no heed to his warning. Then the young brahmin boy
asked from Bali the gift of just three paces of space, which was readily

[ 316 ]

promised and confirmed by the ceremonial out-pouring of water. At once

the dwarfish boy assumed a gigantic form and with one pace he measured
the whole bhuloka or the earth-world and with another the antankshaloka
or the mid-world between the heaven and what is above. Then there was
nothing left for measuring out the third pace of space which Bali had
prom-ised. So the king bowed down before the gigantic god and asked
him to utilize his own head for measuring out the third pace. Immensely
pleased with Bali, this Vamana (so designated in Sanskrit) or Trivikrama,
the god of the three strides, sent Bali by the pressure of his foot to
pataloka, the nether world of asuras, where he reigned thereafter as king
with the love and support of Vishnu himself. The heavenly worlds which
Bali had conquered were duly restored to the great satisfaction of Aditi
and the gods again became independent and continued to live as before
under the sovereignty of their own Lord Indra.
Scenes illustrating the different episodes of the story, which are
usually found in contemporary panels, are not represented here; for
example, the dwarfish brahmin boy asking for the boon of three paces of
space or King Bali and his Guru Sukra in the ceremony of waterpouring
as an act of confirmation of the agreement. Instead, we see four anonymous
asuric figures squatting on the ground in various attitudes of wonder and
defiance. One of them is falling on his belly, as if just pushed down by
Vishnus leg. It is difficult to say which of them could be King Bali or
whether he is represented at all. In the uppermost region of the panel is
Siva and Brahma on either side, seated in padmasana and indicating the

[ 317 ]

supracosmic dimension. Brahma is worshipping Vishnus left foot which

has touched satyaloka. Next to Brahma is the figure of Jambavan with a
bears face, joyfully beating on a drum, thus announcing Vishnus victory.
The figure hanging almost upside down in mid-air is supposed to be
Trisanku, who could neither live in heaven nor on earth, or else it could
be one of the asuras who were hurled up into the air when Trivikrama
became gigantic and strode through the worlds. In the middle region of
the panel, symbolizing the sky, we find Surya and Chandra, whereas the
netherworld is represented by the four asuras.
Out of their midst, Vishnu soars in a tremendous upward drive
which is further stressed by the vertical line of his sword and bow. His
crown and right hand are touching the top of the panel and the flexed
elbow indicates that if he would stretch his arm he would bust out of the
scene, leaving it behind. His eight arms are thrust out, spread like fans,
symbolizing his expansion in all other directions except the vertical one.
The meaning of his leg being raised to the level of the head is that Vishnu
has paced already twice and reached the region of satyaloka.
This panel like the Varaha composition on the opposite wall differs
fundamentally from contemporary representations of the theme. There the
moment of action, the overpowering dynamism of expansion is expressed
more strikinglyvery often by the minuteness of the figures remaining
behind. Here again, the Pallava equivalence and repose predominate.
Vishnu in the centre, impersonal, passionless, self-contained, shoots up
rather by his yogic power than by superhuman strength. An inner energy

[ 318 ]

throbs through his body, revealing itself in the opening of his arms and
the thrust of his leg. Solemnly erect, a lofty pillar reaching from the
netherworlds to the highest heaven, he symbolizes God being immanent
in creation.
Mahalaksmi: The panel on the southern back-wall of the mandapa,
next to the Varaha composition, represents the Gajalaksmi theme. As in
the Varaha panel, we find our selves again at the primordial beginning
when the milk ocean was churned and the ever-youthful goddess of divine
harmony and beauty appeared out of the waters. Sri Aurobindo says:
Magnetic is the touch of her hands and their occult and delicate
influence refines mind and life and body and where she presses her feet
course miraculous streams of an entrancing Ananda.1
In the panel the moment is shown when the goddess appears out of
the waters of the milk ocean. Sitting on her lotus throne, young and
beautiful, virginal as the young earth itself, she regards the creation into
which she has emerged earnest and thoughtful. Her upright body, a
straight shaft of willpower, forms the centre of this masterly balanced
panel. She is clearly set apart from the other figures-four maidens
(apsaras) who arise from the waters as the goddess herself. Their slim
and tall bodies are formed in unearthly gentleness and gracefulness. They
look at the world with the same reserve as their mistress. The apsara
theme, the representation of sensuous celestial maidens, untouched by
1.

'Cave temples of India', p. 139.

