1 History- Mrunal

Imperialism and Colonialism: Meaning, Factors responsible

Prologue
New Syllabus: General studies Mains Paper I contains following topics on World History
History of the world will include events from 18th century such as industrial revolution, world wars, redrawal of national boundaries,
colonization, decolonization, political philosophies like communism, capitalism, socialism etc.- their forms and effect on the society.
You already have Younger/New NCERTs, if not click on following:
1.

India and the Contemporary World I (Class 9)

2.

India and the Contemporary World II (Class 10)

3.

Themes in World History (class 11)

But in terms of depth / coverage /analysis of World History, the older NCERTs were better. Although for someone living in a small
town / remote area, its impossible to find them. So, Im uploading the summaries one by one for the benefit of such aspirants.
We start with Class 10 (Old NCERT), Story of civilization volume II, Chapter 9, Imperialism and Colonialism.
That chapter revolves around subtopics:
1.

Meaning of Imperialism

2.

Conditions that helped growth of Imperialism

3.

Conquest of Asia, Africa, Americas and the Pacific.

4.

Effects of Imperialism.

This first article deals with first two topics (Meaning and conditions). Future articles will cover the rest. Keep in mind,
1.

This is mere base / foundation / starting point to supplement your readings from IGNOU BA, MA etc.

2.

These are summaries (and not verbatim paragraphs). Ive taken liberty to include external sources to elaborate the
explanations.
What is imperialism?

The term imperialism means the practice of extending the power, control or rule by a country over the political and economic
life of the areas outside its own borders.

Imperialism refers to the process of capitalist development, which leads the capitalist countries to conquer and dominate
pre-capitalist countries of the world.

The imperialist country or Metropolis (literal meaning mother country), subordinates another country/ colony for its own
economic and political interests.

This may be done through military or other means and particularly through colonialism.
What is colonialism?

Colonialism means the practice of acquiring colonies by conquest (or other means) and making them dependent.

The country which is subjugated by a metropolitan capitalist country is described as a colony, and what happens in a colony is
colonialism.

In other words, Colonialism =the total system of imperialist domination of a pre-capitalist country.

Occupation / direct rule over a country by another country=not always an essential feature of imperialism

2 History- Mrunal

The essential feature= exploitation, with or without direct political control.

Until recent years, most countries of Asia Africa and other parts of the world, where under the control of one or another
imperialist country.

Imperialism

Colonialism

Imperialism refers, more broadly, to control or influence that is exercised

either formally or informally, directly or indirectly, politically or
economically

Colonialism usually implies formal political control,

involving territorial annexation and loss of sovereignty.

Imperialism is a specifically European phenomenon

colonialism is the system prevalent in the colonies.

When we study imperialism we examine the impact of empire on the

metropolis (home country)

Here we study impact of empire on the colony.

What is Neocolonialism?

In the present day world, almost all countries are politically independent, however the imperialist control has not come to an
end.

Neocolonialism is the practice of (mainly economic) exploitation and domination of independent but economically backward
countries, by the powerful countries.
What is New Imperialism?

During the initial period of Industrial Revolution, the pursuit of colonies had slowed down. Why?

because Between 1775 and 1875, Europeans lost more territory than they acquired in North America and Latin America, because
of successful revolution.

Spanish colonial rule from Mexico to Argentina was overturned.

There was a widespread feeling in Europe that colonies were more trouble than they were worth and the sooner or later colonies
would revolt and fight for independence.

Benjamin Disraeli said These wretched colonies will all be independent in a few years and are millstones around our necks.

However, the pursuits and rivalries re-emerged in the last quarter of the 19th century.

This new face of imperialism (1875-1914) is often described as the new imperialism.

New imperialism resulted because of the economic system that had developed as a result of Industrial Revolution.

During this phase a few industrialized capitalist countries established their Political and economic control and domination over
the rest of the world.

The form of domination and control included direct colonial rule, sphere of influence and various types of commercial and
economic agreements.

Players in New Imperialism:

New imperialist countries emerged viz. Germany, Italy, Belgium, USA and Japan. While,

Britain and France continued to be powerful and expand.

Power of Spain and Portugal declined.

ok so far we know the meaning of Imperialism. But why did it happen? What were the
Conditions/factors that helped the rise of Imperialism

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Industrial Revolution and Capitalism
Industrial Revolution created the capitalist system of production. The capitalist entrepreneurs used two ways to make big profits:

Method to increase profit? =>

Consequences?

1.

minimum wages to
workers

low wages = low purchasing power of the majority of the domestic population= low
demand of products in home country.

More and more

production

the production of goods was far in excess of the demand at home

Result?=> Because of the underconsumption in domestic market, the capitalist nations had to find new markets and buyers to sell
their products.
Marxists: Capitalism = Imperialism
Lenin argued that Imperialism the Highest Stage of Capitalism, and itd lead to the demise of Capitalism.
In Capitalist system, wealth is concentrated in fewer and fewer hands, the possibility for investment at home is exhausted, and capitalists
have no choice but to invest abroad, establish colonies, and exploit small, weak nations.
Problem with this explanation?
1.

It fails to explain pre-capitalist imperialism of Greece and Rome.

2.

It fails to explain the Communist imperialism of Soviet Union itself!

Protectionism

As started ^above, the capitalist countries, Western powers had to find new markets for selling their goods.

England was the first country where industries developed, therefore she gained almost complete control over the world markets.

Even when other European countries began to use machines, they could not compete with Englands low prices.

So, they tried to protect and stimulate its domestic industries by imposing heavy tariffs on imported items.

Result? = European powers could not sell their products to each other. They had to find totally new markets and customers in
Asia, Africa and the two Americas.
Mercantilism

It was the economic policy prevailing in Europe during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. This policy assumed following:

Volume of world wealth and trade was relatively static, so one countrys gain required another country/colonys loss.

Wealth of a nation depended primarily on the possession of gold and silver.

A colonial possession should provide wealth to the country that controlled it.

Exports to foreign countries is preferable to imports or domestic trade, because exports brought more money into the country.

Governmental interference in the national economy is justified if it helps achieving the of above objectives.

4 History- Mrunal
So nations acted accordingly. They setup trading posts which would later become forts, arm twisted local rulers to gain exclusive
market for their products and so on. All this was done and justified as the objectives of mercantilism were fulfilled.
Supply of raw material
As the industries grew in Europe, they needed more and more raw material. For example,
1.

Cotton= India and Egypt

2.

rubber= Congo and East Indies

They also needed =food grains, tea, coffee, Indigo, tobacco, sugar, coal, iron, tin, gold, copper and later oil.

Result?=>

Imperialists forced the colonies to cultivate only one or two crops which were needed as raw material for their own industries
(e.g. indigo in India, Sugar in Cuba.)

Smuggling: sometimes, goods produced in one country were sold to another country to pay for the goods from that country. e.g.
The English promoted cultivation of opium in India, then smuggled into China to pay for the goods they had bought from China.
Investment

Towards the end of 19th century, Western countries began to look upon Asia and Africa is good places to invest their capital. But Why?

Both Asia and Africa had abundant supply of raw material and cheap labour= good profit.

As we saw under Demand topic, low wages + excessive production= underconsumption. Therefore, if capital was invested in
Europe, it would only fetch 3 to 4% profit, because of little purchasing power of local people.

But if the same amount was invested in Asia or Africa, you could earn as high as 20% profit.

Besides, Towards the end of 19th century, financial institutions such as banks expanded their influence and power, thus making
FDI(!) easier than earlier.

Result?=>The export of capital for investment in other countries began to become more important in the export of goods.
Infrastructure investment

The Western powers invested in their colonies to promote industries that could produce goods for export e.g. mining and
plantation.

They also invested to strengthen control over colonys economy e.g. Railways, postal network.

Result?=> political domination became necessary.

Why Political domination necessary?

As the foreign powers invested more and more money in business and infrastructure in Asia, Africa and Americas, their risk increased:

what if the weak local prince, Nawab or tribes chief could not contain an uprising or rebellion?

What if there was a change in the government?

Such things could lead to reduction in profit or even loss of whole investment.
For the same reasons, French investors in Morocco (N.Africa), appealed to their home government in France, to annex it. Thus Morocco
became French Morocco.
Slave trade

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The Spanish rule in Americas had resulted large-scale extermination of original inhabitants/Native-Americans. Because
o

they were forced to work in gold/silver mines and were massacred, if resisted.

Foreigners brought new diseases, and Native Americans had no immunity against them.

Later, the Europeans introduced plantation system in North America, West Indies and Brazil.

for the cultivation of sugarcane, cotton and tobacco (to supply as raw material to home industries).

These plantations needed lot of laborers.

Hence it became necessary to establish trading posts in the coastal areas of Africa to keep steady supply of African slaves.

later, Britain and other powers used abolition of slavery as an excuse to wage war against African chiefs and kings, but their
hidden aim was to expand territorial possession. (For timber, ivory, minerals and oil).
Transport and communication

The Industrial Revolution brought drastic changes in transport and communication.

Steamship could carry goods much faster than the old sailing vessels.

The imperialist countries built railroads and inland waterways in the conquered areas, with the help of cheap local labor.

Thus could get raw material out of the interiors and send their manufactured products, faster than ever before.

Thus every area of the world was brought within easy reach of the industrialized countries.
Rise of extreme nationalism

the later part of 19th century was a period of intense nationalism

Germany and Italy had just succeeded in becoming unified nations.

Nationalism in the late 19th century came to be associated with chauvinism.

Nationalist intellectuals in all European powers argued that national greatness meant seizing colonial territory.

Once the scramble for colonies began, failure to enter the race was perceived as a sign of weakness, totally unacceptable to an
aspiring great power.

many nations developed myth of their superiority over other people

Each country felt that she too must have colonies to increase her own prestige and power

imperialism became the fashion of the age.

Writers and speakers in England, France and Germany promoted the idea of imperialism and took great pride in calling their
territories as empires

Germanys expansion under Hitler was also based on the belief that German national culture was inherently superior than
others.

by the end of the 19th century colonialism like nationalism developed into a mass cult.

Colonies were symbols of national greatness and nationalists of every economic class were proud of them.

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Soviet unions policy to liberate the peoples of Eastern Europe and the Third World, and USAs protecting Freedom = also
examples of imperialism driven by moral and ideological concerns.
Mind diversion

Colonies helped to ensure social peace and prevented socialist revolution at home by taking the minds of the working class off
their misery.

He who would avoid civil war must be an imperialist. (Cecil Rhodes).

Fear and security

Initially, colonies were acquired to get cheap raw material and market to sell finished products.

But then Imperialist countries started acquiring places for their military or strategic importance also.

For example, England established naval bases and coaling stations at Port Said, Aden, Hong Kong, Singapore and Cyprus not
to protect England but to protect its conquered lands and trade routes to India from her rival nations.

The rival nations installed similar bases elsewhere to protect their colonies and trade routes from England.

Thus, if you acquired one colony, you had to acquire other colonies to protect the first colony => leading to a chain reaction and
race for grabbing more and more colonies. (And ultimately first World war).
Civilizing mission

Many European writers and thinkers used to blatantly support and justify Imperilism and colonization.

Rudyard
Kipling

Englan
d

Wrote a poem titled White mans burden. It gives a rhetorical command to white men to colonize and
rule people of other nations.

Jules Ferry

France

Superior races have the duty of civilizing the inferior races.

To many Europeans and Americans, the prospect of saving souls seemed as important as the prospect of expanding prestige and
profit.

They considered it was their Christian and moral responsibility to educated ignorant peoples into higher culture and convert
them to Christianity.

Hence for them, imperialism = a noble task, a way of bringing civilization to do backward people of the world.
Christian Missionaries

Usually they went alone into an unknown areas in a spirit of duty and religion.

But often they were followed by profiteering traders and soldiers.

Then wars took place to protect the missionaries.

All these seemed quite natural to most Western people, because they considered it their nations destiny to civilize and
Christianize the people of Asia and Africa

US President McKinley himself justified the annexation of Philippines in following words:

We must help our little brown brothers.there was nothing left to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos and uplift and
civilise them as our fellow men for whom Christ also died.
Adventurers and explorers

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They had prominent role in Europes taking over of Africa.

They first went into unknown or little-known territories and brought back the reports that often indicated opportunities for
trade and development.

On the basis of such reports, a trading post would be first setup.

Gradually, the explorers home government would take over the protection of the entire area around the trading Post.

Then this imperial home government would proceed to claim the entire territory as her own colony.
Favorable conditions in Asia and Africa

Biggest factor was lack of industrialization.

Military
strength

Internal
rivalries

No Empires

No
Machines

Asian and African state did not have the economic might of imperialist powers- to fight a long war.

They fought with axes, bows and outdated firearms (if any), while Europeans had new rifles and a maximgun (a fast firing machine gun) + the naval artillery to pound the coastal cities of their enemies. while Indian
and Arab ships didnt have guns.

The only exceptions, where Europeans could not succeed in war = Afghanistan and Ethiopia.

Politically, Asian and African states were not united.

There were Conflicts between states and within states, the ruler vs. chiefs, warlords, merchants etc.

Hence they often sought the support of Europeans against their rivals.

In the ancient and mediaeval times, powerful empires had existed in Asia and Africa.

But during 19th century their governments became very weak. They still followed the old ways of governing,
even though they had outlived their usefulness.

The loyalty of people still rested in local princes or tribal chieftains. They didnt have the strong feelings for
nation-state, like the Europeans.

The Westerners admired and desired the fine quality goods made by Asian and African craftsmen.

But these craftsmen relied entirely on handmade tools= small scale production, could not compete with
factory made products.

Mock Questions
12 marks
1.

Explain imperialism and new-imperialism.

2.

Explain colonialism and neo-colonialism.

3.

Explain the role of capitalism and industrial revolution in the emergence of Imperialism.

8 History- Mrunal
4.

How did nationalism help to make imperialism popular in Europe?

5.

The dominant directive motive behind imperialism was the demand for markets and for profitable investment. Comment

6.

All great nations in the fullness of their strength have desired to set their mark upon barbarian land and those who fail to
participate in this rivalry will play a pitiable role in time to come. Comment

7.

Write a note on the role of writers, missionaries and explorer in the spread of colonization.

25 marks
1.

Write a note on the economic angle of Imperialism.

2.

List the conditions that helped growth of Imperialism and colonialism.

3.

Why were Asian and African countries so easily dominated by Western Powers?

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Imperialism & Colonization: China, Japan, Asia, Boxer Rebellion, Open Door policy, Sphere of influenceok so far, We were looking
@Class 10 (Old NCERT), Story of civilization volume II, Chapter 9, Imperialism and Colonialism.That chapter revolves around
subtopics:

1.

Meaning of Imperialism
Already covered under previous article. click me

Conditions that helped growth of Imperialism

Conquest of Asia

Conquest of Africa, Americas and the Pacific.

Asia being covered in the present article.

Well see them later in a separate articles.

1

Effects of Imperialism.

China: Opium Wars, Boxer rebellion, Imperialism

9 History- Mrunal

Semi-colonization of China
The opium Wars

The imperialist domination of China begin with the opium Wars

Before these opium Wars, only two Chinese ports were open to foreign traders.

China was already a prosperous civilization that had invented paper, printing and gunpowder. There was no demand for British
goods in China.

So the British had to pay back in gold and silver for importing Chinese tea, silk, jade and porcelain.

10 History- Mrunal

This Led to trade deficit for Britain (And recall the mercantilism policy- Europeans preferred export over imports. Wealth of a
country was measured in gold and silver.)

So, British merchant started smuggling opium from India into China on a large scale, to cover up for their cost of importing
Chinese goods.
East India Companys role opium trade

In India, the British East India Company had established a monopoly on opium cultivation.

But due to Chinese ban on opium, the East India Company did not carry the opium itself.

Instead, they used country tradersi.e., private traders licensed by the company to take goods from India to China.

The country traders sold the opium to smugglers along the Chinese coast for gold and silver.

In China the East India company used the same gold and silver (from illegal opium trade) to purchase Chinese tea, silk and
other goods, sold them in England @higher price=truckload of profit.

Thus, the illegal opium trade was profitable to British but it did immense physical and moral damage to the Chinese.
1st Opium war
Finally Chinese government officials seized an opium cargo and destroyed it. Britain declared war (first Opium war) and easily defeated
the Chinese. Result?=>
The Treaty of Nanjing (Nanking)
According to this treaty of Nanjing
1.

China was forced to pay fines to British for war damages.

2.

Hong Kong was given to Britain

3.

China had to open five port cities to the British traders.

4.

Chinese government was no longer free to impose tariffs on the foreign goods
Extraterritorial rights clause

The British subjects in China were answerable only to British law, even in disputes with Chinese! (Recall similar issue in India- the Ilbert
Bill.)
MFN (Most Favored nation clause)
Whenever any nation extracted a new privilege from China, that privilege was extended automatically to Britain!
2nd Opium War
Soon, England and France fought another war with China, on the pretext that a French missionary had been murdered. (2 nd Opium war,
aka Arrow war). Result?=>
Treaties of Tianjin
1.

Freedom of movement for Christian missionaries.

2.

residence in Beijing for foreign envoys

3.

the opening of several new ports to Western trade and residence

4.

right of foreign travel in the interior of China

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5.

China was defeated again and was forced to grant even more privileges to the winners. By the end of 1860s, China had to open
14 ports to Foreigners.
1st Sino Japan War

For centuries Korea was a tributary state of China.

but Japan was trying increase her influence over Korea. Why?
o

Korea is strategically located opposite the Japanese islands

Koreas natural resources of coal and iron

This ultimately leads to War between Japan and China.

Experts had believed that China would win, given its bigger military. But Japan won thanks to its adopted western military
technology.

Result?=>
1.

China had to recognize Korea as an independent state.

2.

China had to give away Formosa, Taiwan and part of Southern Manchuria to Japan.

3.

China was forced to pay about $150 million to Japan for war damages.
Sphere of Influence

Now, China had to pay war damages to Japan, but she did not have enough ca$h.

So, France, Russia, Britain and Germany agreed to give loans to China.

but in return, these Western countries divided China into sphere of influence

Sphere of influence = each Western country had certain regions of China reserved exclusively for its purpose only. (Exclusive
rights to build railway, mines etc. in that region).

for example, Britain had exclusive rights over Yangtze valley, and only Russia had the right to build railoads in Manchuria.

This division of China into spheres of influence has been often described as the cutting of the Chinese melon
United States: Me too Policy

After the economic depression of the 1890s, USA needed foreign trade to boost its economy.

In China, the American textile manufacturers had found markets for cheap cotton goods.

But United States feared that China would be completely parceled out to France, Russia, Germany and Britain, because of those
spheres of influences.

Therefore United States suggested the policy known as Open door policy (also known as me too policy.)

According to this policy, all countries would have equal right to make trade anywhere in China.

Britain supported United States in this policy, thinking that it would discourage the annexation of China by Japan or Russia.
Because Japan and Russia could easily send their armies to Chinese mainland.
Boxer Rebellion

Chinese people was unhappy because of following:

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1.

Economic Exploitation by Western powers.

2.

The extraterritorial right granted to foreigners

3.

Chinas humiliating defeats in Opium wars and against Japan.

4.

Corruption, inefficiency of their own royal government.

5.

they resented the work of Christian missionaries, blaming them for harming traditional Chinese ceremonies and family
relations; + missionaries pressured local officials to side with Christian converts in local lawsuits and property disputes.

This led to formation of a secret organization known as Yihetuan (Society of Righteousness and Harmony). The foreigners called them
Boxers.

Boxers blamed foreigners for all the ills in China. They started seizing /destroying properties of foreigners, Christian
missionaries and Chinese converts.

The movement took form of a violent rebellion.

Although the Boxers were officially denounced, they were secretly supported by many of the royal court.

British, French, Japanese, Russian, German, and Americans sent their troops to curb this rebellion. Ultimately the military
might of western powers crushed the Chinese rebellion.

Result?=> Western powers got following:

1.

Fines from China for a period of 40 years

2.

More trade concessions

3.

Right to station their troops in Beijing.

Epilogue China

After the failure of boxer rebellion, Imperialism continued with the cooperation from Chinese warlords.

Foreign powers bought these military commanders by giving loans and in exchange the warlords granted even more privileges
to the foreign powers.

Thus in a period of few decades, China had been reduced to a status of an international colony

Although China was not conquered or occupied by any imperialist country, but the effect of these developments in China were
same as any other areas which were formally colonized.

although there are some fine differences:

India

China

Colonization was Direct and absolute.

indirect control over the politics,economy and society without taking on the onus for ruling
the country= semi-colonization.

Britain gained the monopoly of control

over India.

no single imperial power had a monopoly of control. China was simultaneously exploited by
many powers
Japan: an imperialist Power

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In 1850s, United States sent warships under Commodore Perry, and forced the Japanese to open their country for the American
shipping and trade. (this is known as Gun-boat diplomacy)

later, Japan made similar agreements with Britain, Holland, France and Russia.

But Japan itself became an Imperialist country after the Meiji Restoration.
Meiji Restoration

It was a political revolution under which the erstwhile Tokugawa shogunate (feudal-military government) was replaced with a new
imperial government under the Emperor Meiji.
Japan adopted the slogan wealthy country and strong arms and sought to create a nation-state capable of standing equal among
Western powers.
Following reforms were undertaken by Meiji government:
1.

Government shifted from Edo to Tokyo

2.

A national constitution, bicameral parliament (diet).

3.

Dismanted of the old feudal regime and introduced prefecture system of administration.

4.

Administration was centralized

5.

Modern civil service bureaucracy was setup.

6.

Modern banking and fiscal system.

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7.

Modern industrial enterprises; railroad, telegraphs.

8.

Universal primary education

9.

Modern army and navy and adopted western military technology.

Thus, within a few decades, Japan became one of the most industrialized countries in the world.
But Japan has few raw materials to support her industries. So she also wants new lands for raw material and market for her finished
goods. Result?=>
1.

Japan also started her imperialist expansion.

2.

China provided ample opportunities for Japans imperialist designs. We already saw how Japan defeated China in the first SinoJapanese war.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance

between Britain and Japan

to assist one another in safeguarding their respective interests in China and Korea

It was a cornerstone of British and Japanese policy in Asia until after World War I.

How did Japan benefit from it?

o

This alliance recognized Japan as a power of equal standing with great European powers.

In the Russo-Japanese War, France (ally of Russia) did not intervene, fearing that Britain would intervene from
Japans side. This helped Japan win the war.
Russo-Japanese War

Recall under sphere of influence (in China), Russia was building railroads in Manchuria.

But after first Sino-Japan war, China was defeated and it handed over certain parts of Southern Manchuria to Japan.

Both Russia and Japan wanted to dominate Korea and Manchuria.=> ultimately, Russo-Japanese war. Russia is defeated.
Result?=>

President Theodore Roosevelt of the United States served as mediator between Russia and Japan and a peace treaty was signed.

1.

Russia handed over Port Arthur and the South Manchurian railroad (which led to Port Arthur) to Japan.

2.

Russia gave half of Sakhalin Island to Japan.

3.

Russia agreed to evacuate southern Manchuria

4.

Russia recognized Japans control of Korea (ultimately in 1910, Korea became a colony of Japan)
Japan: Epilogue

Japans rise as an imperialist power shows that imperialism was not limited to any one region, religion or people.

Imperialism was rather the result of greed for economic and political power which could distort the policy of any country
regardless of its race, culture or religion.

When first world war started, Japan could look back with some pride that she too had become a great power and could expand
further at the cost of China if the Western powers would only allow her.

Now lets briefly look over the colonization of other parts of

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Asia: South and South East

in 1880, the King of Burma gave France the right to build a railway in his territory

British government feared French expansion and hence started a war with Burma.

Burmese King was captured and sent to India.

Thus, Burma was annexed and became a part of British Empire in 1886

Indochina= Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam

France used a series of well-planned steps, including threats of war, and became the master of
Indochina.

under Dutch control

acquired by British

Thus British could control of all the trade from far east and whatever passed through Strait of
Malacca

it was occupied by the Portuguese, then by Dutch and finally by British

England introduced and rubber plantation in Sri Lanka=they formed 7/8th of Sri Lankan exports

Sandwiched between Indochina (French) and Burma (British).

Although it remained independent state, both France and Britain exercised much power and
authority over its affairs.

There was a revolt by Filipinos and Cubans against the Spanish rule.

United States used this opportunity to join the imperialist game, and occupied both Cuba and
Philippines.

later the Filipinos also revolted against American occupation, but were suppressed and Philippines
became an American possession

Burma

Indochina

Indonesia

Malaysia and
Singapore

Sri Lanka

Thailand / Siam

Philippines

Asia: Central and Western

Both England and Russia wanted to control Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet.
2nd half of 19th Century: Russian annexed almost all of Central Asia.
Anglo Russian agreement (1907)

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between Russia and Britain

on how to divide control of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tibet between them.

Part

Under Anglo-Russian agreement

Divided Iran into Sphere of influence (similar to China)

North Iran= Russia; Southern Iran= Britain; central Iran was neutral and open to both.

Russia agreed to recognize Afghanistan is being outside her influence.

Britain agreed not to annex Afghanistan as long as Afghani ruler remained loyal to her.

Iran

Afghanistan

Tibet

both retain and Russia agreed not to interfere in the affairs of Tibet

lets check individual countries

Afghanistan

The British had a minor economic interest in Afghanistan, they were mainly worried about defending their crown jewel (India)
against Russian expansion.

Governor General Lord Auckland waged 1st Afghan war, to install a puppet regime in Afghanistan.

With three Anglo-afghan wars, British learned that it is easy to overrun Afghanistan but very difficult of hold and occupy it
permanently, because of tribal-rebellions.

1893: Durand Line

between Afghanistan and British India,

marking their respective spheres of influence;

in modern times it has marked the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan.

1907: Anglo-Russian Agreement

o

Russia agreed to recognize Afghanistan is being outside her influence.

Britain agreed not to annex Afghanistan as long as Afghani ruler remained loyal to her.
Tibet

1907: both retain and Russia agreed not to interfere in the affairs of Tibet

1911: Chinese monarchy was overthrown and Tibet increasingly passed under British influence.
Iran/Persia

for both Britain and Russia, independent Iran was a convenient buffer area between the their empires.

Initially, both Russia and England setup banks in Iran to obtain economic control.

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1907: England and Russia reached the Anglo-Russian agreement for controlling Iran via sphere of influence:

North Iran= Russia; Southern Iran= Britain; central Iran was neutral and open to both.

Thus, a joint Anglo Russian supremacy was established over Iran.

1917: Russian Revolution established a new Soviet government.

The new Soviet government denounced the old Anglo Russian agreements and gave up her rights in Iran.

After the discovery of oil, the British and American oil interests became more powerful in Iran.

While Iran remained nominally independent, but under the domination of foreign oil companies from United States and
England.
Western Asia

During these years, Germany was extending her influence over Turkey.

A German company got concession to build a railway from Constantinople to Baghdad and the Persian Gulf.

Through this railway, Germany wanted to promote her economic interests in the region onto Iran and India.

France England and Russia opposed this, but an agreement was reached to divide the region among Germany, France and
England.

But First World War changed the situation.

Germany and Turkey were defeated. The winners took away Germanys colonial possessions. thus Germany as an imperialist
nation was completely eliminated from race in Asia and other parts of the world.

1.

Syria,

2.

Palestine,

3.

Mesopotamia

4.

Arabia

They were under Turkish empire, but England and

France took them away after winning first world war.

After discovery of Oil, the main objective of Imperialist countries = obtain oil and concessions to control oil resources in
Western Asia. (Main players: America, Britain and France)

This concludes the colonial domination of Asia. Click on the following timeline to see how individual pieces fit together.

click to enlarge
Mock Question

18 History- Mrunal
1.

Briefly explain the cause and consequences of the following events (5 marks each)
I.
II.

The Treaty of Nanjing

III.

The First Sino Japan War

IV.

Boxer Rebellion

V.
2.

The Opium wars

The First Russo-Japanese war

Write a note on following (5 marks each)

I.
II.

Sphere of influence
Open Door policy

III.

Gun-boat diplomacy

IV.

Meiji restoration

V.

Anglo-Japanese Alliance

VI.

Anglo-Russian agreement

3.

Analyse the factors responsible for the Boxer rebellion. 12m

4.

Write a note on the cutting of the Chinese melon by Western powers. Explain how Sino Japanese war helped them? 12m

5.

Rise of Japan as an imperialist country. 12m

6.

Describe the power-struggle between Russia and British in Iran and Afghanistan. 12m

7.

Although China was not conquered or occupied by any imperialist country, but the effect of these developments in China were
same as any other areas which were formally colonized. Elaborate. 15m

8.

Whereas China with its incomparably greater human and material resources spent itself vainly in trying to expel foreign devils,
Japan, by embracing the West, not only retained its independence but became a world power in its own right. Comment 15m

9.

Imperialism was the result of greed for economic and political power which could distort the policy of any country regardless
of its race, culture or religion. Comment. 15m

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Imperialism & Colonization: Africa, Scramble for colonies, Paper Partitions, Slave Trade, Boer WarPrologue
Ok where were we?

1.

Meaning of Imperialism
Already covered click me

Conditions that helped growth of Imperialism

19 History- Mrunal

Conquest of Asia (Boxer rebellion, Rise of Japan etc.)

Already covered click me

Conquest of Africa,

Covered in the present article

Conquest Americas and the Pacific, Effects of Imperialism.

Will be covered in the next article

Slave Trade

Although Europeans started exploring Africa since late 15 th century but for a long time their presence remains mainly to certain
coastal areas.

But even these limited contacts led to the most tragic and disastrous consequences for the Africans- due to slave trade.
Why Slaves needed?

During this era, Spanish were ruling Americas.

But it led to resulted in the large-scale extermination of the original inhabitants of the Americas (=Native Americans).

Why? Because

1.

Native Americans were forced to work in gold and silver mines under inhumane conditions

2.

Native Americans lacked immunity to European diseases (smallpox, mumps, and measles)

Continent

Slaves needed for Plantations of

N.America

tobacco, rice, and indigo, Cotton

S.America

Sugar
Why African slaves preferred?

Laborers

Why unfit for plantation work?

They could easily run away and hide in jungles. They were familiar with the territories, knew
how to survive on local plants and animals.

They lacked immunity to European diseases (smallpox, mumps, and measles) = died easily in
plantation.

Not immune to tropical malaria and yellow fever= died easily.

They could also escape and blend in as white town-folks in the colony.

Native American

White prisoners
/indentured servants

On the other hand, African slaves offered following advantages:

20 History- Mrunal
1.

African slaves came from an environment where those who survived into adolescence acquired some immunity to such Old
World diseases as smallpox, mumps, and measles

2.

They also had some immunity against tropical maladies as malaria and yellow fever.

3.

Hence, African laborer lived three to five times longer than white laborers under the difficult conditions on plantations.

4.

When Africans ran away from plantation, they could neither go home nor disguise themselves among town folks. (Unlike those
white prisoners).

Thus, African slaves=inexpensive labor for the plantation owners.

Most of the slaves transported in the Atlantic slave trade were adult men. Why?

Because African chiefs tended to retain women slaves, as agricultural workers and to bear more children.

Children were less economical to trade: because they cost as much to enslave and transport, yet brought lower prices when sold.
Who ran the slave trade?

In medieval times, Arabs had dominated the slave trade. They organized slave caravans and moved them from the interior to
the Gold and Slave coasts (= Now region of Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria)

Then Portuguese entered the Slave trade business. They had two advantages over others
o

Early in the exploration race of Africa

Its Colony in Brazil was @relatively short distance from Africa.

Portuguese established a slave market in Lisbon.

Spaniards bought slaves from that Lisbon market and took them to American colonies. But later the demand for slaves in
America increased, so slaves were sent directly from Africa to America.

The Spanish church saw the black-slaves as an opportunity for converting them, so also gave tacit approval.

Portuguese themselves also needed Black slaves to work in their sugar plantations of Brazil.

Slave traders raided African villages, kidnaped people and handed over to the European traders.

Some African chiefs also took part in this business. They sold slaves to Europeans in exchange of guns and ammunition, cloth,
metal ware, spirits, cutlery, coins, decorative wear, horses, salt and paper.
Slave Trade: British Entry

Initially the Portuguese were dominating African slave trade. But then British decided to take over this business.

Sir John Hawkins went to Africa to bring slaves in a ship called Jesus. He also shared a part of his slave-trade profit to the
British Queen Elizabeth I.

17th Century: a regular company received a charter from the King of England for purposes of trade in slaves. The share of the
king in the profits from slave trade was fixed at 25 per cent!

Later, Spain gave the monopoly of slave trade to Britain. (=Spain only bought slaves from Britain, to work in their American
colonies).
Triangular trade

It is the term used to describe the prosperous trading cycle across Atlantic as a result of Slave trade:

21 History- Mrunal

Triangle

First leg

Second
leg

Third leg

What happened?

European merchants purchased slaves from African chiefs in exchange of manufactured products from
European factories. (clothes, cutlery, firearms.)

They sold the slaves in the Caribbean and purchased such easily transportable commodities as sugar, cotton,
and tobacco.

Finally the merchants would sell sugar, cotton, and tobacco.in Europe and North America= truckload of profit.

They will use some of this profit to buy manufactured goods, then go back to Africa and get new slaves..and
thus trade cycle continued.

Result of Triangular trade?

Millions of Africans were uprooted from their homes.

Many were killed while resisting the raids on their villages.

22 History- Mrunal

In the American plantations, they were forced to work in inhumane conditions.

If a slave tried to escape from American plantations, he was beaten and tortured.

If a (white) man killed a runaway slave, local authorities even gave him reward.
Middle Passage

It is the term used to describe brutal manner in which slaves were transported from Africa to Americas, in Atlantic Ocean.

Slaves were taken in ships as inanimate objects. They were given less than half the space allotted convicts or soldiers
transported by ship at the same time.

male slaves were kept constantly shackled to each other or to the deck to prevent mutiny.

In the ships, they were kept in such unhygienic conditions that sometimes even sailors revolted.

Not even half of the slaves captured reached America alive.

Lakhs of them died during the long voyage, Dysentery was the biggest killer.

So many dead bodies were thrown into the ocean that sharks regularly followed the slave ships on their westward journey.
Slave Trade: Why declined?

After 1850s, slave trade quickly declined. Why?

1.

European economies began to shift from agriculture to industry. Plantations remained profitable, but Europeans had promising
new areas for investment.

2.

The slave-operated American plantations had to compete for capital and preferential laws with textile mills and other industries
that hired free laborers.

3.

American slave societies approached the point where they could reproduce enough offspring to meet labor needs= not much
need for further slave-import from Africa.

4.

Slavery was also a hindrance if the interior of Africa was to be opened to colonial exploitation.

5.

In fact, some colonial powers waged war against African chiefs/kings in the pretext of abolishing slave trade, so they could
establish colony there. (recall how British used to wage wars on Indian princely states citing maladministration as a reason!)
Slave Trade: Consequences

It removed of millions of young men and women from Africa, led to depopulation that stifled African creativity and production.

Slaving and slave trading stimulated warfare, corrupted laws (making more crimes punishable by enslavement=to get more
slaves.)

It created a class of elite rulers and traders.

Slave trade was the beginning of a dependency relationship with Europe.

This relationship was based on the exchange of Africas valuable primary products (slaves, ivory, timber, gold etc.) for European
manufactured goods

This dependency continued after the slave trade ended, through a colonial period and beyond.

In this sense, the slave trade was the first step toward modern Africas current status as a region where technological
development has yet to match that of more industrialized nations.

23 History- Mrunal

African culture mixed with Europeans and Native Americans: led to new mixed-races, music, literature, cuisine, culture,
religious practices, deep impact on American history, civil wars etc.

Anyways, by the time Slave trade declined, the exploration of the interior of Africa had begun and preparations made by the European
powers to impose another kind of slavery on the continent of Africa for the direct conquest of almost entire Africa.
Colonization of Africa: The beginning
Initially the African coastal regions were largely in the hands of the old trading nations:
1.

Portuguese

2.

Dutch

3.

British

4.

French

They had set up forts in those coastal regions.

There were only two places where the European rule extended deep into the interior.

Northern Africa

French occupied Algeria

Southern Africa

The British occupied Cape Colony to safeguard trade routes with India

Within a few years, however, a scramble for colonies begat and almost the entire continent had been cut up and divided among European
powers. (Just like the cutting of the Chinese watermelon).
Explorers, traders and Missionaries
All of them played significant respective roles in the conquest of Africa. (Discussed in first article)
1.

The explorers aroused the Europeans interest in Africa.

2.

Merchants saw profit in the trade of gold, ivory and timber.

3.

The missionaries saw the continent as a place for spreading Christianity.

And European governments supported all these interests by sending troops. And thus the stage was set for conquest.

Three noteworthy explorers/adventurers were

Person

Helped acquiring

1.

Cecil Rhodes

Rhodesia

De Brazza

French Congo

Sir HM Stanley

Congo Free State

24 History- Mrunal

Karl Peters

East Africa

Why Africa was easily conquered?

Europeans start exploring Africa.

Established commercial relations with some parts of Africa + started slave trade.

Until the middle of 19th Century

Interior of Africa was almost unknown to the Europeans.

last quarter of the nineteenth

century

European control over Africa extended over about one-fifth of the territory of the
continent

Late part of 15th Century

However, within a few years almost the entire continent was partitioned among various European imperialist countries. The Europeans
occupied Africa at a much faster speed than they did in Asia. Why?
#1: Finance
1.

Economic might of the imperialist powers was much greater than the economic resources of the African states.

2.

African chief/kings did not have the financial resources to fight a long war.
#2: Military

1.

In terms of military strength, the imperialist countries were far more powerful than the African states.

2.

Most of the time, Africans fought with axes, bows and knives, while Europeans used a fast firing gun known as Maxium
Gun. An English poet even praised this:

Whatever happens we have got,

The maxim-gun and they have not
1

Even when African chiefs wanted to buy firearms, European traders only sold them rusted, junk, outdated rifles. They were no
match for the new rifles and guns used by Europeans armies.
#3: Internal rivalries

The African states were not political united. (Just like Indian princely states of 18 th century.)

There were conflicts between states and within states

Often these African chiefs/kings sought the support of the Europeans against their rivals. (Then Europeans will force them to
sign treaty and take away the land).

But on the other hand, the imperialist countries participating in the scramble for Africa were united. (In the sense that they
never waged war against each other but settled territorial claims in conference rooms).
The Scramble for Africa

Important: Before you proceed further, please click on following link to save certain Map files in your computer. And whenever a
colony/countrys name comes you verify its location in those maps. (Otherwise everything will get mixed up by the time this article is
over.)

25 History- Mrunal
Link for maps file:
Click me to download the Map files for African Colonization

All European countries were eager to get the maximum of African territory in the shortest possible time.

Often their competition/rivalry was about to result in a war.

But in every case, they avoided war and signed agreements as to who will get which part of Africa.

For example,

Both British and German was competing for East Africa. But in 1890 they reached an agreement to divide the region:

British

They gave Heligoland to Germans

Germans

They gave Uganda to British

In 1884-85, European States organized a Congress in Berlin to decide how to share out Africa among themselves. No African state was
represented at this Congress. Treaties were signed between European powers to settle disputes over claims to African territories between
themselves.
Bogus Treaties and Paper Partitions

Most of treaties signed between African chiefs and Europeans =were fraudulent and bogus.

The Europeans gave gifts to African chiefs and made them sign their thumbs on any treaties. (Well see the examples of how
adventurers like De Brazza and Sir HM Stanley used this technique.)

Even when treaties were genuine, the Europeans misinterpreted the provisions in their favor.

For example, suppose an African chief had signed a treaty with a European country X to seek her support against a local
African rival.

Later that European country X will claim the area to be their protectorate state. And sometimes even exchange that territory
with another European country Y, without consulting the local African chief.

Other European powers would also accept such bogus interpretations. Thus African occupation was done without any
hindrance.

By the end of 19th Century, the partition of Africa was nearly completed in this manner.

This is generally referred to as paper partition because the actual partition took much longer time longer time (due to
internal rebellions by Africans against the European powers).

If you look @the African map: About thirty per cent of all boundaries in Africa are in straight lines. Why? Because
the continent of Africa was partitioned on paper map, in the conference rooms of Europe.

It will be easier to understand the conquest of Africa by European powers if we study it region by region. But remember that European
occupation did not take place in the order described here:
West and Central Africa

26 History- Mrunal

Congo Free State (Zaire)

Sir Henry Morton Stanley, an explorer, led expeditions to Congo River.

Then he founded International Congo Association (with the financial help from Belgium King Leopold II.) and made over 400
treaties with African chiefs.

Hed give them cloths/cheap gifts and in return hed ask them to place their marks on a paper. But actually, these papers
transferred their land to the Congo Association!

Stanley acquired more than 2 million sqkm land using this totally awesome technique. The whole area was rich in rubber and
ivory. He called it a unique humanitarian and political enterprise, but it led to brutal exploitation of the Congo people.

1885 (= when our Congress was formed): King Leopold claimed his rights over this entire Congo Free(!) State.
Congo Exploitation

King Leopold was mainly interested in the wild rubber, palm oil, and ivory of Congo.

His private army (known as Force Publique) would force the villagers to gather those resources. Anyone who resisted was
beaten, mutilated or murdered.

Sometimes King Leopolds agents would even kidnap Congolese women and children, and force their men to meet quotas of
rubber/oil/ivory collection before releasing the hostages.

Force Publique troops would also chop off the hands of villagers- as a punishment and a method to further terrorize the
Congolese into submission.

The soldiers would even collect such severed hands and present it to their commanding officers, to prove their efficiency and
commitment to crush the rebellion.
Congo Epilogue

27 History- Mrunal

King Leopold alone made profit >20 million dollars from exploitation of Congo.

The population of the entire Congo state declined from some 20 million to 8 million.

The treatment of the Congolese people was so bad that even other colonial powers were shocked. British citizens formed
association and demanded end of Leopolds rule.

In 1908 (one year before Morley Minto Reforms), finally King Leopold was compelled to hand over the Congo Free State to the
Belgian government

Now Congo Free State was called Belgian Congo.

Gradually, Congos gold, diamond, uranium, timber and copper became more important than her rubber and ivory.

Many of the countries, including England and the United States, joined Belgium in exploiting these resources.

British and Belgians together formed a company to exploit copper mines in Congo.

Later, this company played a very big role in Congos political affairs (just like East India Company in our case.)
West Africa: French Congo

While Sir HM Stanley is gathering land for King Leopold in Congo, another French explorer starts operation in the north of
Congo River.

This Frenchman, de Brazza, uses the same totally awesome technique of Sir HM Stanley and makes African chiefs sign over
their land to France.

This area named French Congo, and its capital town= Brazzaville (after his own name De Brazza!)

Now France set out to extend her empire in West Africa.

Soon she obtains Dahomey (present day Benin), the Ivory Coast and French Guinea.

By the year 1900, the French empire extended further into the interior: including present Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory
Coast, Dahomey, Mauritania, French Sudan, Upper Volta and Niger Territory.

Just like King Leopolds regime over Congo, this French conquest also results in brutal exploitation of the people everywhere in
Africa.

For example, in a period of only 20 years, the population of the French Congo was reduced to 1/3 rd of its former size.
West Africa: Nigeria

Niger is the second great river of Africa (after Nile).

Control of Niger river = control over the Western Africas rich resources + easy transport of slaves.

A British company took the initiative in the conquest of Nigeria (for slave trade)

Another French company came in for competition. But in the end British company to buyout the French and became the ruler of
Nigeria.

After a few years the British government declared Nigeria a protectorate of Britain.

In West Africa, Britain also occupied Gambia, Ashanti, Gold Coast and Sierra Leone.
#EPICFAIL: Germany

28 History- Mrunal

After 1880, Germany also starts adventures in Africa.

First she occupied an area called Togoland on the west coast; then Cameroons, a little farther south.

Still farther south, the Germans established themselves in South-West Africa. This led to local rebellion and German troops
massacred more than half of the population.

Still she was unsatisfied, and wanted the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique and Congo.

But then defeat in First World War started (1914) shattered her dream.

After the war, when the German colonies were given to the victorious powers,

German colony before WW1

After WW1 colony given to

Togoland + Cameroons

Divided between England + France

South-West Africa

Given to South Africa.

England. This region was renamed Tanganyika.

(Tanganyika and Zanzibar now form the republic of Tanzania).

German East Africa

Ruanda-Urundi

Belgium.

had only two colonies on the western coast of Africa

Spain

Portugal

1.

Rio de Oro (Spanish Sahara)

2.

Spanish Guinea.

Possessed valuable regions of Angola and Portuguese Guinea. (and the British and Germans lusted for these colonies).
West Africa: Liberia

Except Liberia, the Whole West Africa was divided up among the Europeans.

Liberia was settled by slaves who had been freed in America.

Though she remained independent, she came increasingly under the influence of the United States, particularly the American
investors in rubber plantations.
Southern Africa
Rhodesia, Cecil Rhodes

Cecil Rhodes was a British adventurer. He made truckload of cash through in gold mines (Transvaal) and diamond mines
(Kimberly).

He was a partner in the famous De Beers diamond mining company. By his will, he established the Rhodes scholarships at
Oxford.

He played instrumental role in forming the British South Africa Company, under a royal charter.

29 History- Mrunal

This company acquired territories in south-central Africa and named this area Rhodesia after Cecil Rhodes.

Rhodesia

Now

Northern region

Zambia

Southern Region

Zimbabwe (1980)

Rhodes became famous as a great philanthropist. He founded the Rhodes scholarships in Oxford university. but first of all, he was a
profiteer and empire-builder. He said
Pure philanthropy is very well in its way, but philanthropy plus five per cent is a good deal better. Rhodes dream was to extend the
British rule throughout the world, and he certainly succeeded in extending the British Empire in Africa. The British occupied
Bechuanaland, Rhodesia, Swaziland and Basutoland.
Boer Wars (1899)

In South Africa, the Dutch had established the Cape Colony. (Later British took over Cape Colony to protect their trade routes to
India).

South Africa was the part of Africa where a large number of Europeans (mainly Dutch) were settled.

These settlers were known as Boers. They owned large farms and plantations. (later Boers were called Afrikaners)

British took over Cape Colony and abolished slavery. Boers did not like it, so they went north and set up two states, the Orange
Free State and the Transvaal. (Together called Afrikaner republics).

Transvaal was rich in gold, so the British plotted to overthrow Boer government.

This led to the Boer War (1899)=>Boers were defeated but they continued to live here.

Gandhi served from British side, as an assistant superintendent of the Indian volunteer stretcher-bearer corps. He was awarded
Boer war medal for his services.

Soon after this, the Union of South Africa was formed consisting of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Orange River Colony.

This Union was ruled by the white minority Boers, Englishmen, and a few settlers from other European countries.

Later South African government later declared itself a republic.

Gandhi @Boer Wars

Gandhi also served in Boer Wars (from British Side). He wrote in his autobiography
When the war was declared, my personal sympathies were all with the Boers, but my loyalty to the British rule drove me to
participation with the British in that war. I felt that, if I demanded rights as a British citizen, it was also my duty, as such to
participate in the defence of the British Empire. so I collected together as many comrades as possible, and with very great difficulty
got their services accepted as an ambulance corps.
Zulu War (1879)

British were interested in Zululand. They wanted Zulu population to serve as labour in the diamond mines across Southern
Africa.

British troops initially suffered losses but ultimately won.

Zulu Rebellion (1906)

30 History- Mrunal

In 1906, the Zulu Rebellion broke out in Natal province of South Africa

This was actually a campaign against tax being imposed by the British on the Zulus, who were demanding their rights in their
own land.

However, the whites declared war against the Zulus.

In this Zulu war/rebellion, Gandhi served from British side, as the officer in charge of the Indian volunteer ambulance corps. He
was given Zulu War Medal for his services.
Gandhi Returned Medals

1920: During Khilafat movement, Gandhi returned the medals to Britain and wrote,
It is not without a pang that I return the Kaisar-i-Hind gold medal granted to me by your predecessor for my humanitarian work in
South Africa, the Zulu War medal granted in South Africa for my services as officer in charge of the Indian volunteer ambulance corps
in 1906 and the Boer War medal for my services as assistant superintendent of the Indian volunteer stretcher-bearer corps during the
Boer War of 1899-1900. I venture to return these medals in pursuance of the scheme of non-cooperation inaugurated today in
connection with the Khilafat movement. Valuable as these honours have been to me, I cannot wear them with an easy conscience so
long as my Mussalman countrymen have to labour under a wrong done to their religious sentiment. Events that have happened
during the past one month have confirmed me in the opinion that the Imperial Government have acted in the Khilafat matter in an
unscrupulous, immoral and unjust manner and have been moving from wrong to wrong in order to defend their immorality. I can
retain neither respect nor affection for such a Government.
East Africa

Before 1884, East Africa was not occupied by any Europeans. (Except Portuguese possession of Mozambique).

1884 (one year before our congress is formed), German adventurer, named Karl Peters, came to the coastal region of East
Africa.

He uses bribery and threats, makes the local chiefs to sign agreements placing themselves under German protection.

France and Britain also has interest in this region. But instead of starting war, they sit down and make agreement to divide the
land.

Madagascar

France gets it.

31 History- Mrunal

Area Divided between Germany and England.

British called their region British East Africa (present day Kenya.)

It was Portuguese possession. Germany and England had planned to divide it but first world war cancelled
the agreement.

East Africa

Mozambiqu
e

King of Zanzibar says East Africa as is my property.

Germany and England appease him by giving a strip of coast land, 1600 kilometers long and 16 kilometers deep.

Even here, Germany and England divide the Northern and Southern half of the strip under sphere of influences.

1905: (same year when Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal), the local Africans start revolt again Germans. 120,000 Africans were
killed in this German colony.
Uganda

In 1890, there was an agreement between Germany and England according to which Uganda was reserved for England. In
exchange Germany was given Heligoland.

In 1896, Uganda was declared a British protectorate.

Germany also gave up her claims to Zanzibar and Pemba island, Witu and Nyasaland (present Malawi), but made more
conquests in the interior.

The Portuguese colony of Mozambique was to be shared out between Germany and England, but the First World War stopped
the plan and Germany lost all her colonies.

1914: first World War start. 1919: Treaty of Versailles signed and defeated Germany had to handover her colonies to the victors. lets
recall our table

German colony before WW1

After WW1 colony given to

Togoland + Cameroons

Divided between England + France

South-West Africa

Given to South Africa.

England. This region was renamed Tanganyika.

(Tanganyika and Zanzibar now form the republic of Tanzania).

German East Africa

Ruanda-Urundi

Belgium.
#EPICFAIL: Italy (Adowa, Ethiopia)

Like Germany, Italy entered the colonial race late.

32 History- Mrunal

The Italians occupied two desert areas in the horn of Africa Somaliland and Eritrea.

Later she got interested in Abyssinia (aka Ethiopia)

Battle of Adowa

The country of Abyssinia, now known as Ethiopia, was an independent state.

Italy wanted to declare Abyssinia its protectorate.

1896: king of Abyssinia rejects Italys claim. Italy sends an army.

Abyssinia was able to procure arms from France and defeated the Italians. (Unlike other African states)

During this war, as much as 70 percent of the Italian force was killed, wounded, or captured, finally treaty of Addis Ababa was
signed to declare peace.

1935: like a defeated gambler, Italy makes second attempt to conquer Abyssinia.

Before the Second World War Except for a brief period during those years, Ethiopia, maintained her independence.
North Africa

Algeria

French occupied Algeria in 1830, it took her about 40 years to suppress the Algerian resistance.

It was the most profitable of Frances colonial possessions, providing her a vast market for French goods.
Tunisia

Both France and England wanted to control Tunisia. But they dont go for war, they make an agreement.

British

Gets Cyprus.

France

Gets Tunisia.

33 History- Mrunal
Morocco

Morocco is situated on the north coast of Africa, just south of Gibraltar.

Hence very important to the western entrance of the Mediterranean.

Both France and Italy wanted Morroco. But they dont go for war, they also make an agreement.

France

Gets Morocco

Gets Tripoli and Cyrenaica (east of Tunisia).

Italy

This region was already under Turkish Empire. So Italy sent troops, occupied two provinces and called it Libya.

Unhappy Germans

While France, Italy and England were busy dividing North Africa among themselves, they had ignored Germany.

German Minister said, You(French) have bought your liberty in Morocco from Spain, England, and even from Italy, and you
have left us out.

There were many international crises and it appeared as if war would break out.

But France appeased Germans by transfering 250,000 square kilometres of French Congo to Germany.

Similarly France also appeased Spain by giving her a small part of Morocco.

In 1912 France established her protectorate over Morocco. However, it took the French many years after the First World War to
suppress the rebellions there.
Egypt, Suez Canal

During this era, Egypt was a province of the Turkish empire

Egypt was ruled by a Pasha (representative/Governor appointed by the Turkish Sultan)

But France was interested in Egypt, Since the time of Napoleon

A French company had gained a concession from Ismail Pasha, the Governor of Egypt, to dig a canal across the isthmus of Suez.

Suez Canal Connects Mediterranean and the Red seas. The canal extends 163 kilometres between Port Said in the north and
Suez in the south.

The canal was completed in 1869 and aroused British interest in the area because itd reduce the shipping time between Europe
and Asia.

British PM Disraeli bought a large number of shares of the canal from the Pasha to make sure of keeping the route to India safe.

Disraeli called Suez canal a highway to our Indian empire.

Pashas game over

Later Egypts Pasha run into financial troubles. The British and French gave him loans and increased their interference in
allocation of trading-mining rights. (just like in China).

When the Pasha tried to resist, he was forced to abdicate and a new governor was appointed.

34 History- Mrunal
Egypt: the cotton colony

Britain developed Egypt as a supplier of cotton for her textile industry.

The control of foreigners over cotton was total, from owning or controlling the land it was grown on, the cotton processing and
cotton cleaning industry and the steamships it was transported.

But, There was not a single mill in Egypt. Why? Think about it!

During first world war time, Cotton accounted for 85% of Egypts exports.

By 1914 cotton
constituted 43 per cent of agricultural output. It accounted for 85 per cent of exports in
1913. Being a single crop economy was disastrous as Egypt became dependent on
imports for her essential food supply.
Egypt: British occupation

In 1880s, Egyptians started revolt against this Anglo-French control.

Britain sent her army in pretext of rest orating law and order and protection of the Suez Canal

The British assured that well withdraw our troops from Egypt as soon as peace is established.

After the revolt was suppressed, Egypt came under British control.

When the First World War started, England announced that Egypt was no longer a Turkish province but a British protectorate!

Then Britain fully exploilted the natural resources, manpower and economy of Egypt during WW1. Crops were seized by the
army. The British Treasury took over the gold reserves of the National Bank of Egypt.

After the First World War, Egyptian leaders started for the Paris Peace Conference to plead the case of Egypt, but they were
arrested.

In the 1920s, Britain was forced to recognize Egypt as an independent sovereign state (but still, Britain retained her rights over
the Suez and many other concessions)
Sudan

Sudan, or what was earlier known as Egyptian Sudan, was jointly exploited by Egypt and Britain.

