Social Casework: Nature, Values,

Principles and Trends

by Puja Mondal Sociology

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Social casework was practised in India under the cover of religious and social sermons. Indians
had their own ways to achieve and accomplish the individual purposes. It is not surprising and
unnatural to find traces of social casework in any culture as every culture has its own ways to
deal with and tackle the individuals sufferings and problems.
This is very much true of Indian culture too which becomes clear from our various
scriptures where the most common techniques used to help the individual clients have
been:
(1) Story-telling,
(2) Imparting knowledge,
(3) Prayer,
(4) Yogic exercises,
(5) Fasting,
(6) Learning and practising behaviour in the company of saintly persons, and
(7) Demonstration or modelling behaviour (setting examples), though in Gita, Lord Krishna has
used techniques of re-educating, informing, imparting knowledge, clarifying the reality to enable
Arjuna to perform his roles.
These techniques of helping individuals could not be popular perhaps because these were
available only in Sanskrita language of elite in those days of India. It remained confined only
to certain class of people and certain areas of nation. And, even during the British rule, only few
attempted to present it into a systematic way for the consumption of common people. We were

encouraged under the then policies of education to study English and import knowledge
available in English from the western hemisphere.
This happened in those subjects also where we had enough to go by, perhaps because, we
wanted to be like our rulers to get rid of our inferiority feelings, to please them and also acquire
materials of comforts and fame in the British circles. It is because of these and many other such
reasons that we (the educated) copied British ways of life, their language and various aspects of
their culture.
This tendency probably was further accentuated by the work of missionaries whose converts
became Madam and Sir in no time. All these and many other factors kept us, away from our
own cultural treasures. Social casework of today is not totally different from our traditional
(scripture-described) approach to individual problem. Our own system of casework like the
present one has been very rational and based on intellectual and logical discussions leading to
knowledge of reality, self-control and practice of a constructive and socially useful model of
behaviour.
The accent in our scriptural approach was more on the social aspect of the personality, i.e., the
person should conform to the social standards and derive pleasure by contributing significantly
to the growth of and harmony in the society. Casework as practised today by the professional
social workers also emphasises the social aspects of the case.
Social casework, as taught today in Indian schools of social work, has been imported from the
West, specially from USA. We continue to change our syllabi of social work as per the changes
occurring in USA and western world. Of late, social work has undergone some changes in the
West.
Consequently, in place of social casework, social group work and community organisation, an
integrated approach (to be discussed separately) has been adopted by many of the schools of
social work there. However, in India, the old model of social work teaching and practice is
continuing and social casework, social group work and community organisation are being taught
as methods of working with peopleindividual, group and communityas before.

History of Social Casework:

The poor, from the very beginning of the civilised society, have been the concern of humanists,
philanthropists and socio- religious activists. Its description is found in the Vedic literature and of
course much later in the western countries. Casework as practised today, a purely western
(predominantly USA) model, too owes its history to work by individuals and organisations with
the poor.
The Association for Improving the Conditions of the Poor (AICP) founded in 1843 in USA,
emphasised self-respect, self-dependence and relief suitable to their needs in its work with the
poor. The approach behind this service by AICP had a clear departure from the earlier services
to the poor in colonial America under Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601, etc., which was based on
the concept of charity. Seeds of social casework seems to have been shown with the
individualised services of Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847) followed by the Charity Organisation
Society (COS) of 1869 (London) and 1877 (USA) respectively.
Their work involved investigation to determine clients needs, central registration, recording,
relief giving and use of volunteer, i.e., friendly visitor. Friendly visitors of COS (USA) discovered
that all the poor werenot alike and that they should be treated differently. Papers presented at
the National Conference of Charities and Corrections enunciated and emphasised the principle
of individualisation.
COS was asked to reach the individual and restore his function without bothering for detection
of imposters on relief. Thus, the concept of scientific charity came into practice and it was
recognised that the poor, and those in trouble worse than poverty, have not, in common, any
type of physical, intellectual or moral development which would warrant an attempt to group
them as a class.
Friendly visitors at a later stage received training in investigation, diagnosis and treatment for
which the New York School of Philanthropy was established towards the end of 19th century
(Bruno, 1957) and it was during this time that term casework appeared in a paper read at a
national conference. The COS movement gave birth to Family Welfare Association in 1905.
In England, around the end of the 19th century, outside visitor (called almoner) at the instance
of Sir Charles Loch came to help hospitals to serve their patients effectively. The almoner, like
paid agents and friendly visitor of USA, can be said to be the predecessor of caseworker. The
almoners original assignment was seen as the prevention of abuse of hospital treatment.