[ 319 ]

gross earthly movements, has fascinated the Indian mind for many
centuries. It found its reflection mainly in paintings, but in this creative
period was attempted and achieved in sculpture too.
Two of the maidens are carrying water in pots for the elephants
above, who pour it over the goddess as an act of worship. The elephant
heads, in spite of their enormous size, do not crush the airy figures
belowon the contrary, they too seem to be weight-less like clouds and
rather hold the panel together from above. Here, as in the previous panels,
all figures are modelled in smooth and fluid outlines. Details like the
short cloth around the waist are merely indicated, whereas a greater
importance is given to the ornaments, the elegantly shaped crowns or
large earrings. GajaLakshmis crown is a karanda makuta, formed out of
her hair.The panel, so exquisitely conceived, was but the fore-runner and
probably model of the similar and more refined composition of the same
theme in the Adi Varaha cave temple.
The Durga panel on the southern side of the shrine is remarkable
because of the well-balanced distribution of its figures. Durga, though of
graceful form, looks rather stiff on her lotus pedestal. And the way the
parasol grows clumsily out of her crown makes it clear that the same artist
of the other panels has not been at work here. Lovely are the ganas,
floating happily in various gestures of adoration through the midregion.
Above, the lion and antelope emerge as if from the air. The lion is the
vahana of the goddess whereas the antelope is associated with Siva. Both
appear often in this combination on top of Durga panels in the south. The

[ 320 ]

scene in the lower portion of the panel shows two men kneeling on either
side of her feet, one of them raising his hand in adoration while the other,
probably a warrior is about to cut off his head with a long sword as an
act of offering to the goddess.The doorkeepers of the shrine are gentle
youths with delicately flexed bodiesone of them is pointing to the
sanctuary while the other has raised his hand in a gesture of wonder
(vismaya pose).
Their attitude of re-pose and pious delight seems to indicate to the
worshipper the mood by which he will be seized when he enters the
presence of the deity inside the shrine.Some Architectural Details: This
small cave temple, dedicated to Vishnu, is remarkable in many respects,
not least because of its exquisitely carved and completed pillars and
pilaster, which show the wooden original from which they were so
strikingly copied. They stand out as classical examples of the fully
developed Mamalla pillar with zyalas (horned lions) at the lower part of
the shaft, squatting on lotus pedestals; above their heads rises the
octagonal shaft, decorated with a broad band (padma bandha) which
separates the shaft from the capital. The moulded capital is complete with
all parts which the canon prescribes and crowned by the square abacus
beyond which, the virakantha projects carrying the corbel with roll
ornamentation.
The facade has a curved cornice (kapota) with kudu-arches. Above
the cornice is a row of oblong miniature shrines, indicating the roof
portion. The interior of the cave shows a similar flexed cornice, being

[ 321 ]

carried all around the walls of the mandapa-hall and the shrine, having
below a frieze of bhuta ganas and hamsas (sacred geese) possibly carved
at a later period. The corners of the cornice are adorned with scrollwork
and supported by rampant zyalas. It is interesting that the edge of the
overhanging cornice is marked off by a chisel line, suggesting that in the
original wooden structures, curved metal sheet with embossed designs
were fixed over the wooden framework. A high moulded base (adisthana)
runs around the walls of the mandapa and shrine.
The oblong shrine chamber is projecting from the back-wall of the
hall and faces west. It is entered by three rock-cut steps, which are fitted
well into the adhistana. The shrine is empty, but has a rock-cut small
platform on its hind-wall, which must have served as pedestal for the
installed deity. The front and side-walls of the shrine have slim and wellproportioned pilasters, beautifully cut, and those cantoning the corners
have almost the form of full pillars. The cross corbels above show roll
ornamentation with lions in between. Niches, two on either side of the
shrine entrance and two on either side of the protruding shrine wall,
contain figures of doorkeepers.
Traces of red colour are found all over the cave, suggesting that
perhaps the whole cave, even the panels, were covered with a thin layer
of painted plaster (not necessarily in Pallava times). A small rectangular
tank in front of the facade was probably added at a later period.

