It began with a simple boycott of Jewish shops and ended in the gas chambers at Auschwitz as

Adolf Hitler and his Nazi followers attempted to exterminate the entire Jewish population of
Europe.
In January 1933, after a bitter ten-year political struggle, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany.
During his rise to power, Hitler had repeatedly blamed the Jews for Germany's defeat in World
War I and subsequent economic hardships. Hitler also put forward racial theories asserting that
Germans with fair skin, blond hair and blue eyes were the supreme form of human, or master
race. The Jews, according to Hitler, were the racial opposite, and were actively engaged in an
international conspiracy to keep this master race from assuming its rightful position as rulers of
the world.
Jews at this time composed only about one percent of Germany's population of 55 million
persons. German Jews were mostly cosmopolitan in nature and proudly considered themselves
to be Germans by nationality and Jews only by religion. They had lived in Germany for
centuries, fought bravely for the Fatherland in its wars and prospered in numerous professions.
But they were gradually shut out of German society by the Nazis through a never-ending series
of laws and decrees, culminating in the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 which deprived them of their
German citizenship and forbade intermarriage with non-Jews. They were removed from
schools, banned from the professions, excluded from military service, and were even forbidden
to share a park bench with a non-Jew.
At the same time, a carefully orchestrated smear campaign under the direction of Propaganda
Minister Joseph Goebbels portrayed Jews as enemies of the German people. Daily anti-Semitic
slurs appeared in Nazi newspapers, on posters, the movies, radio, in speeches by Hitler and top
Nazis, and in the classroom. As a result, State-sanctioned anti-Semitism became the norm
throughout Germany. The Jews lost everything, including their homes and businesses, with no
protest or public outcry from non-Jewish Germans. The devastating Nazi propaganda film The
Eternal Jew went so far as to compared Jews to plague carrying rats, a foreshadow of things to
come.
In March 1938, Hitler expanded the borders of the Nazi Reich by forcibly annexing Austria. A
brutal crackdown immediately began on Austria's Jews. They also lost everything and were
even forced to perform public acts of humiliation such as scrubbing sidewalks clean amid
jeering pro-Nazi crowds.
Back in Germany, years of pent-up hatred toward the Jews was finally let loose on the night that
marks the actual beginning of the Holocaust. The Night of Broken Glass (Kristallnacht) occurred
on November 9/10 after 17-year-old Herschel Grynszpan shot and killed Ernst vom Rath, a
German embassy official in Paris, in retaliation for the harsh treatment his Jewish parents had
received from Nazis.
Spurred on by Joseph Goebbels, Nazis used the death of vom Rath as an excuse to conduct
the first State-run pogrom against Jews. Ninety Jews were killed, 500 synagogues were burned
and most Jewish shops had their windows smashed. The first mass arrest of Jews also
occurred as over 25,000 men were hauled off to concentration camps. As a kind of cynical joke,
the Nazis then fined the Jews 1 Billion Reichsmarks for the destruction which the Nazis
themselves had caused during Kristallnacht.
Many German and Austrian Jews now attempted to flee Hitler's Reich. However, most Western
countries maintained strict immigration quotas and showed little interest in receiving large

numbers of Jewish refugees. This was exemplified by the plight of the St. Louis, a ship crowded
with 930 Jews that was turned away by Cuba, the United States and other countries and
returned back to Europe, soon to be under Hitler's control.
On the eve of World War II, the Fhrer (supreme leader) publicly threatened the Jews of Europe
during a speech in Berlin: "In the course of my life I have very often been a prophet, and have
usually been ridiculed for it. During the time of my struggle for power it was in the first instance
only the Jewish race that received my prophecies with laughter when I said that I would one day
take over the leadership of the State, and with it that of the whole nation, and that I would then
among other things settle the Jewish problem. Their laughter was uproarious, but I think that for
some time now they have been laughing on the other side of their face. Today I will once more
be a prophet: if the international Jewish financiers in and outside Europe should succeed in
plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the Bolshevizing of
the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe!"
Hitler intended to blame the Jews for the new world war he was soon to provoke. That war
began in September 1939 as German troops stormed into Poland, a country that was home to
over three million Jews. After Poland's quick defeat, Polish Jews were rounded up and forced
into newly established ghettos at Lodz, Krakow, and Warsaw, to await future plans. Inside these
overcrowded walled-in ghettos, tens of thousands died a slow death from hunger and disease
amid squalid living conditions. The ghettos soon came under the jurisdiction of Heinrich
Himmler, leader of the Nazi SS, Hitler's most trusted and loyal organization, composed of
fanatical young men considered racially pure according to Nazi standards.
In the spring of 1940, Himmler ordered the building of a concentration camp near the Polish city
of Oswiecim, renamed Auschwitz by the Germans, to hold Polish prisoners and to provide slave
labor for new German-run factories to be built nearby.
Meanwhile, Hitler continued his conquest of Europe, invading Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg
and France, placing ever-increasing numbers of Jews under Nazi control. The Nazis then began
carefully tallying up the actual figures and also required Jews to register all of their assets. But
the overall question remained as to what to do with the millions of Jews now under Nazi control
- referred to by the Nazis themselves as the Judenfrage (Jewish question).
The following year, 1941, would be the turning point. In June, Hitler took a tremendous military
gamble by invading the Soviet Union. Before the invasion he had summoned his top generals
and told them the attack on Russia would be a ruthless "war of annihilation" targeting
Communists and Jews and that normal rules of military conflict were to be utterly ignored.
Inside the Soviet Union were an estimated three million Jews, many of whom still lived in tiny
isolated villages known as Shtetls. Following behind the invading German armies, four SS
special action units known as Einsatzgruppen systematically rounded-up and shot all of the
inhabitants of these Shtetls. Einsatz execution squads were aided by German police units, local
ethnic Germans, and local anti-Semitic volunteers. Leaders of the Einsatzgruppen also engaged
in an informal competition as to which group had the highest tally of murdered Jews.
During the summer of 1941, SS leader Heinrich Himmler summoned Auschwitz Commandant
Rudolf Hss to Berlin and told him: "The Fhrer has ordered the Final Solution of the Jewish
question. We, the SS, have to carry out this order...I have therefore chosen Auschwitz for this
purpose."