By 1911, social casework had emerged in USA as an accepted formal technique though the first
book on social casework was published in 1917 by an American, Marry Richmond. Various
definitions of casework in the 1920s under the influence of Freudian theory no more
emphasised external factors. It held the individual responsible for his plight and it was he who
was helped to cope with the social problems confronting him.
During the same time, social reforms and social problems received little attention compared to
its earlier period when the emphasis was on correcting the social environment of the client. In
1920s, under the Freudian influence, casework was to untangle and reconstruct the twisted
personality and change human attitudes so that the client could adjust to his environment and
its influence.
In contrast to the trend in 1920s, caseworkers shifted their focus in 1930s from individual to
modification and manipulation of the clients environment to enable him to adapt to his situations
satisfactorily. This change was because of acceptance of the idea by Americans that social and
economic variables influenced mans behaviour meaningfully.
After World War II, with the problems of morale, leadership, propaganda, separation,
communication, etc., social workers found social sciences more useful. Interest in social
environment, along-with ego psychology, received more attention and the definition of
Richmond (1922) that casework consists of those processes which develop personality through
adjustments consciously effected, individual by individual, between man and their social
environment was considered to be the best by Hamilton (1951). Perlman (1957) also
emphasised on the problems of social functioning.
Though many may not agree, I personally think that the latest thinking in casework is more or
less fully contained in the definition by Boehm (1958) which emphasises both external and
internal factors, and uses the concepts of social functioning, social role, malfunctioning, and, of
resources. Many new trends are coming forth and possibly no definition will ever be able to
cover all the changes and trends emerging from time to time.

Nature:
Social casework, as taught and practised in India today, is understood as an approach to help
individuals but not at random. As a method of social work profession, it seeks to help individuals
in a systematic way based on knowledge of human behaviour and various tested approaches.

Every individual, child or adult, in order to grow and develop, has various needs (psychological,
physical and social) to fulfill. In this task, he has to interact with different types of people and
face different environmental conditions. Very often, the individual fails in his attempts fully or
partially and sometimes, he has to face non-helpful reactions of the people around him.
Lack of resources, non-fulfillment of needs, unpleasant social reactions and unfavourable
physical conditions make human development and functioning (i.e., adaptation) difficult and
sometimes impossible. An individual, under these stressful conditions, seeks help, sometimes
from the near and dear ones (like parents, siblings, friends, etc.) and sometimes from the
professionals (priests, teachers, lawyers, doctors, social workers, etc.) Every professionals help
has two components: one, his professional skills and knowledge, and the other is his personal
characteristics and experiences of life.
These two components set the way the professional helper will move to help the needy
individual to meet his needs or solve his problems to live a full life. What aspects of life will be
aided by whom will depend upon the professional expertise of the person in the helping role.
For example, a physician will help only with physical problems, a teacher with educational
problems and a lawyer with the legal problems. Social workers help the total individual, i.e., with
every aspect of life which, in any way, is detrimental to his living a full lifea life wherein one is
not uncomfortable with the happenings in and around him.
Perlman (1957) tries to understand this process of helping individuals in terms of a person with
a problem, who comes to a place (an agency) where a professional representative (trained
person) helps him by a given process. She thus delineates the four basic components of social
casework, viz., person, problem, place (agency) and process. She explains that problems arise
from some needs or obstacles to the fulfillment of these needs, or accumulation of frustrations,
or maladjustment, or sometimes from all of these put together.
These individually or together threaten or have already attacked the persons living arrangement
or the effectiveness of his efforts to deal with it. These problems are tackled through a process
which is a progressive transaction between the professional (trained) helper and clients. It
consists of problem-solving operations carried on within a meaningful relationship (purposefully
established).

These operations aim at developing the clients effectiveness in coping with his problem and/or
so influence the problem as to resolve or vitiate its effect. The person is the one who is in need
of help in some aspect of his social-emotional living, whether the need be for tangible provisions
or counsel.
As he begins to receive such help, he is called, client. The place is a social service agency or
a social service department of another kind or a human welfare agency. Perlman (1957) thus
defines social casework as a process used by certain human welfare agencies to help
individuals to cope more effectively with their problems in social functioning.
The concept of social functioning has gained quite an important place in social casework. This
concept fully explains the meaning of the adjective, social, used with the word casework and
helps in differentiating it from psycho-work, i.e., psychotherapy.
Social casework enables an individual to obtain a higher level of social functioning through an
interpersonal transaction or face-to-face or person-to-person encounter. The caseworker helps
the client to act in order to achieve some personal/social goals by utilising the available
resources in terms of strength of personality of the client, his social system or material
provisions available in the community and/ or agency. Caseworkers knowledge and expertise,
and material resources are used (as tools) to inject strengths in the person to enable him to
move more satisfyingly in the social situation he finds difficult to deal with.
Richmond (1917), who gave a scientific status to casework, defines social casework as one
consisting of those processes which develop personality through adjustments consciously
effected, individual by individual, between man and their social environment. Regensurg (1938)
considers casework as a method of measuring against reality the clients capacity to deal with
his problem or pieces of it, while the worker helps him to clarify what the problem is and enables
him to think of different ways to solve it.
According to Bowers (1949), social casework is an art in which knowledge of the science of
human relations and skills in relationship are used to mobilise capacities in the individual and
resources in the community appropriate for better adjustment between the client and all or any
part of his total environment.