[ 322 ]

4.2.7 TRIMURTHY MANDAPA

A little beyond Krishnas Butterball to the nonth lies the Trimurthy
mondapa. The madapa is dedicated to Hindu Trinity Brahman The
creator, Vishnu-the preserver and shiva the destroyer, the three important
Gods of the Hindu pantheon.
There are separate cells, i.e. sanctums for the three Gods. Outside
each cell, there are beautiful pillars and formations like deconated towers.
The entrance of each cell is flanked by the guards know as Dvarapalas.
In each cell, there are devotiees kneeling on the floor and praying to the
God. While there are dwarf above in flying positions.
The first cell is lard Brahma it is sare to have a temple for Brahma.
There are only very few temples in India devoted to this God. Brahma has
four faces and he is known as four faced God. But here unusually he has
got only a single face and wears a cross garland of rudraksha beads. He
carries a rosary and water vessel in his upper pair of Arms. While the
other two arms are in abhaya and katyavalambita mudras, as the case of
ther two deities.
The middle cell is fon loard shiva. A shiva ling placed infront of the
God. Harmany shiva is symbolically indicated by linga. But here stands
four armed shiva in full form. He is having an axe and rosary in his upper
arms. The lost cell is for look Vishnu. This beautiful, life like image of
find Vishnu, with conds and discus in his arms, is something worth seeing.

[ 323 ]

Out side the cells, towards one end of the rock, a Durga also
portrayed the consort of Shiva with the makanatorana decoration all
around, Durga with eight arms and standing on cut head of mahisha, the
buffalo faced demon. The word malle in Buahmds cell indicate that this
monument beings from Narasimha varmans time and some of the
portations are completed by Rajasimha period. A circular tub has been
carved out of a big rock and was being used for storage of water.
4.2.8 OTHERS
THE VALAYANKUTTAI RATHA AND THE PIDARI RATHAS
The Valayankuttai Ratha is situated by the side of a lake outside
Mamallapuraman ideal spot for an ancient place of worship in Nature.
It faces east. Square on plan, its lower portion is very incomplete,
particularly the pil-lars of the protruding mukha mandapa which were to
have l!Jalas (or else lions) at their base. The northern el-evation which is
the most complete shows an exact de-signed segmentation of the temple
wall. Two protrud-ing niches with slim pilasters topped by a separate
cor-nice are framing a central niche (devakoshta) which is spanned by a
makara. torana, thus simulating a stambha torana entrance. The torana
with four makaras and two volutes supported by a central bracket stone
shows the typical design of the Mamalla period.
Overhanging cornices and above them the strings of miniature
shrines mark the first and second floor. A square sikhara beautifully
shaped has the typical orna-mental designs of the period (viz. Arjuna

[ 324 ]

Ratha) and in the centre of its four sides large kudu-shaped nasikas with
shovel finials.
The two Pidari Rathas on the outskirts ofMamallapuram are the
most unfinished of all rathas. The upper storeys being meticulously
shaped emerge from the roughly hewn rock beneath, and thus, represent
the classic ex-ample of the mode of carving temple from apex to the base.
Both rathas are square monoliths. The southern Pidari Ratha has an
octagonal sikhara with ornamental bands and the usual scrollwork at the
corners. Strings of min-iature shrines above the cornices are found on two
storeys and relief sculptures in the niches of the first floor. The northern
Pidari Ratha is throughout square-shaped and has no miniature shrines in
its upper part. The string of miniature shrines in the first floor with the
cornice be-low extends as usual over the protruding verandah (mukha
mandapa), which is but vaguely indicated in the rock. From the eastern
wall of the temple, a beautifully proportioned though only pardy completed
makara torana was carved.

vvv

[325]

Plate-64 : The doorkeeper of the shrine-chamber.

[326]

Plate-65 : Varaha holds Bhudevi with infinite tenderness in his right arm
and she, shy, shy and sweet,

[327]

Plate-66 : Representation of the same theme at Namakkal (Pandya).

[328]

Plate-67 : Pallava King detail

[329]

Plate-68 : A royal family scene, A Pallava king leading his two queen
towards the shrine chamber to which he is pointing.

[330]

Plate-69 : Siva Gangadhara detail.

[331]

Plate-70 : Laksmi, here an imperial goddess, Fully aware of the power

with which she permeates he world.

[332]

Plate-71 : A Pallava king, detail. The king in a simple dress

and almost unadorned approaches the shrine.

[333]

Plate-72 : The goddess Durga on the severed head of Mahisasura.

[334]

Plate-73 : The two maindens on either side of her are figures of

an unearthy charm and certainly.

[335]

Plate-74 : The lion was an emblem on early Pallava compperplates; buteven

afterwards, when the Pallava emblem was the bull, the lion remained a favourite
subject for the Pallava sculptor particularly in the Mamalla period.