A Sudanese leader who had proclaimed himself the Mahdi had in the 1880s succeeded in overthrowing Egyptian and British
control over Sudan.

His army had defeated Egyptian and British troops.

Later British and Egyptian troops waged a bloody war, killed 20000 Sudanese troops and recaptured Sudan. Thus, Sudan came
under British rule.

The French at this time tried to occupy southern parts of Sudan but were forced to withdraw by the British.

France, however, was given a free hand to extend her control over what was known as western Sudan and the Sahara. France
occupied these areas after a long war of conquest.

With these gains, France was able to connect her equatorial conquests with her west and north African conquests.
French and British Colonies

British territories

French

35 History- Mrunal

1.

Nigeria

2.

Gold Coast

3.

Gambia

1.

Algeria

4.

Sierra Leone

2.

Morocco

5.

Kenya

3.

Cameroon

6.

Tanganyika

4.

French-Congo

7.

Nyasaland

5.

Tunisia,

8.

Uganda

6.

Madagascar

9.

Rhodesia

10. South Africa.

Timeline of Colonization: Africa + Asia

first lets check the timeline of African Colonization only

click to Englarge
Now lets combine the timelines of Asian + African colonization (click to enlarge)

click to enlarge
Mock Questions
What was the contribution of following in the scramble for Africa (2 marks each?)
1.

Cecil Rhodes

2.

De Brazza

3.

Sir HM Stanley

4.

King Leopold II

36 History- Mrunal
5 marks (50 words)
1.

Battle of Adowa

2.

Zulu War

3.

Boer War

4.

Congo Free State

5.

Rhodesia

6.

Gandhis parturition in Boer War.

Comment on following (10 marks each)

1.

I put my life in peril four times for the sake of the Empire: at the time of the Boer war, at the time of the Zulu revolt. I did all
this in the full belief that acts such as mine must gain for my country an equal status in the Empire. But the treachery of Mr.
Lloyd George and its appreciation by you, and the condonation of the Punjab atrocities have completely shattered my faith in
the good intentions of the Government and the nation which is supporting it.

2.

When the war was declared, my personal sympathies were all with the Boers, but I felt that, if I demanded rights as a British
citizen, it was also my duty, as such to participate in the defence of the British Empire.

3.

I venture to return these medals in pursuance of the scheme of non-cooperation inaugurated today in connection with the
Khilafat movement. Valuable as these honours have been to me, I cannot wear them with an easy conscience so long as my
Mussalman countrymen have to labour under a wrong done to their religious sentiment.
12 marks (120 words)

1.

British Interests in following: 1) Suez Canal 2)Cape Colony 3)

2.

Examine the role of industrialization and capitalism in scramble the scramble for Africa.

3.

Explain these terms: i) Middle Passage ii) Triangular trade

4.

Analyze the impact of Triangular trade on Africa, Europe and Americas.

5.

How did adventurers and explorer helped in the scramble for Africa? Describe with examples.

6.

factors that helped Europeans colonize the Africa.

7.

Scramble for Western Africa and North Africa

8.

Scramble for Southern Africa and Eastern Africa

9.

Enumerate the factors that led to rise of Slade trade in Africa.

10. List the consequences of African slave trade.

11. By early nineteenth century, why did the trade in slaves lost its importance in the system of colonial exploitation?
12. British and French occupation of Africa
25 marks (250 words)
1.

Why did Gandhi participate in Boer and Zulu war? Do you agree with Gandhis justification for his participation? Give reasons
to justify your stand.

2.

Redrawal of national boundaries in Africa during the 19 th Century.

3.

Colonization of Asia and Africa: similarities and differences

37 History- Mrunal
4.

Write a note on the Paper partition of Africa

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Imperialism, Colonization of Asia, Africa, Americas
Prologue

UPSC has included World History in General studies (Mains) syllabus from 2013. Hence Old NCERT, particularly Chapter 9
to 13 from Class 10= becomes necessary as the foundation/base material for the topics of World History.

Problem= hard to that book find in market, even if youre willing to spend money.

That Old NCERTs books Low quality PDF scan available=very stressful on eyes= Hard to read continuously. (still if you want
the PDF, click me to download)

Ive converted that PDF to text to make it bit easier on the eyes. Uploading chapters here one by one.

Due to low-quality of the original PDF, all words/spelling are not converted properly for example, at some places India
may be display as Iriclia and so on. Many sentences wont have proper fullstops, commas and punctuation. Same way, most of
the maps/images are not converted properly. But you can copy paste these articles in MS word and fix it on your own, as per
your requirements.

btw, Ill continue writing [World History] articles at my pace, just because these chapters are uploaded, doesnt mean Im
stopping my Jack Sparrow series.
Introduction of the Chapter

(Note: Upto Africa was already covered in previous [World History] Articles, you may start from Americas directly.)
THE term `imperialism means the practice of extending the power, control or rule by a country over the political and economic life of
areas outside its own borders. This may be done through military or other means, and particularly through colonialism or the practice of
acquiring colonies by conquest or other means and making them dependent It may be remembered that occupation of or direct rule over
a country or people by another country is not always an essential feature of imperialism The essential feature of the relations between an
imperialist country and the country over which it has established its control or the colony which it has acquired, is exploitation, with or
without direct political control. This means that the imperialist country, or metropolis (literal meaning mother country), as it is
sometimes called, subordinates the colony or the country which the metropolis indirectly controls to serve its own economic and political
interests.
Most countries of Asia, including India, and Africa, and many other parts of the world were until recent years under the control of one
imperialist country or another. These included countries which were not directly/ruled by the imperialist countries but were exploited by
them more or less in the same way as countries over which direct imperialist rule had been es tablished In the present-day World, when
almost all countries of the world are politically independent, imperialist control over other countries has not come to an end The practice
of exploitation, particularly economic exploitation and domination of independent but economically less developed countries, is often
called neocolonialism .
The first phase of the imperialist control and colonization of Asia, Africa and the Americas began in the sixteenth century. During the
period from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, as you have read in Chapter 6 (Vol. 1), the voyages of discovery were followed by the
founding of vast colonial empires by Portugal, Spain, Holland, England and France In the Americas, Spain occupied most of South
America (excluding Brazil which was occupied by Portugal), Central America, Mexico, West Indies and parts of what is now the United
States of America. England and France occupied parts of North America Many people from these countries of Europe went to settle in
these colonies permanently During this period, the European control in Africa extended only to about one fifth of the continent, mainly
in the coastal areas. This was the period of slave trade The European slave traders enslaved and transported about 5000 Africans to the
Americas every month during the seventeenth century In Asia, the Europeans came mainly with the purpose of trade The traders from
Portugal, Holland, England, France and other countries, with the backing of their respective governments, set up their trading posts and
tried to establish their monopoly of trade with the countries of Asia, and each tried to exclude the others through war and by extending
their political influence and control. The Portuguese who controlled the trade with Asia were ousted from that position by the Dutch and
the English who extended their control over Indonesia and India, respectively. Generally speaking, the first phase of imperialism and
colonization came to an end by the close of the eighteenth century. The British conquest of India which had started in the middle of the
eighteenth century, was completed by about the middle of the nineteenth century. In the meantime, the imperialist penetration of China
had begun.
The period between the sixteenth to the eighteenth century was a period of naked plunder by European colonial powers In Chapter 7
(Vol.1), you have already read about the role which this plunder played in the growth of the capitalist system and in the Industrial
Revolution

38 History- Mrunal
During the initial period of the Industrial Revolution, the pursuit for colonies had slowed down The pursuit for colonies and colonial
rivalries reemerged in the last quarter of the nineteenth century This new phase of imperialism, which began in about 1875 and
continued till 1914, is often described as New Imperialism It was the result of the economic system that had developed as a result of the
Industrial Revolution During this phase, a few industrialized capitalist countries established their political and economic control and
domination over almost the rest of the world The forms of control and domination including direct colonial rule, spheres of influence and
various types of economic and commercial agreements The power of some of the imperialist countries such as Spain and Portugal
declined during this period, and new countries emerged which played an increasingly important role during this phase of imperialist
expansion and rivalries. Besides the old imperialist countries Britain and France which continued to be powerful and expand, the
new imperialist countries which emerged during this period were Germany, Italy, 13e1 glum, U S A and, later, Japan.
CONDITIONS THAT HELPED THE GROWTH OF IMPERIALISM
If you study the conditions that existed in the world in the nineteenth century, you will find that these conditions favoured the growth of
imperialism The imperialist countries took full advantage of these conditions and easily justified any and every conquest that served their
interests. In fact, the more pow erful nations made imperialism seem necessary and natural
Demands Created by the Industrial Revolution
As you have read, the Industrial Revolution resulted in a very great increase in the production of goods It also created the capitalist
system of production. Under capitalism, maximum profit for the capitalist was the primary purpose of production Capitalists followed
two courses to make big profits more and more production and minimum wages to workers The production of goods was far in excess
of the demand at home. Low wages meant low purchasing power of the majority of the population and this also restricted their demand
at home. So capitalist countries had to find new markets and buyers for the goods their industries were producing.
The possibilities of one industrialized country selling its manufactures to another industrialized country were also limited. With the
spread of the Industrial Revolution to all the countries of Europe, each country tried to protect and stimulate its new industries To do
this, as you learned in Chapter 7, all the European nations began to follow a protectionist policy. That is, each country put a heavy tariff
or tax on goods imported from other countries.
European countries could find markets for their surplus goods in Asia and Africa where the Industrial Revolution had not taken place.
Selling was made easier through political domination of these areas. Then each country could protect its market from other European
rivals and also eliminate any competition from goods produced locally.
In addition to markets, European countries needed new sources of raw materials. As industries grew, more and more raw materials were
needed to fee those industries. And all that was needed could not be had internally, at any rate not enough of it. India and Egypt were
good sources of cotton, Congo and the East Indies, of rubber Other products needed were food grains, tea, coffee, indigo, tobacco and
sugar. To obtain these, it was necessary to change the pattern of production in the countries where they could be grown. Sometimes,
goods produced in one country were sold in another country to pay for the goods from that country For example, the English promoted
the cultivation of opium in India, they smuggled the opium from India into China and in this way paid for the goods that they bought in
China. In some countries, the imperialists forced the cultivation of only one or two crops which they needed as raw materials for their
industries Coal, iron, tin, gold, copper and, later, oil were other resources of Asia and Africa that European countries wanted to control.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century, imperialist countries began looking upon Asia, Africa and South Africa as good places to
invest their capital The abundance of raw materials in Asia and Africa, and the number of people who could be made to work for lower
wages made the two continents very attractive to investors. Capital invested in Europe would fetch only 3 or 4 per cent profit, in Asia or
Africa, it was as high as 20 per cent From about the end of the nineteenth century, export of capital for investment in other countries
began to become more important than the export of goods. This happened as a result of the growing influence and power of the financial
institutions such as banks. They exercised control over industries by giving them credit The investment of capital in the colonies was not
made with a view to industrializing the colonies, it was to promote industries which would produce goods mainly for export, such as in
mining, or which would further strengthen the imperialist countrys control over the colonys economy, such as the railways But, as in the
case of markets and raw materials, political domination was often necessary Investments might not be safe without political
domination, Europeans reasoned. An uprising that a weak government could not control, or a change in government, could mean a loss
of profits or even of the whole investment, they argued This was how Morocco in North Africa, for example, became French Morocco,
after French investors appealed to their government to annex it.
Improvement in Transportation and Communication
Changes in transport and communication that came with the Industrial Revolution made the spread of imperialism easier. Steamships
could carry goods between home countries in Europe and the acquired territories in Asia and Africa much faster than old sailing vessels
With cheap labour, imperialist countries built railroads and inland waterways in conquered area. On these they could get raw materials
out of the interior of the continents and send their manufactured products into new markets. Thus every area of the world was brought
within easy reach of the industrialized countries
Extreme Nationalism : Pride and Power
The later part of the nineteenth century was a period of intense nationalism. Germany and Italy had just succeeded in becoming unified
nations. Nationalism in the late nineteenth century came to be associated with chauvinism Many nations developed myths of their
superiority over other peoples Each one felt that it, too, must have colonies to add to its prestige and power. Imperialism became the
fashion of the age. Writers and speakers in England, France and Germany opened institutions to promote the idea of imperialism, and
took great pride in calling their territories empires. Imperialist countries took over some places in Asia and Africa because of their

39 History- Mrunal
military or strategic importance. For example, England needed Port Said, Aden, Hong Kong, Singapore and Cyprus not to protect
England but to protect her conquered lands and trade route to India from rival nations. At these places she established naval bases and
coaling stations to strengthen her overseas power Rival nations got similar bases elsewhere, as you will see. Acquiring a colony also had a
chain reaction If a county acquired a colony, it needed another to protect it and so on
Overseas possessions were also useful because they added to an imperialist countrys manpower Some of the people of the colonized
countries were taken into the army, often by force, for use in wars of conquest, others were contracted to work on plantations and mines
in some other colonial possession for a specified number of years. The manpower of the colonies was alsoused in the administration of
the colonies at lower levels.
The Civilizing Mission: Men and Ideas
In the minds of many Europeans, imperialist expansion was very noble. They considered it a way of bringing civilization to the
backward peoples of the world The famous English writer, Rudyard Kipling, asked his countrymen to shoulder what he called the white
mans burden Jules Ferry, in France, said, Superior races have the duty of civilizing the inferior races .
Christian missionaries, dedicated to spreading Christianity, also played their part in promoting the idea of imperialism. Usually they
went alone into unknown areas in a spirit of duty. Very often they were followed by profiteering traders and soldiers. Wars often took
place to protect the missionaries. All this seemed quite natural to most Western people who considered it their nations destiny to civilize
and Christianize the peoples of Asia and Africa President McKinley of the United States summed up the reasons for annexing the
Philippines in these words There was nothing left to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos and uplift and civilize and
Christianize them as our fellow men for whom Christ also died.
Explorers and adventurers
They also helped in spreading imperialism. They went into unknown or little known territories and brought back reports that often
indicated opportunities for trade and development. On the basis of such reports, a trading post would first be set up; next, gradually the
explorers home government would arrange to take over protection of the entire area around the trading post Then this government
would proceed to claim the entire territory The work of explorers and adventurers was particularly important in Europes taking over of
Africa.
Conditions that Favoured Imperialism in Asia and Africa
The most important condition favouring the imperialist conquest of Asia and Africa was that the Industrial Revolution had not come to
this part of the world. The craftsmen produced goods of fine quality that Westerners admired and desired. But they relied entirely on
hand tools which meant production on a small scale In comparison with the production of Western countries in the nineteenth century,
Asian and African methods were backward. Also, because of the lack of knowledge that the Industrial Revolution had brought to the
West, the two continents were militarily unable to stand up to the armed might and power of Europe.
The governments of the countries of Asia and Africa were very weak in the nineteenth century, though in ancient and medieval times
powerful empires had existed there. In the nineteenth century, the old ways of governing were still followed, even though they had
outlived their usefulness. Strong nationstates in the modern sense had not developed. The peoples loyalties were still to local princes as
in feudal times, or to tribal chieftains. These rulers cared little for the welfare of the people. These conditions help to explain how small
bands of Westerners succeeded in gaining power and, finally, with the backing of their governments, in conquering entire countries.
THE CONQUEST OF ASIA: The British in India
The decline of the Mughal empire in India gave the British and the French, who had come to trade, an opportunity to conquer India. The
English East India Company, formed in 1600, was victorious in its conflict with France, which ended in 1763. Beginning with Bengal,
almost the entire country came under the rule of the English East India Company. After the Revolt of 1857, the British government took
over direct control of India. Many princely states survived but they were free more in name than in fact. Britains conquest of India was
complete.
The conflict between the English East India Company and the French was over establishing a monopoly of trade. After the English
company gained control, the countrys vast resources fell into its hands. There was no longer any need to bring money from England to
buy Indian goods. These were purchased with the money made from British conquests in India and sold in England and Europe Fortunes
were made by the officers of the Company India was known as the brightest jewel of the British empire. With the coming of the Industrial
Revolution in England, British goods poured into this country. This ruined Indian handicraft industries. Millions of pounds were drained
out of India to England in the form of profits and as payment to the British government as direct tribute and Home Charges. Indias
interests were subordinated more and more to British interests. In 1877, the British queen took the title Empress of India, like the one
used earlier by the Mughals.
The British conquest led to many changes in the Indian social and economic life. To extend Indian markets for British goods and to make
use of Indias natural resources railway construction was started on a large scale British rulers gave special privileges to their own
planters, and within a short time a number of tea, coffee and indigo plantations grew up In 1883, all import and export duties were
waived Indian resources, both human and material, were used to promote the interests of British imperialism in China, Central Asia and
Africa. To prevent opposition from the Indian people, the British imposed laws to stifle the expression of public opinion They excluded
Indians from responsible positions in government, and discriminated against them in other institutions and in social life.

40 History- Mrunal
Imperialism in China
Imperialist domination of China began with what are known as the Opium Wars Before these wars, only two ports were open to foreign
traders British merchants bought Chinese tea, silk and other goods, but there was no market for British goods in China. Then British
merchants started smuggling opium into China on a large scale. The illegal opium trade was profitable to the British traders but did
immense physical and moral damage to the Chinese. In 1839, when a Chinese government official seized an opium cargo and destroyed
it, Britain declared war and easily defeated the Chinese. The Chinese were then forced to pay heavy damages to the British and to open
five port cities to British traders The Chinese government also agreed that in future, British subjects in these ports would be tried for any
crimes in English rather than in Chinese courts This provision, which other Western countries copied, came to be known as
extraterritorial rights. The Chinese government was no longer free to impose tariff on foreign goods The island of Hong Kong was turned
over to Britain. Soon France entered into similar unequal treaties with China. On the pretext that a French missionary had been
murdered, England and France fought another war with China. China was defeated and was forced to grant more privileges to her
conquerors. The next important stage in the growth of imperialist control over China came after the wai with Japan This came about
when Japan tried to increase her influence over Korea which was under Chinese overlordship. China resented this rind the two countries
went to war, which ended in victory for Japan China gave Korea her independence and ceded Formosa and other islands to Japan. She
was also forced to pay Japan heavy war damages amounting to about 150 million dollars.
France, Russia, Britain and Germany gave loans to China to help her to meet this payment. But not for nothing 1 These western countries
then divided China into spheres of influence, which meant that each country had certain regions of China reserved exclusively for its
purposes Foi example, in its sphere of influence, a country might have the right to build railways or work mines. Germany got Kiaochow
Bay and exclusive rights in Shantung and in the HwangHo valley. Russia took Liao tung Peninsula, along with the right to build railroads
in Manchuria, France received Kwangchow Bay and extensive rights in three southern provinces of China Britain got WeihiWei in
addition to her sphere of influence in the Yangtze valley
Open Door Policy
The United States feared that China would be completely parcelled out in exclusive spheres of influence and that its trade with China
would be shut off. The United States, therefore, suggested the policy known as the Open Door. This policy is also described as Me too
policy According to this policy, all countries would have equal rights to trade anywhere in China Britain supported the United States
thinking that this policy would discourage the annexation of China by Japan and Russia, the two countries that could mast easily send
their armies to the mainland
The scramble for privileges stopped in China after an uprising against the foreign powers known as the Boxer Rebellion. But the foreign
powers were victorious and levied heavy damages on China as punishment Imperialism continued, with the cooperation of Chinese
warlords. These military commanders were supported by the loans which they got from foreign powers in exchange for more privileges.
Though China was not conquered and occupied by any imperialist country, the effects of these developments on China were the same as
in areas which had been colonized In a period of a few decades, China had been educed to the status of an international colony. The
division of China into spheres of influence has often been described as the cutting of the Chinese melon
Imperialism in South and SouthEast Asia
South and South East Asia includes Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Indonesia, IndoChina, Thailand and the Philippines Even before
the rise of the new imperialism, many of these countries were already dominated by the Europeans Sri Lanka was occupied by the
Portuguese, then by the Dutch, and later by the British England introduced tea and rubber plantations, which came to form 7/8 th of Sri
Lankas exports. The Dutch lost Malaya to the British, including Singapore, lying at the tip of the Malaya peninsula. The conquest of
Malaya and Singapore meant control of all the trade of the Far East that passed through the Straits of Malacca. Indonesia and the
surrounding islands were under Dutch control After 1875, Holland extended her control over a group of islands known as the Moluccas.
IndoChina
The area in SouthEast Asia once called Indo-China consists of Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. When England was fighting China over the
opium trade, France was trying to extend her commerce in IndoChina. In a series of planned steps which included threats of war, France
became the master of IndoChina and the separate states were grouped together under a
French governor general. Frequent revolts against French rule followed, but they were suppressed or, as the French said, pacified.
Burma
In 1880, the king of Burma gave France the right to build a railway from Tonkin to Mandalay The French were trying to dominate all of
SouthEast Asia. The British government, fearing French expansion, started a war with Burma. The Burmese king was captured and sent
to India Burma was annexed and became a part of Britains empire in India in 1886.
Thailand, or Siam, remained an independent state, though sandwiched between the French conquests in IndoChina and of the British in
Burma But France and England exercised much power and authority over its affairs
Philippines
The United States joined in the race of imperialist expansion in SouthEast Asia in the late nineteenth century A revolt of the Cubans in
the Caribbean against Spanish rule led the United States to a war with Spain. There was a revolt of the Filipinos against Spanish rule and

41 History- Mrunal
the United States occupied Cuba and the Philippines The Filipinos revolted against the American occupation but were suppressed and
the Philippines became an American possession The United States paid 20 million dollars to Spain for the Philippines.
Imperialism in Central and Western Asia
England and Russia were rivals in the struggle to control Central Asia, Iran (Persia), Afghanistan and Tibet The Russian empire
succeeded in annexing almost all of Central Asia in the second half of the nineteenth century The conflict between England and Russia
came to a head over Iran and Afghanistan Besides some minor economic interests in these countries, Britain was mainly concerned about
defending her conquests in India against the expansion of Russia in Central Asia. Russia and England set up banks in Iran to obtain
economic control In 1907, England and Russia reached an agreement according to which southern Iran became Britains sphere of
influence and northern Iran the Russian sphere of influence. The central part of Iran was neutral and open to both Meanwhile, the
struggle was on between Britain and Russia for mastery over Afghanistan and Tibet Finally in 1907, Britain and Russia reached an
agreement over these two countries and Iran Both powers agreed not to interfere in Tibet Russia agreed to recognize Afghanistan as
being outside her influence and Britain agreed not to annex Afghanistan as long as her ruler remained loyal to her The division of Iran
into three zones has already been mentioned This meant the establishment of joint Anglo-Russian supremacy over Iran. After the
Russian Revolution broke out in 1917, the new Soviet government denounced the old Anglo Russian agreement and gave up her rights in
Iran However, Iran was occupied by British troops Meanwhile, oil had been found in Iran and British and American oil interests became
powerful Iran remained nominally independent but was increasingly under the domination of foreign oil companies the Standard Oil
Company of the United States and the AngloPersian Oil Company of England. After the overthrow of the monarchy in China in 1911,
Tibet increasingly passed under British influence.
Germany, during these years, was extending her influence over Turkey and the Asian possessions of the Turkish empire. A German
company obtained a concession to build a railway from Constantinople to Baghdad and the persian Gulf. Through this railway, Germany
hoped to promote her economic interests in this region, and on to Iran and India France, England and Russia opposed this, but an
agreement to divide the region was reached between Germany, France and England. The First World War, however, changed the
situation. Germany and Turkey, allies in the war, were defeated Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Arabia were taken away from
Turkey and they passed under the control of England and France Thus, Germany as an imperialist nation was completely eliminated
from Asia and other parts of the world. Soon, oil and the concessions to control oil resources became the major objectives of the
imperialist countries in Western Asia American oil companies, in partnership with England and France, got oil concessions in Arabia
Japan as an Imperialist Power
Japan started on her program of imperialist expansion in the last decade of the nineteenth century Western countries had tried to
establish their foothold there In 1853 American warships under Commodore Perry had, after a show of force, compelled the Japanese to
open their country to American shipping and trade This was followed by similar agreements by Japan with Britain, Holland, France and
Russia. However, Japan escaped the experience and fate of other Asian countries. In 1867, after a change in government, known as Meiji
Restoration, Japan began to modernize her economy Within a few decades, she became one of the most industrialized countries of the
world But the forces that made many of the Western countries imperialist were also active in the case of Japan. Japan had few raw
materials to support her industries. So she looked for lands that had them and for markets to sell her manufactured goods
China provided ample opportunities for Japans imperialist designs. You have already read of the war between China and Japan over
Korea, in 1894 After this, Japans influence in China increased The Anglo Japanese Treaty of 1902 recognized her as a power of equal
standing with the great European powers. In 19045 she defeated Russia. As a result of this war, the southern half of Sakhalin was ceded
to Japan. Japan also gained control of the southern part of the Liaotung Peninsula with Port Arthur which was leased to her In 1910,
Korea became a colony of Japan. When the First World War began in 1914, Japan could look back with some pride at her record of the
last fifty years. She had become a great power and could expand further at the cost of China if the Western powers would only allow her
to do so
However, her own record was, if anything, worse than that of Western imperialists. In fact, Japans rise as an imperialist power helped to
show that imperialism was not limited to any one people or region Rather, it was the result of greed for economic and political power
which could distort the policy of any country regardless of its race or cultural claims.
To sum up, almost all of Asia had been swallowed up by the imperialist countries by the early years of the twentieth century.
IMPERIALISM IN AFRICA
You have already read in Chapter 4 (Vol.1) about the emergence of civilization and the formation of states, kingdoms and empires in
different parts of Africa You have also read about the contacts which African cultures and civilizations had with the rest of the world since
ancient times From the time of European explorations in the later part of the fifteenth century, a new phase began in the history of some
parts of Africa
Besides the establishment of commercial relations with some parts of Africa, this phase was characterized by slave trade As mentioned
earlier, till about the last quarter of the nineteenth century, European control over Africa extended over about one-fifth of the territory of
the continent. However, within a few years almost the entire continent was partitioned among various European imperialist countries
though it took them much longer to establish their actual effective occupation
Slave Trade
The European penetration of Africa from the late fifteenth century onwards was confined for a long time mainly to certain coastal areas
However, even these limited contacts led to the most tragic and disastrous consequences for the people of Africa, One of the first results

42 History- Mrunal
of these contacts was the purchase and sale of people the slave trade. The Spanish rule in the Americas had resulted in the large-scale
extermination of the original inhabitants of the Americas The Portuguese had established a slave market in Lisbon and the Spaniards
bought slaves from there and took them to their colonies in the Americas to work there. African villages were raided by slave traders and
people were captured and handed over to the European traders Earlier, the Arabs had dominated the slave trade, Subsequently, some
African chiefs also took part in the slave trade by trading slaves in exchange for firearms which the European traders sold to them .The
Europeans themselves also raided the villages and enslaved the people, who were then transported. When the demand for slaves in
America increased, they were sent directly from Africa by the traders.
The trade in African slaves was started by the Portuguese. Soon the English took over. In 1562, Sir John Hawkins, a rich English
merchant, who was known to be very religious, went on his first voyage to Africa to bring slaves in a ship called Jesus The reigning
English monarch, Elizabeth I, received a share of the profits that Hawkins made in selling the slaves that he had brought In the
seventeenth century, a regular company received a charter from the King of England for purposes of trade in slaves Later, Spain gave the
monopoly of slave trade with her possessions in America to England The share of the king in the profits from slave trade was fixed at 25
per cent
Up to about the middle of the nineteenth century this trade continued. Millions of Africans were uprooted from their homes Many were
killed while resisting the raids on their villages by the traders. They were taken in ships as inanimate objects and in such unhygienic
conditions that the sailors on the ships often revolted Lakhs of them died during the long journey. It is estimated that not even half of the
slaves captured reached America alive. The inhuman conditions under which they were forced to work on the plantations cannot even be
imagined today Extreme brutalities were inflicted on those who tried to escape. The person who killed a runaway slave was given a
reward by the government. Slavery had become an integral part of the colonial system established by European countries during this
period.
By early nineteenth century, trade in slaves lost its importance in the system of colonial exploitation Slavery was also a hindrance if the
interior of Africa was to be opened to colonial exploitation In fact, some colonial powers used the pretext of abolishing slave trade to go to
war against African chiefs and kings to expand their territorial possessions. In the meantime, exploration of the interior of Africa had
begun and preparations made by the European powers to impose another kind of slavery on the continent of Africa for the direct
conquest of almost entire Africa.
Scramble for Africa
The interior of Africa was almost unknown to the Europeans up to about the middle of the nineteenth century, The coastal regions were
largely in the hands of the old trading nations the Portuguese, the Dutch, the English and the French They had set up their forts there
There were only two places where the European rule extended deep into the interior. In the north the French had conquered Algeria. In
the south the English had occupied Cape Colony to safeguard
their commerce with India. It had earlier been a Dutch colony where
a number of Europeans, mainly the Dutch, had settled. These settlers, known as Boers, had taken to farming. This was the only part of
Africa where a large number of Europeans were settled Within a few years, however, a scramble for colonies begat and almost the entire
continent had been cut up and divided among European powers
Explores, traders and missionaries
They played their respective roles in the conquest of Africa, The explorers aroused the Europeans interest in Africa. The missionaries
saw the continent as a place for spreading the message of Christianity. The interests created by explorers and missionaries were soon
used by the traders. Western governments supported all these interests by sending troops, and the stage was set for conquest. Even
though the European powers met with stiff resistance from the Africans and it took them a long time to establish effective occupation of
their colonies, the speed with which the European powers conquered Africa is without a parallel. It is necessary to understand the
reasons for this. The external factors have been broadly mentioned in an earlier section of this chapter. The economic might of the
imperialist powers was much greater than the economic resources of the African states The latter did not have the resources to fight a
long war In terms of military strength, the imperialist countries were far more powerful than the African states The Africans had
outdated firearms which had been sold to them by the Europeans They were no match for the new rifles and guns which the Europeans
used The couplet of an English poet is often quoted to bring out this superiority.
Whatever happens we have got,
The maximgun and they have not.
The Maximgun was a fast firing new gun which was used against the Africans who often fought with axes and knives Politically, like
Indian states in the eighteenth century, the African states were not united There were conflicts between states and within states and the
rulers and chiefs often sought the support of the Europeans against their rivals. As a result of these conflicts, the boundaries of the
African states were often changing. As against this, the imperialist countries participating in the scramble for Africa were united The
scramble had created serious rivalries among them. In fact, the scramble to grab the maximum of African territory in the shortest
possible time was the result of these rivalries. Many a time during the scramble wars between these countries were imminent. But in
every case, war was avoided and agreements reached between them as to who will get which part of Africa. For example, the AngloGerman rivalries in East Africa were resolved in 1890 when Germany agreed to concede Uganda to Britain in exchange for Britain giving
away Heligoland to Germany In 1884-85, there was a Congress in Berlin where a group of European states met and discussed how to
share out Africa among themselves No African state was represented at this Congress. Treaties were signed between European powers to
settle disputes over claims to African territories between themselves. Treaties were also signed between African rulers and chiefs, and the
representatives of European governments or European companies and individuals which were later sanctioned by their respective
governments. These treaties were often fraudulent and bogus In the cases where these were genuine, they were misrepresented in
negotiations with other European countries and the wrong interpretations put on them were recognized by other European powers. For

43 History- Mrunal
example, if an African ruler signed a treaty with a European country to seek the latters support against a rival, that European country in
seeking approval of other European countries interpreted it to mean that the African ruler had agreed to make his state a protectorate of
that European country. This interpretation was then accepted by other European powers and the process of occupation began without
any hindrance from them In this way, the partition of Africa was nearly completed by the end of the nineteenth century. This position is
generally referred to as paper partition as, the actual partition took much longer and was accomplished by the use of the superior
military might of the European powers to suppress the resistance by the Africans A look at the map of Africa after partition will show how
the continent of Africa was partitioned on paper in conference rooms in Europe About thirty per cent of all boundaries in Africa are in
straight lines. It will be easier to understand the conquest of Africa by European powers if we study it region by region. We must
remember, however, that occupation did not take place in the order described here
West and Central Africa
In 1878, with the financial assistance of King Leopold II of Belgium, H M. Stanley founded the International Congo Association which
made over 400 treaties with African chiefs They did not understand that by placing their marks on bits of paper they were transferring
their land to the Congo Association in exchange for cloth or other articles of no great value Stanley acquired large tracts of land by these
methods. In 1885 some 2.3 million square kilometres, nch in rubber and ivory, became the Congo Free State with Leopold as its king.
Stanley called the occupation of Congo (the present Zaire) a unique humanitarian and political enterprise, but it began with brutal
exploitation of the Congo people They were forced to collect rubber and ivory Leopold alone is said to have made a profit of over 20
million dollars The treatment of the Congolese people was so bad that even other colonial powers were shocked To give an example of the
brutality, soldiers of the Congo Free State chopped off the hands of the defiant villagers and brought them as souvenirs. In 1908, Leopold
was compelled to hand over the Congo Free State to the Belgian government, and it became known as Belgian Congo Gradually, Congos
gold, diamond, uranium, timber and copper became more important than her rubber and ivory. Many of the countries, including
England and the United States, joined Belgium in exploiting these resources The company which controlled the copper resources of
Katanga province (present Shaba) was one of the biggest copper companies in the world. This company, jointly owned by English and
Belgian interests, played a very big role in Congos political affairs.
Locate the Niger river, the second great river of western Africa, on the map The control over the Niger meant the control over the land
with rich resources The British had occupied a part of this legion called Nigeria, to get slaves for export to their plantations in America
The British company took the initiative in the conquest of Nigeria. For a time there was a sharp rivalry with a French company, but in the
end the British company was able to buy out the French and became the ruler of Nigeria After a few years the British government
declared Nigeria a protectorate of Britain In West Africa, Britain also occupied Gambia, Ashanti, Gold Coast and Sierra Leone.
French Congo
When Stanley was carving out the empire for King Leopold in Congo, a Frenchman, de Brazza, was active north of the Congo river
Following the methods of Stanley, de Brazza won the area for France, this area became what was until recently called the French Congo
with its capital town named Brazzaville, after de Brazza. On Africas west coast, Senegal and been occupied by France earlier Now France
set out to extend her empire in West Africa. Soon she obtained Dahomey (pi esent Benin), the Ivory Coast and French Guinea By the year
1900, the French empii e extended further into the interior. More territories were added to the West African conquests after 1900 and
French West Africa came to include present Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey, Mauritania, French Sudan, Upper Volta
and Niger Territory. The French conquest resulted in brutal exploitation of the people everywhere in Africa. For example, in a period of
only 20 years, the population of the French Congo was reduced to one-third of its former size.
After 1880, Germany also got very interested in possessions in Africa First she occupied an area called Togoland on the west coast; soon
after, the Cameroons, a little farther south. Still farther south, the Germans established themselves in South-west Africa where, to
suppress local rebels, more than half of the population was exterminated. But these conquests did not satisfy Germany; she wanted the
Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique and Congo for herself Before the First World War started, England and Germany agreed
to partition Angola and Mozambique between themselves, but the war shattered Germanys dreams. After the war, when the German
colonies were given to the victorious powers, Togoland and the Cameroons were divided between England and France, and German
South-west Africa was given to South Africa.
Spain had only two colonies on the western coast of Africa Rio de Oro (Spanish Sahara) and Spanish Guinea. Portugal possessed
valuable regions of Angola and Portuguese Guinea. Thus, with the exception of Liberia, the whole of West Africa was divided up among
the Europeans Liberia was settled by slaves who had been freed in America. Though she remained independent, she came increasingly
under the influence of the United States, particularly the American investors in rubber plantations.
South Africa
In South Africa, the Dutch had established the Cape Colony, which the British took over in the early nineteenth century. The Dutch
settlers, known as Boers, then went north and set up two states, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. By 1850 both these states were
ruled by the Boers.
Rhodesia
The English adventurer, Cecil Rhodes, came to south Africa in 1870, made a fortune in mining diamond and gold of this region and gave
his name to an African colony Rhodesia. (Northern Rhodesia is now independent and is called Zambia. Southern Rhodesia which became
an independent nation in April 1980 is Zimbabwe.) Rhodes became famous as a great philanthropist who founded the Rhodes
scholarships, but lie was first of all a profiteer and empirebuilder. Pure philanthropy, he said, is very well in its way, but philanthropy
plus five per cent is a good deal better. Rhodes dream was to extend the British rule throughout the world, and he certainly succeeded

44 History- Mrunal
in extending the British empire in Africa. The British occupied Bechuanaland, Rhodesia, Swaziland and Basutoland. They plotted the
overthrow of the Boer government of Transvaal which was rich in gold This led to the Boer War (1899-1902) in which the Boers were
defeated though they continued to remain there.
Soon after this, the Union of South Africa was formed consisting of the Cape, Natal, Transvaal and Orange River Colony. This Union was
ruled by the white minority Boers, Englishmen, and a few settlers from other European countries The South African government later
declared itself a republic.
East Africa
Except for the Portuguese possession of a part of Mozambique, East Africa had not been occupied by any European power before 1884.
In that year a German adventurer, named Karl Peters, came to the coastal region. Using bribery and threats, he persuaded some rulers to
sign agreements placing themselves under German protection Since France and Britain also had plans in this area, an agreement was
signed by which France got Madagascar, and East Africa was divided between Germany and England. The ruler of Zanzibar who claimed
East Africa as his property got a strip of coast land, 1600 kilometres long and 16 kilometres deep The Northern half of this strip was
reorganized as a British sphere of influence, and the southern part. Tanganyika, a German sphere of influence. These were later occupied
by England and Germany But the Africans rose in revolt again and again because the Germans had taken land from them without making
any payment. During a rebellion in 1905, 120,000 Africans were killed in this German colony In 1890, there was an agreement between
Germany and England according to which Uganda was reserved for England. In exchange Germany was given Heligoland In 1896,
Uganda was declared a British protectorate Germany also gave up her claims to Zanzibar and Pemba island, Witu and Nyasaland
(present Malawi), but made more conquests in the interior. The Portuguese colony of Mozambique was fo be shared out between
Germany and England, but the First World War stopped the plan and Germany lost all her colonies. German East Africa was given to
England after the war and was renamed Tanganyika. (Tanganyika and Zanzibar now form the republic of Tanzania) British East Africa
was renamed Kenya. The German possession of Ruanda-Urundi was given to Belgium.
Italy-Ethiopia
Like Germany, Italy entered the colonial race late. The Italians occupied two desert areas in what is called the horn of Africa Somaliland
and Eritrea. The country of Abyssinia, now known as Ethiopia, was an independent state. Italy wanted to declare Abyssinia its
protectorate and invaded her. The king of Abyssinia rejected Italys claim and in 1896 defeated the Italian invading army Unlike other
African states, Abyssinia had been able to get arms from France. This historic battle in which an African state had defeated a European
states army is known as the Battle of Adowa. So the Italians had to withdraw Italy made another attempt to conquer Abyssinia in 1935,
before the Second World War Except for a brief period during those years, Ethiopia, except Eritrea, was able to maintain her
independence.
North Africa
Algeria, on the north coast of Africa, was conquered by France in 1830, but it took her about 40 years to suppress the Algerian resistance.
It was the most profitable of Frances colonial possessions, providing her a vast market for French goods To the east of Algeria is Tunisia
which was coveted by France, England and Italy According to an agreement in 1878, England gave France a free hand in Tunisia in
return for British occupation of the island of Cyprus, and a few years later Tunisia became a French possession.
Morocco
Morocco is situated on the north coast of Africa, just south of Gibraltar. Thus it is very important to the western entrance of the
Mediterranean Both France and Italy wanted to claim it as their territory The two countries agreed, in 1900, to the French occupation of
Morocco and to the Italian occupation of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, to the east of Tunisia In 1904, France and England signed an agreement
which gave Morocco to France, and Egypt to England. After these agreements had been signed, France proceeded with her plans of
conquest of Morocco. Germany had been ignored when England, France and Italy were signing agreements to partition North Africa She
threatened to oppose the French occupation Spain had been promised Tangier in return for French occupation of Morocco. So it became
necessary to appease German ambition in North Africa There were many international crises and it appeared as if war would break out.
The German Foreign Minister said, You have bought your liberty in Morocco from Spain, England, and even from Italy, and you have
left us out. But who should occupy Morocco was decided, as in other cases, in Europe. The people of Morocco were never consulted.
Ultimately, France agreed to give Germany 250,000 square kilometres of French Congo. Spain was further appeased by giving her a
small part of Morocco In 1912 France established her protectorate over Morocco However, it took the French many years after the First
World War to suppress the rebellions there.
As you have seen earlier, Italy had assured herself the support of European nations in her claims over Tripoli and Cyrenaica, which were
the possessions of the Turkish empire. Italy then declared war against Turkey and occupied the two provinces, which were given the old
Roman name of Libya.
Egypt
Egypt was a province of the Turkish empire when the scramble for colonies began in the nineteenth century. It v as ruled by a
representative of the Turkish Sultan, called Pasha Since the time of Napoleon, France had been interested in Egypt A French company
had gained a concession from Ismail Pasha, the Governor of Egypt, to dig a canal across the isthmus of Suez. The canal was completed in
1869 and aroused British interest in the area Disraeli, the British Prime Minister, bought a large number of shares of the canal from the
Pasha to make sure of keeping the route to India safe The canal was described by Disraeli as a highway to our Indian empire.

45 History- Mrunal
The financial troubles of the Pasha led to increased joint Anglo-French control over Egypt When the Pasha tried to resist, he was forced
to abdicate and anew governor was appointed In 1882, there was a revolt against the Anglo-French control and, in suppressing the revolt,
the British armies conquered Egypt Restoration of law and order and protection of the Suez Canal were the reasons given for the military
intervention in Egypt. England announced that she would withdraw her troops as soon as order was restored After the revolt was
suppressed, Egypt came under British control. In 1914, when the First World War started, England announced that Egypt was no longer
a Turkish province but a British protectorate. The Egyptians never reconciled themselves to the British conquest. After the war was over,
leaders of Egypt started for the Paris Peace Conference to plead the case of Egypt, but they were arrested. In 1922, though she still
retained her rights over the Suez and many other concessions, Britain was forced to recognize Egypt as an independent sovereign state
Sudan, or what was earlier known as Egyptian Sudan, was jointly exploited by Egypt and Britain. A Sudanese leader who had proclaimed
himself the Mandi had succeeded in overthrowing Egyptian and British control over Sudan. His army had defeated Egyptian and British
troops In 1898, British and Egyptian troops succeeded in recapturing Sudan after a long and bloody war in which 20,000 Sudanese
troops, including the successor of the Mandi, were killed. Sudan came under British rule. The French at this time tried to occupy
southernparts of Sudan but were forced to withdraw by the British France, however, was given a free hand to extend her control over wha
t was known as western Sudan and the Sahara France occupied these areas after a long war of conquest. With these gains, France was
able to connect her equatorial conquests with her west and north African conquests.
THE AMERICAS AND THE PACIFIC
You have already read about the colonization of the Americas by Spain, Portugal, Britain, France and other European countries, and the
emergence of the United States of America as an independent nation. The freedom movements in some of the countries of South America
and the Caribbean have also been briefly mentioned. By 1820s, almost all countries of the Americas had gained their independence from
Spain and Portugal. Only a few colonies ruled by European countries were left in this part of the world. Among these were Cuba and
Puerto Rico which were still under Spanish rule and a few others under British, French, Dutch and Danish rule.
The United states in the nineteenth century emerged as the biggest power in the Americas. She had extended her territories through war
with Mexico and purchase of Louisiana Florida and Alaska from France, Spain and Russia, respectively. Within a short period after the
Civil War (1861-65) which ended in the abolition of slavery, the United States emerged as a major industrial and military power in the
world. By 1900, her naval strength was third in the world The forces that had led to the emergence of imperialism in Europe and later in
Japan also led to the emergence of the United States as a major imperialist power by the later half of the nineteenth century. You have
already read about the treaty which the United States signed with China in 1844 on the lines which some European countries had forced
on China after the Opium War. Commodore Perrys show of force in Japan in 1853 has also been mentioned. After the U S. Spanish
War, the Philippines had become a U.S. colony. USA had also taken Puerto Rico and Guam (in the Pacific) from Spain, and Cuba, though
independent in name, had in fact become an appendage of USA.
When the scramble for colonies began, the leaders of USA declared that she must not fall out of the line of march. They also claimed, like
the European imperialist countries, the right to civilize the backward countries of the world and, of course, to interfere in the affairs of
other countries to protect their markets and investments.
Monroe Doctrine
During the period from the 1890s to the early years of the twentieth century, the United States spread its control, direct and indirect,
over South America and the Pacific In 1823, the President of the United States had proclaimed the Monroe Doctrine which warned the
European powers against any attempt to extend their power in the Western/ Hemisphere In 1895, the Monroe Doctrine was given a new
meaning. There was a territorial dispute between British Guiana (now Guyana) and Nicaragua, and the British threatened to send troops
against Nicaragua. The US government forced Britain not to send her troops and declared that Today the United States is practically
sovereign on this Continent. A new corollary was added to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904 by the then U.S. President, Theodore Roosevelt
Britain and Germany had imposed a naval blockade of Venezuela as she had failed to repay the loan which she had taken from them.
Theodore Roosevelt forced Britain and Germany to lift the blockade and declared that the United States alone had the right to intervene
in the affairs of her neighbouring countries if they were unable to maintain order on their own. The United States took control of the
finances of the Dominican Republic which she retained for three decades and occupied that country in 1916 for eight years. In 1906,
American troops were sent to Cuba and remained there for three years to protect Cuba from disorder. In 1909, American troops were
sent to Nicaragua in support of a revolt which had been inspired by an American mining company. The United States secured from the
government which had been installed there the ugh t to intervene in that country to protect American interests In 1915, American troops
Were sent to Haiti and remained there till 1934.
Mexico
In Mexico, where the United States had huge investments, Fransisco Madero, a popular leader was deposed with the support of the
United States The intervention by the United States in Mexico continued for many years.
Big Stick Policy/Dollar diplomacy
The policy of the United States was described as the Big Stick policy and one of an international policeman . The extension of the U S
influence through economic investments in the region is known as the Dollar diplomacy. The economic and political domination of
South America was facilitated by the absence of strong governments in the countries of South America. Many of these countries were
ruled by caudillos, or crude and corrupt military leaders with armed gangs. They floated loans for ready cash and sold concessions to
foreign companies to exploit the natural resources of their countries. They served as markets for manufactures, and sources of raw
materials for industrialized countries, particularly the United States, as well as avenues for investment of capital from these countries.

46 History- Mrunal
Most of the countries of South America, though political independent, came under the economic and political control of the United
States.
Panama Canal

One of the major acquisitions by the United States in this period was the Panama Canal. A French company had started the construction
of the canal in the Isthmus of Panama in Colombia (Central America). The canal which would link the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans
was of great economic interest In 1901, the United States decided to undertake the canal project alone.
She paid $40 million to the French company and entered into an agreement with the government of Colombia. According to the
agreement, Colombia was to give the United States perpetual rights to a six mile wide canal zone across her territory in exchange for ten
million dollars plus $ 250,000 as annual rent. The agreement was completely against the interests of Colombia and Colombias
Parliament refused to ratify it. In 1903, the United States financed and organized a revolt in Panama and landed her troops there. Soon
after, the United States recognized Panama as an independent state The government of Panama signed a new agreement with the United
States according to which the amount of compensation remained the same but instead of the six mile wide canal zone, ten mile canal
zone was granted to the United States. The canal was opened in 1914 and the canal zone has remained under the occupation of the United
States since then.
Hawaii
The United States also extended her control in the Pacific during this period The islands of Hawaii had been important for American
shipping and for trade with China The United States economic and commercial influence gradually increased in these islands and with
the settling of Americans there, particularly as sugar planters, these islands became closely tied to the economy of the United States The
United States had secured the exclusive use of Pearl Harbor as a naval station. In 1893, the American residents in the Hawaii islands
revolted against the queen of Hawaii and, asked for the annexation of the islands by the United States. By 1898, Hawaii had been
annexed by the United States. Later, it became one of the states of the United States.
The United States also extended control over other islands in Pacific. There was rivalry among the US Britain and Germany over these
lands. In 1899, Germany and States divided these islands bets selves and as compensation given islands elsewhere in the Pacific.
EFEECTS OF IMPERIALISM
By 1914, almost all parts of the non-industrialized world had come under or indirect control of a few industrialized countries. Most
countries of Africa had Lost their political freedom and were ruled by one or other country. The economies of all countries as well as of
those which were politically independent were control imperialist countries to serve rests. All parts of the world were brought together
under a world economic control which was based on the exploit colonies. Since 1946, most Asia can colonies have become free and
independent. You will read about it later. But the effects of imperialism in the life of the people in these country are still evident.
Economic Backwardness
The most important and lasting consequence of imperialism and colonization was the economic backwardness of the colonies as well as
of those countries indirectly controlled by the countries Imperialism led to destruction of local industries. For example, India for
centuries an exporter of textiles. During imperialist rule, Indias indigenous textile industry was destroyed and she became an importer
of British cloth. The natural resources of the colonies came under the control of the imperialist countries and were exploited for their own
benefit. The industrialization of these countries was prevented. Where industries were started, these were subordinated to the interests

47 History- Mrunal
of the industries of the imperialist countries or for making profits for the companies of the imperialist countries. The modern industries
in the colonies had little impact on the life of the people there. The patterns of agriculture in the colonies were also changed to meet the
requirements of the industries of the imperialist countries. In some countries, the entire agriculture was reduced to the growing of one or
two crops For example, Cuba was reduced to the position of a sugar producing country and little else. There was also naked plunder of
natural resources, and exploitation through high demands of revenues and taxes. Some of the best lands in the colonies were taken over
by the European planters Imperialism further aggravated the economic backwardness of the non-industrialized countries of the world.
The subordination of the economics of these areas to those of the imperialist countries was so complete that even after political
independence, most of these countries found it difficult to develop their economics to suit their own interests. The impoverishment of the
people of the colonies and of other non-industrialized countries is a continuing consequence of imperialism.
Racism
Imperialism also bred racial arrogance and discrimination. The idea of the superiority of the white race whom God had created to govern
the world, was popularized in the imperialist countries. In their colonies, the white rulers and settlers discriminated against the local
inhabitants who were considered inferior to them. In most European colonies, there was no intermixing with the local population and the
Europeans lived in areas exclusively reserved for them. The worst example of racism was South Africa where intermixing of whites and
blacks was made a criminal offence. It is interesting to know that when Japan emerged as an imperialist power, the Japanese were
excluded from being branded as belonging to an inferior race. In fact, South Africa gave the Japanese the status of what they
called honorary whites
Struggle Against Imperialism
At every step, the imperialist powers met with the resistance of peoples they were trying to enslave. Even when the conquest by arms was
decisive, foreign rule that ensued was never peaceful for the rulers. The conquered peoples organized movements not merely to
overthrow foreign rule but also to develop their countries into modern nations. In a sense, these movements against imperialism were
international in character People striving for freedom in one country supported the cause of peoples in other countries.
Generally speaking, the imperialist countries retained their colonial possessions up to the Second World War But within two decades
after the end of the War, most of the countries succeeded in regaining their independence.
Most of the nineteenth century and the first quarter of the twentieth century were the years in which the nations of the western world
held Asia and Africa as their colonial possessions. In the later years of this period of imperialism, about two thirds of the worlds
population was living under the rule of one foreign government or the other. The empires acquired by the European nations were the
largest in world history.
Imperialism is a story of deception, brutality, and armed might. The imperialist powers, however, Justified their enslavement of other
nations and peoples in the name of spreading civilization.
Getting possession of new markets and raw materials and establishing industries to be worked by cheap labour created many small wars
and two world conflicts. Despite the gentlemens agreements, there was a continuous effort among the western powers to redivide the
world as between themselves but never with any consideration for the welfare of the people to whom the territory really belonged.
EXERCISES
1.

Explain why the Industrial Revolution led to the emergence of imperialism

2.

Describe the steps, giving examples, by which the imperialist countries took over most of Africa.

3.

Why were Asian and African countries so easily dominated by the Western powers?

4.

How did nationalism help to make imperialism popular in Europe?

5.

Describe the emergence of the United States of America as an imperialist power Give examples

6.

Describe the imperialist expansion of japan up to 1914

7.

Explain the meaning of the following terms, with examples: Sphere of influence, exploitation, extraterritorial rights,
protectorate, Monroe Doctrine, Dollar diplomacy.

8.

Prepare maps of Asia and Africa showing the colonies and spheres of influence of the various imperialist powers before the First
World War

9.

Study the developments that have taken place in Africa after the revolution in Portugal in April 1974

10. Write an essay on Slavery and Slave Trade and the Struggle for their Abolition

48 History- Mrunal
11. How did the empires of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries differ from the empires of ancient times for example, those of
the Mauryas, the Romans and of Alexander?
12. Discuss the differences between the imperialist expansion during the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries and 1870 to I 914
13. Name and discuss some of the big problems faced by newly independent countries Why are their problems also the problems of
all countries?
14. Discuss the long-term impact of imperialist control on the countries of Asia, Africa and South America

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First World War: Causes, Consequences, Treaty of Versailles, Triple Alliance
UPSC has included World History in General studies (Mains) syllabus from 2013. Hence Old NCERT, particularly Chapter 9 to 13 from
Class 10= becomes necessary as the foundation/base material for the topics of World History. But for non-Delhi candidates, it is almost
impossible to get that book, because NCERT changed syllabus, hence book is no longer printed. Therefore Im uploading the chapters
one by one. And, just because these chapters are uploaded, doesnt mean Im stopping my Jack Sparrow series on [World History], it will
continue at its own pace.
The First World War
IN 1914, a war began in Europe which soon engulfed almost the entire world. The damage caused by this war had no precedent in history.
In the earlier wars, the civilian populations were not generally involved and the casualties were generally confined to the warring armies.
The war which began in 1914 was a total war in which all the resources of the warring states were mobilized. It affected the economy of
the entire world the casualties suffered by the civilian population from bombing of the civilian areas and the famines and epidemics,
caused by the war far exceeded those suffered by the armies. In its impact also, the war had no precedent. It marked a turning point in
world history. The battles of the war were fought in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific. Because of the unprecedented extent of its
spread and its total nature, it is known as the First World War.
Imperialist Rivalries
The underlying causes of the war were the rivalries and conflicts among the imperialist countries. You have seen before, in Chapter 9,
that the imperialist conquest of Asia and Africa was accompanied with conflicts between the imperialist countries. Sometimes the
imperialists were able to come to peaceful settlements and agree to divide a part of Asia or Africa among themselves without resorting to
the use of force against each other. At other times their rivalries created situations of war. Wars were generally avoided at that time
because the possibilities of further conquest were still there. If an imperialist country was excluded from a certain area, it could find some
other area to conquer. Sometimes wars did break out between imperialist countries as happened, for instance, between Japan and
Russia. By the end of the nineteenth century, however, the situation had changed. Most of Asia and Africa had already been divided up
and further conquests could take place only by dispossessing some imperialist country of its colonies. So in the period beginning from the
last decade of the nineteenth century, imperialist rivalries resulted in attempts to redivide the world, creating conditions of war.
You have read before that Germany entered the scramble for colonies late. After the unification of Germany had been achieved, it made
tremendous economic progress. By 1914, it had left Britain and France far behind in the production of iron and steel and in many
manufactures. It had entered the shipping trade in a big way. One of its ships, the Imperator, built in 1912, was the largest in the world.
Both Britain and France were alarmed at the expansion of German manufactures as they considered it a serious threat to their position.
You have seen that Germany could not grab many colonies, having arrived late on the scene. Most of Asia and Africa had already been
occupied by the older imperialist powers. The German imperialists, therefore, dreamed of expanding in the east. Their ambition was to
control the economy of the declining Ottoman empire. For this purpose, they had planned the construction of a railway from Berlin to
Baghdad. This plan created a fear in Britain, France and Russia as the completion of the Berlin-Baghdad railway would endanger their
imperialist ambitions in the Ottoman empire. The Germans had imperialist ambitions elsewhere also, including in Africa.
Like Germany, all the major powers in Europe, and Japan also had their imperialist ambitions. Italy, which after her unification had
become almost an equal of France in power, coveted Tripoli in North Africa which was under the Ottoman empire. She had already
occupied Eritrea and Somaliland. France wanted to add Morocco to her conquests in Africa. Russia had her ambitions in Iran, the
territories of the Ottoman empire including Constantinople, the Far East and elsewhere. The Russian plans clashed with the interests
and ambitions of Britain, Germany and Austria. Japan which had also become an imperialist power had ambitions in the Far East and
was on way to fulfilling them. She defeated Russia in 190405 after having signed an agreement with Britain and was able to extend her
influence in the Far East.
Britain was involved in a conflict with all other imperialist countries because she had already acquired a vast empire which was to be
defended. The rise of any other country was considered a danger to the British empire. She also had her vast international trade to
defend against the competition from other countries, and to maintain her control over what she considered the lifeline of her empire.
Austria had her ambitions in the Ottoman empire The United States of America had emerged as a powerful nation by the end of the
nineteenth century She had annexed the Philippines Her main interest was to preserve the independence of trade as her trade was
expanding at a tremendous rate The expansion of other major powers influence was considered a threat to American interests.