Hamilton (1951) says that casework is characterised by the objective to administer practical
services and offer counselling in such a way as to arouse and conserve the psychological
energies of the client actively involve him in the use of the service toward the solution of his
dilemma. These definitions have attempted to focus on certain aspects of casework process
only, and when these are taken and understood together, explain the nature of casework better.
Boehm (1959) explains the nature of social casework with due emphasis on social and
psychological aspects of human functioning. According to him, social casework intervenes in the
psycho-social aspects of a persons life to improve, restore, maintain or enhance his social
functioning by improving his role performance. Intervention occurs when the person or members
of his group or community realise that his (person) role performance is hampered or threatened.
The intervention takes place through a professional relationship between the worker and the
person and also between the worker and other individuals whose interaction with the person
affects his role performance.
Since social functioning is product of interaction among intrapsychic, somatic and social forces,
social casework involves assessing the internal and social factors which impair or threaten the
persons role performance and helps him to find and use the somatic, psychic and social
resources at his disposal to eliminate or reduce malfunction and to enhance functioning in social
roles.
A person is the net product of interaction between biological, psychological and environmental
(social and physical) factors. The unique pattern that emerges from this interaction is his
personality which comprises of his capacities and abilities, attitudes, beliefs and values,
feelings, and thinking and his approach, or strategies to deal with various situations of life.
Individual problems may arise either because of his unsuitable approach to social situations he
encounters in his life or because of situations demanding something different or more than he
possesses. Both the situations have social and psychological components therefore, these form
psycho-social aspects of his life.
Anything that is social, will evoke psychological responses, similarly anything (thinking and
feeling) that is occurring at the level of psyche (i.e., psychological), is bound to show in ones
social life (verbal or non-verbal interaction). Psyche always works in social context, therefore,

his behaviour (social functioning) has both psychological as well as social components. The
caseworker intervenes (helps) in any or all of these aspects to enable the person to function
adequately and properly in his various social roles.
A person, at every point of the day, performs some role. All his functions are directed to fulfill
some role. The caseworker may mainly aim at restoring, maintaining or improving the persons
functioning (performance in different roles ascribed to or achieved by him) using his knowledge
of human behaviour, skills in communication and relationships and the available resources.
It is presumed that any person who has some problem with his thinking (cognitive), feeling
(affect) or acting or their interaction will not be able to function properly and adequately in his
social roles (like that of a father, chairman, citizen, man, scientist, etc.) assigned to or achieved
by him.
Social functioning means functioning in different roles one has achieved or has been assigned
by society according to his position. Bartlett (1970) defines social functioning as the interaction
between the coping activity of people and the demand from the environment. The caseworker
does not offer help to the person only at his personal request but also when the person does not
seek/or resists help. In such cases help is offered at the instance of his relatives, public
agencies (police, hospitals, etc.) or community members who feel concerned and are interested
to help the person to live a socially useful life.
Caseworker, in addition to the person in need of help, may work with those people also who are
in some way or other important for solution of the persons problems. The help is offered
through a particular process as mentioned before. This process is usually termed as study,
diagnosis (assessment), formulation of goals and planning, treatment, evaluation and
termination.
Taber & Taber (1985) use Siprons formulations which are termed as:
(1) Engagement,
(2) Exploration,
(3) Planning,

(4) Intervention,
(5) Evaluation, and
(6) Disengagement.
Engagement is equivalent to intake, exploration to study, planning involves assessment and
planning for action, intervention is equivalent to treatment and evaluation is done after
intervention, followed by termination (disengagement) when the purpose of the client has been
served. One can reformulate these phases as engagement, exploration (study), assessment
(diagnosis), planning (inclusive of goal-setting), intervention, evaluation and follow up, and
disengagement.
Thus, social casework, as a helping process, tries to effect a change in the clients behaviour
systematically to enable him to achieve what he really needs and to realise his potentials for
living a personally satisfying and socially useful life.
And, in this process of helping the client, he offers concrete (protective) services including
money and materials, modifies his environment to provide an environment favourable to the
required change in him, strengthens and augments his capacities, develops an attitude
congenial for growth, effects the desired change in his lifestyle and maintains his emotional
equilibrium.