[336]

Plate-75 : A narrow circumambulatory passage leads around each

storey or lata, here the second tala facing north.

[337]

Plate-76 : The Dharmaraja Ratha seen from the north-east.

[338]

Plate-77 : Siva as Vrsabhantika learning on Nandikesvara who

is represented here as a boy.

[339]

Plate-78 : Siva as Vrasabhantika leaning on Nandi in his bull form.

[340]

Plate-79 : Siva as Guru embracing his beloved disciple Candesa.

[341]

Plate-80 : Siva slaying the asura Andhaka.

[342]

Plate-81 : Siva as Master of Dance, instructing the sage Tandu in the art of dancing.

[343]

Plate-82 : A fine representation of a Pallava dvarapala leaning relaxed on his club.

[344]

Plate-83 : Vishnu mounting his vehicle Garuda who is represented as a boy

similar to Nandikesvara.

[345]

Plate-84 : Devotee in the attitude of reverence and adoration.

[346]

Plate-85 : Devotee holding a flower in his right hand.

[347]

Plate-86 : The head priest with a long basket of offering flowers.

[348]

Plate-87 : The bard or stavaka with his vina singing a devotional hymn.

[349]

Plate-88 : A girl carrying a bowl with offerings on her shoulder.

[350]

Plate-89 : Harihara, one of the groundfloor figures (north).

[351]

Plate-90 : Ardhanarisvara, first tala or groundfloor, east.

[352]

Plate-91 : King Narasimha Mahamalla, first tala south.

[353]

Plate-92 : The Arjuna Ratha seen from the south-east.

[354]

Plate-93 : A royal couple, perhaps King Paramesvara and his queen.

[355]

Plate-94 : The Vrsabhantika motif, Siva leaning on his bull Nandi.

[356]

Plate-95 : A rishi withhis disciple.

[357]

Plate-96 : Vishnu Detail.

[358]

Plate-97 : Draupadi Ratha : dvarapalika, detail.

[359]

Plate-98 : The horned vyala at the bases of pillars and pilasters appears
first in the time of Narasimha Mahamalla.

[360]

Plate-99 : The Draupadi Ratha, seen from the south-west.

[361]

Plate-100 : Arjuna Ratha, northern wall.

[362]

Plate-101 : A cow licking here calf while being milked.

[363]

Plate-102 : A group of mythological animals, looking dazzled into

the storm outside.

[364]

Plate-103 : Balarama who has laid hisarm protectively around the

shoulders of an elderly cowherd.

[365]

Plate-104 : Another open-air relief depicting the Krishna Govardhana theme.

[366]

Plate-105 : Siva accompanined by his ganas grants the boon to catch the
impetuous river goddess in the tresses of his hair.

[367]

Plate-106 : A lion striding towards the cleft.

[368]

Plate-107 : A couple of deer.

[369]

Plate-108: Facade of the Varaha Mandapam cave temple, facing west.

[370]

Plate-109 : A Pallava king with his two queens.

[371]

Plate-110 : Ganesha Ratha, dvarapala, detail.

[372]

Plate-111 : The Valayankuttai Ratha seen from the north.

[373]

Plate-112 : The Valayankuttai Ratha picturesquely situated by

the side of a small lake.

[374]

Plate-113 : A cat imitating Bhagiratha's tapasya.

[375]

Plate-114 : Two brahmin boys are among the first to take their
bath in the sacred waters.

[376]

Plate-115 : A huge naga king and his queen ascending through the cleft,
both with blissfully folded hands.

[377]

Plate-116 : The second stage of Bhagiratha's tapasya.

[378]

Plate-117 : A naga couple hurrying towards the cleft through which

the sacred waters flow down.

[379]

Plate-118 : A monkey watching the scene in dignified aloofness.

[380]

Plate-119 : Bhagiratha in meditation, detail.

[381]

Plate-120 : Bhagiratha in meditation in front of a small

Dravidian shrine (ekatala vimana).

[382]

Plate-121 : Beings from all spheres hurry from both sides of the cleft to
behold at miraculous descent of the heavenly river Ganga upon eath.

[383]

Plate-122 : The Pidari Rathas.

[384]

Plate-123 : The unfinished Pidari Rathas.

[385]

Plate-124 : The open-air relief: The Descent of the Ganga.