At Auschwitz, a large new camp was already under construction to be known as Auschwitz II
(Birkenau). This would become the future site of four large gas chambers to be used for mass
extermination. The idea of using gas chambers originated during the Euthanasia Program, the
so-called "mercy killing" of sick and disabled persons in Germany and Austria by Nazi doctors.
By now, experimental mobile gas vans were being used by the Einsatzgruppen to kill Jews in
Russia. Special trucks had been converted by the SS into portable gas chambers. Jews were
locked up in the air-tight rear container while exhaust fumes from the truck's engine were fed in
to suffocate them. However, this method was found to be somewhat impractical since the
average capacity was less than 50 persons. For the time being, the quickest killing method
continued to be mass shootings. And as Hitler's troops advanced deep into the Soviet Union,
the pace of Einsatz killings accelerated. Over 33,000 Jews in the Ukraine were shot in the Babi
Yar ravine near Kiev during two days in September 1941.
The next year, 1942, marked the beginning of mass murder on a scale unprecedented in all of
human history. In January, fifteen top Nazis led by Reinhard Heydrich, second in command of
the SS, convened the Wannsee Conference in Berlin to coordinate plans for the Final Solution.
The Jews of Europe would now be rounded up and deported into occupied Poland where new
extermination centers were being constructed at Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, and AuschwitzBirkenau.

Map & Photos

Map showing
locations of Nazi
Concentration &
Death camps.

Adolf Hitler
salutes SS
troops on parade
in Nuremberg
while SS Leader
Himmler (in
front) watches.

Jews in Vienna
forced to scrub
sidewalks.

A mass shooting
somewhere
inside occupied
Russia.

Jewish children
in the Lodz
Ghetto on their
way toward
transports that
will take them to
Chelmno Death
Camp.

Crematory ovens
at Majdanek with
piles of human
ashes still in
front, as seen
after liberation.

Portrait of Otto
Ohlendorf,
former
commander of
SS
Einsatzgruppe
D, taken during
war crimes trials.
He admitted
killing 90,000