Values:
Social casework (or social work) values have roots in the democratic social system. These
contain certain ideas which are valuable to anyone engaged in social work practice. It is
precisely lack of these values which prohibits practice of social work in socialist societies like
China, etc.
The values are:
1. Every man has inherent worth and dignity. This is a fundamental value of democracy,
therefore, of social work too. He or she is worth caring for the simple reason that he/she is an
individual, a human being capable of contributing to the growth of society. It is because of this
value that social workers attend to every persons need without any consideration of class,
caste or creed etc., and serve anyone and everyone without any discrimination. They recognise

the fact that every member, whatever be his handicap, has worth; therefore, he deserves to be
respected and he is a dignified member of the society like anyone of the society. He had to be
respected so that he can get all possible help and facilities to live a socially productive and
personally gratifying life.
2. From this it follows that individual has right to self- determination, taking decisions about all
the matters related to self as long as it does not interfere with the rights of others. One is
considered to be capable of taking decisions about ones own future and the helper is only to tell
him the pros and cons of his decisions to enable him to choose his own future course of action.
3. Every individual is the primary concern of society, has potential for and the right to growth and
it is the responsibility of the society to provide equal opportunities to everyone to actualise his
self.
4. Every individual, in turn, has to contribute to the societys development by assuming his
social responsibility, discharging his functions honestly and acting properly and adequately in
his social roles.
5. The individual and society in which one lives are interdependent. Neither the individual nor
the society can be conceived of without each other.
6. Basic human needs have to be met by services which are not contingent upon conformity
either to moral behaviour or to race, nationality, religion, caste, etc.

Assumptions:
These are theoretical concepts (an idea or set of ideas or thoughts) which are accepted as true
about the human beings functioning. These give us a frame of reference to understand man in
interaction with his environment and help in exploration (study) and diagnostic evaluation of the
cases.
These are:
(1) Man is a bio-psycho-social being who is in constant interaction with his environment:
Social functioning is determined by this interaction. When the child is born, he is nothing but a
mere organism capable of bare minimum physiological processes. Mother starts training the
child. She teaches the baby either to suck the bottle or mother. The training continues. The child

learns where and when to pass faeces, what to eat, what to put on, etc. It goes on further. He
learns the language, how to address mother, father, guests, seniors, etc. This process of
learning goes on and he becomes a person by learning the social manners, social customs,
morals, laws, etc. He, as a member of the society, tries to establish his place in his group
family, neighbourhood, village, etc.
So, he does not remain a mere organism but becomes a person through the process of
socialisation. What he is today is the product of interaction of the organism with psychological,
social and geographical factors. And, the social functioning (how does he act in relation to self
and others) is the result of the interaction of man, who is a product of biological (physical),
psychological (thinking, feeling, perception, learning, memory, etc.) and social (membership of
the group which has its own norms, values, customs and a certain style of living) factors, with
the environmental factors like the human beings, the living bodies, the climate, the amenities of
life and the natural surroundings, etc.
In the psycho-social study and diagnosis, efforts are made to locate the bio-psycho-social
factors vis-a-vis environmental factors and understand their contribution to the social functioning
and the problem of the client.
(2) All problems in social functioning are psycho-social in nature and most are
interpersonal as well:
Social casework, to start with was more concerned with socio-psychological problems. With the
advancement in the field, social casework has been described as a psychological process also
dealing with psycho-social problems as well. The fact is that no unit of our functioning in the
society, say any act is either purely psychological or social. It may originate in psyche and get
expressed in social (psycho-social) or it may originate in social and get expressed through
psyche (socio-psychological).
For example, I think to present a pen to my child and I give it. This is psychosocial in nature.
Similarly, when I see my teacher, I bow down and greet him, which is termed as a sociopsychological act. However, in all the acts, we see both social as well as psychological
components. Thinking takes place in a social context, and the way I think, has been patterned
by the society. Our ideas, beliefs and attitudes have been learnt from the society and its culture.

All the problems caseworkers deal with are psycho-social in nature, i.e., they have
psychological as well as social components.
The causative factors of the problem may be either in the psyche or in the social circumstances
or in their interaction (Gestalt). Many a time, these problems have interpersonal components as
well. So, during the exploratory and diagnostic process one tries to understand the
characteristic way of functioning, interaction of the psyche and social forces, and relationship
pattern of the client.
(3) Within certain limits, man can be understood and helped:
Man is a product of a very subtle and complicated interaction process between bio-psychosocial (including environmental) factors. Under no circumstances any one can understand this
process to the fullest extent. Nobody can remember all that has happened to him during his
earlier parts of life. This becomes more evident when we find that one invariably forgets what
has happened to him even during one day. This is the human limitation.
Hence, naturally, one can study and understand a person within certain limits only and thus the
help to be given to him will be limited by the understanding of the man in question and the
availability of various resources. The diagnostic formulations should outline these limitations in
evaluation of the person-in-situation as well as the help to be extended to him.
(4) Man can grow and change limited only by his inherent capacities and potentials:
This assumption implies that there is no limit to growth and development of an individual except
the one imposed by our genetic potentialities inherited by us. For example, we cannot make a
person with an I.Q. of 50 compete with a person of 100 I.Q. This assumption helps us plan our
intervention realistically and reduces our frustration involved in the process of helping others.
(5) Every person is unique as well as similar to others:
(See principle of individualisation for its explanation).