49 History- Mrunal
Conflicts within Europe
Besides the conflicts resulting from rivalries over colonies and trade, there were conflicts among the major European powers over certain
developments within Europe. There were six major powers in Europe at this timeBritain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, France
and Italy. One of the questions with which almost all these countries got involved concerned the countries comprising the Balkan
peninsula in Europe. The Balkan countries had been under the rule of Ottoman Turks. However, in the nineteenth century, the Ottoman
rule had begun to collapse. There were revolts by various nationalities for independence. The Russian Czars hoped that these areas would
come under their control once the Ottomans were ousted from there. They encouraged a movement called the Pan-Slav movement which
was based on the theory that all the Slays of eastern Europe were one people. Many
areas in Austria-Hungary were inhabited by the Slays Russia, therefore, encouraged movements both against the Ottoman empire and
Austria-Hungary The major Balkan country, Serbia, led the movement for uniting the areas inhabited by the Slavs in the Ottoman
empire as well as in Austria-Hungary . The Serbian nationalism was encouraged by Russia. Other major European powers were alarmed
at the growth of Russian influence in the Balkans, They wanted to check the Russian influence, while Austria Hungary had plans of
expansion in this area.
Corresponding to the Pan-Slav movement, there was a PanGerman movement which aimed at the expansion of Germany all over central
Europe and in the Balkans. Italy claimed certain areas which were under Austrian rule. France hoped to recover not only Alsace Lorraine
which she had lost to Germany in 1871 but also to wreak vengeance on Germany for the humiliating defeat that she had suffered in the
war with Germany in 187071.
Formation of Alliances
The conflicts within Europe and the conflicts over colonies mentioned earlier had begun to create a very tense situation in Europe from
the last decade of the nineteenth century. European countries began to form themselves into opposing groups. They also started
spending vast sums of money to increase the size of their armies and navies, to develop new and more deadly weapons, and to generally
prepare themselves for war, Europe Was gradually becoming a vast armed camp Simultaneously, propaganda for war, to breed hatred
against other countries, to paint ones own country as superior to others, and to glorify war, was started in each country.
There were, of course, people who raised their voice against the danger of war and against militarization. You have read of the attitude of
the Second International and the various socialist parties. But soon all these voices were to be drowned in the drumbeats of war
The opposing groups of countries of alliances that were formed in Europe not only added to the danger of war, but also made it inevitable
that when the war broke out it would assume a worldwide magnitude. European countries had been forming and reforming alliances
since the nineteenth century. Finally, in the first decade of the twentieth century, two groups of countries or alliances, emerged and faced
each other with their armed might In 1882 was formed the Triple Alliance comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. However,
Italys loyalty to this Alliance was uncertain as her main aim was to gain territories in Europe from Austria-Hungary and in conquering
Tripoli with French support As opposed to this, emerged the Triple Entente comprising France, Russia and Britain in 1907. In theory it
was only a loose group based on mutual understanding as the word Entente (meaning an understanding indicates. The emergence of
these two hostile camps made it inevitable that a conflict involving any one of these countries would become an all-European war. As the
aims of the countries in these camps included the extension of their colonial possessions, an all-European war almost certainly would
become a world war. The formation of these hostile camps was accompanied with a race to build more and more deadly weapons and

50 History- Mrunal
have larger and larger armies and navies.

A series of crises took place during the years preceding the war. These crises added to the bitterness and tension in Europe and
engendered national chauvinism European countries also entered into secret treaties to gain territories at the expense of others. Often,
these secret treaties leaked out and fear and suspicion grew in each country about such treaties. These fears and suspicions brought the
danger of war near.
Incidents Preceding the War
The outbreak of the war was preceded by a series of incidents which added to the prevailing tension and ultimately led to the war. One of
these was the clash over Morocco. In 1904 Britain and France had entered into a secret agreement according to which Britain was to have
a free hand in Egypt, and France was to take over Morocco. The agreement became known to Germany and aroused her indignation. The
German emperor went to Morocco and promised the Sultan of Morocco his full support for the independence of Morocco. The
antagonism over Morocco, it appeared, would lead to a war. However, the war was averted when in 1911 France occupied most of
Morocco and, in exchange, gave Germany a part of French Congo. Even though the war had been averted, the situation in Europe, with
each country preparing for war, had become dangerous.
The other incidents which worsened the already dangerous situation in Europe occurred in the Balkans. In 1908 Austria annexed the
Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These provinces were also coveted by Serbia which had the backing of Russia in
establishing a united Slav state in the Balkans. Russia threatened to start a war against Austrian annexation but Germanys open support
to Austria compelled Russia to retreat. The incident, however, not only embittered feelings in Serbia but also created further enmity
between Russia and Germany. The situation in Europe had become even more tense.
The crisis resulting from the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria was followed by Balkan wars in 1912, four Balkan
countries Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Greece started a war against the Turks. As a result of this war, Turkey lost almost all her
possessions in Europe However, the Balkan countries fought another war over the question of distributing the former Turkish territory
among themselves. Finally, Austria succeeded in making Albania, which had been claimed by Serbia, as an independent state. The
frustration of Serbias ambitions further embittered her feelings against Austria. These incidents brought Europe on the verge of war.
The Outbreak of War

51 History- Mrunal
The war was precipitated by an incident which would not have created much stir if Europe had not stood divided into two hostile armed
camps, preparing for war for many years On 28 june 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary , was
assassinated at Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia. (Bosnia, it may be recalled, had been annexed by Austria only a few years earlier.) Austria saw
the hand of Serbia behind the assassination and served her with an ultimatum. Serbia refused to accept one of the demands of the
ultimatum which went against the independence of Serbia On 28 July 1914 Austria declared war on Serbia. Russia had promised full
support to Serbia and started full scale preparations for war. On 1 August, Germany declared war on Russia and on 3 August on France.
German troops marched into Belgium to press on to France on 4 August and on the same day Britain declared war on Germany.
Many other countries soon entered the war. Japan declared war on Germany with a view to capturing German colonies in the Far East,
Turkey and Bulgaria joined on the side of Germany Italy, in spite of her membership of the Triple Alliance, remained neutral for some
time, and joined the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1915.
The Course of the War
Germany had hoped that through a lightning strike through Belgium, she would be able to defeat France within a few weeks and then
turn against Russia. The plan seemed to succeed for a while and the German troops were within 20 km of Paris. Russia had opened
attacks on Germany and Austria and some German troops had to be diverted to the eastern front. Soon the German advance on France
was halted and the war in Europe entered a long period of stalemate. In the meantime the war had spread to many other parts of the
world and battles were fought in West Asia, Africa and the Far East.
After the German advance had been halted, a new type of warfare developed. The warring armies dug trenches from which they
conducted raids on each other. The kind of warfare that the armies were used to earlier fighting in the open almost disappeared. On
the Western Front, which included eastern France and Belgium, the troops of the warring sides dug trenches and continued their raids
on each others positions. For about four years, neither side could dislodge the other. The European countries made use of the troops
recruited from their colonies in the war. Labour from colonies was also used to dig trenches in Europe. On the Eastern Front, Germany
and Austria succeeded in repulsing the Russian attack and capturing parts of the Russian empire. They were also successful against
Rumania, Serbia and Italy. Outside Europe, there were campaigns against the Ottoman empire in Palestine, Mesopotamia and Arabia
and against Germany and Turkey in Iran where they were trying to establish their influence. Japan occupied German possessions in East
Asia, and Britain and France seized most of the German colonies in Africa.
A large number of new weapons were introduced. The machine gun and liquid fire were two such weapons. For the first time, aircrafts
were used in warfare and for bombing the civilian population. The British introduced the use of the tank which was to become a major
weapon later. Both the warring groups tried to block each others supplies of food, manufactures and arms and the sea warfare played an
important part in this Submarines called Uboats were used by Germany on a large scale not only to destroy enemy ships but also ships of
neutral countries heading for British ports. Another horrible weapon used in the war was poison gas. The war dragged on, taking a toll of
hundreds of thousands of human lives.
On 6 April 1917, the United States of America declared war on Germany. USA had become the main source of arms and other essential
supplies for the Entente countries. In 1915, the German UBoats had sunk a British ship Lusitania. Among the 1153 passengers killed were
128 Americans. The Americans were generally sympathetic to Britain, and this incident further roused antiGerman feelings in USA.
Economic considerations had turned them even more in favour of the Entente countries. These countries had raised vast amounts of
loans in USA to pay for the arms and other goods bought by them. Many Americans had subscribed to these loans which could be paid
back only, if these countries won the war. There was also a fear that if Germany won the war, she would become a serious rival to USA.
The sinking of ships, including American ships carrying American citizens, by the German Uboats finally led USA to join the war.
Another major development that took place in 1917 was the withdrawal of Russia from the war after October Revolution. The Russian
revolutionaries had opposed the war from the beginning and, under the leadership of Lenin, had decided to transform it into a
revolutionary war to overthrow the Russian autocracy and to seize power. The Russian empire had suffered serious reverses in the war.
Over 600,000 Russian soldiers had been killed. The day after theBolshevik government came to power, it issued the Decree on Peace
with proposals to end the war without any annexations and indemnities. Russia decided to withdraw from the war and signed a peace
treaty with Germany in March 1918. Realizing that the Russian government was not prepared to continue the war, Germany imposed
terms which were very harsh on Germany used submarines, called U-Boats, during the First World War Russia. But the Russian
government accepted these terms. The Entente powers which were opposed to the revolution in Russia and to the Russian withdrawal
from the war started their armed intervention in Russia in support of the elements which were opposed to the revolution. This led to a
civil war which lasted for three years and ended with the defeat of foreign intervention and of those Russians who had taken up arms
against the revolutionary government.
End of the War
Many efforts were made to bring the war to an end. In early 1917, a few socialist parties proposed the convening of an international
socialist conference to draft proposals for ending the war without annexations and recognition of the right of peoples to selfdetermination. However, the conference could not be held. The proposal of the Bolshevik government in Russia to conclude a peace
without annexations and indemnities, on the basis of the self-determination of peoples was welcomed by many people in the countries
which were at war. However, these proposals were rejected. The Pope also made proposals for peace but these too were not taken
seriously. Though these efforts to end the war did not get any positive response from the governments of the warring countries, antiwar
feelings grew among the people. There was widespread unrest and disturbances and even mutinies began to break out. In some
countries, following the success of the Russian Revolution, the unrest was soon to take the form of uprisings to overthrow the
governments.

52 History- Mrunal
In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States, proposed a peace programme. This has become famous as President
Wilsons Fourteen Points. These included the conduct of neotiations between states openly, freedom of navigation, reduction of
armaments, independence of Belgium, restoration of Alsace Lorraine to France, creation of independent states in Europe, formation of
an international organization to guarantee the independence of all states, etc. Some of these points were accepted when the peace treaties
were signed at the end of the war
Britain, France and USA launched a military offensive in July 1918 and Germany and her allies began to collapse. Bulgaria withdrew
from the war in September, and Turkey surrendered in October.
Political discontent had been rising in Austria-Hungary and Germany. The emperor of Austria-Hungary surrendered on 3 November. In
Germany revolution broke out. Germany became a republic and the German emperor Kaiser William II fled to Holland. The new German
government signed an armistice on 11 November 1918 and the war was over. The news was received with tremendous Jubilation all over
the world.
Peace Treaties
The victorious powers or the Allies, as they were called, met in a conference first in Versailles, a suburb of Paris, and later in Paris,
between January and June 1919. Though the number of countries represented at the conference was 27, the terms of the peace treaties
were really decided by three countries Britain, France and USA. The three persons who played the determining role in framing the
terms of the treaties were Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States, Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Britain, and George
Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France. The defeated countries were not represented at the conference. The victorious powers also
excluded Russia from the conference. The terms of the treaty were thus not the result of negotiations between the defeated and the
victorious powers but were imposed on the defeated by the victors.
The main treaty was signed with Germany on 28 June 1919. It is called the Treaty of Versailles. The republican government of Germany
was compelled to sign this treaty under the threat of invasion. The treaty declared Germany and her allies guilty of aggression.
AlsaceLorraine was returned to France. The coal mines in the German area called Saar were ceded to France for 15 years while that area
was to be governed by the League of Nations. Germany also ceded parts of her prewar territory to Denmark, Belgium, Poland and
Czechoslovakia. The area of the Rhine valley was to be demilitarized. The treaty also contained provisions for disarming Germany. The
strength of her army was to be limited to 100,000 and she was required not to have any air force and submarines She was dispossessed of
all her colonies which were taken over by the victors. Togo and the Cameroon were divided and shared by Britain and France. German
colonies in SouthWest Africa and East Africa were given to Britain, Belgium, South Africa and Portugal. German colonies in the Pacific
and the spheres under her control in China were given to Japan China was aligned with the Allies during the war and was even
represented at the Paris Conference. But her areas under German possession of control were not restored to China; instead they were
given away to Japan. Germany was also required to pay for the loss and damages suffered by the Allies during the war. The amount of
reparations was fixed at an enormous figure of $6,500,000,000.
Separate treaties were signed with the allies of Germany. Austria-Hungary was broken up and Austria was required to recognize the
independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Poland. She had to cede territories to them and to Italy. Many changes were
made in the Balkans where new states were created and transfers of territories from one state to another took place Baltic states which
earlier formed parts of the Russian empire were made independent. The treaty with Turkey stipulated the complete dismemberment of
the Ottoman empire Britain was given Palestine and Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Syria went to France as what were called mandates. In
theory, the mandatory powers, that is Britain and France, were to look after the interests of the people of the mandates but actually
they were governed as colonies. Most of the remaining Turkish territories were to be given to Greece and Italy and Turkey was to be
reduced to a very small state. However, there was a revolution in Turkey under the leadership of Mustapha Kemal. The Sultan was
deposed and Turkey was proclaimed a republic in 1922. Turkey regained control of Asia Minor and the city of Constantinople (Istanbul)
and the Allies were forced to abandon the earlier treaty.
An important part of the peace treaties was the Covenant of the League of Nations. Wilsons Fourteen Points included the creation of an
international organization for the preservation of peace and to guarantee the independence of all states. The League of Nations was
created. It was intended as a world organization of all independent states. It aimed at the preservation of peace and security and peaceful
settlement of international conflicts, and bound its members not to resort to war One of its important provisions was with regard to
sanctions. According to this provision, economic and military action would be taken against any country which committed aggression. It
also bound its members to improve labour and social conditions in their countries. For this the International Labour Organization was
set up which is now one of the specialized agencies of the United Nations.
The hopes of having a truly world organization devoted to the preservation of peace and independence of nations were, however, not
realized with the formation of the League. Two major countries Germany and the Soviet Union were not allowed to become its
members for many years while India, which was not independent, was made a member. The United States which had played an
important part in the setting up of the League ultimately decided not to join it. The League was never an effective organization. In the
1930s when many countries resorted to aggression, the League was either ignored or defied
An important feature of the peace treaties which indicates its nature was the decision with regard to the colonies of the defeated powers.
The Allies had entered into many secret agreements for dividing the spoils of war The Soviet government, to bring out the imperialist
nature of the war, made these treaties public. During the war, the Allies had been claiming that the war was being fought for freedom and
democracy. President Wilson had said that the war was being fought to make the world safe for democracy. The publication of secret
treaties by the Soviet government exposed these claims. However, in spite of this, the distribution of the colonies of the defeated
countries among the victors took place as has been mentioned before. Of course, the Soviet Union which had repudiated all the secret
agreements did not receive any spoils which had been promised to the Russian emperor. The League of Nations also recognised this

53 History- Mrunal
division of the spoils. Legally most of the colonies which were transferred to the victorious powers were mandates and could not be
annexed.
Consequences of the War and the Peace Treaties
The First World War was the most frightful war that the world had so far seen. The devastation caused by it, as stated earlier, had no
precedent. The number of persons who fought in the war is staggering. Estimates vary between 53 and 70 million people. The total
number of those killed and dead in the war are estimated at about nine million, that is, about one seventh of those who participated in it.
Several million became invalids. The air raids, epidemics and famines killed many more among the civilian populations. Besides these
terrible human losses, the economy of many countries was shattered. It gave rise to many serious social problems. The political
institutions as they had been evolving in various countries also suffered a serious setback
The war and the peace treaties transformed the political map of the world, particularly of Europe. Three ruling dynasties were destroyed
the Romanov in Russia during the war itself, the Hohenzollern in Germany and the Habsburg in Austria-Hungary. Soon after the war,
the rule of Ottomans came to an end in Turkey. Austria and Hungary became separate independent states. Czechoslovakia and
Yugoslavia emerged as independent states. Poland which had been divided among Russia, Austria and Prussia in the eighteenth century
was reformed as an independent state.
The period after the war saw the war saw the beginning of the end of the European supremacy in the world. Economically and militarily,
Europe was surpassed by the United States which emerged from the war as a world power The Soviet Union was also to soon come up as
a major world power. The period after the war also saw the strengthening of the freedom movements in Asia and Africa. The weakening
of Europe and the emergence of the Soviet Union which declared her support to the struggles for national independence contributed to
the growing strength of these struggles. The Allied propaganda during the war to defend democracy, and the participation of Asian and
African soldier in the battles in Europe also helped in arousing the peoples of Asia and Africa. The European countries had utilized the
resources of their colonies in the war. The forced recruitment of soldiers and labourers for war, and the exploitation of resources of the
colonies for war by the imperialist countries had created resentment among the people of the colonies. The population of the colonial
countries had been nurtured on the myth that the peoples of Asia and Africa were inferior to the Europeans. The role played by the
soldiers from Asia and Africa in winning the war for one group of nations of Europe against another shattered this myth. Many Asian
leaders had supported the war effort in the hope that, once the war was over, their countries would be given freedom. These hopes were,
however, belied. While the European nations won the right to self-determination, colonial rule and exploitation continued in the
countries of Asia and Africa.
The contrast between the two situations was too glaring to be missed. Its increasing awareness led to the growth of nationalist feelings in
the colonies. The soldiers who returned to their respective countries from the theatres of war in Europe and elsewhere also brought with
them the new stirrings. All these factors strengthened nationalist movements in the colonies. In some countries, the first stirrings of
nationalism were felt after the war.
The First World War had been believed to be a War to end all war. However, the Peace Treaties had failed to ensure this. On the
contrary, the treaties contained certain provisions which were extremely harsh on the defeated countries and thus they sowed the seeds
of further conflicts. Similarly, some victorious countries also felt cheated because all their hopes had not been fulfilled. Imperialism was
not destroyed as a result of the war. The victorious powers had in fact enlarged their possessions. The factors which had caused rivalries
and conflicts between imperialist countries leading to the war still existed. Therefore, the danger that more wars would be fought for
another redvision of the world. remained lurking. The emergence of the Soviet Union was considered a danger to the existing social and
economic system in many countries. The desire to destroy it influenced the policies of those countries.
These factors, combined with certain developments that took place in the next twenty years, created conditions for another world war.
EXERCISES
1.

Explain the basic reasons for the conflicts between European nations from the late nineteenth century to the early years of the
twentieth century.

2.

What were the countries comprising the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente? What were the main aims of these groupings?

3.

What is meant by the Pan-Slav movement? Why did it add to the conflict between Russia and Austria?

4.

Explain the reasons for the entry of the United States in the First World War.

5.

Why the war that broke out in 1914 is called the First World War?

6.

Explain the consequences of the First World War on Germany, Austria, Hungary and Turkey

7.

What were the purposes for which the League of Nations was established?

8.

Why did Russia withdraw from the war after the 1917 Revolution?

54 History- Mrunal
9.

On a map of the world, show the areas in Asia and Africa which caused conflicts among various European countries Also show
the European countries which emerged as independent states after the First World War.

10. How was the world redivided among the victorious powers? Prepare a map to show the territories which were taken over from
the defeated countries by the victorious countries.
11. Study the Fourteen Points of President Wilson and the peace treaties that were signed after the war. Make a checklist to show
which of the Fourteen Points were covered by the peace tea ties and which were not.
12. How far were imperialist rivalries the basic cause of the First World War?
13. Do you think the peace treaties laid the foundations of a just and stable peace? Discuss.
14. How is it that an otherwise minor incident led to the outbreak of a world war? Discuss.

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Russian Revolution: Causes, Consequences, Comintern
UPSC has included World History in General studies (Mains) syllabus from 2013. Hence Old NCERT, particularly Chapter 9 to 13 from
Class 10= becomes necessary as the foundation/base material for the topics of World History. But for non-Delhi candidates, it is almost
impossible to get that book, because NCERT changed syllabus, hence book is no longer printed. Therefore Im uploading the chapters
one by one. And, just because these chapters are uploaded, doesnt mean Im stopping my Jack Sparrow series on [World History], it will
continue at its own pace.
Conditions in Russia before the Revolution
IN a previous chapter, you have read about the rise and growth of the socialist movement. By the early years of the twentieth century,
political movements based on the ideas of socialism had emerged in a number of countries in Europe. With the outbreak of the First
World War, however, the socialist movement in most countries of Europe suffered a setback. The Second International faced a split on
the question of attitude to the War and ceased to function. During this period, however, unrest was brewing in Russia. The Russian
Revolution took place in 1917, affecting the course of world history for many decades.
In the nineteenth century, almost, entire Europe was undergoing important social, economic and political transformation. Most of the
countries were republics like France or constitutional monarchies like England. The rule of the old feudal aristocracies had been replaced
by that of the new middle classes. Russia, however, was still living in the old world under the autocratic rule of the Czars, as the Russian
emperors were called. Serfdom had been abolished in 1861, but it did not improve the condition of peasants. They still had miserably
small holdings of land with no capital to develop even these. For the small holdings they acquired, they had to pay heavy redemption
dues for decades. Land hunger of the peasants was a major social factor in the Russian society.
Industrialization began very late in Russia, in the second half of the nineteenth century. Then it developed at a fairly fast rate, but more
than half of the capital for investment came from foreign countries. Foreign investors were interested in quick profits and showed no
concern for the conditions of workers. Russian capitalists, with insufficient capital, competed with foreign investors by reducing workers
wages. Whether factories were owned by foreigners or Russians, the conditions of work were horrible. The workers had no political rights
and no means of gaining even minor reforms. The words of Marx that workers have nothing to lose but their chains rang literally true to
them
The Russian state under the Czars was completely unsuited to the needs of modern times Czar Nicholas II, in whose reign the Revolution
occurred, still believed in the divine right of kings. The preservation of absolutism was regarded by him as a sacred duty. The only people
who supported the Czar were the nobility and the upper layers of the clergy. All the rest of the population in the vast Russian empire was
hostile. The bureaucracy that the Czars had built was top heavy, inflexible and inefficient, the members being recruited from amongst the
privileged classes rather than on the basis of any ability.
The Russian Czars had built a vast empire by conquest of diverse nationalities in Europe and Asia. In these conquered areas, they
imposed the use of the Russian language and tried to belittle the cultures of the people of these areas. Also, Russias imperialist
expansion brought her into conflicts with other imperialist powers. These wars further exposed the hollowness of the czarist state.
Growth of Revolutionary Movements in Russia
There were many peasant rebellions in Russia before the nineteenth century but they were suppressed. Many Russian thinkers had been
influenced by developments in Western Europe and wanted to see similar changes in Russia. Their efforts had helped to bring about the
abolition of serfdom. This, however, turned out to be a hollow victory. The hopes of gradual changes in the direction of constitutional
democratic government were soon shattered and every attempt at gradual improvement seemed to end in failure. In the conditions that
existed in Russia, even a moderate democrat or reformer had to be a revolutionary. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, there
was a movement known as going to the people when intellectuals started preaching their ideas to the peasants.

55 History- Mrunal
When the workers organizations were set up after industrialization began, they were dominated by ideas of socialism. In 1883, the
Russian Social Democratic Party was formed by George Plekhanov, a fol lower of Marx. This party along with many other socialist groups
was united into the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898. However, the party was soon split over questions of organization
and policy. One group which was in a minority (hence known as the Mensheviks) favoured a party of the type that existed in countries
like France and Germany and participated in elections to the parliaments of their countries. The majority, known as the Bolsheviks, were
convinced that in a country where no democratic rights existed and where there was no parliament, a party organized on parliamentary
lines would not be effective. They favoured a party of those who would abide by the discipline of the party and work for revolution.
The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, popularly known as Lenin. He is regarded as one of the greatest leaders of the
socialist movement after Marx and Engels. He devoted himself to the task of organizing the Bolshevik Party as an instrument for bringing
about revolution. His name has become inseparable from the Revolution of 1917. The Russian socialists, including Plekhanov and Lenin,
had played an important part in the Second International
Besides the Menshevik and the Bloshevik parties, which were the political parties of industrial workers, there was the Socialist
Revolutionary Party which voiced the demands of the peasantry. Then there were parties of the non-Russian nationalities of the Russian
empire which were working to free their lands from colonial oppression.
The revolutionary movement in Russia had been growing when the 1905 Revolution broke out. In 1904, a war had broken out between
Russia and Japan. The Russian armies had suffered reverses in the war. This had further strengthened the revolutionary movement in
Russia. On 9 January 1905, a mass of peaceful workers with their wives and children was fired at in St. Petersburg while on its way to the
Winter Palace to present a petition to the Czar More than a thousand of them were killed and thousands of others were wounded. This
day is known as Bloody Sunday. The news of the killings provoked unprecedented disturbances throughout Russia. Even sections of the
army and the navy revolted. The sailors of the battleship Potemkin joined the revolutionaries. A new form of organization developed in
this revolution which proved decisive in the upheaval of 1917. This was the Soviet, or the council of workers representatives. Beginning
as committees to conduct strikes, they became the instruments of political power Soviets of peasants were also formed.
In October, the Czar yielded and announced his manifesto granting freedom of speech, press and association, and conferred the power to
make laws upon an elected body called the Duma . The Czars manifesto contained principles which would have made Russia a
constitutional monarchy like England. However, the Czar soon relapsed into his old ways. No longer could one hope for gradual reform.
The 1905 Revolution proved to be a dress rehearsal of the revolution that came in 1917.
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
It aroused the people and prepared them for revolution. It drew soldiers and the peoples of non-Russian nationalities into close contact
with the Russian revolutionaries.
Hoping to satisfy his imperial ambitions by annexing Constantinople and the Straits of the Dardanelles, the Czar took Russia into the
First World War. This proved fatal and brought about the final breakdown of the Russian autocracy. The Czarist state was incapable of
carrying on a modern war. The decadence of the royal family made matters worse, Nicholas II was completely dominated by his wife.
She, in turn, was ruled by a fiend named Rasputin who virtually ran the government. Corruption in the state resulted in great suffering
among the people. There was a shortage of bread. The Russian army suffered heavy reverses. The government was completely unmindful
of the conditions of soldiers on the front. By February 1917, 600,000 soldiers had been killed in war. There was widespread discontent
throughout the empire as well as in the army. The condition was ripe for a revolution. In setting forth the fundamental law for a
successful revolution, Lenin had included two conditions the people should fully understand that revolution is necessary and be ready to
sacrifice their lives for it; the existing government should be in a state of crisis to make it possible for it to be overthrown rapidly. That
tune had certainly arrived in Russia in 1917.

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Beginning of the Revolution

Minor incidents usually set off revolutions. In the case of the Russian Revolution it was a demonstration by working-class women trying
to purchase bread. A general strike of workers followed, in which soldiers and others soon joined. On 12 March 1917 the capital city of St.
Petersburg (renamed Petrograd, later Leningrad and once again, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, St. Petersburg) fell into the hands
of the revolutionaries. Soon the revolutionaries took Moscow, the Czar gave up his throne and the first Provisional Government was
formed on 15 March. The famous poet Mayakovsky, expressing the contempt of the Russian people for the Czar, wrote on the fall of the
Czar:
Like the chewed stump of a fag
we spat their dynasty out
The fall of the Czar is known as the February Revolution because, according to 0ld Russian calendar, it occurred on 27 February 1917.
The fall of the Czar, however, marked only the beginning of the revolution.
The most important demands of the people were fourfold: peace, land to the tiller, control of industry by workers, and equal status for
the non-Russian nationalities. The Provisional Government under the leadership of a man named Kerensky did not implement any of
these demands and lost the support of the people. Lenin, who was in exile in Switzerland at the time of the February Revolution, returned
to Russia in April. Under his leadership, the Bolshevik Party put forward clear policies
to end the war and transfer land to the peasants and advanced the slogan All Power to the Soviets. On the question of non-Russian
nationalities, Bolsheviks were the only party then with a clear policy. Lenin had described the Russian empire as a prison of nations and
had declared that no genuine democracy could be established unless all tile non-Russian peoples were given equal rights He had
proclaimed the right of all peoples, including those under the Russian empire, to self-determination. The unpopularity of the Kerensky
government led to its collapse on 7 November 1917, when a group of sailors occupied the Winter Palace, the seat of the Kerensky
government. Leon Trotsky who had played an important role in the 1905 Revolution returned to Russia in May 1917. As head of the
Petrograd Soviet, he was one of the most outstanding leaders of the November uprising. An All Russian Congress of Soviets met on the
same day and assumed full political power. This event which took place on 7 November is known as the October Revolution because of
the corresponding date of the old Russian calendar, 25 October.
The Congress of Soviets on the next day issued a proclamation to all peoples and belligerent states to open negotiations for a just peace
without annexation and indemnities. Russia withdrew from the war, though formal peace was signed with Germany later, after ceding
the territories that Germany demanded as a price for peace. Following the decree on land, the estates of the landlords, the Church and
the Czar were confiscated and transferred to peasants societies to be allotted to peasant families to be cultivated without hired labour.
The control of industries was transferred to shop committees of workers. By the middle of 1918, banks and insurance companies, large
industries, mines, water transport and railways were nationalised, foreign debts were repudiated and foreign Investments were
confiscated. A Declaration of the Rights of Peoples was issued conferring the right of self-determination upon all nationalities. A new

57 History- Mrunal
government, called the Council of Peoples Commissars, headed by Lenin was formed. These first acts of the new government were hailed
as the beginning of the era of socialism.
The October Revolution had been almost completely peaceful. Only two persons were reported killed in Petrograd on the day the
Revolution took place. However, soon the new state was involved in a civil war. The officers of the army of the fallen Czar organised an
armed rebellion against the Soviet state. Troops of foreign powers England, France, Japan, United States and other joined them.
War raged till 1920. By this time the Red Army of the new state was in control of almost all the lands of the old Czarist empire. The Red
Army was badly equipped and composed mainly of workers and peasants However, it won over better equipped and better trained forces,
just as the citizen armies in the American and French revolutions had won.
Consequences of the Revolution
The overthrow of autocracy and the destruction of the aristocracy and the power of the church were the first achievements of the Russian
Revolution. The Czarist empire was transformed into a new state called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R) for short Soviet
Union. The policies of the new state were to be directed to the realization of the old socialist ideal, from each according to his capacity, to
each according to his work. Private property in the means of production was abolished and the motive of private profit eliminated from
the system of production. Economic planning by the state was adopted to build a technologically advanced economy at a fast rate and to
eliminate glaring inequalities in society. Work became an essential requirement for every person there was no unearned income to live
on. The right to work became a constitutional right and it became the duty of the state to provide employment to every individual.
Education of the entire people was given a high priority. The equality of all the nationalities in the U S S.R. was recognized in the
constitution framed in 1924 and later in 1936. The constitution gave the republics formed by the nationalities autonomy to develop their
languages and cultures. These developments were particularly significant for the Asian republics of U S.S R which were much more
backward than the European part.
Within a few years of the revolution, the Soviet Union emerged as a major power in the world. The social and economic systems that
began to be built there was hailed by many as the beginning of a new civilization while others called it an evil system After about 70 years
of the revolution, the system collapsed and in 1991 the Soviet Union ceased to exist as a state. (The map in tins chapter shows the 15
republics which formed the Soviet Union before its breakup ) You will read in the next two chapters about some of the major
developments that took place in the Soviet Union and the role it played in world affairs from the time of its emergence till its collapse.
In its impact on the world, the Russian Revolution had few parallels in history. The ideas of socialism which the socialist movement had
been advocating and which the Russian Revolution espoused were intended for universal application. The Russian Revolution was the
first successful revolution in history which proclaimed the building of a socialist society as its objective. It had led to the creation of a new
state over a vast area of the globe. It was, therefore, bound to have repercussions for the rest of the world.
Comintern
Soon after the revolution, the Communist International (also known as the Third International or Comintern) was formed for promoting
revolutions on an international scale. The split in the socialist movement at the time of the First World War has been mentioned before.
The leftwing sections in many socialist parties now formed themselves into communist parties and they affiliated themselves to the
Comintern. Communist parties were also formed in other countries, often with the active involvement and support of the Comintern.
Thus the international communist movement arose under one organization which decided on policies to be followed by all communist
parties The Soviet Union was considered the leader of the world communist movement by the communist parties in various countries
and the Communist Party of Soviet Union played a leading role in determining the policies of the Comintern. It is generally agreed that
Comintern was often used by the Soviet Union as an instrument for pursuing its own objectives However, the formation of communist
parties in many countries of the world with the objective of bringing about revolution and following common policies was a major
consequence of the Russian Revolution.
With the formation of the Comintern, the socialist movement was divided into two sections socialist and communist. There were many
differences between them on the methods of bringing about socialism and about the concept of socialism itself. Despite these differences,
socialism became one of the most widely held ideologies within a few decades after its emergence. The spread of the influence of socialist
ideas and movements after the First World War was in no small measure due to the success of the Russian Revolution.
The growing popularity of socialism and many achievements made by the Soviet Union led to a redefinition of democracy. Most people
who did not believe in socialism also began to recognize that for democracy to be real, political rights without social and economic rights
were not enough. Economic and social affairs could not be left to the capitalists. The idea of the state playing an active role in regulating
the economy and planning the economy to improve the conditions of the people was accepted. The biblical idea, revived by the socialist
movement and the Russian Revolution, He that does not work neither shall he eat, gained widespread acceptance, adding anew dignity
to labour. The popularity of socialism also helped to mitigate discriminations based on race, colour and sex.
The spread of socialist ideas also helped nip promoting internationalism. The nations, at least in theory, began to accept the idea that
their relations with other nations should go farther than merely promoting their narrow self-interests. Many problems which were
considered national began to be looked upon as concerns of the world as a whole. The universality and internationalism which were
fundamental principles of socialist ideology from the beginning were totally opposed to imperialism. The Russian Revolution served to
hasten the end of imperialism. According to Marx, a nation which enslaves another nation can never be free. Socialists all over the world
organized campaigns for putting an end to imperialism.
The new Soviet state came to be looked upon as a friend of the peoples of the colonies struggling for national independence. Russia after
the Revolution was the first country in Europe to openly support the cause of independence of all nations from foreign rule. Immediately
after the Revolution, the Soviet government had annulled the unequal treaties which the Czar had imposed on China. It also gave

58 History- Mrunal
assistance of various kinds to Sun Yat Sen in his struggle for the unification of China. The Russian Revolution also influenced the
movements for independence in so far as the latter gradually broadened the objectives of independence to include social and economic
equality through planned economic development. Writing about the Russian Revolution in his Autobiography, Jawaharlal Nehru
said, It made me think of politics much more in terms of social change.
EXERCISES
1.

Explain the following terms: Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, Soviet, February Revolution, October Revolution, Bloody Sunday,
Communist International

2.

Describe the social and economic conditions in Russia before the Revolution of 1917. How did Russias participation in the First
World War help create conditions for the fall of the Russian autocracy,

3.

What were the main objectives of the Russian revolutionaries?

4.

Describe the immediate consequences of the October Revolution on Russias participation in the First World War, the
ownership of land, and position of the non-Russian nationalities of the Russian empire.

5.

Explain the attitude of the USSR. towards the movements for independence in Asia.

6.

Collect pictures connected with the Russian Revolution for display. Describe the events and the role of personalities shown in
the pictures.

7.

Collect documents connected with the Russian Revolution (for example, the text of the Decrees on Land and Peace) and select
statements for a bulletin board display.

8.

Discuss the impact of the Russian Revolution on the world.

9.

Discuss the view that the Russian Revolution was brought about by a small group of revolutionaries without the support of the
masses.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
(Part 1 of 2) Between Two world Wars, Nazism, Fascism, The Great Depression
Between the Wars
HARDLY twenty years had passed since the end of the Fast World War, when, in 1939, the Second World War broke out. It was the most
destructive war in history which affected the life of the people in every part of the globe. The twenty years between the First and Second
World Wars were a period of tremendous changes all over the world. Many developments took place in Europe which paved the way for
the outbreak of the Second World War. A major economic crisis took place during this period which affected almost every part of the
world and, more particularly, the most advanced capitalist countries of the West. In Asia and Africa, the period saw an unprecedented
awakening of the peoples which found its fulfilment after the Second World War. The changes and developments in this period are
important not only for understanding the forces and factors which led to the Second World War but also the world that emerged after the
war. Thus they are crucial to an understanding of the present-day world.
Europe between the Wars
The misery caused by the First World War influenced the political developments in many countries. You have read earlier about the
revolution in Germany towards the end of the war which forced the German emperor to flee the country. Germany became a republic.
The proclamation of the republic did not satisfy the German revolutionaries who attempted another uprising in January 1919. The
uprising was, however, suppressed. Two leaders of the German revolutionary movement, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, were
assassinated. There was an uprising in Hungary but the revolutionary government which came into being was over thrown within a few
months. Inspired by the Russian Revolution, there were revolutions in many other countries of Europe such as Finland, and Baltic States
of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania which had earlier been parts of the Russian empire. But all these revolutions were shortlived. There were
movements in other parts of Europe for improvement in living conditions. The political situation in almost every country in Europe was
complicated. The period saw the growth of socialist and communist par ties in almost every country of Europe However, within a few
years in many countries of Europe, the socialist movements were defeated and dictatorial governments came to power. These
governments not only suppressed socialist movements but also destroyed democracy. The emergence of dictatorial governments in

59 History- Mrunal
Europe in this period had dangerous consequences not only for the peoples of Europe but for the whole world. The most dangerous
development was the triumph of fascism in Italy and Germany which paved the way for the Second World War.
Fascism in Italy
A number of political movements which arose in Europe after the First World War are generally given the name fascist . The common
features of these movements were their hostility to democracy and socialism, and the aim of establishing dictatorships. They succeeded,
in many countries of Europe, such as, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Germany, Spain. Their success in Italy and Germany had the
most serious consequences.
The term fascism is of Italian origin. It was first used for the movement which started in Italy under the leadership of Benito Mussolini.
Mussolini had organised armed gangs against socialists and communists in 1919. You have read earlier about the unification of Italy and
her imperialist ambitions. The Italian government had shown little concern for the welfare of the agricultural and industrial workers
whose conditions were miserable in the extreme. It had, instead, plunged Italy into the First World War in the hope of gaining colonies.
About 700,000 Italians were killed in the war. The conditions of the people had worsened further. The growing strength of the socialist
movement in Italy posed a threat to the existing system.
Italy had joined the war with the aim of gaining colonies. However, the peace tree, ties had failed to satisfy her ambitions. The Italian
government at the time was dominated by capitalists and landlords. These sections began to support antidemocratic movements which
promised to save them from the danger of socialism as well as to satisfy their colonial aspirations. The movement started by Mussolini
was one such movement. His armed gangs were used by landlords and industrialists to organize violence against socialists and
communists. A systematic campaign of terrorism and murder was launched but the government showed little interest in curbing it.
In 1921, elections were held m Italy. However, no single party could win a majority and no stable government could be formed. In spite of
the terror organized by Mussolinis gangs, his party could get only 35 seats while the socialists and communists together won 138 seats.
In spite of his poor showing in the elections, Mussolini openly talked of seizing power. On 28 October 1922, he organized a march on
Rome. The government of Italy did not show any sign of resistance against the volunteers of Mussolini. Instead, on 29 October 1922, the
king of Italy invited Mussolini to join the government. Thus without firing a shot, fascists under Mussolini s leadership came to power in
Italy.
The takeover of the government by fascists was followed by a reign of terror. The socialist movement was suppressed and many socialist
and communist leaders were either jailed or killed. In 1926 all political parties except Mussolinis party were banned. The victory of
fascism Italy not only led to the destruction of democracy and the suppression of socialist movement, it also led tothe preparation for
war. The fascists believed that there could be no harmony between two or more nations. They glorified war which, according to them,
ennobled people. They openly advocated a policy of expansion and said that nations which do not expand cannot survive for long.
The victory of fascism in Italy was neither the result of a victory in elections nor of a popular uprising. The government of Italy was
handed over to the fascists because the ruling classes of Italy considered democracy and socialism as threats to their power.
Nazism in Germany
Within eleven years of the fascist capture of power in Italy, Nazism triumphed in Germany. Nazism which was the German version of
fascism was much more sinister than the original Italian version The Nazis, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, established the most
barbarous dictatorship of modern times.
You have read earlier about the unification of Germany and certain aspects of Germanys history up to the First World War. Germany
had sought to satisfy her imperial ambitions through war but she had suffered defeat. The outbreak of revolution in Germany towards the
end of the First World War led to the collapse of the German monarchy. However, even though Germany became a republic, the forces
behind the monarchy the industrialists, the big landowners and the officers of the army remained quite powerful. The government of
German republic was not able to destroy their power. These forces began to turn to the anti democratic forces represented by Nazism to
extend their power and to check the power of the socialist movement, The term Nazism derived born the name of the part which Hitler
founded in 1921 the National Socialist German Workers Party, for short Nazi Party. Like Mussolini, Hitler had also planned to capture
power through a march on Berlin. He was arrested and jailed, but released long before his term was over. In jail he wrote his book Mein
Kampf (literal meaning My Struggle) which expressed some of the most monstrous ideas of the Nazi movement. He glorified the use of
force and brutality, and the rule by a great leader and ridiculed internationalism, peace and democracy. He preached extreme hatred
against the German Jews who were blamed not only for the defeat of Germany in the First World War but for all the ills of Germany. He
glorified violent nationalism and extolled war. The dreadful ideas of the Nazis found favour with the army, the industrialists, the big
landowners and the anti republican politicians. They began to look upon Hitler as the saviour of Germany.
The Nazis capitalized on the sense of humiliation which many Germans felt at their defeat in the war and the unjust provisions of the
Treaty of Versailles. They also exploited the misery of the people which had worsened due to the reparations which Germany was made

60 History- Mrunal
to pay to the Allied powers. In 1929 occurred the most serious economic crisis which affected all the capitalist countries of the world.
About this, you will read later. As a result of this crisis, eight million workers, about half of the working population of Germany, were
rendered unemployed. It was during this period that the Nazi Party, which was no more than a conspiratorial group in the beginning,
began to spread its influence. The Social Democratic Party and the Communist Party were powerful parties with huge following. These
two parties, however, failed to unite against the Nazis.
The victory of Nazism in Germany, like that of fascism in Italy, was neither the outcome of a popular uprising, nor the result of a sham
march on Berlin such as Mussolinis on Rome. In the elections held in Germany before Hitler came to power, the Nazi Party had polled
less votes than the Socialist and Communist vote put together. It had won only 196 seats out of a total of about 650. Hitlers coming to
power was the result of political intrigues. In spite of his poor showing in the elections, Hitler was appointed the Chancellor of Germany
by the President of Germany on 30 January 1933. Within a few weeks, the entire fabric of democracy in Germany was shattered. Soon
after coming to power, Hitler ordered fresh elections and let loose a reign of terror. Assassination of anti-Nazi leaders was organized on a
large scale. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag (Parliament) building was set on fire by the Nazis. The Communist Party Germany was
blamed for the fire and was suppressed. In spite of the terror organized by the Nazis, the Nazi Party could not win a majority of seats in
Parliament. However, Hitler assumed dictatorial powers and, in 1934, became the President. Trade unions were suppressed and
thousands of socialists, communists and antiNazi political leaders were exterminated. The Nazis started huge bonfires into which the
works of some of the best writers of Germany and other countries were thrown. Besides socialists and communists, Jews were made
victims of an organized campaign of humiliation and violence. Within a few years they were to be completely exterminated.
Simultaneously, a massive programme of militarization was launched and preparations for war began. The victory of Nazism was a
calamity not only for the German people but for entire Europe and many other parts of the world. It brought in the Second World War.
The policies and acts of the fascist governments of Italy and Germany which ultimately led to the Second World War are described in
another section.
Developments in Britain and France
The two major countries of Europe which did not succumb to fascist movements were Britain and France. However, both these countries
were faced with serious economic difficulties. In 1921, there were 2 million unemployed persons in Britain. The workers movement made
great advances. In 1924, the first Labour Party government came to power. However, it did not remain in power for long. In 1926
occurred the biggest strike in the history of Britain involving 6 million workers. The strike ultimately failed. A few years later, Britain was
badly affected by the worldwide economic crisis and about three million people were unemployed. In 1931, the National government
comprising the Conservative, the Labour and the Liberal parties was formed. This government took some steps to over come the serious
economic difficulties though the unemployment situation reroamed serious. After the victory of fascism in Germany, a fascist movement
started in Britain but it could not make much headway and Britain continued as a democratic country.
The government of France for many years was dominated by big bankers and industrialists. It hoped that by making use of the resources
of the German areas which had come under her control after the war, it would be able to make France economically strong. However,
these hopes were not fulfilled. France could not attain political stability also. Many governments came and fell. Political instability was
made worse as a result of the economic crisis, and corruption became rampant. Fascist movement rose its head and there was violence in
the streets. Ultimately, to meet the threat posed by fascist and other antidemocratic forces, a government comprising Socialist, Radical
Socialist and Communist parties was formed in 1936. This is known as the Popular Front government and it lasted for about two years.
During this period many important economic reforms were introduced in France.
Thus Britain and France succeeded in remaining democratic countries even though they were faced with serious problems. However, the
foreign policy of these countries, as you will see later, was not conducive to the maintenance of democracy in other parts of Europe and in
preventing the outbreak of war
United States Emerges as the Strongest Power
One of the most important features of the period after the First World War was the decline in the supremacy of Europe in the world and
the growing importance of the United States of America. She had, in fact, emerged as the richest and the most powerful country in the
world at the end of the war. This was clear from the important role that she played during the framing of the peace treaties. While the
war had severely damaged the economy of the European countries, the economy of USA during this time had in fact become stronger.
She had made tremendous industrial progress and was beginning to make heavy investments in Europe. However, in spite of this
progress, the United States was frequently beset with serious economic problems. These problems were the result of the capitalist system
about which you have read before.
The Depression
The worldwide economic crisis which began in 1929 has been mentioned before. The crisis originated in USA. The years after First World
War had seen a big increase in the production of goods in America. In spite of this, however, more than half of the population lived at less
than the minimum subsistence level. In October 1929, the entire economy began to collapse. The stock market in New York Crashed. The

61 History- Mrunal
fall in the value of shares had created so much panic that in one day 16 million shares were sold in New York Stock Exchange. In some
companies, the shares held by people became totally worthless. During the next four years, more than 9,000 American banks closed
down and millions of people lost their lifes savings. The manufacturers and farmers could not get any money to invest and as people had
little money to buy, the goods could not be sold. This led to the closing of thousands of factories and throwing of workers out of
employment. The purchasing power of the people was thus reduced which led to the closing down of more factories and to
unemployment.

Face of the Great Depression:

A mother-of-three who had just sold the familys tent to buy food

The Depression, as this situation is called, began to spread to all the capitalist countries of Europe in 1931. After the First World War, the
economies of the countries of Europe, excluding Russia, had become closely connected with and even dependent on the economy of USA,
particularly on the American banks. The consequences of the Depression in Europe were similar to those in the USA and in some cases
even worse. The economies of the colonies of the European countries were also affected.
The Depression resulted in large scale unemployment, loss of production, poverty and starvation. It continued throughout the 1930s
even though after 1933, the economies of the affected countries began to recover. The crisis as long as it lasted was the most terrible and
affected the lives of scores of millions of people all over the world. The estimates of unemployed during this period all over the world vary
between 50 and 100 million. In USA alone, the richest country in the world, the number of the unemployed exceeded 15 million.
Thousands of factories, banks and business enterprises stopped working. The industrial production fell by about 35 per cent, in some
countries by about half.
It may appear surprising that the crisis was caused by overproduction. You have read earlier how under capitalism, the owners of
factories and business enterprises try to maximize their profits by producing more and more goods. When production increases but the
purchasing power of the workers remains low, the goods cannot be sold unless their prices are reduced. However, the prices cannot be
reduced because this would affect the profits. So the goods remain unsold and the factories are closed to stop further production. With
the closure of factories people are thrown out of employment which makes the situation worse as the goods which have been produced
cannot be sold. Such crises occurred often in almost every country after the spread of the Industrial Revolution. The crisis of 192933 was,
however, the worst in history. In this crisis while millions were starving, lakhs of tonnes of wheat were burnt down in some areas to
prevent the price of wheat from falling.
The economic crisis had serious political consequences. You have read how the Nazis in Germany exploited the discontent of the people
to promote their antidemocratic programme. In many countries, hunger marches were organized and the socialist movement pressed for
far-reaching changes m the economic system so that such crises would not recur. The only country which was not affected by the
economic crisis of 192933 was the Soviet Union.
The economic crisis had worst affectedthe economy of the United States. It led to the victory of the Democratic Party and Franklin D.
Roosevelt became the President of the United States in 1933. Under his leadership a programme of economic reconstruction and social
welfare was started. This programme is known as the New Deal. Steps were taken to improve the conditions of workers and to create

62 History- Mrunal
employment. As a result of the New Deal, the economy of the United States recovered from the crisis and the industrial production
picked up again. In 1939, however, there were still 9 million unemployed people in the United States.
The United States had retained her position as a mighty power. However, her foreign policy was not very different from that of Britain
and France. She, like Britain and France, did not adopt a strong position to resist aggressive acts of fascist powers until after the outbreak
of the Second World War when she herself had to enter the war.
The Emergence of the Soviet Union
The period after the First World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a major power and she began to play a crucial role in
world affairs. The military intervention by Britain, France, USA and Japan in Russia in support of the counterrevolutionary forces has
already been mentioned. By 1920 the counterrevolutionary forces had been defeated and the foreign armies driven out.
Russias participation in the First World War and the long period of civil war and foreign intervention which followed the revolution had
completely shattered the economy of the country. This was a period of acute economic distress for the people. There was a severe
shortage of food. The production of industrial goods had fallen far below the prewar level. To make the distribution of goods equitable in
conditions of severe scarcity, certain strong measures were taken. The peasants were made to part with their produce which was in excess
of what was essential for their own needs. They were not allowed to sell it in the market. The payment of salaries in cash was stopped and
instead people were paid in kind, that is foodstuffs and manufactured goods. These measures had created unrest among the peasants and
other sections of society but were accepted because they were considered essential to defend the revolution. After the civil war ended,
these measures were withdrawn and in 1921, the New Economic Policy was introduced. Under this policy, the peasants were allowed to
sell their produce in the open markets, payment of wages in cash was reintroduced and production of goods and their sale in some
industries under private control was permitted. A few years later, in 1929, the USSR slat ted its vigorous programme of economic
reconstruction and industrialization when it adopted the first of a series of its Five Year Plans. Within a few years, the Soviet Union
emerged as a major industrial power. The extraordinary economic progress that the Soviet Union achieved was against heavy odds.
Though the foreign intervention had been ended, many countries of Europe, and the United States followed a policy of economic boycott
with the aim of destroying the revolution. However, the Soviet Union not only survived but continued to grow economically at a fast rate.
She was, as mentioned before, the only country which remained unaffected by the economic crisis of 1929-33. On the contrary, its
industrial development went on as before while millions of people in the west were unemployed and thousands of factories had come to a
standstill.
Major changes were introduced in agriculture. After the revolution the estates of the landlords, the church and the nobility had been
confiscated and distributed among the peasants. There were in all about 25 million landholdings most of which were very small. The
small landholdings or farms were considered not very productive. To increase production, it was considered essential to introduce
tractors and other farm machinery. It was thought that this could be done only if the size of the farms was large. For this, the government
started its own farms. Besides, it adopted the policy of promoting collective farms by bonging the small farms of the peasants together. In
these farms, individual ownership of farms by peasants was ended and the peasants worked on these collective farms collectively. The
government pursued the policy of collectivization vigorously and by 1937 almost all cultivable land was brought under collective farms.
Initially, the peasants were free to decide whether they wanted to join the collective farms or not. Later, they were forced to join. The rich
peasants who opposed collectivization were severely dealt with. The process of collectivization of agriculture was accompanied by many
atrocities. Accor ding to some estimates, millions of people perished in this period. Thus, while the oppression by landlords had been
ended, the introduction of new measures was not without serious problems and oppression. In industry also, while production of goods
to profit a few capitalists had been ended and industrialization of the country took place at a fast rate, the production of goods of daily
necessities was neglected.
The main centres of the revolution in 1917 were in Russia. In the following years, the revolution spread to many other parts of the old
Russian empire and the Bolshevik Party and its supporters. formed governments in the areas inhabited by nonRussian nationalities. In
1922 all these territories were formally united in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), for short Soviet Union, which was a
federation of many republics. At that time, the number of Republics constituting the USSR was five. When a new constitution was adop
ted in 1936, their number was eleven. A few years later, in 1940, their number rose to 15.
After the death of Lenin in 1924 many serious differences arose within the ruling Communist Party the only political party which existed
over policies to be followed. There was also serious struggle for power between different groups and individual leaders. In this
struggle, Stalin emerged victorious. In 1927, Trotsky who had played an important role in the revolution and had organized the Red Army
was expelled from the Communist Party. In 1929, he was sent into exile. In the 1930s, almost all the leaders who had played an important
role in the revolution and m the following years were eliminated. False charges were brought against them, and after fake trials they were
executed. Political democracy and freedom of speech and press were destroyed. The expression of differences even within the party was
not tolerated. Stalin, who had been the General Secretary of the Communist Party, assumed dictatorial powers which he exercised till his
death in 1953. These developments had an adverse effect on the building of socialism in the USSR and introduced features which were
contrary to the humanistic ideals of Marxism and of the revolution. The development of art and literature also suffered because of
restrictions on freedom.