[386]

Plate-125 : Ganesha Ratha, dvarapala.

[387]

Plate-126 : Facade of the Ganesha Ratha facing west.

[388]

Plate-127: For the first time in Pallava arhitecture the apsidal from appears,
borrowed from the model of a Buddist chaitya hall.

[389]

Plate-128 : A woodcut of the Sahadeva Ratha towards the end of

the 19th century.

[390]

Plate-129 : A panel carved from the backwall of the small shrine

chamber of the Draupadi Ratha.

[391]

Plate-130 : The panel representing the Varaha avatar theme.

[392]

Plate-131 : Panel of Vishnu as Trivikrama, outpacing the

universe with three steps.

[393]

Plate-132 : The panel of Mahalaksmi and her maidens

emerging from the milk ocean.

[394]

Plate-133 : The facade of the Adi Varaha Mandapam cave temple is

enclosed by modern structures.

[395]

Plate-134 : The Gajalaksmi group in the Adi Varaha cave temple is almost the
exact copy of the same theme in the Varaha Mandapam cave temle.

[396]

Plate-135 : View from the Dharmaraja Ratha towards west.

[397]

Plate-136 : Nandi east to the Draupadi Ratha.

[398]

Plate-137 : The Bhima Ratha, seen from north-west.

[399]

Plate-138 : Siva as Guru embracing his beloved disciple Candesa.

[400]

Plate-139 : Arjuna Ratha, southern wall.

[401]

Plate-140 : The Ganesha Ratha is most elegant of all rathas, the harmony of its
forms being equalled alone by the majestic grandeur of the Dharmaraja Ratha.

[402]

Plate-141 : Southern gable of the Bhima Ratha.

[403]

Plate-142 : Four rathas seen from the north east : Dharmaraja Ratha
Bhima Ratha, Arjuna Ratha, Draupadi Ratha.

[404]

Plate-143 : A panel carved from the backwall of the small

shrine chamber of the Draupadi Ratha.

[405]

Plate-144 : Section in perpective of the temple of Vaikunthak perumal.

[406]

Plate-145 : South-west view of vaikuntha perumal temple

[407]

Plate-146 : South-west view of kaikuntha perumal temple.

[408]

Plate-147 : Figure on the Left side of Entrance Gopuram

[409]

Plate-148 : Elevation of exterior courtwall near north-west corner.

[410]

Plate-149 : Sculpture on top of a niche on south exterior side of Court Wall.

[411]

Plate-150 : Pillar and Panel in West porch.

[412]

Plate-151 : Panel of best side of Inner shrine wall.

[413]

Plate-152 : Panel of south side of 2nd inner shrine wall.

[414]

Plate-153 : Two panels on south wall of ardhamandapam.

[415]

Plate-154 : 2nd panel to right of centre of 3rd north shrine wall.

[416]

Plate-155: Kailasanatha Temple (original arrangement of the building.)

[417]

Plate-156 : Panels on the north side of the garbhagriham,

Kailasanadha Temple.

[418]

Plate-157 : Panels of north side of court.

[419]

Plate-158 : Panels on the north side of the Garbhagriham,

Kailasanadha Temple.

[420]

Plate-159 : Panels on front of 2nd and 3rd cells from east end of large court.

[421]

Plate-160 : Window in east end of arddhamandapam.

[422]

Plate-161 : East Elevation of the Mahamandapam.

[423]

Plate-162 : Panel Ist to right of back central shrine.

[424]

Plate-163 : Panel in Shrines at North-West Corner of Vimana.

[425]

Plate-164 : Panel of north side of shrine at north-west corner of Vimana.

[426]

Plate-165 : Panel 2nd & 3rd from north-west corner of Vimana.

[427]

Plate-166 : 4th panel from north-west corner of Vimana.

[428]

Plate-167 : Panel of north side of vimana, 5th from north-west corner.

[429]

Plate-168 : 2nd panel from north-west corner of Vimana, West side.

[430]

Plate-169 : East Elevation of Mahendravarma Shrine.

[431]

Plate-170 : Panel in central shrine on West side of Vimana.

[432]

Plate-171 : 2nd Panel from south-west corner of Vimana, south side.

[433]

Plate-172 : Panel of left east doorwat to large courtyard.

[434]

Plate-173 : Panel of back of shrine at south-west corner of Vimana.

[435]

Plate-174 : Panel of front of center shrine. South side of Vimana.