Principles:
Principles are certain assertions or statements which guide our professional action.
In social casework practice, these principles are as discussed under:

Principle of Acceptance:

Acceptance implies liking the client irrespective of his negative qualities and conduct. It is an
expression of goodwill towards the client and criticisms (evaluation) if any are done out of
goodwill. It is conveying deep concern and active understanding to the client who is liked by the
worker in spite of his problembehaviour for which he is hated or punished by the society. No
effective relationship is possible without accepting the client.
Unless we really accept the client, we cannot work out his problems. When disliked by us, we
may behave to keep him off from ourselves and no positive relationship (report) will be possible.
Acceptance involves observance of common courtesies and respect for his ideas and treating
him as equal to self; for example, leaving chair, wishing him, moving forward to receive, or see
him off, respecting appointments, etc., are indicators of acceptance.

Principle of Confidentiality:
Everyone prefers to keep his things to himself and saves it from leaking out unless its divulge is
more beneficial to the person. Once the worker imbibes the value of worth and dignity of an
individual, he will refrain from encroaching upon the clients privacy, and maintain the confidence
reposed in him.
Once the client loses confidence in him, he will not believe the worker and the whole process of
communication will break down, and impossible will be the task to assist the helped in his
problems or in fulfillment of his needs.
Maintaining confidentiality for all the transactions, that take place between the caseworker and
client in correctional settings or other places where law needs information for justice purpose, is
very difficult or impossible. In all such situations, the client must be made aware of these
limitations.
Concept of confidentiality in western society is much different than what it is in India. In our
country, wife and husband have minimum things to hide from each other as compared to their
counterparts in the western, specially American, society.
In majority of Indian families wives cannot be interviewed without explicit permission of the
husband or in-laws. Its roots lie in our cultural beliefs and values (like seven vows taken during
the Hindu marriage), norms and systems like joint family etc.

Our society is more group-oriented as compared to individual-oriented western society. Our

societys group orientation emphasises on ones duty to others around us. It is these factors that
limit the use of principles of confidentiality in our practice. These limits are true of
Mohammadens and Christians also as they too equally share these Indian norms, values and
beliefs.

Principle of Relationship (Rapport):

According to this principle, relationship is the medium to help anyone. Relationship has to be
positive to be effective. No relationship, no communication. Relationship is an emotional bond,
which works as a transmitting belt between the concerned parties. No rapport, no help.
Relationship (positive) is the basis of all help. In relationship, feelings play an important role,
therefore, these needs to be understood and handled properly.

Principle of Resource Utilisation:

This principle is based on the value that the society has responsibility to provide necessary
facilities for self- actualisation of its members. Services are provided to the individual in
recognition of his contributions to the society. It is only because of this that the government
takes care of those who are not cared for by anyone, e.g., orphans, destitute, handicapped, etc.
Therefore, all the personal resources and resources available within the community, agency and
with the relatives of the client should be utilised to help the client. Resources may be in terms of
money, material, power and influence, talents and capabilities etc.

Principle of Right of Self-determination:

Principle of Right of Self-determination This principle is based on a very fundamental
democratic value. According to this, everyone has the right to govern his life as he wishes
provided it does not interfere with others right to govern their lives. Right of self-determination
has been demanded by various people living in various regions of the world so that they can
choose their own government.
Caseworkers have to give this right to the client so that he can decide and take best possible
action in his self-interest. This is reasonable also because he knows himself better than others.
And, the caseworker is only an enabler who helps him through his expertise to take the best
possible decision and action in the circumstances.

The caseworkers should understand that this right is limited and is a relative and not an
absolute one. There are clients who are unable to take proper decisions about self, e.g.,
children, immature adults, the psychotics and the retarded, and they should not be given this
right except to harm themselves.