63 History- Mrunal
The Soviet Union was not recognized by most European powers and USA for a long time. You have read before that she was not allowed
to be represented at the Peace Conference which was held at the end of the First World War nor in the League of Nations. She remained
surrounded by countries which were openly hostile to her. However, with its growing strength she could not be ignored and gradually
one country after another recognized her. Britain established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1933. In 1934 she also became
a member of the League of Nations. However, in spite of the ending of the isolation of the Soviet Union, the hostility towards the Soviet
Union continued. The Soviet Union followed a policy of support to the movements for independence. The help given to China is notable
in this context. When the fascist countries started their acts of aggression, the Soviet government pressed for action against them.
However, the Western countries did not agree to the Soviet proposals. They continued to regard the Soviet Union as a danger to them
and hoped that the fascist countries would destroy her. Their hostility to the Soviet Union led to the appeasement of fascist powers and
paved the way for the Second World War.
Nationalist Movements in Asia and Africa
The period following the First World War saw the strengthening of the movements of the peoples of Asia and Africa for independence. As
stated earlier, many leaders of freedom movements in Asia and Africa had supported the war effort of the Allies in the hope that their
countries would win freedom, or at least more rights after war was over. Their hopes had been belied and the imperialist leaders soon
made it clear that the wartime slogans of freedom and democracy were not meant for then colonies. However, the war had weakened the
imperialist countries arid had contributed to the awakening of the colonial peoples. Their struggles for freedom entered a new phase after
the war. The support of the Soviet Union further added to the strength of the freedom movements. Even though most of the countries of
Asia and Africa emerged as independent nations after the Second World War, the period after the First World War saw serious
weakening of imperialism.
India
In India this was the period when the freedom movement became a mass movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. Many
countries in Asia made significant advances towards freedom. You have read before that Iran had been divided into Russian and British
spheres of influence before the First World War. The Soviet government after the revolution of 1917 had given up the sphere under her
control and had withdrawn all her troops from there. The British, however, tried to extend their influence over the entire country. These
efforts were met with a widespread uprising. In 1921, power was seized by Reza Khan who in 1925 became the emperor. The British
troops left Iran and the modernization of Iran began.
The British government had waged many wars against Afghanis tan in the nineteenth century. As a result of these wars, the
independence of Afghanistan had been curbed. The foreign relations of Afghanistan had passed under British control. In 1919, the king of
Afghanistan was assassinated and his son, Amanullah became the King. Amanullah proclaimed complete independence of Afghanistan,
which was immediately recognized by the Soviet Union. The British government in India waged a war against the new Afghan
government but in the end Britain agreed to recognize the independence of Afghanistan. Amanullah s government made vigorous efforts
to modernize Afghanistan.
There was an upsurge in Arab countries against Britain and France. The Arabs had been asked by the Allies, during the First World War,
to fight against their Ottoman rulers. However, the end of the war did not result in the independence of Arab countries. These countries
had assumed additional importance after it was known that they had immense oil resources. Britain and France had extended their
control over these countries as their protectorates and mandates . There were uprisings against Britain in Egypt and Britain was forced
in 1922 to grant independence to Egypt though British troops continued to stay there.
Syria had been handed over to France after the war. However, from the very beginning France met with intense opposition there. In 1925
there was an open rebellion and the French government resorted to a reign of terror. The city of Damascus which became a centre of
revolt was reduced to ruins when the French troops bombed the city from the air and made use of heavy artillery to shell the city. About
25,000 people were killed as a result of bombing and shelling of Damascus. However, in spite of these massacres, the resistance to
French rule continued.
Turkey and Khilafat Movement
One of the most important events in the national awakening of the peoples after the First World War was the revolution in Turkey. You
have read earlier of the disintegration of the Ottoman empire which began in the nineteenth century and was completed after Turkeys
defeat in the First World War. During this period, many nations which were formerly under the subjugation of the Ottoman empire had
become free. The Arab territories of the empire had been given away to Britain and France as mandates after the First World War. The
Allies, however, did not stop at the dismemberment of the empire. They wanted to establish their domination over Turkey itself and to
give away parts of Turkey to Greece and Italy. The treatment meted out to Turkey by the Allies had led to a mass upsurge in India
directed against Britain. This upsurge is known as the Khilafat movement which had merged with the Indian nationalist movement.

64 History- Mrunal
The nationalist movement in Turkey was organised to prevent the domination of the country by the Allied powers and the annexation of
parts of Turkey by Greece and Italy. The Sultan of Turkey agreed to the terms dictated by the, Allied powers. However, even before the
treaty was signed by the Sultan, a national government had been established under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal with its
headquarters at Ankara. This government signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviet government in 1921 under which Turkey received
Soviet political support and arms for the nationalist cause. Following the treaty with the Sultan, Turkey had been invaded by Greece. The
Turks under Kemals leadership were able to repel the invasion and the Allies were forced to repudiate the earlier treaty. The Allied
troops were withdrawn from Turkish territory and the areas which were to be annexed by European countries remained in Turkey. Thus
Turkey was able to win her complete independence.
The success of the Turks in winning the complete independence of their country was followed by a programme to modernize Turkey and
to end the influence of backwardlooking feudal elements. Turkey was proclaimed a republic The Turkish Sultan had carried the title of
Caliph. The new government abolished the institution of Caliph. Education was taken out of the hands of the religious leaders. Religion
was separated from the state.
The revolution in Turkey became a source of inspiration for the movements for freedom in Asia. It also helped to promote the ideas of
social reform and modernization.
Movements for independence were strengthened in the other parts of Asia. In Indonesia, for example, there were uprisings against the
Dutch rule In 1927 the National Party Was organised with the aim of achieving independence. In Korea there was a movement for
independence from Japanese rule. Movements for independence gathered strength in IndoChina, Burma and other countries.
China
One of the most powerful movements in this period began in China. You have read before about the imperialist domination of China. In
1911, there was a revolution in China which resulted in the established of a republic. However, power passed into the hands of corrupt
governors called warlords. The national movement in China aimed at the overthrow of foreign domination and the unification of China
by ending the rule of the warlords. The founder of the national movement in China was Dr.Sun YatSen. He had played an important role
in the 1911 revolution and in 1917 had set up a government at Canton in south China. The party formed by him called Kuomintang led the
national struggle in China for a number of years.
The Russian Revolution had a deep impact on China. The new government in Russia had renounced all the unequal treaties which the
Russian emperors had imposed on China and had promised full support to the Chinese national struggle. In 1921 the Communist Party of
China was formed. In 1924, the Kuomintang and the Communist Party decided to work together and the Soviet government gave various
kinds of aid, such as the training of a revolutionary army. A number of Soviet political and military advisers worked with the Chinese
liberation movement. After the death of Sun YatSen in 1925, the unity between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party was broken
and a period of civil war began. In the 1930s when the Japanese attacked China with the aim of subjugating the entire country, the two
parties agreed to work together to resist the Japanese invasion. The Communist Party played a leading role in the war of resistance
against the Japanese invasion. It was able to establish its supremacy in the country and within a few years after the end of the Second
World War was victorious in the civil war.
Africa
This period also saw the emergence of political and national consciousness in Africa. Though the struggles for national independence in
Africa gained momentum after the Second World War, the 1920s and the 1930s were a period when the first political associations were
formed. An important role in the growth of national consciousness in Africa was played by a series of PanAfrican Congresses. The Pan
African movement asserted the identity and unity of the African people, and independence of Africa. The national movement in the
Union of South Africa had emerged earlier than in other parts of Africa. In 1912 had been formed the African National Congress which
became the leading organization of the South African people. The people of Ethiopia fought heroically against the Italian invasion of
Chen country in 193536 and their resistance served as a source of inspiration to the people of Africa.
The national awakening of the people of Asia and Africa and the growing strength of their struggle for freedom were factors of great
importance in the making of the modern world. While the long oppressed peoples in these two continents were beginning to assert their
right to independence, preparations for another war were being made in Europe.
Beginning of Fascist Aggression
In the 1930s the fascist powers began their wars of conquest which ultimately led to the Second World War. The major fascist countries
were Italy and Germany. They acquired an ally in the militarist regime which came to power in Japan. The triumph of fascism in Italy
and Germany has already been described. You have also read earlier about the rise of Japanese imperialism, her wars against China and
Russia, the conquest of Korea and her acquisition of the German spheres in China after the First World War. The government of Japan
gradually passed into the hands of militarists. These three countries started series of aggressions in Europe, Asia and Africa. All of them

65 History- Mrunal
clai med to have been fighting against communism and were united in 1937 under the AntiComintern Pact. (Comintern is short for
Communist International which, as mentioned before, had been formed after the Russian Revolution and to which the Communist
Parties of various countries were affiliated.) Germany, Italy and Japan came to be known as the Axis Powers.
When the acts of aggression began, the aggrieved countries, the Soviet Union and many leaders m different countries of the world
demanded collective action to defeat the aggressions. In 1935, the Communist International advocated the formation of Popular Fronts
consisting of Communists, Socialists and other antifascists to counter the danger of fascism and war. It may be recalled that Hitler had
come to power m Germany because the Communist and Social Democratic Parties of Germany had failed to unite against the Nazis. The
Comintern s advocacy of uniting all antifascist forces was followed by the formation of Popular Fronts in many countries. In France, the
Popular Front succeeded in preventing a fascist takeover. The policy of Popular Front also had a significant influence in bringing together
various antiimperialist forces in the colonies. It also created a worldwide awareness of the danger that fascism posed to all countries and
helped in building support for the victims of fascist aggression. The leader of the Comintern at this time was Georgi Dimitrov, a
Bulgarian Communist, who had been arrested along with German Communists, by the Nazis in 1933 after the Reichstag fire. His
courageous defence at the trial had won him worldwide admiration and he had been released.
You have read earlier that the covenant of the League of Nations contained a provision for economic and military sanctions and collective
action against aggression. However, the Western governments, instead of resisting the aggressions, followed a policy of appeasement of
the aggressive powers. Appeasement meant a policy of conciliating an aggressive power at the expense of some other country. But for the
Western countries policy of appeasement, fascism could not have survived as long as it did and would not have been able to unleash the
Second World War.
Germany, Italy and Japan which launched a series of aggressions in the 1930s claimed that they were fighting communism. Hitler had
time and again declared that Germany had ambitions of conquering the vast resources and territory of the Soviet Union. In all these
countries, the socialist and communist movements had been suppressed. Since the success of the Russian Revolution, the Western
countries had been haunted by the danger of communism and they hoped that fascist countries would rid them of this danger. The
attitude of the Western powers to the fascist aggressions has been summed up by a historian thus: There was no question that the Nazis
had done their best to convince the world that they were out to smash Bolshevism and conquer the Soviet Union. Hitlers speech saying
that if he had the Urals all the Germans would be swimming in plenty was only an outstanding example of this propaganda. Nor was
there any reluctance among the elites in the Western world to believe him. The great landowners, aristocrats, industrialists, bankers, high
churchmen, army leaders magnates of every kind in Western Europe, together with many middleclass elements had never lost their
fear that their own workers and peasants might demand a social revolution, perhaps one spearheaded and organized by communists.
Their support of fascism as a force, albeit a gangster one, which would defeat communism and at the same time leave the vested interests
largely in control, had been instinctive and sincere. There can be little doubt that many powerful people in Britain and France worked to
strengthen and build up the Axis powers with a view to an attack by them upon the Soviet Union. The Policy of appeasement
.strengthened the fascist powers and led to the Second World War.
Japanese Invasion of China
One of the first major acts of aggression after the First World War was the Japanese invasion of China in 1931. A minor incident involving
a railway line owned by the Japanese in Manchuria, the northeastern province of China, was made the pretext for the invasion. China, a
member of the League of Nations, appealed to the League for sanctions against Japan to stop the aggression. However, Britain and
France, the leading countries in the League, were completely indifferent to the appeal and acquiesced in the aggression. Japan occupied
Manchuria, installed a puppet government there and proceeded to conquer more areas. The United States also did nothing to counter the
aggression. In 1933, Japan quit the League of Nations. She had also started seizing the British and American property in China. However,
the appeasement of Japan continued as the Western countries thought that the Japanese could be used to weaken China as well as the
Soviet Union. Britain had an additional reason. She did not want to alienate Japan and thus endanger her possessions in Asia.
German Militarization
Germany had been admitted to the League of Nations some time after its formation but soon after Hitler came to power, she quit the
League and undertook a massive programme of militarization. According to the Treaty of Versailles, severe restrictions had been
imposed on the military strength of Germany. The beginning of German remilitarization in violation of the Treaty created a sense of
insecurity in many countries, particularly France. It was in this situation that the Soviet Union became a member of the League in 1934.
However, nothing was done to stoop the German remilitarization. According to the Treaty of Versailles, the German area bordering
France called the Rhineland had been demilitarized to make a German attack on France difficult. In 1936, Hitlers troops entered the
Rhineland in violation of the Treaty. Though this step alarmed Prance, nothing was done to stop Germany. By then Germany had built an
army of 800,000 men while the Treaty of Versailles, you may remember, had imposed a limit of 100,000 men. She had also started
building a strong navy.
Italian Invasion of Ethiopia

66 History- Mrunal
In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia On the appeal of Ethiopia, the League of Nations passed a resolution condemning Italy as an aggressor.
The resolution also mentioned the use of economic sanctions against Italy, including a ban on the sale of arms to Italy. However, no
action was taken to punish Italy and by 1936 Italy had completed the conquest of Ethiopia.
The Spanish Civil War
The next event which marked the beginning of an alliance between Germany and Italy was the intervention by these two countries in the
Civil War in Spain. In 1931 Spain had become a republic. In 1936 a Popular Front comprising the Socialist, Communist and other
democratic and antifascist parties came to power. A section of the army under the leadership of General Franco with the armed support
of Italy and Germany revolted against the government. Italy and Germany started intervening openly in the Civil War that followed. They
sent forces, tanks and warships in support of the rebels. The German aircrafts conducted airraids on Spanish towns and villages. The
government of the Spanish Republic appealed for help against the fascists. Only the Soviet Union came to the help of the Republican
forces Britain and France advocated a policy of nonintervention and refused to give any aid to the government of Spain .They remained
Indifferent to the German and Italian intervention in the war .However, the cause of the Republicans evoked tremendous response the
world over .Thousands of antifascist volunteers from many countries including many antifascist Germans were organized into
international brigades who went to Spain and fought alongside the Spaniards against fascism. Thousands of them were killed in Spain.
Some of the best writers and artists of the twentieth century actively supported the cause of the Republicans. The battle in Spain assumed
an international significance as it was increasingly realized that the victory of fascism in Spain would encourage more fascist aggressions.
The sacrifice of their lives by thousands of non Spaniards in Spain m the cause of freedom and democracy is one of the finest examples of
internationalism in history. The Civil War in Spain continued for three years. About a million people were killed in the war. Finally, the
fascist forces under General Franco succeeded in destroying the Republic in 1939. Soon the new government was recognized by most of
the Western powers.
It may by recalled that the Indian nationalist movement which was alive to the danger of fascism had extended its support to the
Republican cause. Jawaharlal Nehru went to Spain during this period as a mark of solidarity of the Indian nationalist movement with the
Republicans.
The victory of fascism was the result of the Western countries appeasement of fascism, which made the fasces t countries more
aggressive. Germany had tested the effectiveness of many new weapons in the Spanish Civil War which she was to use in the Second
World War.
The Munich Pact
While the Spanish Civil War was still going on, Hitlers troops marched into Austria in March 1938 and occupied it. Even though this was
a violation of the peace treaties signed after the First World War, the Western powers did not protest against it.
The final act of appeasement of fascism by the Western powers was the Munich Pact. Germany coveted Czechoslovakia which wasvery
important because of her industries. The area also had strategic importance for the expansion of Germany in the east towards the Soviet
Union. Hitler claimed a part of Czechoslovakia called Sudetenland which had substantial German population. This area formed about
one fifth of the area of Czechoslovakia and had one of the largest munition factories in the world. Instead of meeting the threat posed by
Germany, the Prime Ministers of Britain and France met Hitler and Mussolini at Munich in Germany on 29 and 30 September 1938 and
agreed to Germany s terms without the consent of Czechoslovakia. Soon after, the Sudetenland was occupied by German troops A few
months later in March 1939 entire Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany.
The Munich Pact was the last major act of appeasement by the Western powers. It led Germany to make more demands. The only way
the fascist aggression could have been checked and another world war prevented was an alliance of the Western powers with the Soviet
Union.The Soviet Union had been pleading for such an alliance. However, the Western policies of appeasement had convinced the Soviet
Union that their main interest was to divert the German expansion towards the Soviet Union. The Munich Pact was an additional proof
to the Soviet Union that the Western powers were trying to appease Germany with a view to directing her aggression eastward against
the Soviet Union .The Soviet Union at this time signed a Non Aggression Pact with, Germany in August 1939. The signing of this Pact by
the Soviet Union shocked antifascists the world over. In the meantime Britain and France promised to come to the aid of Poland, Greece,
Rumania and Turkey in case their independence was endangered.

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(Part 2 of 2): Second World War, events, battles, resistance movements
THE SECOND WORLD WAR

67 History- Mrunal
The Second World War, like the First, started in Europe and assumed the character of a world war. In spite of the fact that Western
countries had acquiesced in all the aggressions of Japan, Italy and Germany from the invasion of Manchuria to the annexation of
Czechoslovakia, the fascist countries ambitions had not been satisfied. These countries were planning another redivision of the world
and thus had to come into conflict with the established imperialist powers. The Western policy of diverting the aggression of the fascist
countries towards the Soviet Union had failed with the signing of the Soviet German Non-Aggression Pact. Thus the war began in Europe
between the fascist countries and the major West European PowersBritain and France. Within a few months it became a world war as it
spread to more and more areas, ultimately involving almost every country in the world.
The Invasion of Poland
After the First World War, East Prussia had been separated from the rest of Germany. The city of Danzig which separated East Prussia
from the rest of Germany had been made a free city independent of German control. Hitler had demanded the return of Danzig to
Germany but Britain had refused to accept this demand.

Timeline of WW2 (Click to Enlarge)

On 1 September 1939 German armies marched into Poland. On 3 September Britain and France declared war on Germany. Thus the
invasion of Poland marked the beginning of the Second World War, The German armies completed the conquest of Poland in less than
three weeks as no aid reached Poland. In spite of the declaration of war, however, there was little actual fighting for many months.
Therefore, the war during this period from September 1939 to April 1940 when Germany invaded Norway and Denmark is known as the
phoney war.
Soon after the German invasion of Poland, the Soviet Union attacked eastern Poland and occupied the territories which were earlier in
the Russian empire. It is believed that this occupation was a part of the secret provisions of the SovietGerman NonAggression Pact. In
1940, the Baltic States of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania which had become independent after the First World War were also occupied by
the Soviet Union. They, along with Moldavia, became republics of USSR. In November 1939, the Soviet Union also went to war against
Finland.
Conquest of Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and France
Germany launched her invasion of Norway and Denmark on 9 April 1940 and within three weeks completed the conquest of these two
countries. In Norway, the German invaders were helped by Quisling, leader of Norways fascist party, who set up a puppet government in
Norway under German occupation. The very name Quisling has come to mean a traitor who collaborates with the invaders of his
country. In early May began the invasion of Belgium and Holland which was completed before the end of May. Soon the German armies
marched into France and by 14 June 1940, the capital city of Paris had fallen into German hands almost without a fight. In the meantime,
Italy also had joined the war on the side of her ally, Germany. On 22 June 1940, the French government surrendered and signed a truce
with Germany according to which about half of France was occupied by Germany. The remaining part remained under the French
government which was required to disband the French army and provide for the maintenance of the German army in France. The French
government which had surrendered to Germany ruled from Vichy. With the defeat of France, Germany became the supreme power over
the continent of Europe. The war conducted by Germany with great speed and force is known as blitzkrieg which means a lightning war.
The Battle of Britain
Britain was the only major power left in Europe after the fall of France. Germany thought that Britain would surrender soon as she was
without any allies in Europe. German air force began bombing raids on Britain in August 1940 with the aim of terrorizing her into
surrender .The battle that ensued is known as the Battle of Britain. The Royal Air Force of Britain played a heroic role in its defence
against air raids and conducted air raids on German territories in retaliation. The Prime Minister of Britain during the war years was
Winston Churchill. Under his leadership, the people of Britain successfully resisted the German air raids with courage and
determination.
In the meantime, Italy had started military operations in North Africa. She also invaded Greece, but the Italian attack in both the areas
was repulsed. However, Germany succeeded in capturing the Balkans Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and also large parts of North Africa.
German Invasion of Soviet Union

68 History- Mrunal
Having conquered almost the entire Europe, except Britain, Germany attacked the Soviet Union, despite the Non-Aggression Pact, on 22
June 1941. As mentioned before, Hitler had always coveted the vast territory and resources of the Soviet Union.
He thought that the destruction of the Soviet Union would take about eight weeks. Hitler had grossly underestimated the strength of the
Soviet Union. In the first phase of the war with the Soviet Union, Germany achieved significant victories. Vast areas of the Soviet Union
were devastated, Leningrad was besieged and German troops were marching towards Moscow. However, in spite of the initial German
successes, the German onslaught was halted. The Soviet Union had built up her industrial and military strength. She resisted the German
invasion heroically and the German hopes of a quick victory were thwarted.
With the German invasion of the Soviet Union, a new vast theatre of war had been opened. An important development that followed was
the emergence of the BritishSovietAmerican unity to fight against aggression. Soon after the invasion, Churchill and Roosevelt declared
British and American support, respectively, to the Soviet Union in the war against Germany and promised aid to her. Subsequently,
agreements were signed between the Soviet Union and Britain, and Soviet Union and USA. It was as a result of this unity that Germany,
Italy and Japan were ultimately defeated.
Pearl Harbour: Entry of USA
You have read before about the Japanese invasion of China in 1931. In 1937, the Japanese had started another invasion of China. Japan
was one of the three members of the AntiComintern Pact along with Germany and Italy. In September 1940, these three countries had
signed another pact which bound them together even more. Japan recognized the leadership of Germany and Italy in the establishment
of a new order in Europe and Japans leadership was recognized for establishing a new order in Asia. On 7 December 1941, the Japanese,
without a declaration of war, conducted a massive raid on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The American Pacific Fleet
which was stationed there was devastated. The Americans lost 20 warships, and about 250 aircrafts. About 3000 persons were killed.
The Americans were completely taken unawares. Negotiations had been going on between the Japanese and American governments to
settle their differences in Asia and the Pacific. The attack on Pearl Harbor in the midst of negotiations showed that the Japanese were
determined to conquer Asia and the Pacific. With this the Second World War became truly global. The United States declared war on
Japan on 8 December 1941 and soon after Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. Following the U.S. entry into the war,
many countries in the Americas joined the war against Germany, Italy and Japan. The Japanese achieved significant victories in the war
in Asia. Within six months of the attack on Pearl Harbor, they had conquered Malaya, Burma (now Myanmar), Indonesia, the
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Hongkong and numerous other areas.
By the middle of 1942, the fascist powers had reached the peak of their power. After that the decline began.
The Battle of Stalingrad
In January 1942 the unity of the countries fighting against the fascist powers was cemented. The representatives of 26 nations, including
Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union, signed a declaration, known as the United Nations Declaration. The signatories to this
Declaration resolved to utilize all their resources to pursue the war until victory was achieved and to cooperate with one another against
the common enemy, and promised not to have a separate peace treaty.
One of the most important turning points in the war was the Battle of Stalingrad (now called Volgograd). In November and December
1941, the German advance on Moscow met with stubborn resistance and the invasion was repulsed. Germany then launched an offensive
in southern Russia. In August 1942, the German troops 1 reached the outskirts of Stalingrad. For over five months, the battle raged. It
involved about 2 million men, 2000 tanks and 2000 aeroplanes. The civilian population of Stalingrad joined the soldiers in the defence
of the city. In February 1943, about 90,000 German officers and soldiers surrendered. In all, Germany had lost about 300,000 men in
this battle. This battle turned the tide of the war
The Second Front
The fascist countries began to suffer reverses in other areas also. Japan had failed to capture Australia and Hawaii. In North Africa, the
German and Italian troops were routed by early 1943. The destruction of the fascist army in North Africa was also a major turning point
in the war. In July 1943, British and American troops occupied Sicily. Many sections in Italy had turned against Mussolini. He was
arrested and a new government was formed. This government joined the war against Germany. However, German troops invaded
northern Italy and Mussolini, who had escaped with the help of Germans, headed a proGerman government there. Meanwhile, British
and American troops entered Italy and a long battle to throw the Germans out of Italy followed. The Soviet Union was attaining
significant victories against Germany and had already entered Czechoslovakia and Rumania which had been under German occupation.
On 6 June 1944, more than 100,000 British and American troops landed on the coast of Normandy in France. By September their
number had reached 2,000,000. The opening of this front played a very crucial role in the defeat of Germany. This is known as the
opening of the Second Front. Since 1942 in Europe the most ferocious battles had been fought between Germany and the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union had been demanding the opening of the second front for long, as this would compel Germany to fight on other fronts
also and would thus hasten the defeat of Germany. From this time onwards the German armies were on the run on all fronts.
End of the War in Europe
After 6 June 1944, German armies had to face the forces of the Allies from three directions. In Italy, the British and American troops
were advancing. Northern and western France and the city of Paris had been freed and the Allied troops were moving towards Belgium
and Holland On the eastern front, the Germans were facing a collapse. The Soviet army from the east and other Allied troops from the
west were closing on Germany. On May 1945 the Soviet armies entered Berlin. Hitler had committed suicide on the morning of the same

69 History- Mrunal
day. On 7 May 1945 Germany unconditionally surrendered. The end of all hostilities in Europe became effective from 12,00 a.m. on 9
May 1945
Nuke Attack on JAPAN
After the defeat of Germany, the war in Asia continued for another three months. Britain and USA had launched successful operations
against Japan in the Pacific and in the Philippines and Burma. In spite of serious reverses, however, the Japanese were still holding large
parts of China. On 6 August 1945, an atom bomb, the deadliest weapon developed during the war, was dropped on the Japanese city of
Hiroshima. This was the first time that the atom bomb had been used. With one single bomb, the city of Hiroshima was obliterated.
Another atom bomb was dropped on the city of Nagasaki on 9 August 1945. The city was destroyed. In the meantime, the Soviet Union
had declared war on Japan and had started military operations against Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea. On 14 August Japan
conveyed its acceptance of the Allied demand to surrender but the actual surrender took place on 2 September 1945. With the Japanese
surrender, the Second World War came to an end.
Resistance Movements
In all the countries of Europe which had fallen victim to the aggressions of fascist countries, the people organised resistance movements.
In many countries, the governments capitulated before the aggres sors without much fighting but people of those countries continued to
resist the fascist rule. For example, when the government of France surrendered, the people of France organized a popular resistance
movement against the German occupation. A French army was also formed outside France under the leadership of General de Gaulle
which actively participated in the war. Similar armies of other countries were also organized. Inside the occupied countries, the
resistance movements set up guerilla forces. Largescale guerilla activities were organized in many countries such as Yugoslavia and
Greece. In many countries there were largescale uprisings. The heroic uprising of the Polish people in Warsaw is a glorious chapter m the
history of the resistance movements. There were resistance movements within the fascist countries also. The fascist governments of Italy
and Germany had physically exterminated hundreds of thousands of people who were opposed to fascism. However, many antifascists
from these countries continued to fight against fascism inside and outside their countries. The antifascist forces in Italy were very
powerful and played an important role in the war against Mussolini and in fighting against German troops in Italy. In France, Greece,
and under the leadership of Marshal Tito, in Yugoslavia, the people fought most heroically against fascist aggression. The socialists, the
communists and other antifascists played a very important part in the resistance movements, Millions of civilian fighters against fascism
perished in the war.
The people in countries which were victims of aggression fought back valiantly. In Asia, the people of China had to bear the Mint of
Japanese aggression from the early 1930s. The civil war that had broken out in China between the communists and the Kuomintang in
the late 1920s was superseded by a massive national resistance against Japanese aggression. In other parts of Asia also which were
occupied by Japan, for example in Indochina, Korea, Indonesia, the Philippines and Burma, people organized themselves into strong
resistance movements. The peoples who had been fighting against British a French imperialism expressed their support to the war
against fascism. Fascism was organized barbarism and was not considered an ally by the peoples who were struggling for their
independence. For example, the Indian National Congress while fighting for the independence of India from British rule expressed itself
against fascism.
The Damage Caused by the War
The Second World War was the most destructive war in history. The fascists had converted a large part of Europe into a vast graveyard
and a slavecamp. The Nazis hatred of the Jews has been mentioned before. Inside Germany and in those parts of Europe which came
under German occupation before and during the war, Jews were picked up and six million of them were exterminated. The labour of the
countries occupied by Germany was utilized and most horrible labour camps were started. Millions of people were transferred to what
are known as concentration camps and killed. Many of these camps such as those in Buchenwald, Oswiecim and Dachau were death
camps where new ways of killing people were introduced. People were burnt in gas chambers. There were mass massacres Prisoners were
made to dig mass graves, were shot and then buried in those graves. Certain kinds of factories were located near the concentration camps
which produced goods made from human skins and bones. The kinds of tortures and brutalities that the fascists, particularly the German
Nazis, perpetrated had no precedent nor did the mass scale on which they were practiced. Many of these brutalities came fully to light
when Germany lost the war, after the discovery of places of mass murders and from the descriptions of those in the concentration camps
who had survived. The atrocities committed by the Japanese in countries occupied by them were no less brutal. Inhuman medical
experiments were conducted by Japanese doctors and scientists on human beings.
The destruction caused by the war in terms of human lives has no precedent in history. Over 50 million people perished in the Second
World War. Of them about 22 million were soldiers and over 28 million civilians. About 12 million people lost their lives in concentration
camps or as a result of the terror unleashed by the fascists Some countries lost a large percentage Of their population. For example,
Poland lost six million people, about five million of them civilians, which was about 20 per cent of the Polish population. The Soviet
Union in absolute terms suffered the worst about 20 million people which was about 10 per cent of the population. Germany lost over
six million people, about 10 per cent of her population. Besides the human losses, the economy and material resources of many countries
were badly damaged. Many ancient cities were almost completely destroyed. The total cost of the Second World War has been estimated
at the staggering figure of $ 1,384,900,000,000.
Many new weapons of destruction were devised and used in the Second World War. The most dreadful of these was the atom bomb. The
atom bomb was first devised in the United States during the Second World War. Scientists of many countries, including those who had
come to the United States to escape the fascist tyranny in Europe, had helped in developing it. The project to develop the bomb was taken
up when a number of scientists, suspecting that the Nazi Germany was developing the atom bomb, approached the US government. They
had feared that if the Nazis developed the bomb, they would use it to terrorize the world into submission. The atom bomb was first tested
in July 1945. By then, Germany had already surrendered. Many of those who had helped in its development appealed to the US

70 History- Mrunal
government not to use it against Japan against whom the war was still continuing. They also warned of the danger of starting a race in
the production of atomic weapons if the atom bomb was used against Japan. However, the government of the United States used the
atom bombs against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as has already been mentioned. The two bombs killed over 320,000
people almost instantaneously and completely wiped out large parts of the two cities. The effects of these bombs on the health of those
who survived and on their children continue to this day. The government of the United States justified the use of the atom bomb on the
ground that it brought the Second World War immediately to a close and thus helped to save human lives which would have been lost if
the war had continued. Many other people, including many Scientists who had helped in making the bomb. condemned the use of the
atom bomb. After the defeat of Germany and the ending of the war in Europe, Japan was not in a position to continue the war and her
capitulation was a matter of days. Some scholars hold the view that the main reason for using the atom bomb was to establish the
superiority of USA in the world after the war as at that time she alone possessed these weapons. In any case, the prediction of the
scientists that the use of the atom bomb would lead to a race for producing atomic weapons came true. Within a few years after the
Second World War, some other countries also developed atomic weapons. Also other nuclear weapons, thousands of times more
destructive than the ones used against Japan, were developed which, if used, can completely destroy all human life on earth.
EXERCISES
1.

What were the main features of the fascist and Nazi movements?

2.

Explain the consequences of the economic crisis of 1929-33.

3.

What is meant by the term Axis Powers

4.

Describe the consequences of the victory of fascism on Italy and Germany.

5.

What were the main aims of the foreign policies of Italy and Germany ? Of Japan ?

6.

Describe the main events between 1936 and 1939 which created conditions for another

7.

world war.

8.

What did the Western powers do to counter the aggressive acts of Japan, Italy and Germany between 1931 and 1938?

9.

Describe the growth of national movements in Asia after the First World War. Name the Asian countries which won their
independence between 1919 and 1939

10. Explain the terms: Phoney War, Second Front, the Battle of Britain
11. On an outline map of Europe, show the countries which were occupied by Germany between 1936 and August 1939.
12. On an outline map of Asia, show the areas which were under Japanese occupation during the Second World War.
13. Try to collect the views of Jawaharlal Nehru and the Indian National Congress on fascism from books on Indian freedom
movement.
14. Read about the new weapons developed after the Second World War Write an essay comparing the destructive power of these
weapons with those used in the Second World War.
15. Do you think Western policy of appeasement of the fascist powers brought about the Second World War? Why? Or why not?
16. What was the basic reason for the policy of appeasement?
17. Do you think the United States was justified in using the atom bomb against Japan?
18. Why did the Soviet Union sign the Non-Aggression Pact with Germany? What did she gain from it? Discuss

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
After WW2: Birth of UN, Division of Germany-USSR-Yugoslavia (Part 1 of 4)
Prologue

71 History- Mrunal
So far, in the Old NCERT Class10, weve seen following
Ch.No.details
1

Imperialism, Colonization of Asia, Africa and Americas

WW1

Russian Revolution

Interwar years and WW2

Now 13th Chapter deals with World after Second World War, Cold War, NAM.
The UPSC GS Syllabus is silent about Cold war, while NAM is too clichd and outdated topic for International relations(IR), still this
13th chapter remains relevant in context of following topics of GS Mains paper I syllabus:
1.

Decolonization

2.

Redrawal of national boundaries

The redrawal of national boundaries had begun with Chapter 9 itself: when Imperialist countries started colonizing Asia, Africa and
Americas, recall the paper partition of Africa and how 30% of its national borders are straight lines.
Chapter 13 is the climax in terms of redrawls of National boundaries, we can see that:

Region

Boundaries redrawn after WW2

Europe

Germany=> East and West, later combined.

Fall of USSR leads to 15 independent republics

From Czechoslovakia => Czech Republic + Slovak Republic.

Yugoslavia breaks into

Eastern Europe

1.

Serbia and Montenegro

2.

Croatia

3.

Macedonia

4.

Slovenia

5.

Bosnia-Herzegovina

From British India to: India+Pakistan (+later Bangladesh)

Indochina => Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia
Asia

Vietnam=> North + South, later combined

Korea=> North + South, never combined.
China-Taiwan
Israel-Palestine

Anyways, lets start the chapter:

72 History- Mrunal
Chapter Introduction
THE world has been completely transformed during the years since the end of the Second World War in 1945. Its political map has also
changed. The influence and the dominations which a few European imperialist powers exercised in the prewar years became things of the
past. A large number of nations in Asia and Africa which had been suffering under colonial rule emerged as independent nations
Together, they have become a major factor in the world. The United States had emerged as the biggest power after the First World War.
The Soviet Union also emerged as a mighty power after the Second World War, in spite of the terrible devastation that she suffered
during the war Before the Second World War, the Soviet Union was the only country. In the world which professed socialism. After the
war, a number of other countries joined her.
The two world wars, fought within a brief period of about 30 years, resulted in the loss of millions of human lives. The danger of a new
world war which would destroy human life altogether created a new awareness of the need for establishing lasting peace. Peoples and
nations made efforts in this direction by promoting mutual relations based on friendship and cooperation. They also created many new
institutions and agencies for the purpose.
However, in spite of these efforts the period after the Second World War has been full of stresses and strains. It has seen many conflicts
and wars in which hundreds of thousands of people have been killed even though the world has escaped a large-scale conflagration.
Since the late 1980s, further changes have taken place m some parts of the world. Some of the consequences of the Second World War
and, in some cases, even of the First World War have been undone during the past five years. During this period, some of the issues
which dominated the world and some of the forces and factors which shaped the world for about four decades after the war have become
irrelevant. The threat of communism which had been a major factor in determining the policies of many countries since the Russian
Revolution and, even more so, after the Second World War is no longer an issue. Communist regimes in the Soviet Union and in the
countries of Eastern Europe have collapsed. The Soviet Union has broken up into 15 independent States. Many other changes have taken
place the world over and it is possible to think of the period from the late 19805 as the one marking the beginning of a new phase in the
history of the world after the Second World War.
Second World War: Immediate Consequences
During the war, the major Allied nations had held many conferences and had issued declarations stating the principles which would form
the bases of peace. The first major declaration had been issued by Britain and USA in 1941. It stated that Britain and the United States
would not seek any territory. It also supported the right of every people to have the form of government of their choice. Early in 1942 was
issued, as mentioned before, the United Nations Declaration. This Declaration supported the one issued by Britain and USA earlier.
Another declaration stated that all the Chinese territories taken by Japan would be restored to her. In 1943, Churchill, Roosevelt and
Stalin, leaders of Britain, USA and the Soviet Union, respectively, met at Teheran. They declared their resolve to banish the scourge and
terror of war and to create a world in which all peoples may live free lives untouched by tyranny and according to their varying
desires and their own consciences.
Yalta Conference
Early in 1945 when Germany was on the verge of defeat, the heads of the three big nations met at Yalta in the Soviet Union. Here they
agreed on a number of issues such as how to deal with Germany and the non-German territories which had been liberated from
Germany.
The Yalta Conference also took the decision to set up a new organisation to replace the League of Nations.
Birth of UNITED NATIONS
Subsequently, a conference was held at San Francisco, USA, from 25 April 1945. The conference was attended by 50 nations. On 26 June
the conference adopted the United Nations Charter under which a new world organization was set up This was the United Nations
Organization which was based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all peace loving states The purposes of the United Nations
Organization were to maintain international peace and security, to develop friendly relations among nations and to achieve international
cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character
To carry out these objectives, six principal organs of the United Nations Organization (now referred to as the United Nations or simply
the UN) were created these were:
1.

the General Assembly composed of all the members of the UN;

2.

the Security Council composed of five permanent members, viz. the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, France and China,
and six others to be elected by the General Assembly for a period of two years The Security Council was made primarily
responsible for the maintenance of peace and security (The number of nonpermanent members was subsequently raised from
six to ten );

3.

the Economic and Social Council of 18 members to promote respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental
freedoms for all

4.

the Trusteeship Council

73 History- Mrunal
5.

the International Court of Justice

6.

the Secretariat with a Secretary General appointed by the General Assembly as its head.

A number of specialized agencies of the UN were also created such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), the World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Labour
Organization (ILO) (this body had been created after the First World War), etc. It was realized that unless all the permanent members of
the Security Council, who were at that time the biggest powers, were agreed, no course of action for the maintenance of peace and
security could be effective. Hence it was provided that any decision of the Security Council must have the support of all five permanent
members. The setting up of the United Nations was one of the most important consequences of the Second World War.
btw, to see the complete list of various UN organs, download following PDF file
http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/structure/pdfs/un-system-chart-color-sm.pdf
The Potsdam Conference
Another major conference of the heads of government of Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union was held at Potsdam (near
Berlin) from 17 July to 2 August 1945. The declaration issued by this conference mentioned the main aims of the Allies with regard to
Germany which had already surrendered Germany had been partitioned into four zones, each under the control of Britain, France, the
United States and the Soviet Union. The declaration stated that the aim of the Allied occupation of Germany was to bring about the
complete disarmament of Germany, to destroy the Nazi Party and to prepare conditions for the creation of a democratic Germany. It was
also decided to set up an international tribunal to bring to trial persons who had committed crimes against humanity. Decisions were
also taken regarding the border between Poland and Germany, and the transfer of the northern part of East Prussia to the Soviet Union
and the southern part to Poland. The various conferences held during and after the war influenced the political developments after the
war.
Europe after the Second World War
Many countries in Europe had been liberated from German occupation by the Soviet armies. These countries were Poland, Hungary,
Rumania, Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia.
The Communist parties and other antifascist parties in these countries had played an important role in the struggle against German
occupation of these countries. By the end of 1948, the governments of all these countries were dominated by the Communist parties. In
Albania and Yugoslavia, the struggle against German occupation had, been led by the Communist parties of these countries. In these
countries too Communist parties formed the governments. The establishment of the Communist parties rule in these countries was a
significant development after the Second World War Up to the Second World War, the only country in Europe, and the world, ruled by a
Communist party was the Soviet Union. Now a large number of European countries were ruled by Communist parties. In these countries,
other political parties were either not allowed to exist or had only a nominal presence. The political power was exclusively in the hands of
the Communist parties.
The presence of Soviet troops in these countries ensured the continuance of the Communist parties monopoly of power. Sometimes, the
Soviet troops were used to suppress movements which opposed the domination of Communist parties. Within the Communist parties
themselves, differences over policies were not allowed and the power within, the Communist parties became concentrated in a few hands.
As in the Soviet Union, dissent even within the ruling parties was not tolerated and many veteran communists were shot or sentenced to
long periods of imprisonment after fake trials. Sometimes these countries were branded as satellites of the Soviet Union. The
Communist party of Yugoslavia was the only ruling Communist Party which refused to be dominated by the Soviet Union. But at the
same time, the government of Yugoslavia did not allow other political parties to function.
GERMANY: partition
Within a little more than four years after the end of the Second World War, certain developments took place which resulted in the
division of Germany The four powers Britain, France, the United States and the Soviet Union which were in occupation of four
different zones of Germany followed different policies in dealing with the social, economic and political problems in their respective
zones. In the British, French and American zones, the economic development continued on capitalist lines. The two major parties in
these zone, were the Christian Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Party. In 1948, Brain, France and the United States decided
to merge the three zones under their control which were in West Germany and form a separate government there. In September 1949
these zones were united and a separate state in West Germany called the Federal Republic of Germany with its capital at Bonn came into
being.
In East Germany which was under Soviet occupation, the policies pursued were different from those that had been followed in the
western zones. Lands were distributed among peasants and all the major industries were taken over from private hands and made the
property of the state. In 1946 the Communist Party and the Social Democratic Party in the Soviet zone of Germany merged to form the
Socialist Unity Party of Germany. In October 1949, the Soviet zone became a separate state called the German Democratic Republic. The
Socialist Unity Party of Germany became the ruling party in the German Democratic Republic. Thus Germany came to be divided into
two states, each following its own pattern of social, economic and political development. The division of Germany into two independent
states, which lasted for over four decades, was a major consequence of the Second World War.
GERMANY: Fall of Berlin Wall

74 History- Mrunal
The division of Germany had been a source of tension in Europe and a major factor in the Cold War. East Berlin was the capital of East
Germany (German Democratic Republic or GDR) while West Berlin which was located within the GDR territory was treated as a part of
West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany or FRG).
In 1961, the GDR authorities built a wall between East and West Berlin to prevent East Germans from going away to West Berlin.

The building of the wall became a further source of tension in Europe. The process of ending communist rule in GDR and of the
reunification of Germany began in 1989 when the Berlin Wall was opened and political parties which were outside the control of the
communist party (called the Socialist Unity Party) were allowed to function. In early 1990 elections were held and a new government
came to power. On 3 October 1990, the division of Germany was ended and a unified Germany again emerged.
France and Italy: rise of communism
In other parts of Europe also, important political changes took place. The Communist parties of France and Italy had played an
important role in the resistance movements in these countries. They had emerged as powerful parties at the end of the war.
France
In the first government formed in France after the war, the Communist Party of France was represented. However, it quit the
government in 1947 because of differences over economic policies and over the question of independence for the countries comprising
IndoChina. The French government was trying to reestablish its rule over IndoChina which the Communist Party opposed.
Italy
In the Italian government, the Communist Party and the Socialist Party were an important force. In 1946, monarchy was abolished and
Italy became a republic. In 1947 the Christian Democratic Party came to power and the Communist Party quit the government. However,
even though the Communist and Socialist parties were out of the government in these two countries, they were together a powerful force
in the politics of the two countries. For many years, in both these countries, the socialist parties became the ruling parties either alone or
in alliance with other parties The Communist parties, however, were almost throughout the period after 1948 kept out of the
government. In recent years, while the Italian Communist Party it is now called the Democratic Party of the Lefthas remained a
powerful force, the influence of the French Communist Party has declined
Britain: Rise of Labour Party
In Britain, the elections were held in July 1945. The Conservative Party whose leader Winston Churchill had been the Prime Minister
during the war lost and the Labour Party came to power. India won her independence during this period. During the Labour Partys rule
many significant changes took place in the economy of the country. Many important industries such as coal mines and railways were
nationalized. Steps were taken to provide social security to the people, and to build a welfare state in Britain. In 1951, the Conservative
Party was returned to power and the Labour Party became the ruling party in 1964. Thus, neither of these parties remained in power for
long and both of the parties were more or less equally matched. Only in recent years, there seems to have been a decline in the influence
of the Labour Party.
The political system in most countries of Western Europe was based on the parliamentary form of government. Their economies had
suffered a serious setback, and it affected their international position. Gradually through their own efforts and with massive American
aid, these countries were soon on the way to rebuild their economies However, the domination that these countries exercised over the
world before the First World War and to a lesser extent after that had declined. The period after the Second World War saw the rapid
decline of their empires.
Eastern Europe

75 History- Mrunal

Many changes of great historical importance have taken place in the Soviet Union and in countries of Eastern and Central Europe. The
most significant of these has been the collapse of the Soviet Union and the ending of the communist regimes there and in other countries
of Europe. In 1956, three years after the death of Stalin, the Communist Party of Soviet Union had denounced the excesses and crimes
committed by Stalin. From 1985, many important reforms began to be introduced m the political system of the Soviet Union with a view
to promoting political democracy. There was free and open discussion on every issue and curbs on the freedom of thought and expression
were lifted.
Reforms in economy were also initiated to end the stagnation that had set in and to improve the living conditions of the people. The
importance of these reforms was recognized the world over, Two Russian words were used to describe these reforms:

perestroika

Restructuring

glasnost

openness

The hold of the Communist Party over the political life of the country was loosened and other political parties were allowed to function.
Fall of USSR
In the meantime, there was a demand for greater autonomy by the republics which constituted the Soviet Union. Some republics wanted
to become independent. Attempts were made to frame a new treaty which would provide greater autonomy to the republics and at the
same time preserve the Union However, in August 1991, there was an attempt to stage a coup by some leaders of the Communist Party.
Though the coup collapsed, the Soviet Union began to break up. Many republics declared their independence. On 25 December
1991,Mikhail Gorbachev, who was the President of the Soviet Union during this period and had initiated the reforms mentioned
earlier, resigned and the Soviet Union formally ceased to exist. In place of the Soviet Union which had been a major influence on world
historical development for about seven decades, there emerged 15 independent republics. Though the rule of the communist par ties has
ended in all these republics, many of them are faced with serious political and economic problems. There are also many problems
between the republics although 12 of them have formed a loose federation called the Commonwealth of Independent States.
However, the names of republics have changed. The new names are

76 History- Mrunal
New Name

Old Name

1.

Russian Federation

RSFSR

Kazakhstan

Kazakh SSR

Estonia

Estonian SSR

Latvia

Latvian SSR

Lithuania

Lithuanian SSR

Ukraine

Ukrainian SSR

Moldova

Moldavian SSR

Armenia

Armenian SSR

Georgia

Georgian SSR

Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan SSR

Turkmenistan

Turkmen SSR

Uzbekistan

Uzbek SSR

Tajikistan

Tajik SSR

Belarus

Byelorussian SSR

Kyrgyzstan

Krighiz SSR

77 History- Mrunal
Equally important changes have taken place m those countries of Europe which were ruled by communist parties. There had been
outbursts of resentment in some of these countries against Soviet control and against the Soviet supported communist governments
since the 1950s. There were occasions when Soviet troops were used to suppress the unrest in these countries. The changes in the Soviet
Union affected these countries directly. There were mass upheavals in all these countries in the late 1980s. By 1989, Soviet control over
them came to an end. The monopoly of political power enjoyed by the communist parties in these countries was ended. There were free
elections and new governments were formed. It is notable that these far reaching changes took place in most countries without the use of
violence. In some countries, leaders who had misused their position for personal gain and power were tried and jailed. Many communist
parties no longer ruling parties in their countries expelled some of their former leaders who had committed excesses when they were
in power. In one country, Rumania, the Communist Party leader who for about 15 years had been the virtual dictator was executed. The
Warsaw Pact, the military alliance which was headed by the Soviet Union and of which the communist ruled states of Europe were
members, was dissolved in 1991.
Retreat of Socialism
The collapse of the Soviet Union and of communist governments in Europe has been a major factor in ending the Cold War. It has also
been seen as marking the retreat of socialism. It can, however, be said that the system which was built in these countries was only a
distorted version of the socialist ideal and that social justice which was fundamental to that ideal has become a part of the consciousness
of the people the world over.
The changes in Eastern and Central Europe, as in the former Soviet Union, have not been without problems, both economic and political.

Czechoslovakia had emerged as a new state after the First World War has broken up into two independent states the Czech
Republic and the Slovak Republic.

In unified Germany, there have been many instances of violence by neo Nazis against immigrants.
Bosnia

Developments of a tragic nature have taken place in Yugoslavia in recent years. Yugoslavia which had emerged as a state after the First
World War was ruled by a communist party since the end of the Second World War. The communist government of Yugoslavia had kept
itself free from the Soviet Union almost from the beginning. Yugoslavia was one of the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement. She was a
federation of six republics. In four of these republics, the rule of the communist parties came to an end in 1990. By 1992, Yugoslavia
broke up into five independent states the new state of Yugoslavia comprising
1.

Serbia and Montenegro,

2.

Croatia,

3.

Macedonia,

4.

Slovenia

5.

Bosnia-Herzegovina

However, the problems of Yugoslavia did not end with its breakup. A large party of Bosnia-Herzegovina is under the control of Serbians
and Croats. A bloody war has been going on between Bosnian Croats, Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Muslims, particularly between the
latter two, causing terrible sufferings to the people.
While these developments have taken place in one part of Europe, in another, Western, part (including Germany), there had been a move
towards European unity It consists in creating a Europe without borders, with a common currency and unrestricted movement of goods
and people and ultimately a political union with a common parliament. Some steps have already been taken in this direction. It may,
however, be remembered that the concept of European unity at present excludes all East European countries and some others.
In the next parts, well see
1

cold war, formation of military blocs (NATO, CEATO etc) and NAM

Independence of Asian countries after WW2 + Korean and Vietnam War.