Jews, was
convicted and
hanged by the
U.S.
Code named "Aktion Reinhard" in honor of Heydrich, the Final Solution began in the spring as
over two million Jews already in Poland were sent to be gassed as soon as the new camps
became operational. Hans Frank, the Nazi Governor of Poland had by now declared: "I ask
nothing of the Jews except that they should disappear."
Every detail of the actual extermination process was meticulously planned. Jews arriving in
trains at Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka were falsely informed by the SS that they had come to a
transit stop and would be moving on to their true destination after delousing. They were told
their clothes were going to be disinfected and that they would all be taken to shower rooms for a
good washing. Men were then split up from the women and children. Everyone was taken to
undressing barracks and told to remove all of their clothing. Women and girls next had their hair
cut off. First the men, and then the women and children, were hustled in the nude along a
narrow fenced-in pathway nicknamed by the SS as the Himmelstrasse (road to Heaven). At the
end of the path was a bathhouse with tiled shower rooms. As soon as the people were all
crammed inside, the main door was slammed shut, creating an air-tight seal. Deadly carbon
monoxide fumes were then fed in from a stationary diesel engine located outside the chamber.
At Auschwitz-Birkenau, new arrivals were told to carefully hang their clothing on numbered
hooks in the undressing room and were instructed to remember the numbers for later. They
were given a piece of soap and taken into the adjacent gas chamber disguised as a large
shower room. In place of carbon monoxide, pellets of the commercial pesticide Zyklon-B
(prussic acid) were poured into openings located above the chamber upon the cynical SS
command - Na, gib ihnen shon zu fressen (All right, give 'em something to chew on). The gas
pellets fell into hollow shafts made of perforated sheet metal and vaporized upon contact with
air, giving off lethal cyanide fumes inside the chamber which oozed out at floor level then rose
up toward the ceiling. Children died first since they were closer to the floor. Pandemonium
usually erupted as the bitter almond-like odor of the gas spread upwards with adults climbing on
top of each other forming a tangled heap of dead bodies all the way up to the ceiling.
At each of the death camps, special squads of Jewish slave laborers called Sonderkommandos
were utilized to untangle the victims and remove them from the gas chamber. Next they
extracted any gold fillings from teeth and searched body orifices for hidden valuables. The
corpses were disposed of by various methods including mass burials, cremation in open fire pits
or in specially designed crematory ovens such as those used at Auschwitz. All clothing, money,
gold, jewelry, watches, eyeglasses and other valuables were sorted out then shipped back to
Germany for re-use. Women's hair was sent to a firm in Bavaria for the manufacture of felt.
One extraordinary aspect of the journey to the death camps was that the Nazis often charged
Jews deported from Western Europe train fare as third class passengers under the guise that
they were being "resettled in the East." The SS also made new arrivals in the death camps sign
picture postcards showing the fictional location "Waldsee" which were sent to relatives back
home with the printed greeting: "We are doing very well here. We have work and we are well
treated. We await your arrival."

In the ghettos of Poland, Jews were simply told they were being "transferred" to work camps.
Many went willingly, hoping to escape the brutal ghetto conditions. They were then stuffed into
unheated, poorly ventilated boxcars with no water or sanitation. Young children and the elderly
often died long before reaching their destination.
Trainloads of human cargo arriving at Auschwitz went through a selection process conducted by
SS doctors such as Josef Mengele. Young adults considered fit for slave labor were allowed to
live and had an ID number tattooed on their left forearm. Everyone else went to the gas
chambers. A few inmates, including twin children, were occasionally set aside for participation in
human medical experiments.
The death camp at Majdanek operated on the Auschwitz model and served both as a slave
labor camp and extermination center. Chelmno, the sixth death camp in occupied Poland,
operated somewhat differently from the others in that large mobile gas vans were continually
used.
Although the Nazis attempted to keep all of the death camps secret, rumors and some
eyewitness reports gradually filtered out. Harder to conceal were the mass shootings occurring
throughout occupied Russia. On June 30 and July 2, 1942, the New York Times reported via the
London Daily Telegraph that over 1,000,000 Jews had already been shot.
That summer, Swiss representatives of the World Jewish Congress received information from a
German industrialist regarding the Nazi plan to exterminate the Jews. They passed the
information on to London and Washington.
In December 1942, British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden stood before the House of
Commons and declared the Nazis were "now carrying into effect Hitler's oft-repeated intention
to exterminate the Jewish people of Europe."
Jews in America responded to the various reports by holding a rally at New York's Madison
Square Garden in March 1943 to pressure the U.S. government into action. As a result, the
Bermuda Conference was held from April 19-30, with representatives from the U.S. and Britain
meeting to discuss the problem of refugees from Nazi-occupied countries. But the meeting
resulted in complete inaction concerning the ongoing exterminations.
Seven months later, November 1943, the U.S. Congress held hearings concerning the U.S.
State Department's total inaction regarding the plight of European Jews. President Franklin
Roosevelt responded to the mounting political pressure by creating the War Refugee Board
(WRB) in January 1944 to aid neutral countries in the rescue of Jews. The WRB helped save
about 200,000 Jews from death camps through the heroic efforts of persons such as Swedish
diplomat Raoul Wallenberg working tirelessly in occupied countries.
The WRB also advocated the aerial bombing of Auschwitz, although it never occurred since it
was not considered a vital military target. The U.S. and its military Allies maintained that the best
way to stop Nazi atrocities was to defeat Germany as quickly as possible.
In April 1944, two Jewish inmates escaped from Auschwitz and made it safely into
Czechoslovakia. One of them, Rudolf Vrba, submitted a detailed report to the Papal Nuncio in
Slovakia which was then forwarded to the Vatican, received there in mid-June. Thus far, Pope
Pius XII had not issued a public condemnation of Nazi maltreatment and subsequent mass
murder of Jews, and he chose to continue his silence.
The Nazis attempted to quell increasing reports of the Final Solution by inviting the International
Red Cross to visit Theresienstadt, a ghetto in Czechoslovakia containing prominent Jews. A