Principle of Self-awareness:
This principle has emerged from the experience of practitioners who have observed and
experienced that social work practitioners substitute their personal values, norms, etc., for
professional values and norms while assisting their clients. They have been observed as
projecting their own feelings and imposing their values and norms on them.
All these simply destroy the helping process. In fact, the worker should:
(i) Be aware of and work through his own coercive and moralistic attitude, personal values and
norms etc.;
(ii) Be conscious of and accept his own feelings of aggression, love or gratitude or such other
feelings;
(iii) Examine his own motivation to save, punish or deprive the client; and
(iv) Avoid projection of his own family relationships to the clients family situation.
Self-awareness helps the caseworkers to use only professional values and norms and help the
client in such a way that he is able to re-live comfortably when he goes back to his own society.
Self-awareness also helps the workers to be objective and non-judgmental (avoid assigning
guilt, innocence or degree of client responsibility for causation of the problems or needs) in his
approach.

Principle of Purposiveness of Behaviour:

Every behaviour is functional and serves useful purpose even though it may not serve or fulfill a
persons conscious or deliberate design. Behaviour includes all expressions of our bodyverbal
as well as non-verbal. Hence, all the relevant behaviours (except reflex actions) expressed
during the casework interviews, or other ones known to have been indulged in by the client in
other situations, should be analysed and assessed (diagnosed) to plan a realistic approach to
help the client to replace his inappropriate behaviour with an appropriate one and two critically

examine the purpose behind his problem behaviour or behaviour pattern. Assessment of these
behaviours of the client speaks either about the personality of the client or his situation or about
the nature of their interaction.

Principle of Requirements of Agency Practice and Settings:

Every caseworker, to avoid frustration to himself and the client and to be effective in his
services, should know the policies and procedures of the agency thoroughly. He must know the
limitations of the agency as well as that of the setting in which the agency is operating.
Settings like psychiatric or correctional or family welfare etc. pose their own problems because
of their inherent nature. Dos and donts, material resources, nature of services, legal
requirements and sanctions, etc., are to be properly utilised for the benefit of the client. Agency
limitations should be fully explained to the client to be effective.

Principle of Beginning where the Client is:

This principle appears to have been derived from Gestalt therapy. The principle directs to know
what the client is experiencing, what he wants and what he feels at this moment. His feelings
are as important as any other objective fact. Knowing these may clear the deck for further work
or give important clues to deal effectively with the clients problems. The worker should start his
interview with the concern of person or with their felt needs 0ohnson, 1983).

Principle of Individualization:
We know that every person is similar to others as well as unique in himself. This assumption
becomes clear when we notice that the theories of psychology, sociology, medicine, etc., apply
to all the persons because everyone possesses the common characterisations of a man. At the
same time, he has certain characteristics which are unique to him only.
This uniqueness comes to him because of differing background of every individual and because
of many minute and subtle psychological and constitutional differences. Inter-play between biopsycho-social factors and environment gives a certain shape to personality which is unique to
the person though he is similar to others because he has human figure, thinking capacity and
feelings like any other human being.
It is because of this assumption only that we have to identify the special ways of the client
behaving in social situations and the special help he needs. This principle of individualisation

stipulates that the social caseworker will relate and help every client as an individual who is
unique and whose problems and needs are special to him. For example, everyone seeks a job,
but what job, with what salary, where, what sort of boss and what perks etc. are the unique
requirements of each individual.
Similarly, the situation of the client, his problems of social functioning, his dominant mode of
adjustment and the lifestyle, his ego-strength etc. are unique; therefore, the caseworker should
probe these areas specifically in each case.
While helping, one should select modes of helping (techniques) according to the intellectual
level, socio-economic situation, ego-strength, etc., of the client. Thus individualisation reminds
one to pay attention to the specific needs, problems, situations and resources and capacities of
each client.
Social casework involves helping individuals with their problems in social functioning through a
systematic approach. Knowledge of human behaviour and social situation and skills in human
relationship is basic to its practice.
It is an art when it uses various ways to effect change in human behaviour and a science when
it uses knowledge of human behaviour and social situations. Social casework can thus be said
to be scientific art to help an individual to live a socially productive and individually satisfying life
limited to by his capacities and social realities.

Trends:
In the 1980s, the trends appear to be:
(1) Greater use of interventive approaches, results of which can be measured and standardised;
(2) Increasing use of various concepts from various theories and disciplines;
(3) Emphasis on coping skills with less focus on the inner problems;
(4) Blending of different casework models of practice for better results; and
(5) Integrated (unitary) approach.
The different models currently in practice are discussed as under:

Psychosocial Model:
This incorporates psycho-analytical concepts and principles and uses ego psychology with
concepts from other behavioural sciences and understands behaviour in terms of cause and
effect. Gordon Hamilton, Florence Hollis and Lucille Austin are the advocates of this model.

Functional Model:
Developed at Pennsylvania School of Social Work (USA), this model has important
contributions from Jessie Taft and Virginia Robinson. This is based on the concept of
relationship, dynamic use of time, and use of agency functions. Otto Ranks psychological
concept of will is used. Diagnostic categorisation is avoided.