Independence of Africa

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++

78 History- Mrunal
After WW2: Cold War, NATO, CENTO, SEATO, Warsaw and NAM (Part 2 of 4)
The Cold War
A major feature of the history of the world for almost four decades after the end of the Second World War was the antagonism between
the United States and the Soviet Union and the armed confrontation between the military blocs headed by them. This was the period of
the Cold War and the race in the designing and production of ever new weapons of mass destruction. It posed a danger to the very
survival of humankind.
Since the end of the First World War, the United States had emerged as the strongest power in the world. After the Second World War,
her power had grown still more compared with the European powers who had dominated the world for centuries. This was both in the
spheres of economic and military strength. After she acquired the atom bomb, the awareness of her power was further strengthened. The
United States at that time was the only country which possessed the atom bomb.
Next to the United States the mightiest power in the world after the Second World War was the Soviet Union. She had suffered more than
any other country in the war. Besides the 20 million people that she lost during the war, hundreds of her towns and thousands of
factories had been completely destroyed. However, in spite of these losses, her power and prestige had increased. This was to some
extent due to the very important role that she had played in defeating Germany. Since the revolution, she had been ostracized and
boycotted and had faced the open hostility of the other big powers. However, after the war, a number of countries in Europe, as has
already been mentioned, were ruled by communist parties. The Soviet Union exercised a lot of influence over the governments of these
countries. As a result of these developments, the isolation of the Soviet Union had come to an end. Also, in many countries of Europe, as
well as of Asia, communist parties had emerged stronger after the war. These parties were generally supporters of the Soviet Union.
Some of these parties were actively engaged in organizing revolutions in their countries. For example, the communists had been a major
force in the resistance against German occupation of Greece. A large part of the country came under their control when the German army
retreated from there. However, after the war was over, monarchy was restored in Greece and the new government began to suppress the
communists. This resulted in a civil war which lasted till 1949 when the communists were finally defeated.
During the war, Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union had together fought against the fascist countries. Many declarations
issued during the war had emphasized that the unity among these countries would continue after the war also and would be the basis of a
durable peace and international brotherhood. These declarations had aroused hopes all over the world. However, the war was hardly
over when conflicts and tensions began to emerge between Britain and the United States on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the
other. The relations between them began to deteriorate and came to be characterized by what has been called the Cold War Gradually,
the Cold War became more and more intense and the world was divided into two major blocs the United States and West European
countries forming one bloc and the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Eastern Europe forming the other. Sometimes the cold
war became hot but the hostilities remained confined to specific areas.
The most important reason for the outbreak of the Cold War was the Western countries fear of communism. With the increase in the
might of the Soviet Union, the emergence of governments ruled by communist parties in Eastern and Central Europe and the growing
strength of communist par ties in many parts of the world, alarmed the governments of the United States, Britain and other West
European countries. In 1949, the victory of the Communist Party of China in the civil war which had been raging there for about two
decades added to the alarm. The United States openly declared that her policy was to prevent the spread of communism. One of the
objectives of the massive economic aid that the United States gave to West European countries was also to contain communism The
United States began to look upon every development in the world from this standpoint, whether it promoted or helped in checking
communism Britain and West European countries became aligned with the United States and began to follow a policy mainly aimed at
curbing the growth of communism. This had many adverse consequences for democracy, and freedom movements in the colonies
Restrictions were imposed on the liberties of the people, for example, in the United States, and justified on the ground of national
security and preventing communist influence. The freedom movements in many countries began to be considered unsympathetically by
countries which were not themselves colonial powers but were aligned to the colonial powers. For example, the United States supported
France in suppressing the freedom movement in Indo China. Countries which wanted to pursue an independent policy and promote
relations with the Soviet Union were looked upon with suspicion. All these factors made the international situation tense hi some areas it
resulted in wars and in many other areas it led to prolonging of conflicts.
The growing tension in the world was worsened by the setting up of military blocs.
Military Blocs
NATO
In 1949, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed for defense against the Soviet Union. The members of this alliance were
the United States, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Portugal, Britain, France, Belgium, Holland and Luxemburg. Turkey, Greece, the
Federal Republic of Germany and Spain became its members later. A NATO army was created which established its bases in many
countries of Europe. Similar military alliances were set up by the United States and Britain in other parts of the world.
SEATO
In 1954 South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was setup with the United States, Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand,
Thailand, the Philippines and Pakistan as members.
Baghdad Pact

79 History- Mrunal
In 1955 the Baghdad Pact was brought into being. It consisted of Britain, Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan and Iran. The United States established
its military bases all over the world for use against what she considered the danger of communist aggression. The formation of these
alliances and the establishment of military bases worsened the already tense international situation. These alliances and the military
bases came to be looked upon by countries, which were not members of the alliances, as a danger to peace and to their independence. In
some countries which were members of these alliances, these alliances were very unpopular. For example, when there was a revolution in
Iraq in 1958, that country withdrew from the Baghdad Pact which had been named after capital of Iraq.
CENTO
The name of Baghdad Pact was then changed to the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO). These alliances were generally unpopular in
the countries of Asia and Africa as all the imperialist powers of Europe were members of these alliances and used it to suppress the
movements for freedom. Most of the countries of Asia and Africa which had won their freedom refused to join these alliances.
WARSAW Pact
As against these Western and Western sponsored alliances, the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Europe Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria and the German Democratic Republic formed the Warsaw Pact. Under this pact, the Soviet
Union stationed her troops in these countries. However, the Soviet Union and the other members of the Warsaw Pact did not have any
military bases in other parts of the world. The Soviet Union had treaties of friendship and mutual assistance with China.
Arms Race
The formation of the military alliances was accompanied by another dangerous development. This was the race for deadlier weapons of
destruction. You have already read about the use of two atom bombs against Japan towards the end of the Second World War. For about
four years after the Second World War, only the United States possessed atomic weapons. In 1949, the Soviet Union tested her first atom
bomb. A few years later nuclear weapons which were thousands of times more destructive than the atom bombs used against Japan, were
developed. These were the thermonuclear or hydrogen bombs. The testing alone of these bombs created serious hazards to life. Many
movements were launched in all parts of the world to demand a ban on the testing and manufacture of nuclear weapons. Most of the
leading scientists such as Einstein and Linus Pauling also supported this demand.
However, the arsenals of nuclear weapons in the world went on increasing. There are so many nuclear weapons in the world today that
the world can be destroyed many times over. Along with the nuclear weapons and many other kinds of weaponry, new bombers,
submarines and missiles have been developed which can carry these weapons over thousands of kilometers. The race for armaments
which was a part of the Cold War has created the danger to the very survival of human race. Vast resources have been spent on
developing these weapons. These resources, if they had been utilized for peaceful purposes, would have gone a long way in abolishing
want and poverty of which millions of people all over the world are victims.
End of Cold War

80 History- Mrunal

In the 1970s and early 1980s, some beginnings were made to end the Cold War. Agreements were reached between the United States and
the Soviet Union to eliminate some categories of carriers of nuclear weapons and to reduce the number of certain types of weapons
installed in certain areas. The process of ending the Cold War, however, suffered many setbacks, for example:
Afghanistan
In 1979, Soviet troops entered Afghanistan. This development increased the tension between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Star Wars
The United States launched a programme of developing new and even more deadly weapons, popularly known as the Star Wars. These
weapons would have meant taking the conflict into outer space and launching attacks from there.
However, the world situation began to improve after the mid 1980s and by the end of the 1980s it could be said with much certainty that
the era of Cold War had came to an end. By early 1989, Soviet troops were withdrawn from Afghanistan. Many other changes took place
from the late 1980s and it is generally agreed that we are now living in a post Cold War world. This can be considered as the most
significant and positive development that has taken place in recent years.
NON ALIGNED MOVEMENT (NAM)

81 History- Mrunal
Many newly independent nations of Asia and Africa as well as many nations in other continents did not like the military blocs. They
began to follow a policy of nonalignment with any military bloc. Their emergence played a very important role in reducing the intensity of
the Cold War and in creating an atmosphere of peace. A crucial role in promoting nonalignment and peace was played by India after her
independence.
The emergence of the countries of Asia and Africa as independent nations marked a new phase in the history of the world. These
countries which had been suppressed and kept under subjugation for a long time came to their own and began to play an important role
in the world. Similar developments have also taken place in Central and South America and the Caribbean. The countries which were
under European colonial rule in this part of the world have become independent The United States frequently interfered in the internal
affairs of these countries, particularly when radical governments came to power and tried to assert their political and economic
independence. One of the significant developments in this region was the Cuban revolution which overthrew the corrupt and dictatorial
government headed by Batista on 31 December 1958. In 1961, the United States sent mercenaries to Cuba but the invasion ended in a
fiasco and was crushed in less than three days.
Having common problems and sharing common aspirations, the peoples of these countries began to act together although there was no
organization binding them. However, they began to develop some common understanding on world affairs, particularly on the question
of the independence of nations which were still under foreign rule.
Bandung Conference
In 1955, an important event took place which helped to strengthen the unity of African and Asian countries. This was the Afro Asian
conference which was held at Bandung in Indonesia. The conference was attended by 23 Asian and 6 African countries. The leaders of
three Asian nations, India, China and Indonesia played an important role in the deliberations of this conference. The growing importance
of the Afro Asian countries was reflected in the United Nations where on a number of issues the countries of Asia and Africa functioned
as a group.
NAM: opposition to Military blocs
Another significant development in the world after the independence of Asian and African countries was the emergence of Non Aligned
Movement. You have read before about the Cold War and the formation of military blocs and the growth of tension in many parts of the
world. Most of the newly independent countries of Asia and Africa refused to join the Cold War. They considered the formation of
military blocs as a serious danger to peace and to their independence. These countries were faced with the enormous task of social and
economic reconstruction which could be done only in a world free from war and tension. Some countries in Asia had joined the military
alliances and had allowed foreign bases to be set up on their soil. The extension of military alliances and the setting up of foreign bases
were considered by most Asian countries as a threat to their Independence and a source of tension. Hence they opposed these alliances.
They were also aware of the danger which the continuance of imperialism in some parts of Asia and Africa posed to them and to world
peace. The Non-Aligned nations of Asia and Africa, therefore, were in the forefront of the struggle for the liquidation of colonialism.
Nonalignment has primarily been a policy aiming at the strengthening of independence, ending of colonialism and promohng world
peace. It was not merely a policy of noninvolvement with military blocs but a policy for creating a better world.
India under the Prime Ministership of Jawaharlal Nehru played a pioneering role in making nonalignment a major force in the world.
The other leaders who played an important role in the Non-Aligned movement were:

President

Country

Sukarno

Indonesia

Nasser

Egypt

Tito

Yugoslavia
NAM: Belgrade Summit

The first summit conference of Non-Aligned nations was held at Belgrade in Yugoslavia in September 1961. It was attended by heads of
state or government of 25 countries. Besides Yugoslavia and Cuba, from Europe and the Americas, respectively, the other participating
countries were from Asia and Africa. Three other countries attended as observers. The statement issued at the end of this conference
affirmed the basic principles of nonalignment such as
1.

the stabilization of peace

2.

liquidation of colonialism and imperialism in all their forms

3.

peaceful coexistence between nations

82 History- Mrunal
4.

condemnation of racial discrimination

5.

opposition to military alliances

6.

disarmament

7.

respect for human rights

8.

establishment of economic relations between nations based on equality and free from exploitation

The popularity of the policy of nonalignment was reflected by the number of countries which joined the group of Non-Aligned nations.
Beginning with 25 Countries which attended the Belgrade conference in 1961, there are today 109 countries which are following the
policy of nonalignment. They are drawn from Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. The Tenth Summit of the Non Aligned Movement
was held at Jakarta, in Indonesia, in September 1992. The Seventh Summit had been held at New Delhi with Indias Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi as the Chairperson, and the Sixth Summit at Havana, in Cuba, in 1979 under the Chairmanship of President Fidel Castro.
Two movements of national liberation the Palestine Liberation Organization and South West Africa Peoples Organization were made
full fledged member states of the Non-Aligned Movement. (As mentioned earlier, Namibia, whose struggle for independence was led by
SWAPO, has already become independent), All countries of Africa, including South Africa, are members of the Non-Aligned Movement.
Movement has played a very important role in world affairs, particularly in ending colonialism and in promoting peace. The Non-Aligned
countries are also working for the creation of a new international economic order in which the economic relations between nations would
be based on equality, nonexploitation of one nation by another, and the narrowing down of economic disparities between nations.
Nehrus speech @1st NAM conference
The word Non-Aligned may be differently interpreted, but basically it was coined and used with the meaning of being Non-Aligned with
the great power blocs of the world Non-Aligned has a negative meaning. But if we give it a positive connotation it means nations which
object to lining up for war purposes, to military blocs, to military alliances and the like. We keep away from such an approach and we
want to throw our weight in favour of peace. In effect, therefore, when there is a crisis involving the possibility of war, the very fact that
we are unaligned should stir us to feel that more than ever it is up to us to do whatever we can to prevent such a calamity down upon us
Some six, seven or eight years ago, nonalignment was a rare phenomenon. A few countries here and there asked about it and other
countries rather made fun of it or at any rate didnot take it seriously. Nonalignment What is this? You must be on this side or that!
that was the argument. That argument is dead today, the whole course of history of the last few years had shown a growing opinion
spread in favour of the concept of nonalignment. Why? Because it was in tune with the course of events, it was in tune with the thinking
of the vast numbers of people, whether the country concerned was Non-Aligned or not, because they hungered passionately for peace and
did not like this massing up of vast armies and nuclear bombs on either side. Therefore, their minds turned to those countries who
refused to line up.
The most fundamental fact of the world today is the development of new and mighty forces. We have to think in terms of the new world.
There is no doubt that imperialism and the old-style colonialism will vanish. Yet the new forces may help others to dominate in other
ways over us, and certainly the underdeveloped and the backward. Therefore, we cannot afford to be backward.
We have to build in our own countries societies where freedom is real Freedom is essential, because freedom will give us strength and
enable us to build prosperous societies. These are for us basic problems. When we think in terms of these basic problems, war becomes
an even greater folly than ever. If we cannot prevent war, all our problems suffer and we cannot deal with them. But if we can prevent
war, we can go ahead in solving our other problems. We can help to liberate the parts of the world under colonial and imperial rule and
we can build up our own free, prosperous societies in our respective countries. That is positive work for us to do.
In next parts we will see:
1

Independence of Asian countries after WW2 + Korean and Vietnam War.

Independence of Africa

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
After WW2: Asian Independence, Korean war, Vietnam War, Khmer Rouge (Part 3 of 4)
Asian Countries: Independence
The rise and growth of nationalism in Asia and Africa has been briefly mentioned in Chapter 12. The period after the Second World War
saw the emergence of most countries of Asia and Africa as independent nations. One country after another in these continents became

83 History- Mrunal
independent. They won their independence through long and hard struggles against colonial powers. To some countries independence
came only after long and bitter armed, struggle, to others without much bloodshed but not without a long period of strife. Generally, the
colonial powers were not willing to give up their hold on the colonies and left only when they found that it was not possible to maintain
their rule any more, During the Second World War, many imperialist countries had been ousted from their colonies, but after the war
they tried to reestablish their rule. For some time they succeeded in doing so but were ultimately forced to withdraw.
The achievement of independence was the result primarily of the struggles of the peoples of the colonies. However, the changes in the
international climate which followed the Second World War helped the peoples struggling for independence Imperialism as a whole had
been weakened as a result of the war. The economies of many imperialist countries had suffered. Forces within the imperialist countries
which were friendly with the peoples struggling for independence also had grown powerful. Freedom and democracy were the major
aims for which the Allies had fought against the fascist countries and these aims had been made the basis for arousing peoples all over
the world against fascism. The fulfilment of these aims could no longer be confined only to Europe, as had been done after the First
World War. In many colonies which fascist countries had occupied by ousting the older colonial powers, the freedom movements had
played an important role in the struggle against fascist occupation. For example, Japan had to face the resistance of the freedom
movements in the countries of East and SouthEast Asia which she had occupied. It was not easy to restore the rule of the former colonial
powers over these countries.
Another major international factor which facilitated the end of imperialism was the emergence of the Soviet Union and other socialist
countries as a major force. These countries were inimical to imperialism and often gave aid and support to the freedom movements in the
colonies. Similarly, the movements of socialism which had grown powerful the world over, including in the colonial countries, also
supported the movements of freedom in the colonies.
The entire international context in which the freedom movements were launched had changed after the Second World War. At the
international forums, particularly at the United Nations, the cause of the independence of colonies began to gain popularity. The
international opinion was clearly against the continuation of imperialism. Imperialist countries resorted to various means to maintain
their rule. They tried to create divisions in the freedom movements. They resorted to the use of terror. In some countries they tried to
install governments which were nominally free but were in fact their puppets. However, most of the freedom movements were able to
defeat these methods of disruption.
An important role in the achievement of independence by the countries of Asia and Africa was played by the unity which freedom
movements in various countries achieved. The freedom movement in one country supported the freedom movements in other countries.
The role of countries which had achieved their independence was very crucial in this regard. These countries supported the cause of those
peoples who were still under colonial rule at the United Nations and other international forums. They also gave active help to the
freedom movements. India played a crucial role in promoting the cause of freedom in Asia and Africa. Besides the movements in the
colonies for independence, there were also movements in Asian and African countries to oust outdated political systems, to modernize
the social and economic systems and to assume control over the resources of ones country which had remained under foreign control
even after freedom. These movements expressed the resolve of the peoples of Asia and Africa to become fully independent as well as to
launch programmes of rapid social and economic development. Within two decades of the end of the Second World War, the political
map of Asia and Africa had been completely changed.
India
Within a few years after the Second World War, a large number of Asian countries became independentOne of the first to win her
independence was India. India had, however, been partitioned and along with India, another independent state, Pakistan, also came into
being. (Pakistan broke up in 1971 when her eastern part now Bangladeshbecame independent). The independence of India was of
great importance in the history of freedom movements in Asia and Africa. The policies pursued by the government of independent India
under the leadership her first Prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, helped in strengthening the freedom movements in other countries and
in hastening the achievement of independence by them.
Burma
Burma, renamed Myanmar recently, achieved her independence from Britain a few months after India became independent. In 1944, the
Antifascist Peoples Freedom League (AFPFL) had been formed in Burma. Its aim was to resist the Japanese invasion of Burma and to
win independence for Burma. After the war, the British tried to restore their rule over Burma. This led to the intensification of the
movement for freedom. In the course of the struggle, many leaders of the Burmese freedom movement were assassinated. However,
Britain was forced to agree to the demand for freedom and Burma became independent on 4 January 1948.
Indonesia
The beginning of the nationalist movement in Indonesia has been referred to in the previous chapter. After the defeat of Japan, Sukarno,
one of the pioneers of the freedom movement in Indonesia, proclaimed the independence of Indonesia. However, soon after the British

84 History- Mrunal
troops landed there in order to help the Dutch to restore their rule. The government of independent Indonesia which had been formed by
Sukarno resisted the attempt to reestablish colonial rule. There were demands in many countries of the world to put an end to the war
which had been started in Indonesia to restore the Dutch rule. In Asian countries, the reaction was particularly intense. The leaders of
the Indian freedom movement demanded that Indian soldiers, who had been sent to Indonesia as a part of the British army should be
withdrawn. After India became free, she convened a conference of Asian nations in support of Indonesias independence. The conference
met in New Delhi in January 1949 and called for the complete independence of Indonesia. The resistance of the Indonesian people and
the mounting pressure of world opinion and Asian countries compelled Holland to set the leaders of Indonesian people free. On 2
November 1949, Holland recognized the independence of Indonesia.
Sri Lanka, Thailand, Philippines and Malaysia

SRI LANKA

Within a few months of, Indias independence, Sri Lanka (Ceylon) also became free in February 1948.

THAILAND

Thailand had been occupied by Japan and after the defeat of Japan became independent.

PHILIPPINE
S

During the war, Japan had driven out the American forces from the Philippines. In 1946, the government of the
United States agreed to the independence of the Philippines.

MALAYASIA

In Malaya British rule had been reestablished after the war. In 1957, Malaya (now Malaysia) became an independent
nation.

Chinese Revolution
You have read earlier about the unity between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China which had been built under the
leadership of Dr. Sun Yat-Sen for the complete independence and unification of China. This unity had been broken after the death of Sun
Yat-Sen and a civil war started in China between the Kuomintang under the leadership of Chiang Kai-Shek and the Communist Party of
China, whose most important leader was Mao Zedong. After the Japanese invasion of China, the two parties and their armies cooperated
for some time to resist the Japanese aggression. However, the conflicts between the two never ceased. The Kuomintang under Chiang
Kai-Shek was a party which mainly represented the interests of capitalists and landlords. The Communist Party, on the other hand, was a
party of workers and peasants. In the areas under Communist Partys control, the estates of landlords had been expropriated and the
land distributed among the peasants. Because of the policies pursued by the Communist Party, it gradually had won over millions of
Chinese people to its side. The Communist Party had also organized a huge army called the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA). After the
defeat of Japan and the driving out of the Japanese forces from China, the civil war again broke out. The government of the United Stated
gave massive aid to Chiang KaiShek, but by 1949 his armies were completely routed. With the remnants of his troops, Chiang KaiShek
went to Taiwan (Formosa), an island which had been occupied by Japan after she had defeated China in 1895. See the map:

On 1st October 1949, the Peoples Republic of China was proclaimed and the Communist Party of China under the leadership of Mao
Zedong Came to power.

85 History- Mrunal
The victory of the Communist revolution in China was a world shaking event. The most populous country in the world had come under
communist rule. Besides the socialist countries of Europe, there were now two mighty powers in the world the Soviet Union and China
Which were ruled by communist parties. Imperialism was further weakened in Asia as a result of the Chinese revolution.
China vs USA
The establishment of the Peoples Republic of China was a defeat for the United-States. She refused to recognize the government of China
for over two decades. According to the United States, the legal government of China was that of Chiang KaiShek in Taiwan (Formosa).
Because of the US attitude, the most populous country in the world was denied even membership of the United Nations for over two
decades.
China vs India
For many years, friendly relations existed between India and China. Together, the two countries played a very important role in the
freedom movements of the peoples of Asia and Africa and in bringing about the unity of the Asian and African nations. However, towards
the end of the 1950s, the foreign policy of the Chinese government began to change. In 1962, China committed aggression against India
which dealt a severe blow not only to the friendship between India and China but also to the unity of Asian African nations. Chinas
relations with the Soviet Union also began to deteriorate. She supported Pakistan against India over various issues. After 1970, her
relations with the United States began to improve. She was admitted to the United Nations and is now one of the five permanent
members of the UN Security Council (UNSC).
China after Mao
There were many turmoils in the political and economic life of China after the establishment of communist rule there. After the death of
Mao Zedong in 1975, many changes have taken place in the economic policies of the country. These are aimed at modernizing the
economy. For this, foreign companies and foreign capital have been invited and are playing an important role. Many practices which
were at one time considered basic to the concept of socialism have been given up. There have also been changes in Chinas foreign policy.
There has been an improvement in Chinas relations with India. In the political life of China, however, there has been little change and it
continues to be under the exclusive control of the Communist Party. The demand for democracy voiced by students and others some
years ago was suppressed.
The Korean War
Korea, as you have read before, had come under Japanese rule in 1910. After Japans defeat in the Second World War, she was divided
into two zones, the northern zone under Soviet occupation and the southern zone under American occupation, to bring about the
surrender of Japanese troops. The aim was to make Korea an independent state. However, as in the case of Germany in Europe, two

86 History- Mrunal
different governments in Korea were formed in 1948. See the Map

North

Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (North Korea) under the leadership of Korean Communists

South

The Republic of Korea (South Korea) by a group of parties under the leadership of Syngman Rhee.

Rhee was an anticommunist and wanted an alliance with Chiang KaiShek to prevent the spread of communism. Both the states organized
their armies and there were frequent clashes between them. In 1948, the Soviet troops withdrew from Korea followed by the American
troops who withdrew in 1949. Both the governments of Korea favoured unification of the country but there was no meeting ground
between them.
In June 1950 war broke out between North and South Korea. The Chinese revolution had already taken place and the United States
feared further expansion of communism in this area. The United States sent troops to support South Korea in the war. Troops from some
other countries aligned with the United States also fought in Korea. These troops fought as the troops of the United Nations because the
Security Council of the United Nations had passed a resolution condemning North Korea and had asked members of the United Nations
to aid South Korea. After the entry of the American forces in the war, the Chinese forces also entered the war and the situation took a
very serious turn. There was a real danger of another world war breaking out, as by this time the Soviet Union also had acquired atomic
bombs. However, though the war in Korea raged for three years, it did not turn into a world war. The armistice was signed in 1953 Korea
remained divided into two separate states. India played a very important role in bringing the war in Korea to an end. Even though the
war was confined to Korea, hundreds of thousands of people were killed, including over 142,000 Americans.
The Korean war added to the danger of another world war. It also worsened the tensions in the world and led to the intensification of the
Cold War.
Vietnam Partition
One of the most heroic battles for freedom was fought by the people of Vietnam. This country along with Laos and Cambodia comprised
IndoChina which had come under French colonial rule. After the French government surrendered to Germany, many parts of IndoChina
were occupied by Japan. The movement for the freedom of IndoChina from French rule had started many years earlier. The greatest
leader of the people of Vietnam was Ho ChiMinh. He had been engaged in organizing the communist and the nationalist movements in

87 History- Mrunal
Vietnam since soon after the end of the First World War. The Vietnamese people under Ho ChiMinh s leadership resisted the Japanese
occupation and organized a peoples army called the Viet Minh. By the time the Second World War ended, the Viet Mirth controlled a
large part of Vietnam. In August 1945, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed with Ho ChiMinh as President. However, the
British troops as well as the troops of Chiang KaiShek arrived in Vietnam in the pretext of completing the surrender of Japanese troops
there. In October 1945, the French troops also arrived with the aim of restoring French rule. In 1946, the French army started fighting
against the Viet Minh. They also set up a government with Bao Dal, who had headed the puppet government under Japan earlier, as the
ruler. The war between the Viet Minh and France continued for eight years. In 1954, the French forces suffered a severe blow at the
hands of the done to Vietnam as a result of the heavy Viet Minh at the fortress of Dien-Bien-Phu. The French defeat at Dien-Bien-Phu
has become famous because a peoples army without any sophisticated defeated the army of a powerful imperialist country. The debacle
at Dien-Bien-Phu compelled the French government to start negotiations with the government of Democratic Republic of Vietnam. In
July 1954 an international conference was held at Geneva. It was agreed to partition Vietnam temporarily into North Vietnam South
Vietnam and to hold elections all over Vietnam within two years to unify the country under a single government.
Cambodia and Laos, the other two countries of Indo-China were made independent.See the Map:

Vietnam War
With the partition of Vietnam, another phase in the freedom movement in Vietnam began. The government that was established in South
Vietnam, with the support of the United States, refused to abide by the decisions of the Geneva conference with regard to the holding of
elections and the unification of Vietnam. It came to be increasingly regarded as being under the control of the United States which was
opposed to the unification of Vietnam under the leader ship of the communist party. In the early 1960s, uprisings broke out in South
Vietnam against the government there. This was followed by the massive military intervention of the United States in Vietnam.
Hundreds of thousands of American troops were sent there with some of the most advanced weaponry to suppress the popular uprising.
The war continued for a number of years. The South Vietnamese people led by the National Liberation Front carried on guerilla warfare.
They had the support of North Vietnam. The American troops carried the war into North Vietnam. Incalculable damage was done to
Vietnam as a result of the heavy bombings by American forces. The American troops also used weapons of bacteriological warfare. Vast
areas of Vietnam were devastated and hundreds of thousands of people killed, The American forces also suffered heavy casualties.
The United States was almost completely isolated in the world over the war in Vietnam. Besides the opposition to this war by scores of
governments, there was a worldwide movement of protest against the U.S. government and of solidarity with the people of Vietnam. The
only movement of this kind had emerged in the 1930s in support of the Republican cause in the Spanish Civil War and against Germany
and Italy who were actively helping the fascists in Spain. The opposition to the war grew in the United States itself on an unprecedented
scale. Thousands of Americans refused to be drafted in the U.S. army and many American soldiers deserted. No other single issue had
united millions of people all over the world as the war in Vietnam. However, the U.S government continued the war even though it was
clear that she could not win it.
Early in 1975, the war took a decisive turn. The armies of North Vietnam and of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam swept
across the country routing the American supported troops of the government of South Vietnam. In January 1973, the American troops
had begun to withdraw from Vietnam. During the war in Vietnam, 58,000 of them had lost their lives. By 30 April 1975, all the American
troops had withdrawn and the capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, was liberated. North and South Vietnam were formally united as one
country in 1976. The city of Saigon was renamed Ho Chi-Minh City after the great leader of the Vietnamese people who had died a few
years earlier in 1969.

88 History- Mrunal
The emergence of Vietnam as a united and independent nation is an historic event in the history of the world. A small country had
succeeded in winning her independence and unification in the face of the armed opposition of the greatest power in the world. The help
given to Vietnam by the socialist countries, the political support extended to her by a large number of Asian and African countries, and
the solidarity expressed by the peoples in all parts of the world had helped in bringing victory to the people of Vietnam.
Cambodia: Khmer Rouge
The war in Vietnam had also spread to Cambodia In 1970, the government of Prince Narodom Sihanouk was overthrown and a puppet
government was installed there. The troops of the USA and South Vietnam had carried the war to Cambodia on the ground that the
Vietnamese were receiving their supplies from bases in Cambodia. By the time the United States withdrew from the war in 1975, a party
which called itself Khmer Rouge had taken control of Cambodia under the leadership of Pol Pot. The government of Pol Pot established a
regime of terror in Cambodia and started following a policy of genocide against its own people. The estimates of people murdered by the
Khmer Rouge vary from one to three million.

Genocide by Khmer-Rouge Troops

In 1979, Pol Pots government was overthrown with the help of Vietnamese troops. However, the war in Cambodia continued as the
Khmer Rouge still had some areas under its control inside the country. It also operated from across the border with Thailand. In the
meantime, three groups, including the Khmer Rouge and the group led by Narodom Sihanouk, came together in opposition to the
government in Cambodia which was supported by Vietnam.
Peace was restored in Cambodia recently. The United Nations brought the various warring factions together and an agreement was
signed under the auspices of the United Nations. The Vietnamese troops were withdrawn from Cambodia. In 1993, elections were held
and a coalition government was formed. The Khmer Rouge, however, remained outside the government and its troops continued their
armed attacks in some parts of the country.
In the next (and last) part of Chapter 13, well see the Independence of Africa.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
After WW2: African Independence: Egypt, French Guniea, Mau Mau rebellion, Apartheid (Part 4 of 4) West Asia
Syria and Lebanon
As in other parts of Asia, there was an upsurge for freedom in West Asia also immediately after the Second World War. You have read in
the previous chapter about the movement of the people of Syria against the French rule. After the war, the French tried to restore their
authority over Syria and Lebanon but, in the face of opposition from the people of these countries and the world opinion, they were
forced to withdraw. Both Syria and Lebanon became independent by the end of 1946.

89 History- Mrunal
There was an upsurge in all the Arab countries at this time and the 1950s saw their emergence as independent nations. Some countries
which had been nominally free asserted their independence. There were also movements to overthrow the outdated political systems
which existed in some countries. All these led to conflicts and, in some cases, prolonged wars between the Arab countries and the
imperialist powers. The period saw the growing power of Arab nationalism which led to efforts by the Arab people and governments to
come together to face and solve common problems. The Arab League was formed comprising all the Arab states.
However, before many of the Arab countries could gain their independence, a development took place in West Asia which was to become
a source of tension and lead to many wars in the years to come. This was the creation of the state of Israel.
Israel
Mrunal: Israel-Palestine has been discussed in detail in a separate article: click me
Palestine, as has been mentioned before, had become a British mandate in 1919. The British troops again occupied the country in 1945.
Palestine was inhabited by Arabs and Jews. A movement called the Zionist movement claimed that Palestine was the homeland of all
the Jews, wherever they may be living, and should be restored to them. The persecution which the Jews in Europe had suffered for
centuries had culminated in the Nazi Germanys policy of exterminating them. Millions of Jews were killed in Germany and in those
countries of Europe which had been occupied by Germany. The terrible tragedy had won them the sympathy and support of the world.
The British in Palestine had permitted some Jews from outside Palestine to settle there. The Zionists had, meanwhile, been campaigning
for a Jewish state there. This had complicated the freedom movement in Palestine the majority of whose inhabitants were Arabs. In 1947
the United Nations passed a resolution according to which Palestine was to be divided into an Arab state and a Jewish state. However, in
1948, the British withdrew their troops from Palestine and soon after the state of Israel was proclaimed. This led to a war between the
Arab states and Israel. The Arab states were defeated in the war.
The creation of Israel became a source of tension in West Asia. The Arab states refused to recognize her as a legitimate state, The policies
pursued by the government of Israel further added to the bitterness. About 900,000 Arabs were forced to leave their homes and lands in
Palestine and were rendered homeless. They found shelter in various refugee camps in Arab states. Most countries of Asia and Africa
condemned the Israeli governments treatment of the Arabs of Palestine and for following racist policies. In 1956, Israel joined Britain
and France in invading Egypt. Later there were other wars between Israel and the Arab states as a result of which Israel occupied large
parts of the territories of other Arab states.
These territories include the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights and the West Bank. More than a million Palestinians live in the occupied
territories. In spite of the resolutions of the United Nations, Israel refuse to vacate Arab territories and restore the rights of the
Palestinian Arabs, many of whom live as refugees in various Arab states. In 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was
formed to fight for the establishment of a Palestinian state. It enjoys the status of a member-state of the Non-Aligned Movement.
Recently an agreement was signed between the government of Israel and the PLO. Under this agreement, the PLO recognized the state of
Israel and the government of Israel agreed to give the Palestinians autonomy in some areas presently under Israeli occupation.
African Independence
You have seen in the [World History] Colonization of Africa article, that with the exception of Ethiopia and Liberia, almost every part of
Africa had been conquered by European imperialist powers by the end of the nineteenth century. After the First World War, the only
change that took place there was the transfer of the former German colonies in Africa to the victorious Allied powers. However, the
period after the First World War saw, as in Asia, a resurgence of nationalist movements in Africa. After the Second World War, the
disintegration of the colonial rule in Africa began. The achievement of independence by North African countries has been mentioned
already. The countries of southern Africa began to gain their independence after the mid1950s. Within two decades, almost every country
in Africa, with the exception of South Africa and South-West Africa (Namibia), became independent.
The freedom movements in Africa, as in other parts of the world, were the consequence of the growth of nationalism and the increasing
resentment against the exploitation and oppression by the colonial countries. The international situation further strengthened these
movements. The Second World War had resulted in the general weakening of imperialism. It had also shattered the myth of the
invincibility of some major colonial powers in Africa such as France and Belgium which had suffered defeat in Europe during the war.
The collapse of colonialism in Asia within a few years after the war also had a tremendous impact on freedom movements in Africa. The
question of Africas freedom gradually became one of the major issues in the world.
Egypt: Naseer
Recall the [World History] Colonization of Africa article. After the First World War, Egypt had become a British mandate. However,
under the pressure of the nationalist movement, Egypt had been declared independent in 1922, though British troops continued to
remain there. After the Second World War, the demand for the withdrawal of British troops gained strength. There were serious clashes
between the Egyptians and the British soldiers in which hundreds of Egyptians were killed. The discontent was also directed against the
king of Egypt who had been installed by the British. The discontent against the British and the king led to a revolution in 1952 when the
Egyptian army under the leadership of Lt.Colonel Gamal Abdal Naseer and General Muhammad Naguib overthrew the monarchy and
declared Egypt a republic. The new Egyptian government demanded the withdrawal of British troops and they were withdrawn in June
1956.
The government of Egypt under the leadership of Col Nasser began the economic reconstruction of the country. Egypt refused to be
aligned with the United States and the latter stopped the sale of arms to Egypt. Egypt, however, began to receive military and economic
aid from the Soviet Union. In 1956, Egypt announced the nationalization to the Suez Canal which had been under the control of Britain

90 History- Mrunal
and France. Three months later, Israel, Britain and France, according to a plan, invaded Egypt. The aggression committed against Egypt
led to worldwide protests. The countries of Asia voiced their vehement condemnation of the invasion. There were massive protest
demonstrations against the British government inside Britain also. The Soviet Union warned the aggressor countries that unless they
withdrew from Egypt, she would send her forces to crush the aggressors. Almost every country in the world, including the United States,
denounced Britain, France and Israel in the United Nations. The universal condemnation of aggression led to the withdrawal of British
and French forces from Egypt. The ending of aggression strengthened further the unity of Asian and African countries in general and of
Arab countries in particular. It also showed the growing strength of the countries which had won their independence only a few years
ago. The Suez War also added to the prestige and influence of the Soviet Union as a friend of the peoples who were trying to assert their
independence.
Libya: Gaddafi
In [World History] Colonization of Africa article, we saw that Libya had come under Italian rule in 1911. During the Second World War,
some of the most ferocious battles between German and British troops were fought in Libya. At the end of the war, the country was
occupied by Britain and France. In 1951, Libya became independent with a monarchical form of government. From 1960 she became one
of the largest petroleum producing countries in the world and as a result some sections of Libyan society grew very rich while the
majority of the population remained extremely backward. The king did not permit any opposition to his rule. The United States built one
of its strongest air bases on Libyan territory. In 1969, a group of army officers captured power and soon after abolished the monarchy.
The new government proclaimed that it would give primacy to the unity and solidarity of the Arab people
Algeria: De Gaulle
The 1950s saw the emergence of a number of independent nations in North Africa. However, the independence was preceded by years of
struggle against the imperialist countries which wanted to retain their colonial possessions. As in Indo China, the French returned to
Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria. However, in 1956 Tunisia and Morocco won their independence.
The North African country which had to wage the longest and the hardest battle for freedom was Algeria. She had been conquered by
France as early as 1830 though it had taken France another four decades to fully establish her rule there. As in Indo China, the struggle
against French rule in Algeria had a long history behind it. In 1954 the nationalist organisation of the people of Algeria called the FLN
(National Liberation Front) gave a call for an armed struggle against the French rule Armed clashes resulted in thousands of casualties
on both sides. By 1958, the Algerian nationalists had organized a large army of their own and proclaimed the formation of a government
of the republic of Algeria. The war in Algeria had serious consequences inside France. It created political instability in France. The
Communist Party of France along with many other French leaders had been supporting the cause of Algerian independence. However,
many sections in the French army were under the influence of the French settlers in Algeria who were opposed to any negotiations with
the Algerian leaders over the question of independence. In 1958, General de Gaulle became the President of France. He conceded the
right of the Algerian people to self-determination and opened negotiations with the leaders of the FLN.
This policy was opposed by some sections of the French army in Algeria, who revolted against de Gaulle and even made attempts to
assassinate him. However, the revolt was suppressed. On 1 July 1962, a referendum was held in Algeria and the people of Algeria voted
almost unanimously for independence. On 4 July 1962 Algeria became an independent republic. The independence of Algeria had been
won at the cost of over 140,000 Algerian lives.
Gold Coast = GHANA: Nkrumah
The first country in southern Africa to gain independence was Ghana. There was a powerful kingdom of Ghana in West Africa during the
eighth to the twelfth centuries. The British had conquered a part of this region to which they gave the name Gold Coast. The most
prominent leader of the people of the Gold Coast colony was Kwame Nkrumah, who in 1949 had organized the Convention Peoples
Party. A strong trade union movement had also emerged in Gold Coast. The Convention Peoples Party and the trade unions joined
together to demand independence from Britain. However, most of their leaders were arrested and attempts were made to suppress the
demand for freedom. After 1950, the British government started introducing certain constitutional reforms. Under pressure from the
Peoples Party which had won a resounding victory in elections, the British government agreed to the independence of Gold Coast. The
new independent state which came into being on 6 March 1957 called itself Ghana, after the name of the old West African kingdom. The
part of Togoland which had been under British control also joined Ghana.
Guinea
The next country to achieve her independence was the French colony of Guinea in West Africa. In 1958, while embroiled in the war in
Algeria, France held a referendum in her colonies which had been grouped together as French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa.
The people of Guinea voted for complete independence and Guinea was proclaimed a republic on 2 October 1958.
The achievement of independence by Ghana and Guinea gave additional confidence to the freedom movements in other parts of Africa
and accelerated the pace of achievement of independence by other nations. The promotion of the cause of African freedom was a major
objective of Indias foreign policy from the time India won her independence. Indias struggle for freedom had also been a source of
inspiration to African nationalists.
The year 1960 is generally regarded as the Africa Year. In that year, seventeen countries in Africa gained their independence.
These included all the French colonies in French West Africa and Equatorial Africa, Nigeria and Congo (formerly Belgian Congo, now
called Zaire).

91 History- Mrunal
Between 1961 and 1964, a number of countries in East and Central Africa also became independent. These were Kenya, Uganda,
Tanganyika, Zanzibar, Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia, Rwanda and Burundi.
Sierra Leone, Gambia, Lesotho (formerly Basutoland) and Botswana (formerly Bechuanaland) also gained their independence.
Kenya: Mau Mau rebellion
The freedom movement in Kenya was led by Jomo Kenyatta, leader of the Kenya African Union. In 1952, a revolt by peasants had broken
out. This is known as the Mau Mau rebellion. It was directed against the seizure of land by the British colonial authorities. To suppress
the rebellion, 15,000 Kenyans were killed and about 80,000 sent to concentration camps. Jomo Kenyatta was imprisoned in 1953 on the
charge of supporting the Mau Mau rebellion. Having failed to suppress the freedom movement, Britain had to give in and Kenya became
independent in 1963.
Many of the newly independent countries of Africa faced serious problems during the years following their independence. The imperialist
powers tried their best hi maintain their hold over their former colonies by direct intervention and by creating dissensions. In Congo, for
instance, Belgium, with the help of some other countries and the mercenaries from various countries, brought about the secession of the
rich province of Katanga. On the appeal of Patrice Lumumba, Prime Minister of Congo, United Nations troops were sent to bring about
the withdrawal of foreign troops and mercenaries. However, Patrice Lumumba was assassinated and the country thrown into chaos for a
number of years.
Portuguese Colonies
Before the end of the 1960s, almost entire Africa, with the exception of Portuguese colonies of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea-Bissau
and Cape Verde Islands, and South Africa, SouthWest Africa and Rhodesia, had become free. Powerful freedom movements had started
in the Portuguese colonies. They had organized their liberation forces and had secured the help of many countries in their struggle for
freedom. In April 1974, the Portuguese army, which had been mainly used to suppress the freedom struggles in the colonies, overthrew
the 50 year old dictatorship in Portugal with the support of the people. The communists, socialists and other radical elements in the
armed forces and the new government of Portugal were opposed to the continuation of the Portuguese rule in Africa. They entered into
negotiations with the freedom movements in the Portuguese colonies and by 1975 all the former Portuguese colonies in Africa became
independent. Zimbabwe (formerly Southern Rhodesia) became independent in April 1980.
South Africa: apartheid
South Africa Union of South Africa since 1910 and Republic of South Africa since 1961 has been an independent country in the sense
that she was not ruled from another country. The government of South Africa was, however, among the most oppressive regimes in the
world in the twentieth century. It was under the exclusive control of the white minority practicing the worst form of racism. Under the
system of apartheid established in South Africa, all people were classified and separated on the basis of race. Each group had to live in a
separate area. There were separate schools and universities, separate theatres, separate shopping centres, separate coaches in trains for
whites and blacks and others. The teams for sports also were formed on the basis of race. Marriage between persons belonging to
different races was a criminal offence. There were restrictions on movement from one, place to another. The best lands in the country
were under the control of the whites who had all the economic and Political power. The non-whites had no vote and no say in the
governance of the country. The system of apartheid was used to maintain the rule of the white minority over about 80 per cent of the
population which comprised black and coloured people as well as people of Indian origin. This system, in the name of separation of the
races, denied human rights to the majority of the population.
It may be recalled that Mahatma Gandhi had started the fight against racial discrimination in South Africa long before he became a
leader of the freedom movement in India.
Demonstrators protesting against apartheid laws were massacred at Sharpeville in South Africa, 22 March 1960. The main organization
of the South African people which led the movement for ending the rule of the white minority and establishing a nonracist democratic
South Africa was the African National Congress (ANC). It was set up in 1910. The movement against the obnoxious system of
apartheid was intensified in the 1950s. The government depended on the use of terror to maintain its rule. There were incidents of
massacres of peaceful protestors. In 1960, the African National Congress was banned and most of its leaders were arrested The ANC then
organized its own army to fight .against the racist regime.
South Africa was increasingly isolated from the rest of the world. India had been from the beginning in the forefront in support of the
struggle to dismantle the apartheid regime. She was the first country in the world to sever relations with South Africa and to extend her
full support to the people of South Africa Many other countries followed the suit. The United Nations also condemned the policies of
South Africa. In the 1980s some Western countries which had maintained military and economic relations with South Africa also
imposed sanctions against her. By the end of the 1980s, the international isolation of the South African regime was complete.
Nelson Mandela
From the end of the 1980s, the process of ending the system of apartheid began. The ban on the African National Congress was lifted and
its leaders released. Among them was Nelson Mandela who had been in prison for 26 years and had became a symbol of the struggle
against apartheid Many apartheid laws were abolished and negotiations were started between the ANC and the South African
government for framing a new constitution which would give all South Africans the right to vote. Elections in which all South Africans for
the first time were given the light to vote, was held in April 1994. After these elections, a new non racist and democratic government
came to power in South Africa, Nelson Mandela was elected president of the country.

92 History- Mrunal
Thus within the last three decades, most of Africa has become independent and the independence of the remaining parts cannot be
deferred for long.
Namibia
The last country in Africa to become independent was Namibia, formerly South West Africa. It was a German colony before the First
World War and was handed over to South-Africa as a mandate after the defeat of Germany in that war. South Africa treated South West
Africa as her colony and refused to withdraw from there is spite of the resolutions of the United Nations. The freedom movement there
was led by the SouthWest Africa Peoples Organization (SWAPO) which was formed in 1960. It gained momentum when SWAPO started
a war with the help of its guerilla forces to liberate the country. It was made a member of the Non Aligned Movement. The Non Aligned
Movement, the African governments and the United Nations played an important role in the success of the freedom movement in
Namibia. The war in Namibia came to an end in 1989 when South Africa agreed to a plan for the independence of the country. SWAPO
won a majority of seats in the elections which were held in November 1989 and on 21 March 1990 Namibia became independent.
AFRICA Renaming Places
Many African countries have changed their names. The colonial powers had given them names which had little to do with their past
history and culture. Some countries and cities had been named after colonial adventurers, for example, Rhodesia, Leopoldville,
Stanleyville, etc. The African peoples are trying to overcome the damage caused to them during the colonial rule. Renaming their
countries and cities after their original names is a part of their effort to reestablish and assert their independence and national identity.
The need to unite in the face of common tasks and for achieving common aims led to the emergence of the unity of all African states
These aims included the safeguarding of their independence and to help the liberation movements in those countries in Africa which
were still fighting for their independence. The most significant step taken in this direction was the formation of the Organdation of
African Unity (OAU) in 1963.

Click to Enlarge
World@1990
In spite of the many positive changes that have taken place in recent years, the world in the 1990s is not without tensions and conflicts.
While the danger of war involving the use of nuclear weapons has ended, or at least receded, there has been no reduction in the arsenals
of weapons of mass destruction. Their very existence is a source of threat to the survival of humankind. Similarly, with the end of the
Cold War, whether the world has moved, irreversibly, to a period of detente and, much more importantly, cooperation is still to be seen.
With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States became the only super power in the world. While the Warsaw Pact has been
dissolved, NATO, the military bloc headed by the United States, has continued to exist. There have been misgivings that the present
situation would make it possible for the United States, the only super power now, to dictate to others.
The world in the 1990s, with all its problems, is a very different place to live in compared with any preceding age People the world over
have a much greater say in shaping their destiny than ever before. For the first time in human history, the creation of One World has
become a possibility in which all peoples would cooperate with one another and would contribute their best to enrich their own lives and
of the entire humankind.
EXERCISES
1.

What were the immediate consequences of the Second World War in Europe?

93 History- Mrunal
2.

How was the political map of Europe after the war different from the prewar days?

3.

What is meant by Cold War 7 What were the factors which gave rise to it?

4.

Trace the history of the freedom movements in Asian countries.

5.

What were the main aims of the foreign policy of the United States? What was the reason for the military intervention of the
United States in Vietnam? What were its consequences?

6.

What was the impact of the Portuguese revolution of 1974 on the Portuguese colonies in Africa?

7.

What are the countries in Africa in which the struggle for liberation is still going on ?

8.

What is meant by nonalignment? Why did most of the newly independent countries follow this policy?

9.

Trace the history of the freedom movements in Africa

10. Describe the changes which have taken place in South Africa after 1989
11. Trace the developments that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.
12. Describe the mainchanges which have occurred in Germany and the countries of Southern Europe since 1989
13. On an outline map of Europe, show the countries which came to have communist governments after the Second World War
14. Collect information on the African countries which gained their independence after 1960, Show these countries on a map
15. Try to get a copy of the declaration issued by the summit of the Non-Aligned Movement held at Jakarta in 1992 Display it in the
classroom
16. Prepare a list of countries where summits of the Non-Aligned Movement have b een held as well as a list of participating
countries
17. Collect information about developments which have taken place in South Africa after 1993 and prepare a report
18. Collect information about the situation in Yugoslavia and the steps taken to implement the agreement between Israel and PLO
since 1993.
19. Discuss the factors which led to the weakening of imperialism after the Second World War
20. Do you think the Cold War has finally ended?
21. Some countries of Asia had become members of military alliances. Do you think it helped in strengthening their independence?
Why ? Or why not ? Give arguments with examples
22. Discuss the impact of the emergence of Asian and African countries as independent nations on the world.
23. What, in your view, led to the collapse of the Soviet Union and of the communist governments there and mother countries of
Europe? Do you think this collapse means that ideas of socialism are no longer relevant? Discuss.
24. Do you think the post-Cold War world is a safer place to live in and there is no danger of any country dominating over other
countries?

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Industrial Revolution, Capitalism, Their Effect on Society, Rise of Trade Unions & SocialismPrologue
Until now weve seen Old NCERTs, Class 10, Ch.9 to 13.(=Story of civilization Volume II by Arjun Dev.) In those chapters we got an
overview/foundation of following topics (from UPSC syllabus point of view):

94 History- Mrunal
1.

colonization, decolonization

2.

Two world wars

3.

(Political philosophies like) Communism and its effect on the society

Now moving to Old NCERT Class 9, chapter 7. In this chapter, well see Industrial revolution, political philosophies like Capitalism and
their effect on the society.
Introduction to Chapter

TOWARDS the end of the middle Ages, feudalism as an economic system had started declining. This process was furthered by
the Renaissance and other developments. The rise of towns and cities and the growth in trade stimulated the production of
manufactured goods.

There was an increase in the demand for goods which previously had been considered luxury goods. Life in the new towns and
cities had created a desire for many new goods also. All these factors provided a great stimulus to the production of
manufactured goods.

For a long time, however, the techniques and organization of producing goods did not undergo any significant improvement.
The traditional methods were inadequate to meet the growing demand for goods.

During the later half of the 18th century there began a series of changes which revolutionized the techniques and organization of
production. These developments resulted in the rise of a new type of economy an industrial economy.

The term Industrial Revolution is used to describe these developments because the changes came rapidly and they had farreaching effects on the history of the world.
Capitalism

The new system of society which had been emerging in Europe from the 15th century is called capitalism. Under capitalism
1.

The instruments and the means by which goods are produced are owned by private individuals and the production is carried out
for making profit.

2.

The workers under this system do not own anything but work for a wage.

3.

The owners of wealth under capitalism who are called capitalists do not keep their wealth or consume it or use it for purposes of
display but invest it to make profit.

4.

Goods are produced for sale in the market with a view to making profit.

5.

This system is in marked contrast with the feudal system in which goods were produced for local use and the investment of
wealth for making profit did not take place.

Feudalism

Capitalism

Economic life under feudalism was static as goods were produced for
local consumption and there was no incentive to produce more by
employing better means of producing goods for a bigger market.

Economy life under capitalism was fast moving with the

aim of producing more and more goods for bigger
markets so that more profits could be made.

Capitalism and Colonization

The discovery of new lands and the establishment of colonies had resulted in unprecedented expansion of trade and
accumulation of wealth by merchants.

The trade included also the trade in human beings, that is, slave trade. (Mrunal: We already saw the slave trade and triangular
trade under the [World history] Colonization of Africa.)

The colonization was accompanied by the plunder of the wealth of the people who were colonized. For example, the treasures of
the Inca and the Aztec civilizations were plundered by the Spaniards.

95 History- Mrunal

Mines in the newly conquered areas in the Americas were also exploited for precious metals like gold and silver. Large
numbers of native people were worked to death in these mines.

You have also read about the use of slave labour in the plantations in the Americas. Colonization of Asia caused similar havoc
and devastation. During a few decades of Dutch rule, the population of a province of Java in Indonesia was reduced to less than
one-fourth of its former size.

The defeat of the Nawab of Bengal by the English in 1757 was followed by years of naked plunder of the wealth of Bengal.
According to estimates of the English government at that time, the English Company and its officials received 6,000,000
pounds as gifts during the period of 1757-1766.

The plunder by the English contributed to a famine in 1769-70 in which about a quarter of the population of Bengal perished.
Thus a lot of wealth was accumulated in Europe for investment to make more profit.

In the words of Karl Marx,

The treasures captured outside Europe by undisguised looting, enslavement, and murder, floated back to the mother country and
were there turned into capital.
Industrial Revolution
The desire to produce more goods at low cost to make higher profits led to the Industrial Revolution and further growl h of capitalism.
The Industrial Revolution began in England in about 1750. It was then that machines began to take over some of the work of men and
animals in the production of goods and commodities. That is why we often say that the Industrial Revolution was the beginning of
a machine age.
Of course, there were many machines in use before 1750. The plough, air-pump, printing press and spinning wheel are only a few of the
many examples that could be listed. For hundreds of years each civilization had been trying to perfect old technical skills and develop
new ones. But after 1750, new inventions came faster, and they were of a kind that brought morn rapid changes in more peoples lives.
The Industrial Revolution changed mens ways of living and thinking all over the world.
The guild system had given way to the domestic or the `putting-out system. In the 18th century, the domestic system had become
obsolete. It started giving way to a new system called the factory system. In place of simple tools and the use of animal and manual
power, new machines and steam power came to be increasingly used. Many new cities sprang up and artisans and dispossessed peasants
went there to work.
Factory System

Production was now carried out in a factory (in place of workshops in homes), with the help of machines (in place of simple
tools). Facilities for production were owned and managed by capitalists, the people with money to invest in further production.

Everything required for production was provided by the capitalists for the workers who were brought together under one roof.

Everything belonged to the owner of the factory, including the finished product, and workers worked for wages.

This system, known as the factory system, brought on the Industrial Revolution The early form of capitalism about which you
have read before was now transformed to industrial capitalism.
Why Industrial Revolution started in England?

England in the 18th century was in the most favorable position for an industrial revolution, Because of following reasons
1.

Through her overseas trade, including trade in slaves, she had accumulated vast profits which could provide the necessary
capital. In the trade rivalries of European countries, she had emerged as an unrivalled power. She had acquired colonies which
ensured a regular supply of raw materials.

2.

After the disappearance of serfdom, people were no longer tied to the land and were free to do to any job they could find.
The enclosure movement had begun in the 18th century. Big land-owners wanted consolidate their large land-holdings. In is
process, small peasants who had all holdings in land were ousted and large army of landless unemployed people was created.
Thus there was no shortage labour force to work in the factories.

3.

As result of the revolution off the 17th century, a stable system of government had been established, which was no longer under
the domination of the feudal classes. Commercial classes had acquired more political power and there was no danger of
government interference.

96 History- Mrunal
4.

England had plenty of natural resources, such as iron and coal, essential for industries. The sources of iron and coal existed side
by side and this saved England from many difficulties that other countries faced.

5.

England developed a large shipping industry and had no problem of transportation.

No other country enjoyed all these advantages at this period. Some suffered from a lack of capital or natural resources and some from an
unfavorable political system. These factors made England a natural place for the Industrial Revolution to begin. Almost all other
European countries had agrarian economies and lived under backward political systems. Many of them, such as Italy and Germany, were
not even united and suffered from many economic restrictions.
Textile Industry: The revolution
In the 1700s the English East India Company was sending cotton cloth from India to England. Soon, calico cloth made in Calicut and
Dacca muslin and Kashmir shawls were in great demand in England. Shrewd English businessmen then began to import cotton and
make it into cloth in England. When the workers using old-fashioned spinning-wheels and handlooms could not keep up with the
increasing demand, a series of inventions came along to make faster spinning and weaving possible.
Powerloom
Hargreaves invented a machine which speeded up spinning. Arkwright adapted this machine for running with water. Crompton,
sometime later, combined the advantages of the machines invented by Hargreaves and Arkwright. These three inventions alone made it
possible for England to produce thread that was finer and cheaper than any that could be produced by others or with older techniques.
Then in 1785. Cartwright invented a power loom. This machine could he run by horses or bullocks and later, when factories were set up
along rivers and canals, water power was used to operate it.
Cotton Gin
But enough raw cotton for feeding these machines was still not available because the process of separating the fibres from the seeds was
very slow. A worker could clean only five or six pounds of cotton a clay by hand. In 1793, Eli Whitney, an American, unvented a cotton
gin This machine made it possible to separate the seeds from cotton three hundred times faster than by hand.
Steam Engine
Year

Cotton Import by England (kg.)

1760

1 million

1815

50 million

1840

250 million

Such a tremendous increase in raw cotton imports wouldnot have taken place but for the invention the steam engine by James Watt in
1769. It was this machine that made it possible to produce goods on a really big seal Machines run by the muscles of men animals, or by
water power, could not compete with those driven by the steam engine. This invention revolutionized production.
Blast Furnace
With steam power available, there a demand for more machinery. England had plenty of iron and coal to make steel and manufacture
machinery, but new and cheaper ways of processing iron had to be found. The development of the blast furnace and, later, the method
of turning low-grade iron into steel, enabled the English industries to produce steel cheaply. Thus they could have more and better
machines.
TRANSPORT Revolution
Railway
s

In 1814, George Stephenson developed steam engine to haul coal from mines to ports by railways.