Red Cross delegation toured Theresienstadt in July 1944 observing stores, banks, cafes, and
classrooms which had been hastily spruced-up for their benefit. They also witnessed a delightful
musical program put on by Jewish children. After the Red Cross departed, most of the ghetto
inhabitants, including all of the children, were sent to be gassed and the model village was left
to deteriorate.
In several instances, Jews took matters into their own hands and violently resisted the Nazis.
The most notable was the 28-day battle waged inside the Warsaw Ghetto. There, a group of
750 Jews armed with smuggled-in weapons battled over 2000 SS soldiers armed with small
tanks, artillery and flame throwers. Upon encountering stiff resistance from the Jews, the Nazis
decided to burn down the entire ghetto.
An SS report described the scene: "The Jews stayed in the burning buildings until because of
the fear of being burned alive they jumped down from the upper storiesWith their bones
broken, they still tried to crawl across the street into buildings which had not yet been set on
fireDespite the danger of being burned alive the Jews and bandits often preferred to return
into the flames rather than risk being caught by us."
Resistance also occurred inside the death camps. At Treblinka, Jewish inmates staged a revolt
in August 1943, after which Himmler ordered the camp dismantled. At Sobibor, a big escape
occurred in October 1943, as Jews and Soviet POWs killed 11 SS men and broke out, with 300
making it safely into nearby woods. Of those 300, most were hunted down and only fifty
survived. Himmler then closed Sobibor. At Auschwitz-Birkenau, Jewish Sonderkommandos
managed to destroy crematory number four in October 1944.
But throughout Nazi-occupied Europe, relatively few non-Jewish persons were willing to risk
their own lives to help the Jews. Notable exceptions included Oskar Schindler, a German who
saved 1200 Jews by moving them from Plaszow labor camp to his hometown of Brunnlitz. The
country of Denmark rescued nearly its entire population of Jews, over 7000, by transporting
them to safety by sea. Italy and Bulgaria both refused to cooperate with German demands for
deportations. Elsewhere in Europe, people generally stood by passively and watched as Jewish
families were marched through the streets toward waiting trains, or in some cases, actively
participated in Nazi persecutions.
By 1944, the tide of war had turned against Hitler and his armies were being defeated on all
fronts by the Allies. However, the killing of Jews continued uninterrupted. Railroad locomotives
and freight cars badly needed by the German Army were instead used by the SS to transport
Jews to Auschwitz.
In May, Nazis under the direction of SS Lt. Colonel Adolf Eichmann boldly began a mass
deportation of the last major surviving population of European Jews. From May 15 to July 9,
over 430,000 Hungarian Jews were deported to Auschwitz. During this time, Auschwitz recorded
its highest-ever daily number of persons killed and cremated at just over 9000. Six huge open
pits were used to burn the bodies, as the number of dead exceeded the capacity of the
crematories.
The unstoppable Allied military advance continued and on July 24, 1944, Soviet troops liberated
the first camp, Majdanek in eastern Poland, where over 360,000 had died. As the Soviet Army
neared Auschwitz, Himmler ordered the complete destruction of the gas chambers. Throughout
Hitler's crumbling Reich, the SS now began conducting death marches of surviving
concentration camp inmates away from outlying areas, including some 66,000 from Auschwitz.

Most of the inmates on these marches either dropped dead from exertion or were shot by the
SS when they failed to keep up with the column.
The Soviet Army reached Auschwitz on January 27, 1945. By that time, an estimated 1,500,000
Jews, along with 500,000 Polish prisoners, Soviet POWs and Gypsies, had perished there. As
the Western Allies pushed into Germany in the spring of 1945, they liberated Buchenwald,
Bergen-Belsen, and Dachau. Now the full horror of the twelve-year Nazi regime became
apparent as British and American soldiers, including Supreme Commander Dwight D.
Eisenhower, viewed piles of emaciated corpses and listened to vivid accounts given by
survivors.
On April 30, 1945, surrounded by the Soviet Army in Berlin, Adolf Hitler committed suicide and
his Reich soon collapsed. By now, most of Europe's Jews had been killed. Four million had
been gassed in the death camps while another two million had been shot dead or died in the
ghettos. The victorious Allies; Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union, then began the
daunting task of sorting through the carnage to determine exactly who was responsible. Seven
months later, the Nuremberg War Crime Trials began, with 22 surviving top Nazis charged with
crimes against humanity.
During the trial, a now-repentant Hans Frank, the former Nazi Governor of Poland declared: "A
thousand years will pass and the guilt of the Germany will not be erased."
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