Problem-solving Model:
Identified with the work of Perlman (1957), this model involves:
(i) identification of the problem by the person,
(ii) assessment of subjective aspects of the person-in-the-situation and centrality of the person
with the problem,
(iii) search for solutions,
(iv) decision-making, and
(v) action. The process is to free the person for investment in tasks related to the solution of the
problem, involve the clients ego in efforts to deal with the problem and to mobilise personal and
social forces and resources for satisfactory role performance.

Behaviour Modification Model:

Based on the work of Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinners, Wolpe, Eysenck and Gantt, this model is
very much advocated by Edwin J. Thomas of Michigan University. In this approach,
experimental research is very much feasible as behaviour modification is observable.
According to it, problem behaviour is learned and it obeys the same laws of learning and
conditioning as it is in the case of normal behaviour. Behaviour can be de-learned, re-learned
and modified to the extent desirable.

Task-centered Model:

It is a promising general service model or social casework developed by William Reid at

Chicago University and cannot be said to be school of thought like the earlier ones. According to
Reid (1978), it is short-term, time-limited form or practice designed to help individuals and
families with specific psycho-social problems. The practitioner and client are expected to reach
on explicit agreement on the particular problem to be dealt with and on the probable duration of
service (eight to twelve sessions).
Work on the clients problems is organised about tasks or problem-solving actions that the client
and caseworker develop collaboratively. A task may state general direction for the clients action,
such as to improve his work performance or it may specify a particular behaviour the client is to
undertake, such as to telephone his wife if he is going to be home late.
The caseworker concentrates his efforts on helping clients carry out these tasks. In doing so, he
makes use of an eclectic combination of interventions from insight development to dispensation
of tangible reinforces. Though difficult to classify problems, some attempts have been made to
re-group the problems social caseworkers deal with.
One such effort to classify problems is:
(a) Environmental and sociological,
(b) Interpersonal and familial, and
(c) Personal and intrapsychic.
Boehm (1959) comments on the current state of classification of problems in social casework.
According to him,
(1) Problems to which casework is addressed are conceived in terms of both the psychic and
the social factors which affect a persons social functioning;
(2) Casework problems categories which are needed for effective diagnosis have not been
developed to any large extent but the field or practice seems to be moving in this direction;
(3) Conceptualisation of the phenomenon of practice will facilitate the research needed to
establish problem categories; and

(4) The term problem is not clearly defined and is frequently used synonymously with stress.
Stress is a pressure which may manifest itself in malfunctioning. Malfunctioning is the problem.

Social Casework and Indian Social Condition:

When we look at the Indian scenario, we find it beset with poverty, diseases and ignorance.
According to official sources, 48 percent (51.2 percent in rural) people were below poverty line
in 1977-78, and 36.9 percent (40.4 percent in rural) continued to exist below this line in 1983-84,
though non-official estimates put this figure around 59 percent. Jay Dubashi (1986) has also
questioned the official statistics.
Unemployment in 1987 was reported to be 9.2 million as against unofficial estimates of 26
million (TV-Focus Programme, 17 January 1988). The gap between the rich and the poor has
also widened. The top 30 percent own 80 percent of the national assets against only 2 percent
owned by the bottom 30 percent in 1986, while their share was 2.5 percent in 1960-61.
Likewise the top 5 percent income earners have 22 percent of the national income while bottom
40 percent have less than 16 percent of the same. In the rural areas, the top 4 percent own 30
percent of the total assets while bottom 20 percent had hardly 1 percent of the assets (Laharia,
1986). The per capital gross national income remained at Rs. 2,550 in 1984-85 according to the
government statistics.
During 1986 and 1987 starvation deaths were reported in Kalahandi district of Orissa. This is
because economic, social and political power is concentrated in a few hands, the benefits of
developmental works are enjoyed by a few, and the benefits of developmental programmes
have percolated to the poor to a very limited extent. Political will and administrative capacity to
remove poverty have been missing. Corruption is rampant in our country: the poor have to
bribe various people including bank and state government officials (Jammu, 1986) for securing
loan under various government programmes and schemes.
On the health front, clean and safe drinking water is available to only 31 percent of the rural
masses, who form more than 70 percent of the Indian population. Mortality rate in 1987 was 105
per 1,000 live births. Malnutrition, communicable diseases, etc., are yet to be brought under
control. Population continued to increase at the rate of 32.7 percent in 1986 as per census
records.