In 1830, the first railway train began to carry passengers and freight from Liverpool to Manchester.

97 History- Mrunal

These events were followed by a great wave of railroad construction in England and the United States. As early as
1853 in Lord Dalhousies time, the first railroad was laid in India.

The need to transport raw materials and manufactured products led to the improvement of roads and the digging
of canals in England and other countries.

Mc Adam devised the method of making pakka or macadamized roads.

To expand facilities for transport by water much cheaper than overland England began connecting rivers and
lakes with canals.

Canal building spread to Europe and America and was a big help in providing cheaper transportation, especially
after steam boats came into use.

Roads

Canals

Postal Revolution
Improved transportation helped in carrying messages as well as people and goods. Rawland Hills idea of the penny post fast and
cheap communication by letterbegan to operate in England in the early 19th century. Soon it was adopted in other countries, including
India. People could thus send letters to and from all parts of the country at the same low rate regardless of the distance. Business
concerns took advantage of the penny-post in their buying and selling transactions far and near.
Agriculture Revolution
Farm Mechanization
There was a revolution in agriculture also. The revolution in agriculture in fact had started before the Industrial Revolution. Naturally,
there were changes in farming methods to produce more food, and more importantly, to produce cash crops for the market and raw
materials for industries. New farm machinery included the steel plough and harrow for breaking the ground, the mechanical drill
for seeding and the horse-drawn cultivator to replace the hoe. There were also machines for reaping and threshing.
Crop Rotation
Farmers adopted intensive manuring and the practice of crop rotation to maintain soil fertility. The latter is the practice of changing
the crop on a piece of land each year, for example, wheat, barley, clover, and so on instead of letting the land lie fallow every third year
as was done in the Middle Ages. Crop rotation is effective because different crops take different elements from the soil. Moreover,
planting a crop like clover can actually be better for the soil than letting it lie fallow, because clover is one of the plants that add fertility to
the soil.
Land Consolidation

Land-owners in England also began to enlarge their farms. They had already consolidated their holdings through the enclosure
movement, as you have read before. The strips of land that lay scattered about the village were so consolidated that they could
hold all their land in one piece. In doing so, the big land-owner quite unfairly got possession of the peasants small holding
along with his own.

Sometimes big land-holders took over the common meadow in a village also leaving the small land-owners and tenants with no
pasture. But the big land-owners controlled Parliament in those days and got laws passed that enabled them to do these things.

The result was that the peasants were forced off the land. With no other means of livelihood, they moved to the new industrial
towns and cities where they got jobs at whatever wage the factory-owner would pay. Industries thus benefited, but at the small
farmers expense.
Peak of Industrial revolution in England

98 History- Mrunal

Click to Enlarge
In a little more than fifty years after the use of machines began, England had become the worlds leading industrial nation. Between 1813
and 1855, for example, her textile exports to India jumped from 50,000 kilograms to well over 2.5 million. During the same period, the
amount of coal mined rose from 15 to 64 million tonnes and became an important export. Meanwhile, Englands production of pig iron
increased from 690,000 tonnes to over 3 million enough to supply all the machinery and hardware she needed at home, besides
sending vast quantities to other countries.
Industrial Revolution in Other Countries
In the continent of Europe, the Industrial Revolution began to make someheadway after 1815, after the defeat of Napoleon and the end of
23 years of war. Then machines were introduced in France, Belgium, Switzerland and Germany. However, unstable governments and
unrest among the people in some of these countries slowed the growth of industries for some time.
1.

France, by 1850, was developing the iron industry though she had to import both iron ore and coal.

2.

Germany had, by 1865, occupied second place as a producer of steel, but with England far ahead in the lead. After a late start,
Germanys industrial development took an amazing leap after 1870 when the German states were finally welded into one nation.
Soon Germany was to become Englands rival.

3.

Russia was the last of the big European powers to have an industrial revolution. She was rich in mineral resources but lacked
capital and free labour. After she freed the serfs in 1861, she obtained capital from foreign countries and Russian industry
moved ahead. However, it was only after Russias 1917 Revolution that rapid industrial development started.

4.

The United States had introduced machines and started factories before 1800 after gaining independence from England. By
1860 she had well established textile, steel, and shoe industries. The American industries grew very rapidly after 1870.

5.

Japan was the first country in Asia to industrialize. Traditionally, Japan produced mainly such articles as silk, porcelain and
toys. By the end of the 19th century, Japanese production included steel, machinery, metal goods and chemicals and in
quantities large enough for export.
Tariff barriers

As England was the first country where industries developed, she gained almost complete control over world markets. Even when people
in other countries began to use machines they found they could not compete with Englands low prices. To help keep these low priced
products from coming into their markets many countries introduced protective tariffs, that is- governments passed laws that required the
payment of such a High tax on imported British manufactures that similar products made locally sold more as they were cheaper. The
levy of tariffs to protect new industries became a wide spread practice.
Race4raw material

The search tor markets and sources of raw materials resulted in international rivalries. First England later, other Western
countries began to look for new sources of raw materials and markets for their manufactures.

99 History- Mrunal

Towards the end of the 19th century Japan was industrialized and joined the race. In this race, almost the entire nonindustrialized world was carved up into colonies spheres of influence or territories for economic and political
domination by industrialized countries.

Thus arose imperialism, under which strong nations subordinated the economies of the countries under their domination to
their own interests. They forced them to buy and sell on their own terms.

The race for colonies caused many an international conflict. The countries which had been industrialized late and had no
colonies, wanted to wrest them from those that had. Countries which had colonies wanted still more.
From Village to City

Before the Industrial Revolution, most of the population of the world lived in villages and was dependent on agricultural.
Almost all economic needs of man were met within the village itself. Almost the entire population was, in one way or the other,
connected with land.

The towns and Cities that had arisen since the beginning of civilization were, as you have seen, centres of craft and of political
and administrative control. Trade was carried on between towns and cities of the same country and of other countries and
affected only a very small percentage of the population.

With the growth of industrialization the picture was completely transformed. The centre of economic life shifted to the
cities. The new cities and towns that grew were important more as centres of industry than as political and administrative
centres.

A large part of the population now started living in cities where thousands of people worked in industrial establishments. This
population was not connected with land. Now in some industrialized countries, less than 20 per cent of the population is
connected with land.

In our country, though still an overwhelming majority lives in village there is a gradual increase in the population dependent on
industry.

In highly industrialized countries, the share of industrial production in the total national income is far larger than that of
agriculture. Urban and rural economies have become mutually dependent and complementary.

The crowding of people into cities has always produced problems of housing, health, and sanitation. The quickening pace of
industrialization in England created deplorable living conditions, concentration in smoky industrial towns, and city slums grew worse.
Even though the movement of people from village to cities has been going on since civilization began, it has always aroused sadness. Life
for a villager in the city resulted in many social strains. Many social bonds were dissolved. Many moral restraints which life in a
village community imposed broke down.
On the other hand, men became freer to develop their capabilities.
The Industrial Revolution brought countries and peoples together. The relations between countries and peoples, however, were not
based on equality as the industrially developed countries began to control the economy of countries which were not industrially
developed. In spite of this, the Industrial Revolution created an international consciousness among peoples because the
developments in one place began to influence the developments in other places.
Industrial Capitalism
The system of society which came into being as a result of the industrial revolution may be termed industrial capitalism. The main
classes in this society were

1.

Capitalist

the owners of the means of production.

Workers

workers who worked for a wage

Industrial capitalism: Consequences of

1.

It resulted in the concentration of economic power in a few hands.

100 History- Mrunal

2.

The independent craftsman became rare.

3.

A small number of capitalists came to control the lives of not only a large number of workers whom they employed but also,
directly or indirectly, the economic life of the entire society.

4.

The concentration of economic power in a few hands resulted in shocking social inequalities and created a wide gulf between
capitalists and the rest of the population.

5.

These inequalities were so obvious and so great that Disraeli, a British Prime Minister of the 19th century, spoke of the existence
of two nations in England- the rich and the poor.

6.

The Industrial Revolution produced a vast number of landless, toolless workers, who were wholly dependent on an employer.

7.

They had to accept whatever wage the employer offered, for there were usually more workers than jobs.

8.

Women and children were employed even in mines because they could be hired for less money.

9.

Often they had to work from 15 to 18 hours a day with no rest periods. If perchance they fell asleep on duty, they might be
beaten by a heartless overseer.

10. Working surroundings were unsafe and dirty.

housing
The houses provided for workers were no better. Whole areas of the industrial cities where workers lived were crowded slums. Accidents,
disease and epidemics were common. A report on the slums of Manchester in 1837 mentions, among other things, that almost all
inhabitants of many streets perished in cholera.
No Social security
If an employer was displeased with a worker for any reason, he could dismiss the worker at will. A worker had little choice but to accept
an employers terms, or be jobless. If he was ill and unable to work, he got no pay, and he might be discharged. If he suffered an accident
on the job, he got no help from the employer. When business was slack, a factory-owner regularly dismissed as many employees as
possible leaving them with no means of livelihood. It was the industrial workers in England who first endured conditions such as those
just described but the workers in other countries fared no better.
Child Laborers
The horrible condition of child labourers is stated in the evidence collected by a committee of British Parliament in 1816. The following
information was collected from a one-time master of apprentices in a cotton mill. He was asked questions by the committee on the
condition of child labourers in his factory.
At what age were they taken?.

101 History- Mrunal

Those that came from London were from about eight or ten to fifteen.
Up to what period were they apprenticed?
One-and-twenty.
What were the hours of work?
From five oclock in the morning till eight at night.
Were fifteen hours in the day the regular hours of work?
Yes.
When the works were stopped for the repair of the mill, or for any want of cotton, did the children afterwards make up for the loss of
that time?
Yes.
Did the children sit or stand to work? Stand.
The whole of their time?
Yes.
Were there any seats in the mill? -None. I have found them frequently upon the mill-floors, after the time they should have been in
bed.
Were any children injured by the machinery?
Very frequently.
Labour Laws

A few humanitarian reformers and some land-owners who were jealous of big businessmen combined with English workers to
get the first laws to improve conditions of work.

In 1802, England passed its first Factory Act, limiting the hours of work for children to twelve a day.

In 1819, law forbade the employment of children under nine.

Later laws regulated the employment of women and children in mines.

Trade Unions

Many of the laws to protect workers have been due to the pressure from workers trade unions. When the English workers first formed
trade unions, employers called them `unlawful combinations and laws were passed to curb such `evils.

But by 1824 the workers succeeded in getting laws against unions repealed and there was a remarkable growth in unions for all
the trades.

It may be hard to believe today, but it is true, that the English industrial workers did not have the right to vote in those
days. In the beginning in fact, the population of new industrial cities had no representation in Parliament at all.

In the thirties and forties of the 19th century, a movement known as the Chartist Movement, was launched to get the right of
vote for workers.

Though the movement declined by the fifties of the 19th century, left its influence and through the Acts of 1867, 1882, 1918 and
1929 all adult citizens were enfranchised.

The English workers also won the right not only to organize trade unions but also the right to strike to force employers to
concede their demands.
Trade Unions in other countries

102 History- Mrunal

The idea that the workers case must be heard in any dispute met with opposition everywhere.
Germany got the right to form labour unions in the late 19th century.
In the United States, where unions were frowned upon for almost a century, workers did not, gain full legal rights until the early 20th
century. Then the right to form unions, to strike, and to bargain with employers on the conditions of work was legalized and this was
followed by other laws that brought more benefits to employees.
The many benefits that workers and all salaried people enjoy in most industrialized countries today are due directly or indirectly to the
efforts to correct the terrible conditions that the Industrial Revolution brought about.
Laissez-faire

Protection for industrial workers could not have taken place without a change in the ideas of the responsibilities of
governments.

When the Industrial Revolution was gaining strength in England and the same was generally true in other countries the
growing belief was that governments should not interfere with business and industry.

The theory known as laissez-faire or let us alone, was then a kind of religion among capitalists.
laissez faire and Capitalism

According to the laissez faire idea, the businessman should be free to look after his own interests. Only the unwritten law of supply and
demand should determine the size of his profits. The same unwritten law would determine the fate of the worker, whether he had a job,
what would be his working conditions and salary. The famous economist Adam Smith voiced this idea in 1776 in a book called The
Wealth of Nations, and it had many supporters, too.
The laissez faire doctrine was opposed by many people. Gradually, almost all the countries came to accept the idea that the state has a
legitimate right and duty to regulate the economy. The Factory Acts in England and many laws dealing with the economy in all countries
were a consequence of this.
Today one rarely hears a voice in defence of laissez faire. Gradually, the states role in economic development has also come to be
recognized. This is true particularly of the developing countries that cannot modernize their economies without a comprehensive and
large-scale effort on the part of the state. In fact, in these countries, it is the state, rather than the private capitalist, that is the main
agency for economic development.
Socialism
The greatest challenge to laissez faire, and to capitalism itself, has come from the idea of socialism, which grew in the beginning as a
reaction against the evils of capitalism. The idea appealed particularly to workers. Through their struggles, they were able to achieve
much improvement in their living conditions. However, they came to believe that, for basic improvement in their life, socialism or a
complete re-ordering of society was essential. You will read about ideas of socialism and movements based on those ideas later.
The Industrial Revolution that began in England in about 1750 was a revolution in mans ways of producing goods and services. Abolition
of medieval, antiquated social, economic and political systems, arid industrialization to lead to an era of shared plenty became the
declared aims of one society after another who emerged as nations.
Ever since 1750, man has increasingly used machines and mechanical power to do the work that he formerly did with his own muscles
and the help of animals. Meantime, the machines invented by man have become more and more complex and provided him with goods
and services that could not otherwise be produced at all. Also, machines have increased the amount of goods man can turn out in a given
time, and enabled people to raise their level of living.
Industrialization and capitalism brought benefits as well as hardships and evils to man unemployment, smoky, crowded cities,
unhealthy living and working conditions, rivalry and conflict between nations. As working men got the right to vote and elect their
representatives in government, they forced the passage of laws that eliminated many of the early evils that industrialization had brought
about. Ideas of socialism also arose which, while recognizing the importance of Machines and making them even better, aimed at solving
the problems created by capitalism, by building a new social order. But many problem remain. The unsolved problems are a challenge to
all nations.
EXERCISES
1.

Explain the meaning of the following terms : Industrial Revolution, capital, capitalism, socialism, protective tariff, laissez faire.

2.

What conditions are most favourable or essential for industrialization?

103 History- Mrunal

3.

Give examples to show that the Industrial Revolution with its demand for raw materials and markets made nations more
dependent on one another.

4.

Describe the conditions which prevailed in industrial cities and factories as the Industrial Revolution spread. How these
conditions were slowly improved?

5.

Make a Time Line showing the most important inventions from 1750 to 1870.

6.

Make a bulletin board display of pictures of machines that revolutionized manufacturing, farming, transportation and
communication during the first hundred years after the Industrial Revolution began.

7.

Write a paper of 250-400 words on the subject: The Industrial Revolution was a mixed blessing.

8.

What are the main features which distinguish capitalism from feudalism?

9.

How did the growth of trade unions help to put on end to the idea of laissez faire?

10. Why does industrialization affect farming, transportation, communication, trade and how does it result in the need for more
education?
11. How does industrialization help in raising the level or the standard of living?
12. Study the weaknesses and disadvantages of producing goods and services under the capitalist system of production. What are
the advantages that a socialist system can have over a society based on capitalism?
13. Would you say that industrialization was a natural step in mans progress? Why or why not?

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++American Revolution: Causes, Boston Tea Party, Declaration of Independence (Part 1 of 4) Introduction of the Chapter
In the previous chapter, you learned about the rise of a new economic system in the world. In this chapter you will read of the
developments that transformed the political systems of many countries of Europe and of the Americas in the 18th and 19th centuries. The
basic features of these developments were the growth of democratic political systems, nationalism and socialism. Together with the
industrial Revolution, they brought about great changes and helped to determine peoples thought and conditions of life for a long time
to come. These developments began first in certain parts of Europe. Since then, particularly from the 19th century, the establishment of
democratic political systems and of independent states based on nationalism have been among the primary aims of peoples the world
over. Simultaneously with these in some countries and later in other countries ideas of socialism have inspired movements of social
equality.
Feudalism to Nation States

Under feudalism, societies were divided into classes some of which were privileged while the others were exploited. A mans
entire life was determined at the time of his birth, depending on the class into which he was born. You have read that the two
main classes in the feudal society were feudal lords and serfs.

The political systems of the time were also determined by the prevailing social and economic system. Most of the population
was excluded from having any share in the governance of the country.

Many kings claimed divine rights, that is, that their power was derived from God and not from any capability to rule. Their word
was law. A French king declared, I am the State.

The boundaries of states also were irrational. If you see old maps you will be able to recognize very few states of modern Europe.
There were all kinds of statesempires, feudal estates, city-states.

The territories within a state were not necessarily contiguous. The people inhabiting these states were not homogeneous.
Empires, for example, included territories far apart from each other and inhabited by people of different nationalities.

Similarly, the territories inhabited by a homogeneous people were divided into a number of states, some under a local ruler,
some under the Church and some as parts of an empire. As a result of many factors nation-states had begun to be formed.
However, this process was limited to a few areas. Most of the European states for a long time to come had no rational basis.

104 History- Mrunal

Middle Class

You have read of the rise of new social groups and classes during the later Middle Ages and about the role played by the middle
class in bringing about the Renaissance in Europe. In economic life, this class gradually became very important. However, it was
obstructed in its growth by the outdated political systems based on privilege.

It could grow only if it also held the political power. With the Industrial Revolution, the strength of this class increased further
and the removal of the outdated political systems acquired urgency. The spread of the Industrial Revolution in many countries
was slow because of the backward political system that prevailed there. Another important new class that arose, particularly
after the Industrial Revolution, was the working class, or the industrial workers. This class also was opposed to the autocratic
political systems.

Serfdom had declined in some countries but in most other countries of Europe, it was still the dominant feature of the social
system. There were many revolts of the serfs but they were suppressed. However, during the period from the 17th to the 19th
centuries, there arose movements in different parts of Europe to overthrow the existing political systems. The first successful
revolution which overthrew the autocratic monarchy took place in England in the 17th century.

Simultaneously, there was also the rise and growth of national consciousness and movements to unite the different territories
inhabited by the people of a nation if they were divided into different states, and to overthrow foreign imperial rule if the
territories of a nation were part of a larger empire ruled by an alien emperor.
The Renaissance

The Renaissance had inaugurated an era of questioning the established beliefs. Gradually, this questioning covered every aspect
of thought and belief. The period after the 16th century, witnessed an intellectual revolution when all the existing beliefs based
on faith came under heavy attack.

Great progress was made in various sciences, which also undermined the existing beliefs. The new ideas were characterized by
rationalism and were increasingly concerned with secular affairs. Because of the growing emphasis on reason, the period of the
18th century in European history is called the Age of reason or the Age of Enlightenment.

Gradually the beliefs that permitted people to be divided into higher or lower groups on the basis of birth, and into privileged
groups and others, and the hold of the Church in the sphere of ideas, were undermined.

The new ideas were ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. Thus arose ideas of freedom, democracy and equality, which became
the rallying slogans of peoples everywhere.

Simultaneously, there also arose ideas of nationalism which brought a sense of unity and oneness to the people forming a nation
and the desire to organize themselves into independent states with their distinctive national identities.

Movements arose in many parts of Europe and in North America to overthrow the existing autocratic political systems and
replace them by democratic political system and to abolish privileges and establish the equality of political rights. These
movements which began earlier became powerful forces in the 19th century Europe.

In this chapter you will read about some revolutions that led to the overthrow of autocratic governments and their replacement
by democratic forms of government. You will also read about some successful movements of national independence and
national unification. In the last section, you will read about the emergence of ideas of socialism and about the movements based
on those ideas which took shape.
What is a Revolution?

Changes in political and social systems have often been brought about by revolutions. A revolution, as you know from your
study of the Industrial Revolution, means a drastic or radical change.

A revolution can be the sudden overthrow of an established government or system by force and bloodshed; it can also be a great
change that comes slowly and peacefully. The developments described in this chapter were, in some aspects, rapid and
accompanied by violence but many of the lasting changes they brought about have taken place gradually and without bloodshed.

However, you should remember that every change of government is not a revolution. A revolution involves a fundamental
change in the entire political system of a country, a change in the nature of government, in the class or classes that hold political
power, and also in the aims of the government.

105 History- Mrunal

People do not usually revolt against a government or a certain system unless they believe that it is no longer possible to live in
the old way. Revolutions occur when an existing system becomes unbearable to a vast majority of the people. This, in itself,
makes conditions ripe for setting up a new system.

Revolutions are contagious. Revolutionary ideas originating in one place may spread to other places very fast and influence
the thinking and actions of peoples suffering under oppressive governments in other lands. Revolutions have played an essential
role in the development of human societies. Without them, one kind of system, however unsuitable for the times it might be,
would continue for ever and there would be no progress.
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

While some Englishmen were battling at home for improvements in Parliament and reforms in religion, others were
adventuring across the Atlantic to establish colonies and trade in the Americas.

In the 16th century, European countries began to make settlements there. In North America, colonies were established by
France, Holland and Spain as well as by England.

In the 18th century, England drove France out of the eastern part of the continent and Canada. She had earlier taken New
Netherlands from the Dutch, changing its name to New York.
The English Colonies in America

By the middle of the 18th century there were 13 English colonies in North America along the Atlantic Coast. Landless peasants,
people seeking religious freedom, traders, and profiteers had settled there. The bulk of the population consisted of independent
farmers. Infant industries had developed in such products as wool, flax, and leather.

In the north there were fishing and ship-building. In the south, large plantations like feudal manors had grown up where
tobacco and cotton were grown with slave labour brought from Africa.

Each colony had a local assembly elected by qualified voters. These assemblies enacted laws concerning local matters, and levied
taxes. However, they were under the rule of the mother country.

By the 18th century, the colonists found the laws which the English government imposed upon them more and more
objectionable. The idea of being an independent nation grew and developed into the Revolutionary War in which the colonists
gained their independence.
Causes of the War of American Independence
Economic

The colonial policy of England in economic matters was the primary cause of resentment in the American colonies. Englands
policies did not encourage the American colonies to develop an economy of their own.

The English Parliament had forbidden them to use non-British ships in their trade.

Certain products, such as tobacco, cotton and sugar, could be exported only to England.

Heavy duties were imposed on the import of goods in the colonies from other places.

The colonies were also forbidden to start certain industries, for example, iron works and textiles.

They were forced to import these goods from England.

Thus, in every possible way, the growth of industry and trade in the colonies was impeded.
Rent

The English also angered the colonists by issuing a proclamation to prevent them from moving west into new lands. English aristocrats
had bought lands in America and got rents from the farmers. They wanted to keep the colonists as renters.
Taxes to finance wars

106 History- Mrunal

As a result of continuous wars in Europe, the English government was burdened with debt. It needed money.

In 1765, the English Parliament passed the Stamp Act which imposed stamp taxes on all business transactions in the American
colonies.

Revenue stamps up to 20 shillings were to be affixed to legal documents and other papers.

This Act aroused violent resentment among all sections of the colonists and led them to boycott English goods. There were
uprisings in many towns and tax-collectors were killed.

The colonists claimed that, since English Parliament had no representatives from the colonies, it had no right to
levy taxes on them. The revenue from these taxes was used not in the interests of the colonies but of English.
Philosophers

The American revolutionaries were inspired by the ideas of the English philosophers of the 17th century. These philosophers
Locke,Harrington,Miltonbelieved that men had certain fundamental rights which no government had the right to infringe.

American thinkers, especially Thomas Jefferson, were also inspired by what French philosophers were saying and writing at
that time. Jefferson asserted the colonists right to rebellion, and encouraged their increasing desire for independence.

Support for independence was forcefully expressed by Thomas Paine, who detested the inequalities of English society, and
had come to America. In a pamphlet entitled Common Sense, he wrote, It was repugnant to reason to suppose that this
continent can long remain subject to any external powerthere is something absurd in supposing a Continent to be
perpetually governed by an island.
No taxation without representation

The leaders in the Massachusetts colony called together representatives from other colonies to consider their common
problems.

In this Massachusetts assembly, they agreed and declared that the English Parliament had no right to levy taxes on them. No
taxation without representation was the slogan they adopted.

And they threatened to stop the import of British goods. The threat led English to repeal the Stamp Act, but Parliament still
insisted that it had the right to levy taxes. Then Parliament imposed a tax on consumer goods coming into the colonies, such as
paper, glass, tea and paint.

Again the colonies objected saying that only their own assemblies had the right to raise money through taxes. In protest the
colonies cut down the English imports by one-half. The English withdrew the plan- leaving only the tax on tea to assert their
right to levy taxes.
Boston Tea Party

The tax on tea led to trouble. In 1773, several colonies refused to unload the tea coming in English ships.

In Boston, when the governor ordered a ship to be unloaded, a group of citizens, dressed as American Indians, boarded the ship
and dumped the crates of tea into the water.

This incident is known as the Boston Tea Party.

The English government then closed the port of Boston to all trade and precipitated the uprising of the colonies.
Declaration of Independence

The representatives of the 13 American colonies met as a group in what is called the First Continental -Congress at Philadelphia
in 1774. This Congress appealed to the English King to remove restrictions on industries and trade and not to impose any taxes
without their consent.

The King declared their action a mutiny and ordered troops to be sent to suppress it. The colonies then planned for military
defence with local troops or militia.

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In 1775, the first battle of the revolution was fought when a thousand soldiers met the colonial militia in Independence.

The Declaration On 4 July 1776, the Second Continental Congress asserted that all men are created equal, Congress adopted
the Declaration of that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these rights are life,
liberty and the pursuit of happiness.

The Declaration advanced the principle that the people are the source of authority and affirmed the peoples right to set up their
own government.

The Declaration also stated that the American colonies had been oppressed by the English government and that these United
Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states.

Up to this time the colonists had been fighting for their rights as Englishmen. After the Declaration in 1776, they fought for their
right to be an independent nation.
The War of Independence

George Washington was put in command of the American forces. The first battles took place in and around Boston. Then
English sent a force to Canada with the plan to march it south to meet another English force, and so cut the American colonies
in half.

But an English general spoiled the plan. As the English marched south, the Americans met and defeated them.

This victory of the rough American militia-men against a trained British force gave the Americans confidence.

The French government now decided to help the colonies with troops, supplies and fundsto embarrass the English, Frances
old enemy. Other enemies of EnglishSpain and Hollandwere soon fighting the English elsewhere

Meanwhile, trouble was brewing for Britain at home. There was a threat of rebellion in Ireland; some leaders in

Parliament were opposing the war with the colonists.

The war ended in 1781 when the English commander, Cornwallis, later to become governor-general in India, surrendered.

Two years later, in 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed and the English recognized the independence of its 13 former colonies.
The American Constitution

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When the war of independence started, each of the 13 colonies was a separate state with its own army, boundaries, customs
duties and finances. But they co-operated against a common enemy.

In 1781, as states of the United States, they united through a plan for a national government. A constitutional convention was
called in Philadelphia to frame a new constitution, which came into effect in 1789.

The American constitution established a republican form of government at a time when states in other parts of the world were
governed by monarchies.

The American Constitution set up a federal system under which powers were divided between a central or federal government
and the state governments.

Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, and his followers campaigned for the addition of a Bill of Rights to the
federal constitution.

This was done through ten amendments which guaranteed many rights to the American people. The most noted of these are
freedom of speech, press and religion, and justice under law.

The constitution marked the emergence of the United States of America as a nation in world history. It was the first written
republican constitution ever framed in history, which is still in operation.
Significance of the American Revolution

The words of the Declaration of Independence regarding the equality of all men and the inalienable rights of man electrified
the atmosphere in America and outside. Lafayette, the French general who fought on the side of American revolutionaries, was
soon to become a hero of the French Revolution. Thomas Paine also participated in the French Revolution.

By its example, the American Revolution inspired many revolutionaries in Europe later in the 19th century. It encouraged
Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central and South America to rebel and gain their independence.

The main achievement of the American Revolution was the establishment of a republic. This republic was, however, not truly
democratic. The right to vote was limited. Negroes most of them still slavesAmerican Indians, and women had no vote.

Election laws in all states favored men of property for many years. But progress towards democracy had begun. In some states,
state religion was abolished, along with religious qualifications for holding public offices.
The Growth of a Nation

Early in the 19th century, many new areas were added to the United States. The vast territory in the middle of the continent,
known as Louisiana, was purchased from France. Florida was acquired from Spain.

By the 1850s, after a war with Mexico, the United States had extended its boundaries to the Pacific Ocean. People had
continued to move west. The westward expansion of the United States was at the expense of the

American Indians who were driven out of their territories and in the course of a few decades their population was reduced to an
insignificant number.

Increasing settlements in the west brought about increasing conflicts between the southern states that wanted to extend slavery
to the western territories and the northern states that objected to a slave economy.

A change of revolutionary significance came with the Civil War when slave-owning states of the south seceded from the Union
and set up a separate government. The Civil War raged from 1861 to 1865 and ended in the defeat of the southern states.

It was a victory for the capitalistic industrial states of the north over the slave-owning states of the south. The federal
government abolished slavery. The abolition of slavery, however, did not end discrimination against the Black people and their
struggle to make equal rights a reality continued.

In the Next three parts, well see

French Revolution

Unification of Germany and Italy; Revolutionary movements in other parts of Europe

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Rise of Socialism

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
French Revolution: Causes, Consequences, Rise & Fall of Napoleon (Part 2 of 4)
Social Conditions in the 18th-century France

To understand how and why the French Revolution occurred, we have to understand French society of that time. We have to
realize also that conditions in France were no worse than the conditions that existed in other parts of Europe.

Autocratic, extravagant rulers, privileged nobles and clergy, landless peasants, jobless workers, unequal taxationthe list of
hardships endured by the common people is a very long one.

France was a strong and powerful state in the 18th century. She had seized vast territories in North America, islands in the West
Indies. However, despite its outward strength, the French monarchy was facing a crisis which was to lead to its destruction.
First and Second Estate

French society was divided into classes, or estates. There were two privileged classes

Privileged class

Also known as

Population

Clergy

First estate

1.3 lakh clerics

Nobility

Second estate

80 thousand families

People in these two classes were exempted from almost all taxes!

They controlled most of the administrative posts and all the high-ranking posts in the army.

In a population of 25,000,000 people, these two classes together owned about 40 per cent of the total land of France. Their
incomes came primarily from their, large land-holdings.

A minority of these also depended on pensions and gifts from the king. They considered it beneath their dignity to trade or to be
engaged in manufacture or to do any work.

The life of the nobility was everywhere characterized by extravagance and luxury. There were, of course, poorer sections in these
two top estates. They were discontented and blamed the richer members of their class for their misery.
Third Estate

The rest of the people of France were called the Third Estate. They were the common people and numbered about 95 per cent of the total
population. People of the Third Estate were the unprivileged people. However, there were many differences in their wealth and style of
living.
The Peasants

The largest section of the Third Estate consisted of the peasants, almost 80 per cent of the total population of France. The lives
of this vast class were wretched. Most of the peasants were free, unlike the serfs in the Middle Ages, and unlike the serfs in
eastern Europe in the 18th century. Many owned their own lands. But a great majority of the French peasants were landless or
had very small holdings.

They could earn hardly enough for subsistence. The plight of the tenants and share-croppers was worse. After rents, the
peasants share was reduced to one-third or one-fourth of what he produced. The people who worked on land for wages lived on
even less.

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Certain changes in agriculture in the 18th century France further worsened the condition of the peasant. He could no longer
take wood from the forests or graze his flocks on uncultivated land. The burden of taxation was intolerable. Besides taxes, there
was also forced labour which had been a feudal privilege of the lord and which was more and more resorted to for public
works. There were taxes for local roads and bridges, the church, and other needs of the community. A bad harvest under these
conditions inevitably led to starvation and unrest.
The Middle Classes

Not all the people belonging to the Third Estate worked on the land. There were the artisans, workers and poor people living in
towns and cities. Then there was the middle class or the bourgeoisie.

This class consisted of the educated people writers, doctors, judges, lawyers, teachers, civil servants and the richer people
who were merchants, bankers, and manufacturers.

Economically, this class was the most important one. It was the forerunner of the builders of the industries which were to
transform economic and social life in the 19th century.

The merchant-business groups, though new in history, had grown very important and rich, helped by the trade with French
colonies in America.

Since these people had money, the state, the clergy and the nobility were indebted to them. However, the middle class had no
political rights. It had no social status, and its members had to suffer many humiliations.
The Artisans and City Workers

The condition of the city poorworkers and artisanswas inhuman in the 18th-century France. They were looked upon as
inferior creatures without any rights.

No worker could leave his job for another without the employers consent and a certificate of good conduct.

Workers not having a certificate could be arrested. They had to toil for long hours from early morning till late at night.

They, too, paid heavy taxes. The oppressed workers formed many secret societies and often resorted to strikes and rebellion.

This group was to become the mainstay of the French Revolution, and the city of Paris with a population of more than 500,000
was to play an important part in it. In this number was an army of rebels, waiting for an opportunity to strike at the old order.
The Monarchy

At the head of the French state stood the king, an absolute monarch. Louis XVI was the king of France when the revolution
broke out.

He was a man of mediocre intelligence, obstinate and indifferent to the work of the government. Brain work, it is said,
depressed him.

His beautiful but empty-headed wife, Marie Antoinette, squandered money on festivities and interfered in state
appointments in order to promote her favorites. Louis, too, showered favours and pensions upon his friends.

The state was always faced by financial troubles as one would expect. Keeping huge armies and waging wars made matters
worse. Finally, it brought the state to bankruptcy.
The Intellectual Movement

Discontent or even wretchedness is not enough to make a successful revolution. Someone must help the discontented to focus on an
enemy and provide ideals to fight for. In other words, revolutionary thinking and ideas must precede revolutionary action. France in the
18th century had many revolutionary thinkers. Without the ideas spread by these philosophers, the French Revolution would simply have
been an outbreak of violence.
Rationalism: the Age of Reason

Because of the ideas expressed by the French intellectuals, the 18th century has been called the Age of Reason. Christianity had
taught that man was born to suffer.

111 History- Mrunal

The French revolutionary philosophers asserted that man was born to be happy. They believed that man can attain happiness if
reason is allowed to destroy prejudice and reform mans institutions.

They either denied the existence of God or ignored Him. In place of God they asserted the doctrine of Nature and the need to
understand its laws.

They urged faith in reason. The power of reason alone, they said, was sufficient to build a perfect society.
Attack on the Clergy

The clergy were the first to feel the brunt of the French philosophers. A long series of scientific advances dating from the
Renaissance helped in their campaign against the clergy.

Voltaire, one of the most famous French writers of the time, though not an atheist, believed all religions absurd and contrary
to reason.

After Voltaire, other philosophers, atheists and materialists, gained popularity. They believed that mans destiny lay in this
world rather than in heaven.

Writings attacking religion fed the fires of revolution because the Church gave support to autocratic monarchy and the old
order.
Physiocrates and Laissez Faire

The French economists of the time were called physiocrats. They believed in Laissez faire about which youve already read in
chapter7 (click me)

According to this theory, a person must be left free to manage and dispose of his property in the way he thinks best. Like the
English and American revolutionaries before them, the physiocrats said that taxes should be imposed only with the consent of
those on whom they were levied. These ideas were a direct denial of the privileges and feudal rights that protected the upper
classes.
Democracy: Jean Jacques Rousseau

The philosopher-writer, Montesquieu, thought about the kind of government that is best suited to man and outlined the
principles of constitutional monarchy.

However, it was Jean Jacques Rousseau who asserted the doctrine of popular sovereignty and democracy. He said, Man is
born free, yet everywhere he is in chains. He talked of the state of nature when man was free, and said that freedom was lost
following the emergence of property.

He recognized property in modern societies as a necessary evil.

What was needed, said Rousseau, was a new social contract to guarantee the freedom, equality and happiness which man
had enjoyed in the state of nature.

Rousseaus theories also contained a principle that had been written into the American Declaration of Independence: no
political system can maintain itself without the consent of the governed.
Outbreak of the Revolution

In 1789, Louis XVIs need for money compelled him to agree to a meeting of the States General the old feudal assembly. Louis
wanted to obtain its consent for new loans and taxes. All three Estates were represented in it but each one held a separate
meeting.

On 17 June 1789, members of the Third Estate, claiming to represent 96 per cent of the nations population, declared themselves
the National Assembly.

On 20 June, they found their meeting-hall occupied by royal guards but, determined to meet, they moved to the nearby royal
tennis court to work out a constitution.

112 History- Mrunal

Louis then made preparations to break up the Assembly. Troops were called: rumours spread that leading members of the
Assembly would soon be arrested. This enraged the people, who began to gather in their thousands.

They were soon joined by the guards. They surrounded the Bastille, a state prison,

On 14 July. After a four-hour siege, they broke open the doors, freeing all the prisoners. The fall of the Bastille symbolized the
fall of autocracy. July 14 is celebrated every year as a national holiday in France.
After Fall of Bastille

After 14 July 1789, Louis XVI was king only in name. The National Assembly began to enact laws.

Following the fall of the Bastille, the revolt spread to other towns and cities and finally into the countryside. The National
Assembly adopted the famous Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. It specified the equality of all men before the
law, eligibility of all citizens for all pubic offices, freedom from arrest or punishment without proven cause, freedom of speech
and freedom of the press.

Most important of all, to the middle class, it required equitable distribution of the burdens of taxation and rights of private
property.

The revolutionary importance of this declaration for Europe cannot be overestimated. Every government in Europe was based
on privilege. If these ideas were applied, the entire old order of Europe would be destroyed.
War and End of Monarchy

The people of France were soon involved in a war to defend the Revolution and the nation. Many nobles and clerics fled the
country and encouraged foreign governments to intervene in France against the Revolution. The king and queen tried to escape
from France in disguise but they were recognized and brought back as captives and traitors.

The old National Assembly was replaced by a Legislative Assembly. This Assembly took over the property of those people who
had fled. It sent word to the Austrian emperor, who was mobilizing support against France to renounce every treaty directed
against the French nation. When the emperor refused, the Legislative Assembly declared war.

Soon France was fighting Austria, Prussia, and Savoy in Italy. The three were supported by an army of the French exiles.

France had destroyed feudalism and monarchy and founded new institutions based on liberty and equality, whereas in these
countries the old way of life remained. The commander-in-chief of the Austro-Prussian forces stated that the aim was to
suppress anarchy in France and to restore the kings authority. The French revolutionaries replied by offering fraternity and
assistance to all people wishing to destroy the old order in their countries.

The king and queen were tried and executed in 1793. This was followed by a declaration of war against Britain, Holland, Spain
and Hungary.

Then, a radical group, the Jacobins, believing in direct democracy, tame to power. Fearing that the Revolution was in danger,
this group took to strong measures to crush forces inimical to the Revolution. In 14 months, some 17,000 people, including
those who were innocent, were tried and executed. Some people have called it the Reign of Terror. Later, a new constitution
was drawn up. But the army became increasingly powerful and this led to the rise of Napoleon, who was soon to declare himself
Emperor of the French Republic.
Napoleonic Wars

From 1792 to 1815, France was engaged in war almost continuously. It was a war between France and other states. Some
historians have termed it as an international civil war because it was fought between revolutionary France and countries
upholding the old order. In this war, France was alone.

However, until Napoleon became emperor, almost every enlightened person in the world sympathized with the French
Revolution.

Between 1793 and 1796 French armies conquered almost all of western Europe. When Napoleon pressed on to Malta, Egypt and
Syria (1797-99), the French were ousted from Italy.

113 History- Mrunal

After Napoleon seized power, France recovered the territories she had lost and defeated Austria in 1805, Prussia in 1806, and
Russia in 1807. On the sea the French could not score against the stronger British navy.

Finally, an alliance of almost all Europe defeated France at Leipzig in 1813. These allied forces later occupied Paris, and
Napoleon was defeated. His attempt at recovery was foiled at the battle of Waterloo in June 1815. The peace settlement,
which involved all Europe, took place at the Congress of Vienna.

After the defeat of Napoleon, the old ruling dynasty of France was restored to power.

However, within a few years, in 1830, there was another outbreak of revolution.

In 1848, the monarchy was again overthrown though it soon reappeared.

Finally, in 1871, the Republic was again proclaimed.

Mindmap of French Revolution (Click to Enlarge)

Consequences of the Revolution
1.

A major result of the Revolution was the destruction of feudalism in France. All the laws of the old feudal regime were
annulled. Church lands and lands held in common by the community were bought by the middle classes. The lands of nobles
were confiscated. Privileged classes were abolished.

2.

After Napoleon seized power. The Napoleonic Code was introduced. Many elements of this Code remained in force for a long
time; some of them exist even to this day.

3.

Another lasting result of the Revolution in France was the building up of a new economic system in place of the feudal system
which had been overthrown. This system wascapitalism about which you have read in Chapter 7. Even the restored monarchy
could not bring back the feudal system or destroy the new economic institutions that had come into being.

4.

The French Revolution gave the term nation its modern meaning. A nation is not the territory that the people belonging to
it inhabit but the people themselves. France was not merely the territories known as France but the French people.

5.

From this followed the idea of sovereignty, that a nation recognizes no law or authority above its own. And if a nation is
sovereign, that means the people constituting the nation are the source of all power and authority. There cannot be any rulers
above the people, only a republic in which the government derives its authority from the people and is answerable to the people.
It is interesting to remember that when Napoleon became emperor he called himself the Emperor of the French Republic. Such
was the strength of the idea of peoples sovereignty.

6.

It was this idea of the people being the sovereign that gave France her military strength. The entire nation was united behind
the army which consisted of revolutionary citizens. In a war in which almost all of Europe was ranged against France, she would
have had no chance with just a mercenary army.

114 History- Mrunal

7.

Under the Jacobin constitution, all people were given the right to vote and the right of insurrection. The constitution
stated that the government must provide the people with work or livelihood. The happiness of all was proclaimed as the aim of
government. Though it was never really put into effect, it was the first genuinely democratic constitution in history.

8.

The government abolished slavery in the French colonies.

9.

Napoleons rise to power was a step backward. However, though he destroyed the Republic and established an empire, the idea
of the republic could not be destroyed.

10. The Revolution had come about with the support and blood of common people the city poor and the peasants. In 1792, for the
first time in history, workers, peasants and other non-propertied classes were given equal political rights.
11. Although the right to vote and elect representatives did not solve the problems of the common people. The peasants got their
lands. But to the workers and artisans the people who were the backbone of the revolutionary movementthe Revolution did
not bring real equality. To them, real equality could come only with economic equality.
12. France soon became one of the first countries where the ideas of social equality, of socialism, gave rise to a new kind of political
movement.
Impact of French Revolution on the World

The French Revolution had been a world-shaking event. For years to come its direct influence was felt in many parts of the
world. It inspired revolutionary movements in almost every country of Europe and in South and Central America.

For a long time the French Revolution became the classic example of a revolution which people of many nations tried to
emulate.

The impact of the French Revolution can be summed up, in the words of T. Kolokotrones, one of the revolutionary fighters in
the Greek war of independence: According to my judgment, the French Revolution and the doings of Napoleon opened the
eyes of the world. The nations knew nothing before, and the people thought that kings were gods upon the earth and that they
were bound to say that whatever they did was well done. Through this present change it is more difficult to rule the people.

Even though the old ruling dynasty of France had been restored to power in 1815, and the autocratic governments of Europe
found themselves safe for the time being, the rulers found it increasingly difficult to rule the people.

Some of the changes that took place in many parts of Europe and the Americas in the early 19th century were the immediate,
direct consequences of the Revolution and the Napoleonic wars.

The wars in which France was engaged with other European powers had resulted in the French occupation of vast areas of
Europe for some time.

The French soldiers, wherever they went, carried with them ideas of liberty and equality shaking the old feudal order. They
destroyed serfdom in areas which came under their occupation and modernized the systems of administration.

Under Napoleon, the French had become conquerors instead of liberators. The countries which organized popular resistance
against the French occupation carried out reforms in their social and political system. The leading powers of Europe did not
succeed in restoring the old order either in France or in the countries that the Revolution had reached.

The political and social systems of the 18th century had received a heavy blow. They were soon to die in most of Europe under
the impact of the revolutionary movements that sprang up everywhere in Europe.
Revolutions in Central and South America

The impact of the Revolution was felt on the far away American continent. Revolutionary France had abolished slavery in her
colonies. The former French colony of Haitibecame a republic. This was the first republic established by the black people,
formerly slaves, in the Americas.

Inspired by this example, revolutionary movements arose in the Americas to overthrow foreign rule, to abolish slavery and to
establish independent republics.

The chief European imperialist powers in Central and South America were Spain and Portugal. Spain had been occupied by
France, and Portugal was involved in a conflict with France.

115 History- Mrunal

During the early 19th century, these two imperialist countries were cut off from their colonies, with the result that most of the
Portuguese and Spanish colonies in Central and South America became independent.

The movements for independence in these countries had earlier been inspired by the successful War of American Independence.
The French Revolution ensured their success.

By the third decade of the 19th century, almost entire Central and South America had been liberated from the Spanish
and the Portuguese rule and a number of independent republics were established. In these republics slavery was abolished.

It, however, persisted in the United States for a few more decades where it was finally abolished following the Civil War about
which you have read before in this chapter. Simon Bolivar, Bernardo OHiggins and San Martin were the great leaders in South
America at this time.

In the Next parts, well see

Unification of Germany and Italy; Revolutionary movements in other parts of Europe

Rise of Socialism

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Unification of Germany, Unification of Italy, Bismarck, Blood & Iron (Part 3 of 4)
Revolutionary Movements in Europe

The period after 1815 saw the emergence of revolutionary activity in every country in Europe. In some countries, the aim of the
revolutionaries was the overthrow of autocratic rulers and the abolition of serfdom; in some it was the overthrow of foreign rule
and in some others it was social, political and economic reforms.

Nationalism emerged as a major force in this period. However, it is interesting to see that this nationalism was neither exclusive
nor chauvinistic.

Revolutionaries fighting for independence did not fight for their independence alone or against the despotism of their rulers
only. They did not want their nation to dominate other nations.

They were in fact inspired by the aim of fighting against despotism everywhere. They were united into a kind of international
brotherhood of peoples against all despots.

The South American revolutionaries OHiggins, Simon Bolivar and San Martin fought for the independence of many countries
in South America.

Mazzini, one of the foremost leaders of the struggle for Italian unification and independence, formed a number of
organizations such as Young Poland, Young Germany and Young Italy for the liberation of these countries.

Garibaldi, another great leader of the Italian revolutionaries, fought for the freedom of the peoples of South America.

The great English poet Lord Byron was also one of these revolutionaries. He fought for the freedom of Greece and died there.
He declared that he would war with every despotism in every nation. These words of Byron best sum up the attitude of a large
number of revolutionaries of the time.

However, as the revolutionaries were united in their common aim of overthrowing despotism everywhere, the autocratic
governments also were united to suppress every revolt and movement against any despotism.
Holy Alliance

In 1815, the rulers of Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia formed an alliance. One of the major declared aims of this alliance was
to suppress any attempt by the people to overthrow a ruler whom these countries considered the legitimate ruler of the
country.

116 History- Mrunal

The new ruler of France also soon joined this alliance. Austria, Russia and Prussia had formed another alliance which they
called the Holy Alliance.

This alliance which many other rulers also joined was even more openly opposed to democratic ideas and movements than the
first. After 1815 the rulers of Europe tried to suppress all movements for freedom and democracy in their own as well as in other
countries.

In 1821, for example, Austria sent her armies into Naples and Piedmont in Italy to suppress the uprisings that had taken place
there. In many countries of Europe, the freedom of the press was abolished and a large number of spies were recruited to keep
watch on the activities of the revolutionaries.

The oppressive measures introduced by the rulers failed to curb the revolutionary movements in Europe. In 1830 revolutions
broke out in a number of countries. The French monarch fled away to England and was succeeded by Louis Philippe who
promised to rule according to the wishes of the people.

There was a revolt in Belgium for freedom from Holland. Insurrections broke out in various states of Italy and Germany and in
Poland. Although most of these revolts were suppressed, the independence of two new nations was recognized of Greece in
1830 and of Belgium in 1839.
Revolutions of 1848

Within a few years after the revolts of 1830 had been suppressed, the revolutionary movements in Europe again gained
momentum.

In 1848, revolutions broke out in almost every country of Europe, which dealt a mortal blow to the countries of the Holy
Alliance.

Early in 1848, there was a revolt in Italy.

In February, revolution broke out in France and Louis Philippe who had been installed as king after the 1830 revolution fled
away.

France again became a republic for some time but power was usurped by Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, popularly known as
Napoleon III, a nephew of Napoleon, in 1852.

France finally became a republic in 1871 when the empire of Louis Bonaparte collapsed.

The revolution in France was soon followed by uprisings in many towns of Germany. The rulers of many German states,
including Prussia which was a member of the Holy Alliance, agreed to introduce many reforms.

Simultaneously, there were uprisings in Vienna, the capital, and in other towns of the Austrian empire, another member of the
Holy Alliance. Metternich, the Chancellor of the empire, who was the most hated man in Europe, had to flee.

The Austrian empire in those days was a large empire ruling over many nations of Europe. It ruled over Austria, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Poland, Yugoslavia and many other areas.

Revolts had broken out in all the subject nations of the empire as well as in Austria. Even though these revolts did not succeed,
the empire was badly shaken.

The revolutions of 1848 failed to overthrow the established oppressive regimes of Europe though they considerably weakened
them. The most significant aspect of the 1848 revolutions was the emergence of a new political force in Europe.

You have read in Chapter 7 about the rise of a new social class in Europe following the Industrial Revolution the working class.
The workers were a major force in the revolutions of 1848. Their aim was not merely the overthrow of autocracies but also the
destruction of the economic system that had grown with the Industrial Revolution capitalism. Other participants in the
revolutions the capitalists, the merchants and other people belonging to the middle classwanted constitutional reforms.

They looked upon the demands of the workers for social revolution with horror. When the revolutionary movements were at
their peak, they decided to compromise with the rulers.
Growth of Democracy in England

117 History- Mrunal

The first successful revolution that overthrew the autocratic monarchy took place in England in the seventeenth century. This
had resulted in the establishment of the supremacy of Parliament in England. However, Parliament at that time was not a truly
democratic institution.

The right to vote was limited to a very small percentage of the population. Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
the demand for making Parliament a democratic institution grew. Campaigns to extend the right to vote to every citizen were
waged. These campaigns were led by radical leaders who represented the interests of workers, and the city poor, and by those
representing the industrialists.

Until 1832, representation in Parliament was based not on population but on election districts counties and boroughs. Many
of these were no longer populated excepted for a few houses, while new towns and cities with large populations had no
representation.

Under the Act of 1832, the old unpopulated areas or rotten boroughs, as they were called, were abolished and their seats
were given to new towns and cities.

At this time also, the right to vote was extended to those who owned or rented a house of a certain value in the towns or in
villages. This formed only about 10 per cent of the population.

In ch.7, You have read of the Chartist Movement which was launched to get the right to vote for workers. Though the movement
declined in the 1850s, it left its influence and through the Acts of 1867. 1882, 1918 and 1929, all adult citizens were
enfranchised.

Thus it was over 200 years after Parliament became supreme that it became also a truly representative body of the British
people.
Unification of Germany

One of the major features of the 19th century history of Europe was the struggles for national unification and independence. The
achievement of independence by Greece and Belgium has been mentioned before. Germany and Italy were the other two
important nations which emerged as united, independent states in the 19th century.

In the 18th century, Germany was divided into a number of states. Some of these states were very small and did not extend
beyond the limits of a city. During the Napoleonic wars, many of these states ceased to exist. At the end of the wars there were
still thirty-eight independent states in Germany. Among them Prussia, Wurttemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony were fairly
large.

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Prussia

was the most powerful in Militarily and in extent. It was also the most reactionary. The big landlords of Prussia known
as Junkers formed the dominant section in Prussian society. Prussia was also one of the leaders of the Holy Alliance.
Problems of divided Germany

The division of Germany into a number of states had hampered the economic development of Germany. The social and political
system in these states was also very backward.

With the growth of national consciousness, particularly after the French Revolution, the people of these states had started
demanding the national unification of Germany, establishment of democratic government and social and economic reforms.

In 1815, the German states along with Austria were organised into a Germanic Confederation. However, each state tried to
preserve its independence and its oppressive political and social system.

In 1848 revolts occurred in every German state and the rulers were forced to grant democratic constitutions. To unite Germany
and to frame a constitution for the united Germany, a constituent assembly met in Frankfurt.

The initial success of the revolts had made the German democrats and nationalists think that victory had been achieved.

While they debated the clauses of the constitution, the rulers prepared themselves to suppress the movement.

The Frankfurt Assembly proposed the unification of Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the King of Prussia who
would become emperor of Germany.

However, the King of Prussia declined the offer. He did not wish to accept the crown from the elected representatives of the
people. Repression soon followed and even the rights that people had won in the initial stages of the revolution were taken
away. Thousands of German revolutionaries had to flee the country and live in exile.
Bismarck: Policy of blood & iron

With the failure of the revolution of 1848 to unify Germany, one phase in the struggle for unification came to an end. Now
Germany was to be unified not into a democratic country by the efforts of revolutionaries but by the rulers into a militaristic
empire.

The leader of this policy was Bismarck who belonged to a Prussian aristocratic family. He wanted to preserve the
predominance of the landed aristocrats and the army in the united German state and to achieve the unification of Germany
under the leadership of the Prussian monarchy.

He described his policy of unification as one of blood and iron.

The policy of blood and iron meant a policy of war. The first aim he pursued was the elimination of Austria from the
Germanic Confederation.

He aligned with Austria in a war against Denmark over the possession of Schleswig and Holstein.

After Denmarks defeat, he entered into an alliance with Italy against Austria, defeated Austria and dissolved the Germanic
Confederation.

Thus Austria was separated from other German states.

In place of the old Confederation, he united 22 states of Germany into North German Confederation in 1866. The constitution of
this Confederation made the king of Prussia the hereditary head of the Confederation.

The unification of Germany was completed as a result of a war between Prussia and France.
Fall of Louis Bonaparte

In 1870, Louis Bonaparte, whose power had begun to collapse, declared war on Prussia in the hope of maintaining his empire
through a military victory. The war was partly provoked by Bismarck. It proved disastrous for the empire of Louis Bonaparte.

119 History- Mrunal

The French armies were defeated and the French emperor was captured. After her defeat, France finally became a republic.
Germanys unification was completed as a result of the war which enabled Bismarck to absorb the remaining German states into
a united Germany.

The formal ceremony at which King William I of Prussia took the title of German Emperor was not held on German soil. It took
place at Versailles in France, in the palace of the French kings.

After her unification, Germany emerged as a very strong power in Europe. It underwent heavy industrialization in a very short
period and soon joined the scramble for colonies. However, the militarism which made Germany into a great power was to
prove disastrous to the people of Germany in the years to come. (For more on that, refer to Chapter 12)
Unification of Italy

Like Germany, Italy was also divided into a number of states.

The major states in the early 19th century Italy were Sardinia, Lombardy, Venetia, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Sicily and
Naples), Papal States, Tuscany, Parma and Modena.

Of these the most powerful was the kingdom of Sardinia.

Venetia and Lombardy were under Austrian occupation.

Thus the Italian people were faced with the task of expelling the Austrians and forcing the rulers of independent states to unite.

Young Italy movement

The struggle for Italian independence and unification was organized by the two famous revolutionaries of Italy whose names
have been mentioned in the earlier part of this chapter Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi.

The movement led by them is known as the Young Italy movement. It aimed at the independence and unification of Italy and
the establishment of a republic there.

In 1848, as in other parts of Europe, revolutionary uprisings had broken out in Italy and the rulers were forced to grant certain
democratic reforms to the people.

However, the goal of independence and unification was still distant.

Italy after the revolution of 1848.

The king of Sardinia had introduced many reforms in the political system of his kingdom after the revolution of 1848. After
1848, his prime minister, Count Cavour, took the initiative of uniting Italy under the leadership of Sardinia.

120 History- Mrunal

Cavours policy in some ways was similar to that followed by Bismarck in Germany. Hoping to gain the support of Britain and
France, he entered the Crimean war in 1853-56 against Russia even though Sardinia had no dispute with Russia. However,
nothing came out of this war.

In 1859, Cavour entered into an alliance with Louis Bonaparte and went to war with Austria. Although France soon withdrew
from the war, Austria was ousted from Lombardy, which was taken over by Sardinia.

Tuscany, Modena, Parma and the Papal States of the north also joined Sardinia.

Venetia, however, was still under Austrian occupation. The other states that remained to be united with Sardinia were the
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and Rome which was under the rule of the Pope.
Uprising in Sicilies

Meanwhile an uprising had broken out in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi marched into the island of Sicily with his
revolutionary fighters and liberated it from the rule of the king within three months. Then he marched to Naples in support of
the revolt that had already broken out there.

By the end Of November 1860 the entire Kingdom of the Two Sicilies had been liberated. The Italian revolutionaries were not
perhaps strong enough to push the victory of the people in the Sicilies further with a view to establishing a united republic of
Italy.

They surrendered the former kingdom to the King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, who then took the title of King of Italy in
1861.

Garibaldi, the revolutionary who had played such a vital role in the liberation and unification of Italy, now retired to lead a life
of obscurity.
Rome become the Capital

Rome was still outside the kingdom of Italy. It was ruled over by the Pope with the help of the French soldiers provided to him
by Louis Bonaparte. When the war between France and Prussia broke out in 1870, Bonaparte was forced to withdraw his troops
from Rome.

Italian soldiers occupied the city of Rome in 1870, and in July 1871, Rome became the capital of united Italy.

In spite of the important role played by democratic and revolutionary leaders such as Mazzini and Garibaldi in the struggle for
Italys liberation and unification, Italy also, like Germany, became a monarchy.
After the revolts and unifications

The unification of Germany and Italy, in spite of the fact that democracy was not completely victorious there, marked a great
advance in the history of the two countries.

The revolutions and movements described above, along with the Industrial Revolution, deeply influenced the course of the
history of mankind. The forces that generated these revolutions and movements were also at work in other countries. Their
success in one place fed the fires of revolt and encouraged change in the rest of the world. They are still being felt today,
transforming social, political and economic life everywhere.

One of the aspects of the movements described so far is the gradual growth of political democracy, that is, the ever increasing
participation of increasing number of people in the political life of a country.

This happened in countries where the form of government became republican as well as in those which remained monarchies
such as England, Germany and Italy.

The period of autocracies and privileged aristocracies was gradually coming to an end. Alongside, there were also the
movements for national unity and national independence.

These movements were victorious in Italy, Germany, and some other countries of Europe and in the, Americas. In a few more
decades they were to succeed in the rest a Europe and in the recent period in most of the world.

121 History- Mrunal

It is necessary to remember here that the new political and economic system that was emerging in Europe in the 19th century
was also creating imperialism.

The period of the triumph of democracy and in Europe was also the period of the conquest of Asia and Africa by the imperialist
powers of Europe. The 19th century saw the beginning of the revolts against imperialism in Asia and Africa. There were two
mighty revolts

1.

1857 in India

2.

Taiping rebellion in China.

Later, nationalist movements in the modem sense began to be organized in all countries of Asia and Africa. We already saw seen about
them in chapter 13.
In the Next part (4 of 4) of Ch8, well see The Rise of Socialism.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Socialism: The Beginning and Rise, First International, Second International (Part 4 of 4) SOCIALIST MOVEMENT
You have read in Chapter 7 about the emergence of a new social and economic system called capitalism. Under this system, the means of
production such as factories and the things produced by factories were owned and controlled by a few people. The vast majority of the
people who worked in the factories had no rights. Their conditions of work and living were miserable. They were frequently without jobs.
The workers gradually began to organize themselves into trade unions to protect their common rights though for a long time there were
laws against workers combining themselves into unions. The governments were also forced to pass laws against some of the worse
features of capitalism. For example Laws to protect workers from unsafe conditions of work were passed in many countries. Some
progress was also made in regulating hours of work.
Some workers had begun to think that machines were the cause of their misery. In England, there was a movement to machines led the
Luddites so named after their leader Ned Ludd. However, they soon realized that the destruction of machines would not put an end to
their misery. In England, a new political movement started which aimed at winning political rights for workers. This was the Chartist
movement about which you have read before.
Early Socialists
The greatest challenge to capitalism came from the ideas of socialism and the movements based on those ideas. The idea grew that
capitalism itself is evil and that it needs to be replaced by a different kind and economic system in which the means a production would
be owned by the society as a whole and not by a few individuals.
Many philosophers and reformers in the past had expressed their revulsion against inequalities in society and in favour of a system in
which everyone would be equal. However these ideas had remained as mere dreams. The French Revolution a 1789 with its promise of
equality had given a new impetus to these ideas. But the French Revolution, while it put an end to the autocratic rule of the French king,
it did not did not usher in an era of equality in economic, social and political life. The-wide gap between the aims of the French
Revolution and the actual conditions in France after the revolution created serious discontent among the people. It led to an attempt to
overthrow the existing government in France with a view to building a society based on socialist ideas. This attempt, known as Babeufs
Conspiracy, is an An important event in the history of socialism.
Babeuf Conspiracy
The Conspiracy, as the name indicates, was the work of Babeuf. He was born in 1760 and had participated in the French Revolution. He
organized a secret society called the Society of the Equals. Babeuf, in a manifesto, had declared, Nature gave everyone an equal right to
the enjoyment of all goods..In a true society, there is no room for either rich or poor. He said that it was necessary to make another
revolution which would do away with the terrible contrasts between rich and poor, masters and servants! The time has come to set up
the republic of equals, whose welcoming doors will be open to all mankind. The society planned an uprising but the government came to
know of the plan and in May 1796, a large number of leaders including Babeuf were arrested. Babeuf was executed in 1797. Though
Babeufs attempt at overthrowing the government had failed, his ideas exercised an important influence on the growth of socialist
movement.
Utopian Socialists
There was another group of socialists in the early history of socialism which included
1.

Saint-Simon (1760-1825)

122 History- Mrunal

2.

Charles Fourier (1772-1837)

3.

Robert Owen (1771-1858)

They viewed property in relation to its usefulness to society. They recognized the evils of capitalism and proposed the establishment of a
new and better system of society in its place. Saint-Simon coined the slogan, from each according to his capacity, to each
according to his work. They visualized a society free from exploitation of any kind and one in which all would contribute their best
and would share the fruits of their labour. However, the methods they advocated for the establishment of such a society were
impracticable and ineffective. Hence they came to be called utopian socialists.
Blanqui
There were many other philosophers and revolutionaries who helped in spreading ideas of socialism. One of the most prominent among
them was Louis-Auguste Blanqui (1805-81) who played a leading role in every uprising in Paris from the 1830s to 1871. He believed that
through a revolutionary conspiracy, power could be captured to bring about socialism. When he died. 200,000 workers joined the
funeral procession in Paris.
Communist League
Many groups and organisations were also formed to spread socialist ideas and organise workers. One of these was the League of the Just
which had members in many countries of Europe. Its slogan was All men are brothers. Thus internationalism was one of its important
features. In 1847, its name was changed to the Communist League and it declared as its aim, the downfall of the bourgeoisie, the rule of
the proletariat, the overthrow of the old society of middle class, based on class distinction, and the establishment of a new society
without classes and without private property. Its journal carried the slogan, Proletarians of all lands, unite! It instructed Karl Marx
and Frederick Engels to draft a manifesto.
Marxian Socialism
The Communist Manifesto first appeared in German in February 1848. The influence of this document in the history of the socialist
movement is without a rival. It was the work of Karl Marx (1818-83) and his lifelong associate Frederick Engels (1820-M). Both Marx
and Engels were born in Germany, but spent much of their life outside Germany, mostly in England. Through their work in the socialist
movement and through their numerous writings, they gave a new direction to socialist ideology and movement. Their philosophy is
known as Marxism and it has influenced almost every field of knowledge. Their view of socialism is called scientific socialism.
The Communist Manifesto stated that the aim of workers all over the world was the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of
socialism. In place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class differences, it said appears an association in which the free
development of each is the condition for the free development of all. It pointed out that socialism was not merely desirable, but also
inevitable. Capitalism, it said, does not serve the needs of man and, like other social and economic systems in history, it would be
replaced by a system, better suited to human needs. Marx analysed the working of capitalism in his famous work Das Kapital
(Capital) and pointed out the characteristics that would lead to its destruction. According to him,
1.

Workers produce more value than they get in the form of wages, the difference being appropriated by the capitalists in the form
of profits.

2.

This constitutes the basis of conflict in capitalist society. Profits can be increased at the cost of workers wages and, therefore,
the interests of workers and capitalists are irreconcilable.

3.

Economic crises were inevitable under capitalism because of the discrepancy between the purchasing power of workers and
total production. These crises would be resolved only if the private ownership of the means of production is abolished and the
profit motive eliminated from the system of production. With this, production would be carried on for social good rather than
for profits for a few

4.

The exploiting classes would disappear and a classless society would emerge in which there would be no difference between
what was good for the individual and for society as a whole.

Marx and Engels believed that this would be accomplished by the working class which was the most revolutionary class in capitalist
society. They advocated that the emancipation of the working class would emancipate the whole human race from all traces of social
injustice.
Around the time the Communist Manifesto was published, revolutions broke out in almost every country in Europe. You have read about
these revolutions of 1848 before. These revolts aimed at the overthrow of autocratic governments, establishment of democracy and also,
in countries such as Italy and Germany, at national unification. One of the major forces in these revolutions were the workers who had
been inspired by ideas of socialism. The Communist League participated in these revolutions in many countries. However, all these
revolutions were suppressed.
After 1848 revolution

123 History- Mrunal

With the failure of the 1848 revolutions, the socialist movement seems to have abated. However, it was soon to rise in strength again.
One of the outstanding features of the various socialist groups was their internationalist character. You have read about the Communist
League before. In Britain, an organisation called the Society of Fraternal Democrats had been formed in 1846. It had close links
with other similar organizations in Europe and with the Chartists in Britain. All these organisations emphasized the idea that the cause of
the working class in all countries was the same. A leader of the Society of Fraternal Democrats, for example, said in 1848, I appeal to the
oppressed classes in every country to Unite for the common cause. The people, according to him, were the workers and peasants, and
the cause of the people was the cause of labour, of labour enslaved and exploited.In all countries there are people who grow corn and
eat potatoes, who make clothes and wear rags, who build houses and live in wretched hovels. Do not the workers of all nations have the
same reason for complaint and the same causes of distress? Have they not, therefore, the same just cause? It was these ideas of
international solidarity that were to remain the fundamental features of the socialist movement in the coming years.
The First International, 1864
One of the most important events in the history of the socialist movement was the formation in 1864 of the International Working Mens
Association, or the First International, as it is called. With its formation, it has been said, Socialism stepped on the stage of history as a
world movement. The meeting at which it was formed took place in London and was attended by delegates from Britain, France, Italy,
Germany, Poland and Switzerland. Marx drafted An Address to the Working Classes which has become famous as the Inaugural
Address of the International Working Mens Association. This Address along with the General Rules outlined the principles and aims
of the International. The emancipation of the working classes, it was declared, must be won by the working classes themselves. The
central aim of the International was declared to be the total abolition of all class rule. The universal character of the struggle of the
working class was emphasized. The Address ended with the slogan, as in the Communist Manifesto, Proletarians of all lands, unite!
From the time of its formation, the International was considered by the governments of the time as a menace and attempts were made to
exterminate it. It was persecuted and declared illegal in many countries.
During the short period of its existence, the International exercised a tremendous influence on workers movements in Europe and North
America. It played a particularly important role in creating bonds of international solidarity by arranging aid from workers of many
countries in support of the workers struggle in any particular country. For example, when in 1867, 5000 bronze workers in Paris who
had formed a union were threatened with dismissal, the International collected money for them; from workers in other countries and
forced the factory owners to withdraw their threats. Though its membership was not very large, it was feared by the rulers for the sense
of workers solidarity that it had succeeded in creating.
One of the finest examples of workers solidarity was evidenced at the time of the war between Prussia and France in 1870. You have read
about this war earlier in the context of the unification of Germany. The war was condemned both by the German and French workers as a
crime committed by the French and Prussian dynasties. The French and German branches of the International sent messages of good
wishes and solidarity to each other. The Social Democratic Party in Germany in a message to the French workers, said,
we shall never forget that the workers of all nations are our friends and the despots of all nations are our enemies. After the defeat of
the French army, the German government announced its intention to annex Alsace-Lorraine from France. The German workers
protested against this and there were many demonstrations in various cities of Germany. All the leaders of German workers were
arrested on charges of treason.
The Paris Commune, 1871
The war between France and Prussia led to another important developmentan uprising by the workers of Paris and the seizure ofpower by-them. This is one of the most important events in the history of socialism. Within a few weeks of the war the French army had
been defeated and the French emperor Louis Bonaparte had been taken prisoner. A new government had come into being and had
declared France a republic. This government was dominated by the propertied classes and had agreed to Bismarcks terms for truce
including the surrender of Paris, cession of Alsace-Lorraine and the payment of a huge war indemnity. The workers of Paris regarded the
surrender by the government as treacherous. They refused to surrender. The government withdrew from Paris on 18 February 1871 and
asked for German help to crush Paris. The workers of Paris elected a council which on 28 March 1871 assumed the title of the Paris
Commune. It was elected by universal adult franchise and represented the workers and the lower middle classes of Paris. It proclaimed
as its aim the endingof exploitation, stock-exchange speculation, monopolies and privileges to which the proletariat attributes its
slavery, and the fatherland its misery and ruin. All public offices were elected by universal suffrage with people having the right to recall.
The Paris Commune was the result of an upsurge in which the workers had played the dominant role, the result of the first workers
revolution in history. It was soon drowned in blood. The French government which had established its headquarters in Versailles
attacked Paris with a huge army. In this they received the help of Germany also. The attacks on Paris had begun in April. On 21 May the
troops entered Paris. The battle continued in the city of Paris up to 28 May when the Commune was finally exterminated. The
government which had surrendered to the German invaders, however, turned on the workers of Paris with unusual ferocity. It is
estimated that between 14,000 to 30,000 defenders of the Commune were slaughtered in the streets of Paris or killed by firing squads.
Thousands were deported and imprisoned. The French government called it the victory of order, justice and civilization. The
Internationals address on the Commune to its members, written by Marx, concluded with the words, Working Mens Paris, with its
Commune, will be forever celebrated as the glorious harbinger of a new society. Its martyrs are enshrined in the great heart of the
working class. Its exterminators history has already nailed to that eternal pillory from which all the prayers of their priests will not avail
to redeem them.
The demise of 1st international

124 History- Mrunal

The extermination of the Commune was followed by systematic attempts to destroy the International in almost every country of Europe.
The International had organised support for the Commune and after its destruction was engaged in aiding the refugees from Paris. It
appeared to gain strength in many countries of Europe inspite of the fact that the revolution in Paris had been suppressed. However,
soon it collapsed as a result of internal differences. The International was not a homogeneous organisation. It represented many different
trends in. the workers movement. Due to differences on aims and methods, it was split in 1872 and was formally dissolved in 1876. In
the meantime, however, the socialist parties in many countries of Europe had begun to grow and after a few years they were to unite and
form another International.
The Second International
When the First International was formed, there did not exist well-organised socialist parties: there were only a few groups. However, in
the 1870s and the 1880s in almost every country in Europe socialist parties were formed. Some of them became quite strong having
lakhs of members. They participated in national elections and in some countries came to have a fairly large representation in the
parliament. Similarly, the strength and membership of the trade unions also increased and there were many strikes. For example the
German Socialist Party had polled over 750,000 votes in 1887. It was the largest socialist party in Europe. In Britain, where the trade
unions had a membership of a million had been formed the Social Democratic Federation, The Socialist League and the Fabian Society.
In France there were many socialist parties. There were socialist parties in every other country of Europe with varying strength and in
USA and some other countries in the Americas. Socialist began to take root in Japan in the 1890s. Thus though the First International
had been dissolved, the movement had become a mass movement.
To unite the socialist parties in various countries into an international organisation, a Congress was held in Paris on 14 July 1889, the
centenary of the French Revolution of 1789. The result of this was what has come to be known as the Second International. The
formation of the Second International a new stage in the history of socialism. An important step taken at the Congress was to make the
first May every year as a day of working class solidarity. It was decided to organise on that day a great international demonstration in
such a way what the in all lands and cities will simultaneously demand from the powers that be a limitation the working day to eight
hours.
On the first May 1890, millions of workers all over Europe and America Struck work and held massive demonstrations. Since then the
first of May is observed as the international class day all over the world.
The period after the formation a the Second International saw a steady increase in the strength of the socialist parties and of trade
unions. In 1914, the membership of the socialist party of Germany was over a million and it had polled over 4 million in France, the
socialists has polled about 1.4 million votes; in Austria, over a million. The total number of trade union membership in Germany, Britain
and France alone was about 8 million. The socialist and workers movement had become a major force in almost every country of Europe.
2nd international: achievements
The most significant achievements of the Second International were its campaign against militarism and war and in asserting the
principle of the basic equality of all peoples and their right to freedom and national independence. The period from the last decade of the
19th century saw the growing militarization of every country in Europe. It was a period when war seemed imminent and every country
was spending increasingly huge sums in preparing for it. Europe was getting divided into groups of warring blocs, the struggle for
colonies being the main cause of conflicts between them. The struggle against militarism and the prevention of war became the major
aims of the Second International and of the socialist parties affiliated to it. They expressed the conviction that capitalism was the root
cause of war. They also resolved that while wars could be ended only with the destruction of capitalism, it was the duty of the socialists to
prevent their occurrence and, if they broke out, to bring about their speedy end. The second International also decided that the socialists
should utilize the economic and political crisis created by the war, to rouse the masses and thereby to hasten the downfall of capitalist
rule. The socialist movement had made the international solidarity of workers as a fundamental principle. When Russia and Japan were
warring on each other, the leader of the Japanese socialist group and the leader of the Russian socialists were made the joint presidents
of the Second International at its Congress in 1904. The socialists in many countries had resolved to call for a general strike to prevent
their countries from participating in wars. They suffered at the hands of their governments who were preparing for war. Jean Jaures, the
great leader of the French socialists was assassinated on the eve of the First World War for campaigning against war.
2nd International: cry against colonialism
The Second International also condemned colonialism and committed the socialist parties to oppose the robbery and subjugation of
colonial peoples. The 1904 Congress was attended by the Grand Old Man of the Indian national movement, Dadabhai Naoroji, who
pleaded the cause of Indias freedom. He was supported by the British delegates at the Congress. The President asked the Congress to
treat with the greatest reverence the statement of the Indian delegate, an old man of eighty, who had sacrificed fifty-five years of his life
to the struggle for the freedom and happiness of his people. When Dadabhai Naoroji went to the rostrum, he was greeted with
tumultuous cheers and applause.
2nd International: Limitations
In spite of its many achievements and its growing strength, the Second International suffered from many weaknesses. Unlike the First
International, it was a loose federation of socialist parties of many countries. While the socialist parties in many countries had become
mass parties, basic differences had arisen among them.
While some sections believed in the necessity of a revolution to overthrow capitalism, others began to believe that socialism could be
achieved through gradual reforms. The latter were willing to support the existing governments in certain circumstances. Some sections in
the socialist parties even favoured colonialism.

125 History- Mrunal

On the question of war, while the attitude of the Second International was clear, many socialist parties had serious differences. Some of
them thought that if they organised opposition to the war, they would be crushed. They were also not willing, as the Second International
had recommended, to utilize the war, once it had broken out, to promote revolution. It was on the question of the war that the Second
International suffered a fatal blow. When the First World War broke out, most of the socialist parties extended their support to their
respective governments. This had serious consequences for the socialist movement. The Second International ceased to function and the
socialist movement in every country was split. With the outbreak of the First World War, an important phase in the history of the
socialist movement came to a close.
Evaluation
1.

Though the socialist movement did not succeed in bringing about a socialist revolution in any country in the 19th century, it
brought about widespread awareness of the problems created by capitalism and the inadequacies of democracy.

2.

It also emerged as a powerful political movement in a number of countries. It was to play an increasingly important role in the
coming years all over the world, making socialism, along with democracy and nationalism, the dominating factor in the history
of the world in the 20th century.
EXERCISES

1.

Explain the following terms: Third Estate, Bourgeoisie, Proletariat, Junkers, Paris Commune, Means of Production, Socialism,
Utopian Socialists.

2.

Identify the following people, telling the part each played in the revolutions and movements described in this chapter: Jefferson,
Washington, Thomas Paine, Louis XVI, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Napoleon, Simon Bolivar, Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour,
Bismarck, Babeuf, Karl Marx.

3.

Explain briefly the conditions that brought about the American and French revolutions.

4.

What were the main ideas behind the French Revolution?

5.

Explain why the following documents were revolutionary when they were written: Declaration of Independence, Declaration of
the Rights of Man and Citizen, Communist Manifesto.

6.

Explain the impact of the French Revolution on the Spanish colonies in America.

7.

Describe the different stages in the unification of Germany and Italy.

8.

When was the First International formed? What were its main contributions to the growth of the socialist movement?

9.

When was the Second International formed? For which other great event is that year important? What were the main aims of
the Second International?

10. Select a suitable scale to show events on a time-line beginning with 1774 and ending with 1871. Show on this timeline the
revolutions and movements described in this chapter and the various events connected with them.
11. Write a paper entitled People Revolt when Conditions become Unbearable, using the revolutions as evidence.
12. Read the revolutionary documents cited in No.5 above and select statements for a bulletin board display under the heading
Ideas that Caused Revolutions.
13. Preparing essays on the lives of persons who participated in the revolutionary movements of countries other than their own
14. Read a few documents connected with socialist movement and select statements for a bulletin board display, under the heading
ideas of socialism
15. what is sociopolitical revolution? Why revolutions often violent? When can a revolution be called successful?
16. Which of the revolutions seem to have brought about the greatest change to the country where the revolution occurred? Give
reasons for your answer
17. do you think that each of the revolutions and moments described in this chapter truthfully be called a step forward in the
progress of men? Why or why not
18. why did France help the revolutionary forces in the American Revolution?

126 History- Mrunal

19. Why did the achievement of national unity in Germany and Italy not result in the establishment of republics in these countries?
20. Why read the aims of the socialist movement internationalist in the character from the very beginning?
21. Discuss the role of Karl Marx in the history of Socialist movement.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Ancient India: Sources of History, Paleography, Epigraphy, Numismatics, Archeology
Sources of Ancient History

1.

literary sources

Vedic, Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and other literature and foreign accounts.

epigraphic, numismatic and architectural remains, archaeological explorations and excavations

archaeological

1.

study of development of scripts: palaeography.

2.

study of inscriptions: epigraphy.

3.

study of coins: numismatics

4.

study of monuments, material remains: Archeology

Literary Sources:
Indian Tradition of History Writing

Many foreign scholars opined that Indians had no sense of history writing and whatever was written in the name of history is
nothing more than a story without any sense.

But this appears to be a very harsh judgment.. Because the knowledge of history was given a very high place in ancient India. It
was accorded sanctity equal to a Veda.

Atharvaveda, Brahmans and Upanishads include Itihas-Purana as one of the branches of knowledge.

Kautilya in his Arthashastra (fourth century B.C.) advises the king to devote a part of his time every day for hearing the
narrations of history.
Puranic Literature

The Puranic literature is very vast

18 main Puranas, 18 subsidiary Puranas and a large number of other books.

According to the Puranas, following are the subject matters of history:

SARGA

evolution of universe)

PRATISARGA

involution of universe

MANVANTANTAR

recurring of time

127 History- Mrunal

VAMSA

genealogical list of kings and sages

VAMSANUCHARITA

life stories of some selected characters

Later on description of the tirthas (sacred places of pilgrimage) and their mahatmya (religious importance) was also included in it.
They speak of four ages
1.

Krita

2.

Treta

3.

Dvapara

4.

Kali

Each succeeding age is depicted worse than the preceding- show decline in the moral values and social institutions.
They speak about several eras:

era

starts in

Vikrama Samvat

57BC

Shaka Samvat

78AD

Gupta era

319AD

Narration of Puranas were a part of the annual ritual in every village and town during the rainy season and at the time of
festivals. It was treated as a powerful vehicle of awakening of cultural and social consciousness.

in all the Puranas royal genealogies are dealt with the reign of Parikshit, the grandson of Arjun, as a benchmark.

All the earlier dynasties and kings have been mentioned in past tense.

While the latter kings and dynasties have been narrated in future tense.

This may be because of the fact that the coronation of Parikshit marks the beginning of Kali Age.

Many scholars think that this also points to the fact that perhaps the Puranas were completed during the reign of Parikshit.

In the context of the Puranas it may be remembered that in ancient India, Itihas was looked upon as a means to illuminate the
present and future in the light of the past.

The purpose of history was to understand and inculcate a sense of duty and sacrifice by individuals to their families, by the
families to their clans, by the clans to their villages and by the villages to Janapada and Rashtra and ultimately to the whole
humanity.

History was not meant to be an exhaustive compendium of the names of the kings and dynasties and their achievements etc.

The two great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, may also be used as a source. It is generally held that there have been
constant interpolations in these works.

128 History- Mrunal

The Puranas may not satisfy the modern definition of historiography or those who wrote it may not have been awe of the
historians crafts, but they seem fully aware of the purpose of their work and the purpose of history itself.
Ramayana, Valmiki

composition started in 5BC. passed through five stage. fifth stage in 12AD

6000 verses=>12000 verses and finally 24000 verses.

As a whole, this text seems to have been composed later than Mahabharata.
Mahabharata, Vyas

reflects the state of affairs between 70BC to 4AD

originally 8800 verses, collection dealing with victory.

Later raised to 24000 verses- came to be known as Bharata after Bharat tribe

final compilation: 1 lakh verses and came to be known as Mahabharata or Satasahasri Samhita.

didactic portion from Post Maurya, Gupta times.

Puranic Literature: Limitations

1.

Most of the ancient literature is religious in nature, and those which are claimed to be history by Indians, i.e., puranic and epic
literature, contain no definite dates for events and kings.

2.

In the Puranas and epics, we find genealogies of kings and sometimes their achievements. But it is difficult to arrange them in
chronological order.

3.

Puranic literature helps tracing Lord Ram of Ayodhya around 2000B.C. but the extensive exploration in Ayodhya donot show
any settlement around that date. Similarly, Lord Krishna can be traced to 200 BC-300AD. But excavations in Mathura, donot
attest his presence. Counter argument: The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata have undergone several editions through ages,
hence difficult to tie up with specific era.
Vedic Literature

The Four Vedas: We cannot find much trace of political history in the Vedas, but can have reliable glimpses of the culture and
civilization of the Vedic period.

Vedic literature are entirely in a different language, which can be called the Vedic language. Its vocabulary contains a wide range
of meaning and at times different in grammatical usages.

It has a definite mode of pronunciation in which emphasis changes the meaning entirely. This is the reason why an elaborate
means to protect and preserve the mode of pronunciation of the Vedas have been devised.

By the means of Ghana, Jata and other types of pathas we can not only determine the meaning of the mantras but also can hear
the original tone on which these were sung thousands of years ago.

Because of these pathas, no interpolations in the Vedas are possible.

Vedanga

Six vedangas (limbs of Vedas) were evolved for the proper understanding of the Vedas.
1.

Siksha (phonetics)

2.

Kalpa (rituals)

3.

Vyakarna (grammar)

129 History- Mrunal

4.

Nirukta (etymology)

5.

Chhanda (metrics)

6.

Jyotisha (astronomy)
Sutra

Each vedanga has developed a credible literature around it which are in the sutra form i.e., precepts.

This is a very precise and exact form of expression in prose which was developed by the ancient Indians.

Paninis Ashtadhyayi, book on grammar in eight chapters is the final culmination of this excellent art of writing in sutra
(precepts) in which every chapter is precisely interwoven.
Later Vedic Literature

Brahmanas

elaborate on vedic rituals

Aranyakas
give discourses on different spiritual and philosophical problems.
Upanishads

Sulvasutra

prescribe measurements for sacrificial altars. Mark the beginning of study of geometry and maths.

Srautasutra

account of royal coronation ceremonies

Grihyasutra

domestic rituals with birth, naming, marriage, funeral etc.

Jain and Buddhist Literature

literature

written in

notes

Jain

Prakrit

was a form of Sanskrit language

Buddhist

Pali

as the form of Prakrit language which was in vogue in Magadha/South Bihar.

Most of the early Buddhist literature is written in this language.

With the Buddhist monks it reached Sri Lanka, where it is a living language.

provides details of contempary kings in Magadha, N.Bihar and East UP.

Ashokan edicts are also in this language.

Since the modern historians have discarded most of the dynasties mentioned in the Puranas and Mahavira and Buddha are considered
historical personalities, only those portions of the puranic dynastic lists have been accepted which are supplemented and supported by
the Buddhist and Jaina literature.
Jataka Stories

130 History- Mrunal

These are Buddhist books

Before he was born as Gautama, the Buhddha passed through more than 550 births, in many cases in animal-form.

Each birth story is called Jataka. There are more than 550 such stories.

throw light on socio-economic conditions between 5BC to 2BC.

Dhamasutras and the Smritis

these are rules and regulations for the general public and the rulers

It can be termed in the modern concept as the constitution and the law books for the ancient Indian polity and society. These
are also called Dharmashastras.

These were compiled between 600 and 200 B.C.

Manusmriti and Arthashastra are prominent among them.

Kautilyas Arthashastra

a book on statecraft was written in the Maurya period.

The text is divided into 15 chapters known as books.

Different books deal with different subject matter concerning polity, economy and society.

even before the final version of Arthashastra was written in the fourth century B.C. by Kautilya, there appeared a tradition of
writing on and teaching of statecrafts because Kautilya acknowledges his debt to his predecessors in the
field. Mudrarakshusha, a play written by Vishakhadatta, also gives a glimpse of society and culture.
Notable writers

Kalidasa

Malavikagnimitram is based on some events of the reign of Pusyamitra Sunga, dynasty which followed the
Mauryas.
Abhgyanshakuntalam: glimpse of Guptas.

Bhasa and
Sudraka

written plays based on historical events.

Banabhatta

Harshacharita throws light on many historical facts

Vakpati

wrote Gaudauaho, based on the exploits of Yasovarman of Kanauj

Bilhana

Vikramankadevachnrita describes the victories of the later Chalukya king Vikramaditya.

Kalhana

His book Rajatarangini.

Biographical Writings

7th AD

Describes the early career of Harshavardhana- courtlife and social life in his age.

Ramacharita. 12th AD

Banabhattas Harshacharita

Sandhyakara Nandi

131 History- Mrunal

conflict between Kaivarta peasants and Pala prince Ramapala. Prince wins.

Bilhanas Vikramanakadevacharita

Vikramadity, the sixth.

Atula

Mushika Vamsha- this dynasty ruled in Northern Kerala.

Kumarapalacharita of Jayasimha,

Kumarapatacharita or Duayashraya Mahakauya of Hemachandra,

Harnmirakavya of Nayachandra,

Navasahasankacharita of Padmagupta,

Bhojaprabandha of Billal,

Prithuirajacharit of Chandbardai.

Limitations: These writers made lot of exaggerations to please their patron kings.
LIMITATIONS OF INDIAN LITERARY SOURCES
1.

Printing was not known. Everything was written on soft materials like birch bark, palm leaf, paper etc.

2.

Since the old manuscripts become fragile in course of time, they had to be manually copied. But At the time of copying, some
errors tend to creep in or sometimes even additions are made.

3.

Alexanders Invasion finds no mention in Indian sources. Weve to reconstruct his exploits entirely on basis of Greek sources.

4.

Many of them religious in nature- while they give some idea on prevailing social conditions but hard to put it in context of time
and place.
Sangam Literature

earliest Tamil text

Kings and chiefs patronized poets.

These poets assembled in collages and compiled poems over a period of 3 to 4 centuries. This is Sangam literature.

Describes many kings and dynasties of South India.

This literature generally describes events upto the fourth century A.D.

Total 30,000 lines of poetry

arranged in eight Anthologies called Ettuttokai

two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (18 lower collections) and the Pattupattu (ten songs). The former is older than the latter.

Some kings and events are supported by inscriptions also.

132 History- Mrunal

How is Sangam literature different from Vedic Literature?
1.

Thus secular in nature. Poems written in praise of numerous heroes and heroines. They represent a heroic age of warriors and
battles.

2.

Talk about military exploits in detail.

3.

Songs are not primitive, show high quality of grammar.

4.

They talk about how Yavans came in their own vessels, purchased pepper with gold, supplied wine and women to Indian rulers.

Thus, Sangam texts are not merely artistic poems, they also provide a source of social-economic-political life of people living in the
Deltaic Tamilnadu in the early Christian centuries.
Foreign Accounts
Greek Writers
Ambassadors:

Ambassadors were sent to Pataliputra by Greek kings.

Notable: Megasthenese, Deimachus and Dionysios.

They mention Sandrokottas (Chandragupta Maurya)- help fixing his date of accession at 322BC. This helps as sheet-anchor in
Ancient Indian Chronology.
Historians:

Notable: Herodotus, Megasthenese, Nearchus, Plutarch, Arrian, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, and Ptolemy (Geography).

They were concerned mostly with the north western part of India and primarily the areas which were either part of the Persian
and Greek Satrapies or Alexanders campaign.
Megasthenese

The Greek ambassador (in the court of Chandragupta Maurya c. 324-300 B.C.)

Megasthenese wrote extensively in a book called Indika which is no longer available to us.

We know about Megastheneses Writings through various extracts of the writings of Diodorous, Strabo and Arrian.

Good

Darius

These fragments of Indika, provide valuable information on Maurya Administration, social classes and economic
activities.

The existence of a list of 153 kings whose reigns had covered a period of about 6053 years uptill then.

Bad
o

Indika is not free from credulity and exaggerations.

Megasthenese had little understanding of Indian society and social systems. For example, he mentions that Indian
society comprised of seven castes (jatis).

Discrepancies because he did not know any Indian language, was not a part of Indian society and psyche.

India figures in his foreign inscriptions

133 History- Mrunal

Ctesian

got Info of India from through the Persian sources.

Herodotus

in his Histories gives us much information about Indo-Persian relations

Arrian

detailed account of the invasion of India by Alexander on the basis of information from those who accompanied the
campaign.

Book: Periplus of the Erythrean Sea

anonymou
s

by an anonymous author, who was a Greek, settled in Egypt

Ptolemy

wrote a geographical treatise on India in the second century A.D.

on the basis of his personal voyage of Indian coast in about A.D.80. He gives valuable information about the Indian
coasts.

Greek Limitations
1.

Most of the Greek writing about India are based on secondary sources resulting in numerous errors and, contradictions.

2.

Except for Megasthenese all others have touched Indian history in the true sense very marginally.

3.

They were ignorant of the language and the customs of the country and their information is full of unbelievable facts and
fancies.

4.

The works of Megasthenese and other Greeks of those who accompanied Alexander, have been lost and are available only in
fragments as quoted in later works.
Chinese Travelers

visited India from time to time- as Buddhist pilgrims and therefore their accounts are somewhat tilted towards Buddhism.
Three important pilgrims were

visited India in fifth century A.D

Fa-Hien

Describes social-religious and economic conditions of India- in the time of Guptas.

Hiuen-Tsang

7th Cent. In the age of Harshavardhana and some other contemporary kings of Northern India.

I-tsing

7th Cent.
Chinese Travelers: Limitations

1.

Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang have given somewhat exaggerated account of Buddhism during the period of their visit.

2.

For example Hiuen-Tsang depicts Harsha as a follower of Buddhism but in his epigraphic records Harsha mentions himself as a
devotee of Siva.

3.

Counterargument: Indian rulers always have, like their subjects, been multi-religious people, it is not difficult for a foreigner
to be confused.
Arab Historian: Al-Beruni

Abu Rihan better known as Al-Beruni.

born in central Asia in A.D. 973 and died in Ghazni (present-day Afghanistan) in A.D.1048

134 History- Mrunal

Contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni.

When Mahmud conquered part of central Asia, he took Al-Beruni with him.

Though Al-Beruni deplored his loss of freedom, he appreciated the favourable circumstances for his work.

Unlike Megasthenese, Al-Beruni studied Sanskrit language and tried to gain a precise knowledge of Indian sources. The list of
works consulted by him is long and impressive. His observations range from philosophy, religion, culture, society to science,
literature, art and medicine.

Al-Berunis work can be termed as fairly objective and wherever he has faltered- is not because of any other reason but his lack
of proper understanding.

does not give any political information of his times.

comparatively free from religious or racial biases

While Al-Beruni also possess a well defined religious and hermeneutics awareness, he was essentially a scholar and not driven
to preach his faith. He was essentially a scholar and not driven to preach his faith.

However, sometime Al-Beruni does show his annoyance when he says sarcastically, the Hindus believe that there is no
country but theirs, no nation like theirs, no kings like theirs, no religion like theirs, no science like theirs.
#2: Archaeological Sources

Mound= elevated portion of land, covering remains of old habitations.

Mound can be excavated in two ways:

vertical excavation

helps uncover periodwise sequence of cultures

digging the mound as a whole. helps getting complete data of a site.

horizontal

very expensive, done only at few places.

Impact of climate on Mounds

Western UP, Rajasthan.

Dry-arid climate

Better preserved
Gangetic basin and deltas.

humid-moist climate

Iron tools suffer corrosion and mud structure become difficult to detect.
only burnt brick structure/stone structures can be detected.

Megaliths:

Some people in South India, buried their dead with tools, weapons, potteries etc. Such graves were encircled by a big piece of
stone. These structures are called Megaliths.
Carbon-Dating principle

Half life=period during which, half of the material decays out.

135 History- Mrunal

Half-life of C14 is 5568 years.

Carbon is associated with all living beings.

When an object ceases to live, it stops receiving fresh supply of Carbon C 14

And its existing undergoes decacy into an isotope C12.

We can measure the decaying of C14 to C12 and identify the number of years elapsed. The object with less C14=older than object
with more C14.
Inscriptions

One of the most important and reliable sources of history writing are inscriptions.

An inscription, being a contemporary document, is free from later interpolations.

It comes in the form it was composed in and engraved for the first time. It is almost impossible to add something to it at a later
stage.

The earliest system of writings is found in the Harappan seals. (2500BC) However, there has been no success in deciphering it.
They are pictographic script- ideas/objects expressed in form of picture.

Thus, the writing system of the Ashokan inscriptions (in Brahmi script) are considered to be the earliest (3 rd AD).

Ashokas views on dhamma and conquests of Samudragupta, and several others would have remained unknown without their
epigraphs.

Limitation of inscription: they never speak of defeats/ weaknesses

Ashokan Inscription

These were recorded in different years of his reign and are called edicts because they are in the form of the kings order or
desire.

136 History- Mrunal

They also give a glimpse of Ashokas image and personality as a benevolent king concerned with the welfare of not only his
subjects but also of the whole humanity.

These are found written in four scripts.

empire

script used in Ashokan Edicts

1.

Aramaic

2.

Greek scripts

Afghanistan

3) Kharoshthi. Kharoshthi evolved on the Varnantata system of the Indian languages is written from
right to left.

Pakistan

4) Brahmi.

Kalsi in the north in

Uttaranchal upto Mysore in
the south.

written from left to right.

its individual letters were modified century after century and through this process all the
scripts of India, including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam in the south and Nagari,
Gujarati, Bangla., etc. in the north have developed from it.

This modification in the form of individual letters gave another advantage. It has made it
roughly possible to ascertain the time or the century in which the inscription was written

Firoz Shah Tughlaq

He found an Ashokan Pilar inscription from Topra, Haryana, brought it to Delhi and asked Pandits to decipher it. They failed.

Later, British started epigraphic studies in the late eighteenth century and deciphered it.

James Prinsep:

Made a complete chart of Ashokan Alphabets in 1837. After this the study of epigraphs became a subject in itself. India is
particularly rich in epigraphic material.

Inscriptions of the Indo-Greeks, Saka-kshatrapas and Kushanas adopt Indian names within two or three generations. These
inscriptions show them engaged in social and religious welfare activities like any other Indian.
Sanskrit

Most of the Gupta epigraphs give genealogy. This became the practice of the subsequent dynasties. They took the opportunity to
give an account of their conquests and achievements of their predecessor including mythology of their origins.

Sanskrit came to occupy a prune place since the Gupta period.

Junagarh Rock
inscription

of Rudradaman is considered as an early example of chaste Sanskrit, written in mid second century
A.D.

Allahabad Pillar

enumerates the achievements of Samudragupta

Aihole inscription.

Chalukya king Pulkeshin II gives a dynastic genealogy

Gwalior inscription

of Bhoja gives full account of his predecessors and their achievements.

137 History- Mrunal

From the inscriptions we also came to know that Learned Brahmans (called Agraharas) were given
grant of land, free from all taxes.

Coins/numismatics

We could not have known about most of the Ind-Greek, Saka-Parthian and Kushana kings without numismatic sources.

This is considered as the second most important source for reconstructing the history of India, the first being inscriptions.

Ancient India did not have banking system. People kept money in earthen posts as precious hoards. Later theyre found while
digging field or excavating foundation for the construction of a building, making road etc.

Some coins were issued by merchants and guilds with permission of rulers=prove that commerce had became important in later
history of Ancient India.

Largest number of coins found in post-Maurya period=>trade had increased.

Few coins from Post-Gupta period=>trade had declined.

Coins found in systematic excavations are less in number but are very valuable because their chronology and cultural context
can be fixed precisely.

PunchMarked

Indo-Greek

Earliest coins

coins are the earliest coins of India and they bear only symbols on them.

Each symbol is punched separately, which sometimes overlap the another.

They do not bear and inscription, or legend on them

These have been found throughout the country. from Taxila to Magadha to Mysore or even further south.

Made from silver and copper. Some gold punch-marked coins are also reported to have been found, but they
are very rare and their authenticity is doubtful.

silver and copper and rarely in gold. The Indo-Greek coins show beautiful artistic features on them.

The portrait or bust of the king on the observe side appear to be real portraits.

On the reverse some deity is depicted.

From these coins we know that than forty indo-Greek rulers who ruled in a small north-western region of
India.

We know about several Saka-Parthians kings about whom we would have no information from any other
sources.

Kushanas issued mostly gold coins and numerous copper coins which are found in most parts of north India
up to Bihar.

Kushanas

138 History- Mrunal

Guptas

Indian influence can be seen on them from the very beginning.

The coins of Vima Kadphises bear the figure of Siva standing beside a bull.

In the legend on these coins the king calls himself Maheshwara, i.e. devotee of Siva.

Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva etc. all have this depiction on their coins.

We find many Indian gods and goddesses depicted on Kushana coins besides many Persian and Greek
deities.

issued largest number of Gold coins.

Guptas appear to have succeeded Kushanas in the tradition of minting coins. They completely Indianised
their coinage

kings are depicted engaged in activities like hunting a lion or rhinoceros, holding a bow or battle-axes,
playing musical instrument or performing Ashwamedh yajna.

Excavations
In addition to epigraphic and numismatic sources there are many other antiquarian remains which speak much about our past.
Temples and sculptures are found all over the country right from the Gupta period upto recent times. These show architectural and
artistic history of the Indians. They excavated large caves in the hills in Western India which are mostly Chaitya and viharas.
Temples carved out of rocks

Kailusa temple

Ellora

Rathas

Mamallapuram
Excavation: What did we find?

1.

up to the 1920s, it was believed that Indian civilization was considered to have begun about sixth century B.C.

2.

But with the excavations at Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and Harappa the antiquity of Indian civilization has gone back to about
5000 B.C. The finds of prehistoric artifacts has shown that human activities had started here as early as about two million years
ago.

3.

The subsequent discovery of sites of Kalibangan. Lothal, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi etc. show the extent of this civilization upto
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.

4.

The period between 1500 and 600 B.C. was known as the dark period of Indian history because not much was known about this
period. But the archaeological discoveries of such cultures as Black-and-Red Ware, Painted Grey Ware, Malwa and Jorwe
cultures since 1950s have filled these chronological gap

5.

It is through archaeological discoveries that we know now that Indians domesticated sheep and goat and started agriculture
about 8000 years ago. Also iron came in regular use about 1600 B.C.

6.

Archaeological excavations also brought to light the townships of Taxila. Kausambi, Kasi (Rajghat), Ayodhya, Vaisali,
Bodhigaya, etc. belonging to Buddhas time. All of these places except Taxita are said to have been visited by Buddha in the
6th Cent.BC

7.

human activities started in the subcontinent as early as two million years ago. (from Kashmir and Narmada valleys)

139 History- Mrunal

8.

Rock painting was started more than twelve thousands years ago.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Ancient India: Modern Historians of Ancient India: Utilitarian School, Marxist School, Nationalist School
East India Company wants Indian History:

1765-66: Bengal and Bihar under East India Company. But the company officers found it difficult to administer Hindu Law of
Inheritance=> Manu-smriti translated=>A Code of Gentoo Laws was written.

By 1804 we find a marked shift in British attitude towards India. After the defeat of French forces in the hands of British and
weakened Maratha power, the British were sure of their rule over India.

But they were worried of the fact that British civilians coming to India were getting Brahmanised and developing inferiority
complex.

To overcome this problem and to inculcate a sense of superiority complex among the British officers about western culture, they
started writing a distorted version of Indian history.
Christian Missionaries want Indian History:

Most of the missionary writings were more driven by the desire to preach their faith rather than provide objective narration of
history- like Al-Beruni did.

Christian Missionaries and European Historians were more interested in learning and writing about Indian history in order to
depict its flaws and prepare the ground for evangelical activity.

Good: This led to the accumulation of large amount of contributions about Indian history

Bad: Indian history became the victim of political and religious problems of Europe.

A large section of the European scholars became worried when the greatness of Indias past started becoming popular and the
Indian philosophy, logic and writings on such things as origin of universe, humanity and its age etc. started gaining acceptance.

In the Bible story of Creation. Bishop Usher had calculated that the whole universe was created at 9.00 a.m. on 23rd October
4004 B.C. and the Great Flood took place in 2349 B.C.

But these dates and creation stories were being threatened to be wrong in the face of Indian mythologies which talked in terms
of four Yugas and several hundred million years. This threatened the very foundation of the faith in Christianity.

Hence some European historians launched a mission to discredit Indian History.

Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1902)

140 History- Mrunal

One of the most respected Indologists of 19 th Century.

Was a German but spent most of his life in England.

After 1857 munity, British realized they needed a deeper knowledge of the manners and social system of Indians, to govern
them.

Christian Missionaries wanted to know the vulnerable points in Hindu religion, to win the converts, spread their religion and
strengthen British Empire.

for both of them Max Muller undertook massive jobs of translating Ancient Indian texts in English.

He published 50 volumes under the Sacred books of the East Series- even included some Chinese and Iranian books.

But his approach and intention were never free from prejudice. They were necessitated by his religious belief and political
requirements. He coloured the entire approach for the writing and interpretation of Indian history. He made following
generalizations about India:

1.

Ancient Indians lacked any sense of History, factor of time or chronology.

2.

Indians were accustomed to despotic rule.

3.

Indians were so engrossed in the problems of spiritualism and paid least attention to the problems of this world.

4.

Indians had neither experienced feelings of nationhood nor any kind of self government.

5.

Caste system was most vicious form of social discrimination.

He had even written to Secretary of State for India, The ancient religion of India is doomed, and if Christianity does not step
in whose fault will it be?

According to the Christian book of Genesis, the world started at 4000 BC. Max Muller tried to fit Indian history within that
timeframe, even where events had taken place before 4000BC. Other writers- William Jones, Vincent Smith et al also followed
the same approach.

Lacking any firm basis of his own and rejecting every Indian evidence, he arbitrarily dated the entire Sanskrit literature taking
the earliest i.e. RigVeda to be of 1500 B.C., once again within the safe limits of Christian Genesis chronology.
Sir William Jones (1746-94)

Civil servant in East India company

Translated Abhijanashakuntalam into English.

Setup Asiatic Society of Bengal to understand ancient laws and customs.

Claimed European languages were similar to Sanskrit and Iranian languages. This made German, France, Russian and other
European countries interested in Indological studies.

Undertook the responsibility of unravelling Indian chronology for the benefit and appeasement of his colleagues.

Claimed that foundation of the Indian empire above 3080BC hence safely within the limits of Christian creation date of 4004
B.C.

Thus he effectively guaranteed that the new admiration for Hinduism would reinforce Christianity and would not work for its
overthrow. Sanskrit literature was not an enemy but an ally of the Bible, supplying independent corroboration of Bibles version
of history.

Thus, the fate of Indian history now got intertwined with the safety and pleasure of Christianity.
Monier-Williams

141 History- Mrunal

famous for his Sanskrit- English and English-Sanskrit dictionaries

He wrote: when the walls of the mighty fortress of Brahmanism [Hinduism] are encircled, undermined and finally stormed
by the soldier of the Cross, the victory of Christianity must he single and complete.

Colonel
Boden

He setup Boden Professorships of Sanskrit at Oxford University to promote the Sanskrit learning among the
English to enable his countrymen to convert Native Indians to Christianity.

Prizes were offered to the literary works undermining Indian tradition and religion and for refutation of the
Hindu religious systems.

Thomas
Maurice

The daring assumptions of certain skeptical French philosophers with respect to the Age of the world argument
principally founded on the high assumptions of the Brahmins (which) have a direct tendency to overturn the Mosaic
system, and, with it, Christianity

Sir William
Jones

some intelligent and virtuous persons are inclined to doubt the authenticity of the accounts delivered by Moses. Either
the first eleven chapters of Genesis are true or the whole fabric of our national religion is false, a conclusion which
none of us. I trust, would wish to be drawn.

Thus, we can safely say that most of the works done on Indian history during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were:
1.

guided by the preconditions imposed by the belief in the Christian Genesis

2.

to counter all the writing that were projecting Indias past in terms of great civilization and Indian philosophy about the origins
of universe and human beings.
Utilitarian School: James Mill.

James Mill wrote six volumes on history of India between 1806 and 1818,

Without ever visiting India or knowing any Indian language!

Without any logic and Justification, he divided Indian history into three periods

1.

first Hindu Period.

2.

second Muslim Period

3.

third British Period

He presented an extremely denigrating picture of Hindu periods.

He condemned every institution, idea and action of the Hindu period and held Hindus responsible for all the ills of the country.

This book was introduced as a text book in the Harleybury school in England which was established to educate the young
Englishmen coming to India as administrators and civil servants.

Thus, Utilitarian school of thought, played a very important role in shaping the imperialist policy in India and the future of
Indian education in the core of which was the distorted history of ancient India.

Later his son John Stuart Mill, and his disciple Thomas Macauley also traded on the same path.
V.A. Smith (1843-1920)

Vincent Arthur Smith, An ICS officer serving the British Government in India

Book: Early History of India in 1904.

142 History- Mrunal

o

As a loyal member of the civil service, he emphasized the role of foreigners in ancient India. Hence his approach to history
writing was pro-imperialist.

Alexanders invasion accounted for almost one-third of his book.

His racial arrogance is obvious when he writes, The triumphant progress of Alexander from the Himalayas to the sea
demonstrated the inherent weakness of the greatest Asiatic armies when confronted with European skill and discipline

He gives the impression as if Alexander had conquered whole of India from Himalayas to seas while the fact is he only touched
the north-western borders of India hence his Indian-victory was a virtual non-event.

V.A Smith said, India as a land of despotism which did not experience political unity until the establishment of British rule.
Autocracy is substantially the only form of government with which the historians of India are concerned.

His book served as a textbook for nearly fifty years and still used by scholars.

Thus, the approach of Imperialist Historians/ Utilitarian Scholars was:

1.

Denigrate Indian character and achievements to justify the colonial rule.

2.

generalizations made by these historians were either false or grossly exaggerated.

3.

They could serve as good propaganda material for the perpetuation of the despotic British rule.

4.

Ancient/Medieval India had One man rule system hence the office of Viceroy with concentration of all powers=was justified.

5.

Indians had never experienced self-rule, hence it was duty of the British colonial masters to look after Indians.

6.

At the heart of all such generalisations lay the need of demonstrating that Indians were incapable of governing themselves.

7.

Although some generalizations were valid e.g. Indians did not show any strong sense of chronology / history: compared to
Chinese; the negative points about caste-system.
Historians who did not visit India

Based on the huge amount of literature produced in Europe during the seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe, many scholars and
intellectuals who had never travelled to India, also wrote about Indian history. Example

viewed India as the homeland of religion in its oldest and purest form; and also as the cradle of
worldly civilizations

was convinced of the priority of Indian achievement in the area of secular learning and worldly
culture

Describes Indians as the people, to whom we owe our numbers, our backgammon, our chess,
our first principles of geometry and fables which have become our own.

In short I am convinced that everything astronomy, astrology, metaphysics, etc. comes to

us from the bank of Ganges.

French naturalist and traveler

believed that all knowledge came from India which he considered as the cradle of civilizations

Voltaire

Pierre de Sonnerate

Metaphysician Schelling

What is Europe really but a sterile trunk which owes everything to oriental grafts?

143 History- Mrunal

Philosopher Emannual
Kant

The great philosopher also acknowledged greatness of ancient Indian culture and civilization.

Their religion has a great purity (and) one can find traces of pure concept of divinity which
cannot easily be found elsewhere

He also declared that Indian religious thoughts were free of dogmatism and intolerance.

Nationalist Approach

The educated Indian intelligentsia of the nineteenth century was horrified at the distortions of the ancient Indian history by
these European Historians.

They decided to reconstruct Ancient Indian history in such manner- to make a case for social reform, self-governance and
Hindu revivalism.

In the late nineteenth century some scholars like Rajendra Lai Mitra, R.G. Bhandarkar, and V.K. Rajwade tried to look at the
ancient Indian history from the Indian point of view.