Literacy rate is at 36.20 percent according to 1981 census. Communal riots, casteism,
regionalism, etc., are the worst enemy of the vulnerable masses constituting about 80 percent of
our population. Though India has been declared as a sovereign republic, it continues to be ruled
mainly by a nexus of politicians and big businessmen [Hindustan Times, 2 February, 1988).
It is only because of these appalling conditions that radical social workers are seeking change in
the existing values, societal conditions and social system. Leonard (1975) talks of building of
counter system either within or outside the existing system. Case Con, an organisation of social
workers in the UK, is seeking replacement of present state with a workers state, based on the
interests of the vast majority of population.
Can social casework, in such socio-economic conditions of India, be useful to render services to
the people?
The answer cannot be no simply because:
(i) There is population, may be small in proportion, which needs help to solve their problems at
individual level,
(ii) There are problems like sickness, feuds, interpersonal conflicts, etc., which can be dealt with
only at individual level, and
(iii) People need curative and rehabilitative services also, though developmental services are
more needed in our Indian conditions. Social caseworkers will have to emphasise indirect
casework services (Richmond, 1917) and create a congenial atmosphere for those seeking selfactualisation. Bisno (1952) has also opined that casework and social action are complementary
to each other, and that casework should continue to serve the needy population.

How Casework Works:

During the casework sessions, clients talk about their problems and related past, present and
future. Caseworkers pick up points where problems have arisen because of lack of information,
knowledge and misperception of the situation. The experiences (misperceptions, feelings and
reactions) are corrected in and through the discussions.
Emphasis should be given on the discussion of day-to-day behaviour of the client in relation to
his problem and in doing so, correct his misperceptions which may be unrealistic because of

emotions, past incidents, unrealistic future expectations or unsuitable lifestyle etc. Once the
therapist starts taking care of these points in day-to-day life of the client, he slowly starts
perceiving and changing his ways of behaving.
Apart from this, talking alone helps in many ways. It helps in ventilating ones feelings and thus
frees one from the pressure of these feelings. Talking to an expert is in itself quite reassuring.
Talking by itself in many cases results in insight into ones behaviour, thus equipping one with
better ways or managing the life affairs.
It is through these processes only that the client substitutes his unrealistic and irrational beliefs
and definitions by realistic and correct ones, straightens his attitudes, develops self-control over
his feelings, and changes his lifestyle necessary to achieve what he desires to achieve in life.
Material resources are used as tools to effect desirable changes in his situation and functioning.

Social Casework in Laymans Language:

It is sometimes difficult to explain the nature of social casework, i.e., how does it help the client
(the one seeking help) to layman. In this section an attempt is made to describe social casework
process in non-technical terms.
We all know that man continues to grow and tries to shape himself as he wishes. In the process
of growing, he develops certain attitudes, beliefs, ideas and ways of reacting and expressing
feelings etc. in different situations. At certain points of life, he fails to deal with the situation
confronting him, and he then turns towards his social circle (friends, parents, priests and
teachers etc.) for help in dealing with the situation.
At times, his social circle fails to solve his problems. In such a situation one seeks expert help to
deal with these situations. Experts are available in different areas of life (medical, legal,
business, social, sexual) who are trained and experienced in helping people in their area of
operation.
The experts in social life, i.e., trained social workers, help individuals, groups, communities
through various methods of social work known as social casework, social group work, and
community organisation. A social caseworker, when someone comes to him for help in dealing
with his situation, tries to know and locate (study) various possible factors (including people)
responsible for creating the problem-situation and blocking its solution.

His knowledge of human behaviour (achieved through study of various subjects like psychology,
sociology, health and illness, etc.) helps in finding out these factors easily. In collecting
informations on these aspects, he talks to the client, his family, friends, relatives or employer
and consults records wherever important to understand the problem-situation.
These factors lie either in the nature of person, his way of dealing with or in the situation of the
person. Caseworker (therapist) also collects informations about the resources of the person.
Resources mean capacities of the person, his social contacts, and his financial and material
possessions. In the second phase, he shares and discusses his understanding of and plans to
manage or tackle the problem with the client (diagnosis and treatment planning).
Help is rendered either through discussion or providing with some service, material or financial
resources wherever available and required. The discussion or talk is conducted in a particular
way. Talking equips the needy person to gain confidence, knowledge and information necessary
to deal with the situation.
It also helps the persons to see how emotions lead to misperception or block perceiving the
reality (example can be given), to understand his own role in creating the problem-situation, to
evaluate and understand his ways of taking decision and resultant consequences, and how his
beliefs are unrealistic, how his childhood feelings and attitudes are affecting his (clients)
behaviour with the people in his current situation etc.
The caseworker can help the client to formulate his family budget, schooling of children, etc.,
according to the principles of economics and education. He can guide and advise him in certain
situations. If need be, talking (interview) sessions are also conducted with persons (like parents,
teachers, spouse, etc.) important for solution of the clients problem-situation.
Social caseworker, thus, helps the client to understand his self, his situation and his ways of
deciding and acting to enable him to modify (or enrich) his style of thinking, feeling and acting
and to solve his immediate and future problems.

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