The contributions of all these great scholars helped in clearing the mist built by the missionaries and the imperialist historians.

(More on them given in appendix)

Marxist School of History

The Marxist school of historiography used to be the most influential school of history in the second half of the last century.

Despite the inherent contradiction and total failure of Marxist model of history writings it is academically important to
discuss it and give respect to the contributions it has made.

The Marxists believe in universal laws and stages of history. They believe that all the societies pass through at least five stages of
history

1.

Primitive Communism

2.

Slavery

3.

Feudalism

4.

Capitalism

5.

Communism.

These stages were defined by Karl Marx and F. Engels, the propounders of Communism. They were influenced by F.W. Hegel
and Lewis Henry Morgan

the stages of history proposed by Marx and Engels was based on their understanding of European history.

But Before we come to Indian Marxist historiography it is important to know as to what Hegel and Marx said about Indian
history and civilization.
G.W.F. Hegel (1770-1831)

was a great western philosopher.

But he was not an Indologist and made no attempt to learn Sanskrit or any other Indian language.

144 History- Mrunal

He made use of translations and reports etc. His writings on Indian history and philosophy were based mainly on the writings of
William Jones, James Mill and other British writers whose main approach was to denigrade ancient Indian history as we saw
earlier.

Thus, when Hegel based his writing on the research of those Imperial Historians, the results were indeed disastrous.

Initially, Hegel felt that India, as the Orient in general, has to be excluded from the history of philosophy!

Later, Hegel reluctantly accepted that India had a philosophical system and its history had great antiquity, BUT he explicitly
considered it to be inferior to that of the Greeks and the Romans.

Thus, whatever Hegel had to say about the Indian world, turned out to be very insufficient: and the result was a caricature which
shows that he ventured on a task for which he was not qualified.

Despite such shortcomings Hegels influence is not confined to Europe alone, even some Indian Marxist Historians walk the
same path.
Karl Marx and Indian History/Culture

Just like Hegel, Karl Marx was also very superficial in his knowledge about India and not really free from racial considerations.

Most of what Marx had to say about India is found in newspaper articles.

Marx took his lead from Hegel. Marx was a great votary of India being enslaved by British and dismissed India as a backward
and uncivilized nation with no history!

He wrote, India, then could not escape being conquered, and the whole of her past history, if it be anything, is the history of
the successive conquests she has undergone. Indian society has no history at all, at least no known history. What we call its
history, is but history of the successive intruders who founded their empires on passive basis of that unresisting and
unchanging society
Marxist School after Independence

During British rule, these Hegelian and Marxian approach to Indian history remained dormant.

But, after the independence of India, the Marxist school of historiography became one of the most influential and dominant
schools.

These new Indian Historians followed Marxs scheme, and began re-writing Indian History.

Recall that Marx and Engels gave five stages to any history: primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism and
communism. These new Marxists Historians applied the same, while writing Indian History also.

Just like the imperialist school, this Marxist school does not find anything good with Indian civilization.

They feel that all that is good in Indian civilization is the contribution of conquerors and that is why, the Kushana period is the
golden period and not the Satavahanas or Guptas.

The period from the Guptas to the conquest of Muslims in the twelfth century A.D. has been termed as the Period of
Feudalism i.e. Dark Age during which everything degenerated.

This has been despite the fact that, irrespective of political upheaval, there was an all-round development in the fields of
literature, sciences, art, architecture, economy etc.

Also when it came to literary evidence and its chronology, they largely follow Max Muller and other British historians.

Indian Marxist historians lay great emphasis on economic interpretation of all social and religious ideas, customs and
institutions.

Being allergic to religion and spirituality their irreverence for saints and sages is too obvious.

145 History- Mrunal

However, it must be mentioned that their writings, nevertheless, have contributed immensely towards the understanding of
various aspects of Indian history which had remained ignored earlier.

Notable Indian Historians from Maxist School

1.

Bipan Chandra

2.

Romila Thaper

3.

R.S. Sharma

4.

Irfan Habib

Satish Chandra

D.D. Kosambi

D.R. Chanana

Decline of Marxist School:

In the Marxist scheme of history Marxism is an ideal philosophy and polity and the Soviet Union was the ideal state.

Since the break-up of Soviet Union and almost the total eclipse of Marxian polity and economy, the historians are finding it
difficult to explain the reasons for the collapse.

Hence Marxist historiography has lost its luster.

Non-Political historians

They questioned the wisdom of looking @ancient India with modern point of view.

Past should be read out of curiosity and pleasure, free from the prejudices.

Example; AL Basham: Wonder that was India.

Multi-disciplinary Approach

In the last ten years due to the huge accumulation of data from various disciplines like archaeology, paleontology, anthropology,
astronomy and space research, there has been renewed interest in studying the ancient Indian history.

Many scholars have broken the shackles of the old molds and have been looking at ancient Indian history in the light of data
obtained from different disciplines. This is known as the multidisciplinary approach
Conclusion

Few Indian writers still magnify the role of religion, believe everything is good and great, originated from their country

Western writers no longer insist that all such things came to India from outside.

But they underscore the divisive features responsible for stagnation in India- religious ideas, rituals, caste, kinship and
tradition. Hence Underdevelopment is integral part of Indian character. Thus, they use Indias past to present its present
progress.
Appendix: Nationalist Historians

hardly relevant for GS, but may be useful to those with History optional. Here it goes:

Rajendra Lal
Mishra

Book: Indo Aryans. Took rationalist approach. Showed that in Ancient times, People took beef.

146 History- Mrunal

Worked on the history of Maharashtra region and reconstructed the social, political and economic
history of the area.

Satvahan, Vaishnavism,

advocated widow remarriage, opposed child-marriage and caste system

Vishwanath
Rajwade

evolution of marriage system in India, Maratha history.

D.R. Bhandarkar
(1875-1950)

His books on Ashoka and on ancient Indian polity helped in clearing many myths created by
imperialist historians.

In his book Hindu Polity, published in 1924, Jayaswal effectively knocked down the myth that Indians
had no political ideas and institutions.

showed that India was not a despotic country as propagated by the imperialist historians.

Beside the hereditary kingship, India had the tradition of republics right from RigVedic times. = selfrule did exist. (although other scholars counter him).

Indian polity and art of governance was far more developed than that of any other part of
contemporary world.

Foreign rulers had become part and parcel of Indias life and did not exploit its
resources for their original homeland (like British were doing)

His book Hindu Polity is considered as one of the most important book ever written on ancient Indian
history.

in his book Political History of Ancient India reconstructed the history of ancient India from the time of
Mahabharata war to the time of Gupta empire and practically cleared the clouds created by V.A.
Smith.

But his approach was Militant Brahmanism- when he criticized Ashokas policy of peace.

is considered as the doyen among Indian historians.

He was one of the most prolific writers and has written on almost every aspect of Indian History. He
wrote a large number of books covering the time period from Ancient India to the freedom struggle.

Book; History and Culture of the Indian People in eleven volumes

This multi-volume series deals with Indian history and civilization right from the prehistoric times to
the Indias independence in 1947 and remains a singular reference work.

contributed immensely towards the understanding of South Indian history. His books like A History of

Ramgopal
Bhandarkar

K.P. Jayaswal
(1881-1937).

H.C.
Raychaudhury

R.C. Majumdar

K.A. Nilakant
Sastri

147 History- Mrunal

Ancient India and A History of South India are the shining examples of brilliant scholarship

R.K. Mookerji

P.V. Kane

His books like Hindu Civilization, Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka and Fundamental Unity of India put
the cultural, economic and political history of India not only on firm ground but also made it accessible
even to a lay reader when it came to expressing even the most difficult subjects in simple terms.,

His monumental work entitled History of Dharmasastra in five volumes running into over six thousand
pages is an encyclopedia of social, religious and political laws and customs.

Historian from S.India but like most Nationalist Historians, he also did not give adequate attention to
South India.

His general observation about South Indian polity and culture, is questioned by several scholars.

K.A.Nilakanta
Sastri

in the next article, we see about Geographical influences on Ancient Indian history.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Ancient India: Geographical Background of Ancient Indian History and CivilizationMonsoon

1AD: Men understood the direction of South West Monsoon, and traders sailed with the South West Monsoon from Western
Asia, Mediterranean area and came to India and South East Area.

They returned with the advent of North-East Monsoon westward.

thus the discovery of monsoon enabled India to carry trade and cultural links with Western Asia.

area

rainfall
(cm)

implication

Western Gangetic plain

Diet

Vegetation could be cleared through stone and copper tools=fit for

cultivation and settlement.

37-60

Hence 6BC we find the earliest agriculture settlements here, and trade
routes through Terai

Middle Gangetic plains

60-125

Thicker vegetation. difficult to clear with stone-copper tools.

Lower Gangetic plains

and Brahmaputra

125-250

Thick forests. Impossible to clear without iron tools/axes. But with invention of
iron tools- this Assam region was also contested by kings and emperors during
early medieval times.

Therefore, natural resources of the Western area were utilized first, and of eastern area later.
large scale human settlements generally spread from West to East.
Himalaya

wheat
and
Barley

rice

148 History- Mrunal

Himalayas protected early civilizations from the cold Siberian winds. Since cold was not so severe in the plains, Aryan people
could live outdoors for longer periods and did not need heavy clothing.

The great Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra plains with most fertile land, natural resources and perennial rivers =gift of the
Himalayas.

The Himalayas form a formidable barrier against the foreign invasions from the north. This was important during pre-industrial
times when communication was very difficult.
Mountain Passes

There are some important passes in Himalayas, through which interaction with western, central and northern Asia has been
maintained since time immemorial.

Among these, the use of the Khyber pass was very frequent and is known as the gateway to India.

since early times there has been a more or less constant intercourse between East Africa, Arabia, Central Asia and India
maintained by the migrations of herds of mammals

India received large accessions by migration of the larger quadrupeds from Egypt, Arabia, Central Asia.

Even from the distant North America by way of land bridges across Alaska, Siberia and Mongolia.

Suleiman ranges could be crossed through Khyber pass

Kirthar ranges could be crossed through Bolan Pass.

Through these passes, two-way traffic between India and Central Asia has been going since pre-historic times.

This helped Irani, Afghani even Soviet Central Asian invaders and immigrants to come to India.
Valleys

Kashmir Valley was surrounded on all sides by high mountains, yet could be reached through several passes.

Winter: forced Kashimiris to towards plains

Summer: attached shepherds from plains towards mountains

This two-way movement facilitated the exchange of ideas and cultures. Kashmir became the center for cultivation of Sanskrit. It
had the largest number of Sanskrit manuscripts.

Similarly Nepal valley-was accessible to Gangetic plains through number of passes, and helped in cultural interaction.
Rivers

Rivers in the foothills of Himalaya had smaller width=easier to cross in the Ancient days when bridge-Architecture was not
developed.

Heart of historical India=Gangetic plains. It was formed by rivers, swollen through tropical rains and Himalayan snow melting.

In Ancient times, difficult to construct roads=men and material moved through rivers.

Even the Ashokan stone pillars were carried to different parts of India through boats.

in modern times, urban sites developed at railroad junctions and mining zones (as we saw in geography location factor articles)
but in the ancient times, rivers served as arteries of commerce and communication. Important cities such as Hastinapur,
Prayag, Varanasi, Pataliputra were situation on the river banks.

149 History- Mrunal

bad: they caused heavy floods in northern plains. Many ancient sites and buildings have been washed away beyond recovery.

Rivers also formed political boundaries in the ancient-medieval times. For example:

region

river boundaries North

South

Kalinga (Odisha)

Mahanadi

Godawari

Andhra

Godawari

Krishna

Tamilnadu

Krishna

Kaveri

Chola Kingdom

South Pennar

Vaigai river

Maharashtra

TApi/Damanganga

Bhima

Karnataka

Bhima/Krishna

Tungbhadra

Tungbhadra river provided natural frontier between kingdoms:

made it difficult for Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas to move southwards and

made It difficult for Pallavas and Cholas to move northwards.

Eastern Ghats

Eastern Ghats=not very high, and eastward flow of river caused many oenings. Thus, communication between AndhraTamilnadu was not difficult

Even helped in development of the port cities of Arikamedu, Mahabalipuram, Kaveripattanam on Coromandal coast
Rajasthan

Area west of Aravalli =Thar desert, Rajasthan=human settlement difficult.

but South-Eastern part of Rajasthan =relatively fertile since ancient times + existence of Khetri copper mines. Hence we can
find human settlements here since Chalcolithic period.

Gujarat: Katiawar peninsula=less rain + Coastal area of Western Gujarat= indented= several harbours. Therefore, since Ancient
times, Gujarat famous for foreign trade.
Madhya Pradesh, Malwa

can be divided into two parts: east and west

Western part including Malwa served as important hinterland for Gujarat ports. Therefore many wars fought to control Malwa
and Gujarat. (Shaka, Satvahan, Maratha and Rajput)
Mountains and Language Diversity

Each area bound by rivers and mountains + difficulty in communication=>in course of time, every region grew into distinct
culture, language and lifestyle. But in North and Western India, many languages derived from same Indo-Aryan stock. And
Sanskrit camee to be cultivated and understood all over the country.

150 History- Mrunal

Vindhya mountains formed the boundary between North and South. Dravidian languages lived south of Vindhya and Aryan
languages lived in North.

But Vindhya didnt constitute insurmountable barriers. There was two way trade, migration=>helped in composite culture.
Stones

earliest settlements are found in hilly areas and river valleys between such hills. Because this region provided all types of stones
for construction and tool making.

Until the invention of burnt brick, the stones were main construction Material. More temples were made in Stone in Deccan and
South India than in North India.
Bronze

Tin+ Copper=Bronze.

Tin was scarce even in Ancient times. But there is reason to believe it existed in Rajasthan and Bihar but all used up. Harappan
procured some tin from Rajasthan but main source was Afghanistan. Because of this scarity Harappen used less bronze than the
civilizations of Asia, Egypt and Crete. Hence India doesnt have a proper bronze age.

But during early centuries of Christian era, India made trade connection with Burma and Malayasia=> tin imported and used
plenty to making bronze status of gold, particularly in South India.
Iron

In South Bihar- East MP and Karnataka

once the art of steel making was known, we used iron for war, clearaing jungles and regular-deep cultivation.

Formation of Magadh Empire owed much to iron availability in this region.

Copper

Copper of Hazaribagh and Singhbhum=> helped growth of civilization around Pataliputra.

Khetri-Rajasthan=growth of vedic and pre-vedic settlements.

Since Copper was the first metal to be used by Aryans, Hindu rituals usually require copper utensils.

Lead

Found in Andhra- hence Satavahanas used lead coins.

Silver

From Kharagpur hills. used in the earliest punch marked coins.

Kolar-Karnataka. exploitation starts in 2ADHence, Kolar considered to be earliest capital of the South Gangas.
Although much of the gold in early times was imported from Central Asia and Roman empire.

Gold

Since domestic supply of gold low=gold coins became rare with time.
precious
stones

Odisha, Central and South India. Precious stones were traded with Romans in early centuries of Christian era.
Indian Subcontinent: A Geography

(Keep referring to Map while reading this)

there are six countries in this area: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, India, Bhutan and Bangladesh

In ancient times this whole mass of land was known as Bharatavarsha or Hindustan;

151 History- Mrunal

Name Hindustan is derived from river Sindhu, because westerners pronounced it as Hindu or Indu.

Our constitution uses both names India and Bharat

Geography

Region

Bordered by

north

Himalyas

western and north-western side

Pamir plateau and Sulaiman Kirthar ranges

western side

Arabian Sea

eastern side

Bay of Bengal

Southern borders

Indian Ocean.

Physically the subcontinent can be studied in three parts : (i) The Himalayas, (ii) The Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plain (iii) The Deccan
plateau.
The Himalayas
are stretched from Afghanistan in the west upto Myanmar in the east.

Tibetan
Plateau

Tibetan plateau forms the northern part of Himalaya

o

more than 2,400 Kms long

250 to 320 kms wide.

Peaks

Himlaya has ~114 peaks which are more than 20,000 feet high. Notable: Gauri Shankar or Everest (the highest
mountain in the world) Kanchanjanga, Dhaulagiri, Nanga Parvat and Nanda Devi.

Western
Boundary

The Hindukush mountains, right from the Pamirs, form the natural western boundary of the Indian subcontinent.

Vs Iran

Eastern Hills

The mountains of Safed Koh, Sulaiman and Kirthar separate Iran from the Indian subcontinent.

But the large stretches of land to the west of this line in modern Afghanistan and Baluchistan, like those to
the south and east of the Hindukush, were for long both culturally and politically parts of India.

Patkoi hills, Naga hills,

Manipur Plateau including the Khasi, Garo and Jaintia hills.

The Lushai and Chin hills are to the south of Manipur.

Indo-Gangetic-Bramhaputra Plain

152 History- Mrunal

To the south of the Himalayas lies the great plain of India which is more than 3200 kms long and about 240 kms to 320 kms
broad.

It is formed by the solid waste of the Himalayas brought by hundreds of descending streams.

The alluvium thus formed made the plains most fertile.

There are three great river systems, originating from the Himalayas, which supply perennial water to this great plain.

1.

Indus

2.

Ganga

3.

Brahmaputra.
Saraswati

A big tract of land to the west of Yamuna and east of Indus in this plain is devoid of any water system at present.

This tract includes the states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.

But now it has been proved that in ancient times the river Saraswati and its tributaries used to flow in this area.
The Sindhu or Indus

rises from the Kailasa Manasarovar area in the Tibetan plateau,

runs west and north west for about 1300 Kms, between the Karakoram range.

Then joined by the Gilgit river, it turns south and reaches the plains where the five rivers join it to form Panchananda desha or
Punjab.

These five tributaries of the Sindhu from east to west are:

153 History- Mrunal

1.

Sutlej (Satudri): was once a tributary of the lost river Saraswati, but changed its course.

2.

Beas (Vipasa)

3.

Ravi (Parushru)

4.

Chenab (Asikrii)

5.

Jhelum (Vitesta).
Ganga

rising from the Himalayas, reaches the plain at Hardwar and passes through the states of Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and
Bengal, then joins the Bay of Bengal.

In the west of it flows the river Yamuna also rising from the Himalayas.

Vindhyan rivers
o

Chambal, the Betwa and the Ken join the Yamuna before its confluence with the Ganga at Allahabad.

the Son, joins the Ganga near Patna in Bihar.

From the Himalayas side, rivers like the Gomati, the Sarayu, the Gandak and the Kosi join the Ganga in the states of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar.

There are several mouths through which the Ganga falls into the Bay of Bengal.

The main stream is called Bhagirathi or Hooghli on which are situated the towns of Murshidabad, Hooghly and Kolkata.

The eastern most mouth of the Ganga is called the Padma.

Brahmaputra

originating from the eastern part of the lake Manasarovar in the Kailasa

flows eastward through the plateau of Tibet under the name of Tsangpo.

Then it turns south and enters in India where it assumes the name Dihang.

Later, the rivers Dihang and Luhit join and are called Brahmaputra or Lauhitya.

Passing through Assam and Bengal it joins the eastern most mouth of the Ganga, i.e., Padma.

But before falling into the Bay of Bengal another mighty river, the Meghna, joins it.

The delta thus formed is one of the most fertile part of Bengal and is known as Sundarban delta.
Deccan Plateau and Central India

Peninsular India can be studied under two distinct sections.

1.

The mountain ranges of the Vindhyas

2.

The mountain ranges of the Satpura

They run parallel to each other from east to west. In between these two, flows the river Narmada going towards the Arabian sea.
o

The only other river flowing towards west is Tapti, lying a little south of the Satpura.

154 History- Mrunal

o

All other rivers of the Peninsula run from west to east failing into the Bay of Bengal indicating that the plateau is titled towards
east.

The northern portion of the plateau, separated by the Vindhya Satpura ranges is known as the Central Indian plateau, while
the southern portion is called the Deccan plateau.
Central Indian Plateau.

stretches from Gujarat in the west to Chhota Nagpur in the east.

Thar desert, lies to the north of the Aravalli range.

To the south of it is the Vindhyas, which rises abruptly from the Narmada side, i.e., south, and has a slopy formation in the
north.

The Maiwa plateau and the tablelands of Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand are parts of this.

As a result, all the rivers on this side flow towards north or north-east to join the Yamuna and the Ganga.

The eastern stretches of the Vindhyas, known as the Kaimur ranges, extend almost up to the south of Banaras and run parallel
with the Ganga up to the Rajmahal hills.

Between the Ganga and the Rajmahal is a narrow defile or a passage from Chunar in the west (i.e. Mirzapur, U.P.)
to Teliagarhi in the east. This is the only high road, which connects Western and Eastern India.

Its strategic importance from the military point of view was fully understood which is evident by the presence of hill forts of
Rohtas and Chunar in the east and Kalijar and Gwalior in the west.

It is said that the passes of Shahabad and Teliagarhi, situated at a distance of only about five kilometers from each other, served
as the gateway to Bengal.
Western Side of Central Indian Plateau

Gujarat having several low hills and watered by a number of rivers like Mahi, Sabarmati, and lower courses of Narmada and
Tapti.

The Kathiawar peninsula and the Rann of Kutch are marshy and dry during the hot season.
Deccan Plateau

the surface of the Deccan plateau slopes down from west to east.

On the western side lies a range of high cliffs running south to north leaving a narrow strip of plain between it and the sea. It is
called the Western Ghats- rises up to 3,000 feet.

The plateau is higher in the south being about 2000 feet in the Mysore region and about half of that in the Hyderabad.

The Eastern Ghats, consisting of groups of low hills, is marked by several gaps through which many peninsular rivers join the
Bay of Bengal.

The hills going southwards gradually receding from the sea turn westward to join the Western Ghats at the Nilgiri.

The plain between Eastern Ghats and the sea is wider than that of Western Ghats.

Except the Narmada and the Tapti, which run towards west and join the Arabian sea, all the rivers of the Peninsular India run
from west to east.

Most of them rise from the Western Ghat and traversing the whole breadth of the plateau, fall in the Bay.

155 History- Mrunal

The Mahanadi forms a broad plain known as the Chattisgarh plain in the northeast. It passes through Orissa before joining the
sea.

The valley of Godavari with its tributaries, has a large flat land in the north but it narrows in the east before meeting the sea.

Further south, the Krishna, with its tributaries like the Tungabhadra, divide the Deccan plateau into two sections.

Further south, the Kaveri and its tributaries form another important river system.

Vs. Northern Rivers

Southern Rivers are devoid of a perennial water source like the Himalayas,

these southern rivers are mostly dry during the hot season,

hence less valuable for irrigation and navigation purposes.

The Coastal Regions

The fertile coastal plains provide opportunities for maritime activities and trade.
The western coastal plain stretches from the Gulf of Cambay in the north to Kerala in south.

Northern Part

Konkan

Southern Part

Malabar

The rainfall in this region is very high. There are no big rivers but smaller rivers provide easy communication and irrigation.

There are some good harbours in the Konkan region and also in the Malabar.

On the other hand the eastern coast has a few natural harbours but during the historical period maritime activities lead to more
vigorous and fruitful contacts with the south-east Asian countries.

The southern tip of the peninsula is known as Cape Comorin or Kanyakumari.

To its south-east is the island of Sri Lanka. An almost continuous chain of islands and shoals connect India with SriLanka are
called Adams Bridge.

The mango shaped island was known in ancient times by the name of Tambaparni, a corrupt word from Sanskrit
Tambraparni, i.e., having a look or shape of tambula or betel leaf. It was also known as Simhaladvipa.
Climate

The Indian subcontinent is situated mostly in the tropical zone.

Himalayas guard us from the cold arctic winds from Siberia, hence we have a fairly warm climate throughout the year.

regular six ritus of two months each and three seasons of four months.

March-June

Hot, temperature goes up to 48 C or more in some regions.

Jul-Oct

Rainy season for four months, due to south-west monsoon. important for the Kharif crops

156 History- Mrunal

Winter

Western disturbances in the winter gives rise to the second crop of the year called the Rabi during winter season.
Rainfall variation

Haryana and Rajasthan including

parts of Sind and Gujarat

In modern times these regions receive less rainfall. But the evidence show that in ancient
times it received higher rainfall and hence the Harappan civilization flourished in this
region.

northern portion of the Indus region

and the whole of the Ganga plain

100-200cm

North Eastern

200-400 cm. or even more

Indian Geography in Ancient Literature

Achaemenid
Persians

Parasis

Greeks

Chinese

used the name India first time, for the region watered by Sindu river.

In their books Mehre Yasht and Yasna, we actually find the word Hindu in place of Hafta-Hendu,
indicating the extension of the name to the land beyond the territory of the Indus.

book: Zend Avesta.

Used the name Sapta Sindhu referring to the region of the seven rivers of the Saraswati (or five
streams of the Saraswati together with the Ganges and the Jamuna)

Borrowed the name Sindu from Persians. But pronounced it Indos.

Herodotus, the famous Greek historians, used the term Indos to the kshatrapy of the Persian Empire,
but gradually it was extended to the whole country both by Greek and Roman writers.

Buddism introduced in 1st Century AD in China

Chinese called India as Tien-Chu or Chuantu.

But after Hiuen-Tsang, they started calling India as Yin-Tu.

I-tsing said Hindu is the name used only by the northern tribes, and the people of India themselves
do not know it.

I-tsing used two more names Arya-desa and Brahmarashtra

Corrupt forms of the word Sindhu river:

Persians

Hindu

Greek

Indos

157 History- Mrunal

Hebrew

Hoddu

Latin

Indus

Chinese

Tien-Chu / Yin-Tu

Within Indian Literature

Panini
(6thCent.BC)

first definite mention of Bharata as a region. But for him Bharata was only one out of 22 janapadas specified from
Kamboja to Magadha, all in Northern India.

Buddhist
literature

speaks of seven Bharata regions (Sapta-Bharatas) corresponding to the ancient Sapta-Sindhu. and were other
names of India mentioned by

Patanjali (150
B.C.)

used the term Aryavarta for northern part of India lying between the Himalayas and the Pariyatraka or the western
part of the Vindhyas.On the west it was bounded by the Adarsavali or Aravalli and on the east by the Kalakavana or
the Rajmahal Hills.
Puranas define Bharatvarsha as:

the country that lies north of the ocean (i.e. the Indian Ocean)

south of the snowy mountains (Himalayas)

formed the southern part of Jambu-dvipa.

marked by the seven mountains chains, viz. Mahendra, Malaya, Sahya, Suktimat, Riksha (mountains of Gondwana), Vindhya,
and Pariyatra (western Vindhyas up to the Aravallis);

where dwell the descendants of the Bharatas, with the Kiratas living to its east, the Yavanas (Ionians or Greeks) to its west,

its own population consisting of the Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras (i.e. the Hindus).

But the name Bharatavarsha is not a mere geographical expression like the term India. It has historical significance, indicating the
country of the Bharatas, made up of seven sacred rivers and cities:

7 rivers

7 cities

1.

Ganga

1.

Ayodhya

2.

Yamuna

2.

Mathura

3.

Godavari

3.

Maya (modern Hardwar)

4.

Saraswati

4.

Kasi

5.

Narmada

5.

Kanchi (Conjeeveram)

6.

Sindhu

6.

Avantika (Ujjain)

7.

Kaveri

7.

Dvaravati (Dwarka)

158 History- Mrunal

This was further sustained by the peculiar Hindu institution of pilgrimage. Each of the principal Hindu faiths like Vaishnava,
Saiva, or Sakta and other sects have their own list of holy places. And these are spread throughout the length and breadth of
India and not confined to a single province.

In the same spirit, Sankara established his four Mathas (religious schools) at the four extreme points of the country viz.

NORTH

Jyotirmatha near BadriKedar on the Himalayas

WEST

Saradamatha at Dwarka in the west

EAST

Goverdhana matha at Puri

WEST

Sringeri matha in Mysore.

Fodder Material

use following points, as and where applicable in descriptive/essay/interview.

The spirit of Humanity in Ancient India

At most periods of her history. India, though a cultural unit has been torn by internecine war.

In statecraft her rulers were cunning and unscrupulous. Famine, flood and plague visited her from time to time, and killed
millions of her people.

Inequality of birth was given religious sanction, and the lot of the humble was generally hard.

Yet, our overall impression is that in no other part of the ancient world were the relations of man and man, and of man and the
state, so fair and humane.

In no other early civilization were slaves so few in number

No other ancient law-book are their rights so well protected as in the Arthashastra.

No other ancient lawgiver proclaimed such noble ideals of fair play in battle as did Manu.

In all her history of warfare Hindu India has few tales to tell of cities put to the sword or of the massacre of noncombatants.

The ghastly sadism of the kings of Assyria, who flayed their captives alive, is completely without parallel in ancient India.

There was sporadic cruelty and oppression no doubt, but, in comparison with conditions in the early cultures, it was mild.

Therefore, we can say The most striking feature of ancient Indian civilization is its humanity
Sectarianism as an aid to Nationalism

In some of the sacred texts like the Bhagavata Purana, or Manusmriti are found passages of patriotic fervour describing
Bharatavarsha as the land fashioned by the Gods themselves (devanirmita sthanam) who even wish to be born in it as heaven on
earth

above these as the culminating utterance Mother and Mother-Country are greater than Heaven. (Janani janmabhurnischa
svargadapi gariyasi).

All these prayers and passages show that a Hindu has elevated patriotism into a religion.

159 History- Mrunal

In the words of a distinguished British critic, the Hindu regards India not only as a political unit, naturally the subject of one
sovereignty whoever holds that sovereignty, whether British, Mohamedan, or Hindu but as the outward embodiment, as
the temple -nay, even as the Goddess mother of his spiritual culture He made India the symbol of his culture; he filled it
with this soul. In his consciousness, it was his greater self.

But besides religion, the political experiences of the ancient Hindus also aided them in their conception of the mother country.

The unity of a country is easily grasped when it is controlled by a single political authority.

The ancient Hindus were familiar with sovereignty from very early times. It is indicated by such significant Vedic words as
Ekarat, Samrat, feeling of oneness. They regard this as their motherland.

Its vastness can be measured when compared to Europe and finding it almost equal except for the former Soviet Union.

Europe has several nations with their own history, tradition, language, etc. On the contrary, although there always had been
many states in India but their social and cultural setup had been broadly the same throughout.

Sanskrit was the most respected language besides the local languages.

States were administered and governed on the basis of law-books called Dharmashastras.

Places of worship and pilgrimage are distributed throughout the country.

These cultural bonds gave the Indians a sense of unity and nationality.
Regional spirit

There are several regions which have a distinct sense of regional spirit and cultural traits.

Larger kingdoms and empires rose from these units and weakened, in due course, giving way to another unit to come up.

Some historians have defined it as forces of centralisation and decentralisation acting and reacting with each other.

In other words, forces of integration and disintegration were always at work. But it will be more appropriate to say that the
Indian system of polity recognised the chakravarticoncept of conquest, where every king should aspire for ruling the whole
country.

Thus empires fell and new ones arose from it, but the tradition continued. Even the early conquerors from the north-west like
Inds-Greeks, Saka-Pallavas, Kushanas, etc., established kingdoms and empires but never failed to show their eagerness to adopt
Indian ideas of polity and willingness to assimilate themselves in the main stream of Indian society.

Even in earlier periods these regions maintained their individuality despite their political ups and downs.

The old kingdoms of Kosala, Magadha, Gauda, Vanga, Avanti, Lat and Saurashtra in the north, and Kalinga, Andhra,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Chera, Chola and Pandya in the south, among others, seem to possess eternal lives.

Empires rose and fell, they vied with each other very frequently, but these states under different names and under various ruling
dynasties, continued their individual existence almost throughout the course of history.
Maritime diaspora

India has a long coast line on its three sides.

The people living here were experts in maritime activities and trade with other countries on both sides.

No dynasty other than the Cholas in the south has even attempted to conquer lands beyond the sea. But it was not a lasting
attempt.

we find that Indians had spread in many parts of the known world, but in the South East Asia they developed a lasting cultural
influence in countries like Vietnam, Indonesia, Cambodia, etc.

160 History- Mrunal

These were individual efforts by traders and princes and not by any State. A distinct contrast from the European colonist must
be noted here. Indians never attempted genocide or cruel suppression; they established large kingdoms and became part of that
land.

They gave their religion and philosophy to them but assimilated their religion and philosophy as well.

Thus it can be said in conclusion that the geographical features of India not only shaped its history and culture but also the
mind and thoughts of the people.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Culture: Answerkey & Analysis of Mains-2013 Questions Sangam, Chola, Tandav & Studyplan, Booklist for UPSC
Mains-2014Prologue
The syllabus is new, pattern is new, Backbreaking TM techniques are new: hence any analysis is hollow and shallow, without solving the
questions first.
So, Lets start with the
Culture Questions in GSM-I-2013

mark
s

word
s

Though not very useful from the point of view of a connected political history of South India,
the Sangam literature portrays the social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable vividness.
Comment.

10

200

Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture.

100

Discuss the Tandava dance as recorded in the early Indian inscriptions.

100

20

400

Following questions were asked:

1.

20 out of 250 marsk= only 8% of the paper.

The Answer Sources
To solve above questions, Ive used following books:

Book type

SchoolTextbook

Did the book have sufficient content for the given question?

SANGAM

CHOLA

TANDAV

NCERTs

hardly

hardly

didnt find

NIOS Culture

hardly

few lines

one line

Tamilnadu Class 11

yes

yes

didnt find

ICSE Class 9

yes

yes

didnt find.

Indias Ancient Past RS Sharma. aka the fabled old NCERT.

yes

yes

didnt find.

161 History- Mrunal

Spectrums Culture book

hardly

yes

just 1 line

TMH General Studies Manual

yes

yes

didnt find.

Krishna Reddy

yes

yes

didnt find.

Readymade material from Coaching/Correspondence/postal class.

didnt use

didnt use

didnt use

AL Basham, A Wonder that was India

yes

yes

Few lines.

CompetitiveExam

Academic

Yes= means at least 60% of the answer content was available. Yes doesnt mean 100% content for the said question is given
verbatim in the said book.

Didnt find= either the answer was not given there OR I didnt read carefully.

Didnt use=because same content given in standard reference books for free/ cheap price.

Now time for the answers:

Q1. Sangam Literature
Q. Though not very useful from the point of view of a connected political history of South India, the Sangam literature portrays
the social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable vividness. Comment. (10m | 200words)
Approach: Have to comment on three issues:
1.

Sangam literature doesnt help much to dig POLITICAL history of South India.

2.

Sangam literature helps understanding the SOCIAL condition of South India.

3.

Sangam literature helps understanding ECONOMIC condition of South India.

BOOKS NOT MUCH USEFUL

USEFUL

1.

A few rudimentary points under

NCERT Class 6 and class 12.

2.

NIOS culture course, Ch6 talks about

Sangam but hardly anything on socioeconomic details.

3.

Spectrums culture book talks about

Sangam literature but hardly anything
on society or economy.

1.

2/3rd of the answer (Society + Economy) can be directly finished from

ICSE Class 9 History textbook alone. But doesnt talk about first part
(Why Sangam literature doesnt help understanding pol.history of
S.India?)

2.

^same as above with TMH General Studies Manual.

3.

Old NCERT Class 11 = Indias Ancient past RS Sharma (under Oxford

Publication). Matter Covered under chapter 3 and 22.

4.

Tamilnadu State Board History Textbook Class 11, Chapter 8

5.

AL Basham, A wonder that was India: under chapter 9.

6.

Indian History, Krishna Reddy Chapter on Post Mauryan India.

Part#1: doesnt help in Political history because:

1.

Three Sangams held between 100-250AD

162 History- Mrunal

I.
II.
III.

First sangam: attended by Gods and Sages. Work didnt survive.

Second: only Tolkappiyam (grammar book) survives = doesnt help much.
Third (last) Sangam: has eight anthologies (Ettutogai). Here too, not all work has survived. + has following
limitations:

2.

Since poets were patronized by ruling elites- exaggerations about the victories, territorial influence. Even a cattle raid on village
would be narrated as war.

3.

More focus Hero-worship rather than how they shaped power balance and foreign relation with other states.

4.

some of the names, titles, dynasties, territories, wars and like mentioned these poems are imaginary.

5.

No archeological evidences to corroborate certain settlements mentioned in Sangam Poems. e.g. Kaveripattanam.

6.

Many of these poems are erotic / romantic in nature.

7.

Much of the work still untranslated. Thorough study yet to be done.

Part#2: Social conditions in Sangam Age

From Sangam literature, we get following information about South Indian society:

South Indian society celebrated both love (Akam poems) and wars (Puram poems)

Heroic death, sacrifice, stones and memorials greatly cherished.

Sangam poets mention four Varnas:

VALUES

VARNAS

1.

Arashar (King/nobility)

2.

Brahmanas (priests)

3.

Viashiyar (traders)

4.

Velala (Farmer)- they even held civil and military post.

Brahmanas (priests) performed yagna before wars

Priests, poets and bards (Panar): respected by society and patronized by ruling elite.

allowed to choose their partners

Love marriage common practice.

Widow life miserable.

Sati practice was also prevalent upper caste. (hard to believe but yes, it is given in TN state text book.)

Society divided on clan based groups called Kuti

Women

social
Interaction

163 History- Mrunal

DEATH

Inter-dining and social interaction among Kuti groups was permitted.

Meaning a stringent 4-fold stratification and Jati system of North Indian type, was not prevalent during
that stage of Tamil Society, but appeared at later period.

Society essentially in tribal-pastoral in character: Tribal customs, totem worship prevalent. people wore
amulets to ward off evil, bring rain and luck.

Varied from burial in urns to cremation rituals.

Part#3: Economic conditions in Sangam Age

From Sangam literature, we get following information about South Indian Economy:

1.

There were five economic zones (tinai), each supporting a different economic activity. (hills, drylands,
jungle, plains and coast)

2.

While the kings received income from trade, tributes and plunder, but a regular system of taxation was
not seen.

3.

All three kingdoms (Chola, Chera, Pandya) wanted to subjugate lesser chieftains, hence war, raid and
plunder were normal feature of the society- leading to destruction of resources and manpower. We can
infer this from Sangam poems describing the sorrow of villagers, whose cattle and farm produced were
plundered by enemy chieftains.

1.

Agri, hunting, gathering, fishing and pastoralism = main activities

2.

cattle raids are frequently mentioned in the poems= pastoral economy.

3.

Tools were mainly used for hunting and raids. But Crafting specialization was rudimentary, only served as
secondary source of income.

4.

Traders were prosperous- dealt with salt, corn, textile and gold.

Both inland and external trade was practiced.

Major export: silk, cotton, ivory, pepper and pearls- All highly valued by the foreigner. Sangam Poems
narrate about how Yavans came in their own vessels, purchased pepper with gold, and supplied wine and
women to Indian rulers to get trading permissions.

(Despite having no formal taxation system) Chola, Chera and Pandiyan kingdoms became wealthy mainly
by exporting these commodities to Roman Empire and South East Asian kingdoms. (and they didnt have
high current account deficit because Sangam poems donot mention crude oil import.)

agriculture: Women actively involved in planting, weeding, husking and winnowing of paddy

Spinning, weaving, basket making, garland making and flower selling were among other occupations
pursed by women.

OVERALL
Economy

Occupation

FOREIGN
TRADE

WOMEN in
Economy

but this is more than 500 words. Have to compress:

Keypoints- Sangam

164 History- Mrunal

Q. Though not very useful from the point of view of a connected political history of South India, the Sangam literature portrays the
social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable vividness. Comment. (10m | 200words)
Key points:
1.

2.

3.

Sagam Litt. fails to give political history because:

1.

While three Sangams were held, only the last gathering provides material relevant to political history.

2.

With Hero worship as prime focus, Poets often exaggerated victories and territories of the kings.

3.

Some of the names, places, dynasties, territories are imaginary and not corroborated by archeological evidences.

4.

Part of the literature is erotic and romantic in nature.

Sagam Litt. Gives social picture:

1.

Society cherished love, wars and heroes.

2.

Bards, priests and poets received royal patronage.

3.

Poets mention four varnas: Nobility, priests, traders and farmers.

4.

Society divided into clans (Kuti), however dining and social interactions permitted among them.

5.

Unlike North India, the South Indian society did not have stringent 4-fold varna stratification and Jati system.

6.

Women were allowed to choose partners, but life of widows was miserable.

Sagam Litt. Gives economy picture:

1.

Five economic zones (tinai) viz. hills, drylands, jungle, plains and coast, each supporting a different economic activity.

2.

Agriculture, hunting, gathering, fishing and pastoralism were primary occupations. Crafting, weaving served as
secondary source of income.

3.

Women formed a significant part of labour force, particularly in paddy cultivation, craft and weaving.

4.

Kings received income from trade, tributes and plunder. Regular system of taxation was absent. However, export of
pepper, ivory, silk, cotton and booty from raids made the kings wealthy.

This is ~200 words.

Q2. Chola Temples
Q. Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture. Discuss. (5 marks | 100
words)
100 words can be easily gathered from any of the following books, but the real problem= can you recall decent points worth 100 words in
the actual exam hall?
1.

NIOS Culture, Ch. 13 (~50 words.)

2.

Class 9 ICSE History textbook, page 74

3.

Tamilnadu Class 11 History textbook, chapter 13.

4.

Indian History, Krishna Reddy

5.

Under TMH General studies manual, section History of India=>art and architecture=>Cholas. Sufficient content

6.

Spectrums culture book (page 145 in 2004s edition)

165 History- Mrunal

7.

AL Basham, Wonder that was India, Page 359-360

Anyway, lets check the less boring points.

Cholas followed the architecture style of Pallavas and constructed numerous temples throughout their territory. Nagaeshwvara, Brihadesh-wvara and Airavatesh-wara temples in Tanjore-Thanjavur region represent the zenith of Chola architectural style.
Notable features are following:

1.

Material

Started using stones instead of bricks.

Walls & Passages

have neatly detailed frescoes, sculptures and paintings- including birds, dancing figures, pictorial
stories from Puranas

Portraits

Some of the Chola temples contain beautiful life-sized portraits of kings and queens. e.g. Rajaraja I and
his queen lok-mahadevi, Rajendra I and his queen Chol-mahadevi.

Garbhagriha

chief deity room

Vimana

the 5-7 storeys above chief deity room. In Brihadeshwahra temple- 13 successive storeys.

Shikhara

above the Vimana (Storeys). Rajarajeshwara temple has Shikhara stone weighing almost 90 tonnes.
Since they didnt have cranes to lift it, architects built a 4 km long inclined path to drag the stone over
the top.

.Vs Pallavas

Although Chola continued the art tradition of Pallavas, but abandoned the lion motifs from

166 History- Mrunal

temple walls.

Chola temple pillars were constructed with greater refinement than Pallavas.

During Chola period, metal art showed remarkable development and was used for further
decoration of temples.

e.g Nataraja or dancing shiva at Chiadambaram temple- described as the cultural epitome of
the Chola period.

Nataraja

Mandap

Audience hall, for various ceremonies. Elaborate carvings and pillars.

Gopuram

Temple gateways, which enclosed the entire temple structure with high walls.

Brihadeshwara temple by Rajaraja I at Tanjore. It was the tallest of all Indian temple at that
period.

Other kingdoms in South India- and even in Sri Lanka, adopted the architectural style of
Chola temples.

Trend-Setters

~256 words. Have to compress

Keypoints- Chola Temples
Q. Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture. Discuss. (5 marks | 100
words)
Keypoints:
The Cholas followed and refined Pallava architecture, with following notable features:
1.

Use of stones instead of bricks.

2.

Walls decorated with sculptures and paintings of deities, kings and queen instead of lion motifs from Pallava.

3.

Temples are enclosed by decorative walls and entrance (Gopuram);

4.

have an audience hall (Mandap); a deity room (Garbhgriha); a pyramid like storey above the deity room (Vimana)

5.

Ultimately the beautiful Shikara stone at the top each with elaborate and meticulous carvings- Weighing in tonnes yet placed
without help of cranes.

During their reign, Cholas studded the entire Tamil landscape with such temples including Nagaeshwvara, Brihadeshwvara,
Airavateshwara and Chidambaram -their style even followed by other kingdoms in South India and Sri Lanka.
~110 words.
Q3. Tandav Dance
Q. Discuss the Tandava dance as recorded in the early Indian inscriptions. (5 marks |100 words)

Spectrums culture book barely gives two lines.

167 History- Mrunal

NIOS culture course ch. 12 mentions that traditional Indian culture the function of dance was to give symbolic expression to
religious ideas. The figure of Lord Shiva as Nataraja represents the creation and destruction of the cosmic cycle.

From a small paragraph in AL Basham page 310, it becomes obvious that ^above NIOS sentence is talking about Tandava
dance.

Anyways lets combine:

1.

In South India, religious dancing was part of the earliest known tradition and Shiva himself is considered to have invented no
less than 108 different dances.

2.

Some of his dances are calm and gentle, while others fierce, orgiastic, heroic, bold, vigorous and terrible- such as the Tandava
dance of Nataraja.

3.

Tandava and Lasya, are two basic aspects of Classical Indian Dance, associated with Shiva and Parvati respectively.

4.

In Tandava dance form, the angry Shiva is surrounded by his drunken attendants (ganas), he beats out a wild rhythm which
destroys the world at the end of the cosmic cycle.

5.

Thus Tandava dance is meant to give symbolic expression to religious idea of Shiva being the Destroyer among the trinity of
Bramha, Vishnu and Mahesh.

~123 words.
Although original question is Discuss Tandava as recorded in the early Indian inscriptions= so even above answer is
incomplete. Because it doesnt talk about any inscriptions. Finally Wikipedia (=the most unreliable source for MCQs), gives the
seemingly right points.
Ancient Hindu scriptures narrate various occasions when Shiva or other gods have performed the Tandava viz.
1.

When Sati jumped in sacrificial fire in Dakshas Yajna to give up her life, Shiva performed the Rudra Tandava to express his
grief and anger.

2.

The Bhagavata Purana talks of Krishna dancing his Tandava on the head of the serpent Kaliya.

3.

According to Jain text: Indra performed Tandava in honour of Rishabhas birth (Jain tirthankar).

4.

Shivapradosha stotra mentions: when Shiva performs the Sandhya Tandava, the other gods like Brahma, Vishnu, Sarasvati,
Lakshmi and Indra play musical instruments and sing Shivas praises.

5.

In some temple sculptures, Ganesha is depicted in Eight armed form, dancing the Tandava.

~115 words.
Anyways, lets combine and compress
Keypoints: Tandav Dance
Q. Discuss the Tandava dance as recorded in the early Indian inscriptions. (5 marks |100 words)
1.

Tandava and Lasya, are two basic aspects of Classical Indian Dance. Shiva himself is considered to have invented atleast 108
different dances- including the fiercely aggressive Tandava- where he destroys the world at the end of the cosmic cycle.

2.

Thus Tandava is meant to give symbolic expression to religious idea of Shiva being the Destroyer among the trinity of Gods.

3.

Ancient Hindu scriptures narrate many incidents where Tandava was performed including:
a.

Shiva at the death of Sati, to express his grief and anger.

b.

Krishna on the head of serpant Kaliya

c.

Indra at the birth of Jain Tirthkar Rishabhdev

168 History- Mrunal

~100 words.
Analysis/Rambling/Commentary/Observations:
before reading further, make sure youve read above culture question-answers first, and also tried solving them at home from whatever
books/material youve at home.
Marks per question
Over the last few years, UPSC was moving towards more questions for less marks trend e.g.

No. Of Questions

x Marks Per question

=Total Marks

60

60

30

60

15

60

12

60

In 2012s General Studies Mains paper, some of the Questions were even asked for 1 mark each! E.g PV Sindhu, Mario Miranda.

So, it was natural for the players to expect that lot of questions will be of 1m, 2m, 5m each.

Even in IFoS-2013 Mains exam, UPSC had asked all questions in 6-8 marks range. so the expectation even more bolstered.

Hence the study approach of most candidates= focused on gathering maximum number of terms with 20-50 words
for each. Especially for culture, sci-tech, even for world-history to some extent.

UPSC did follow that expected line: questions were indeed small, only in terms of marks (5 marks and 10 marks each) but not in
terms of length (100 words and 200 words each).
Difficulty level & BackbreakingTM

CULTURE QUESTIONS IN 2013

1.

on Sangam literature giving picture of

South Indias society and Economy

Chola temples

Tandav Dance

PREVIOUSLY

1.

Sangam literature has been asked under two markers in GS papers (2000
and 2007)

2.

How do recent archaeological findings and Sangam literary texts

enlighten us about the early state and society in South India? (2008
under History optional)

1.

GS paper in 1999 under two markers.

2.

Bring out the regional variations in the early south Indian temple
architectural styles. (2008 under History optional)

not seen in previous paper (or maybe I didnt look carefully)

169 History- Mrunal

Two out three topics were not new, the only challenge was to bring 200 and 100 words worth content respectively- especially for
students without history optional.

For both questions- sufficient matter available in standard reference books, as we saw while solving the answers.

But then a player wouldnt have prepared such topics in that detail- because the previous trend of UPSC forced him to
do Gadhaa majoori of mugging up 50 dozen folk dances, painters, authors etc. for 20-30 words each with hope that lot of 2
markers will be asked.

The GS1 paper started with culture question- hence most players would have panicked and it indirectly affected their
performance even in remaining questions from history-post-independence India and geography where they did have sufficient
answer points inside their head.

Besides, even if the answer is verbatim given in a standard reference book- hiding in the plain sight, doesnt mean the aspirant
can recall all the points during the actual exam. The stress, anxiety and fatigue doesnt let the mind perform @100% efficiency.

Even if he can recall entire content, still it is humanly impossible to finish 25 questions in 5000 words with high quality points
within three hours.

Thus, once again, the innocent bystanders are massacred while UPSC deploys BackbreakingTM move against coaching classes, rot
learners (and senior players*).
Some more Conspiracy theories:

THEORY
#1

All three culture questions are related to south India. Because Sangam=South India, Chola=South India and
Tandav Dance=Nataraja=associated with South India.

In other words, the paper was set by a South Indian professor.

So for Mains-2014, candidate must prepare South Indian culture topics thoroughly.

In CSAT, CAPF and CDS 2013 exams, UPSC has shown its prem for Buddism and Jainism MCQs. Prior to
that, two markers related to folk dances and festivals.

So Coaching walla (and senior players*) would have assumed that similar Buddism-Jainism-cave-folk-festival
type stuff will come in Mains.

Therefore, asking about South Indian culture was the most logical step according to UPSCs
BackbreakingTM rulebook for Mains-2013.

And hence, the most logical thing to do for Mains-2014= ignore south Indian culture!

THEORY
#2

*it is a widely believed conspiracy theory that UPSC chairman prefers first timers over senior players. All this so called exam
reform/gimmicks/tomfoolery is meant to prevent any senior player from gaining advantage by his repeated experience.
And as usual, my sympathies and respect goes for these hard working senior players for theyre the victims of circumstances- everyone
wants to crack exam in first trial, but Cinderella story doesnt happen with everyone- so what can they do? Try again and again until age,
attempt, money or willpower runs out.
Back to the culture topic:
Causal revision = #Epicfail

Frequent and serious revision is more important than wide coverage. e.g Chola temples question: Gopuram, vimana,
Mandap etc.= youve already come across these terms many times in the same routine books like GS Manual and Spectrums
culture.

170 History- Mrunal

But while reading, if you just superficially glance over the information thik hai..thik hai (in the haste to finish reading many
topics) then you cannot recall points in the exam=> low quality filler answers.
Focus on Dramatic part = also #EPICFAIL

In December 2013, the state election result came. BJP won in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh; and emerged as the largest
party in Delhi.

Newschannel
Anchor

will BJP form government in Delhi? or will you give external support to AAP? How will delhi result affect
Modis chances in 2014 general election? blah blah blah

BJP
spokesperson

But why are you so obsessed with Delhi? Delhi is worth only 7 parliament seats. Why are you not talking about
the other large states that weve won- Rajasthan and MP? Theyll give us good number of Parliament seats in
2014!

Same is the problem with some UPSC candidates. Always worry about the dramatic parts rather than paying attention to bigger picture.

In Prelims, just because one or two tough questions from culture/classical dance come, so they panic, they start doing Ph.D
study on all classical dance forms, all temples, all painting, google n wiki day and night while ignoring the high-scoring areas
such as freedom struggle, geography, polity, Economy, Environment-biodiversity and Science.

In mains, at max, culture is just 8%, even out of that, the toughest question the Tandav Dance is just 5 marks (2% of the whole
paper) and that too requires 100 words to be written.

Compare to that, there were plenty of questions in Indian History, world history, post-independence India and geography
(totaling >60% of the GS1 paper), where cost: benefit was quite good. So, thats where your focus should be.

In the game of chess, if you try to defend every pawn, you end up losing the entire match. In short, a culture topic must be
prepared but should not be prepared beyond itsaukaat.
Studyplan for Mains-2014 Culture section

Q. What / How to prepare the culture section for Mains-2014? What books to refer?

171 History- Mrunal

GS preparation is like Kung-fu, every master develops his own style. you dont have to read all of these following book, just mix-matchtweak as per your requirement and comfort level.

book

comment

Quite good for geography and science theory based MCQs.

But their history textbooks have dumbed down entire India history
to secular case studies to prevent any new PILs and controversies.

(new) NCERT

NIOS

Tamil Nadu
Textbooks (TNT)

GS Manual

Spectrums
Culture book

AL Basham

Almost useless for history.

As a result, New NCERT are not helping much in this

history/culture related MCQs/Descriptive. Even Buddism, Jainism
related basic GK-MCQs is not covered properly.

Had UPSC asked same questions in 2m/20 words, then NIOS alone would
have sufficed. But unfortunately, it did not.

The History coverage is both useful in MCQ and descriptive

coverage for competitive exams.

Detailing is Similar to Old NCERT but with eye candy fonts and
pictures.

available for free: Click ME

Two culture questions in Mains-2013= more like luck by chance.

ICSE textbooks are not free. and free alternative available (TNT)

Some of them available at Mrunal.org/history

Remaining chapters will be uploaded in near future.

If you dont have it, then there is always Tamilnadu Textbooks

(TNT)/GS Manual.

The history (+culture) section GS manuals is written based on old

NCERT + a few books from history optional. so, if youve GS
Manual, no need for doing double majoori with Old NCERT.

ICSE textbook

Old NCERT

hope for 2014 culture

MCQ/Descriptive

Cursory reading.

Very useful.

Useful

Survived this time, but left limping. Overall future utility reduced

Too bulky, technical, academic in nature.

Krishna Reddy

Before CSAT era, UPSC prelims used to have two papers: GS +

Useful

Useful but not essential.

Not much useful.

Cost: benefit is bad.

Useful for people with

History optional.Useless for
others.

172 History- Mrunal

optional.

websites

At that time, Krishna Reddys Indian History and Laxmikanths

Pub.Ad were the essential books for their respective optional
subjects.

wiki/ google / internet full of resources on Indian culture.

coaching/postal
material

For culture section theyre employing Spray and pray technique.

i.e. they give you 600-700-1500 pages worth material, the
coverage is so large that it is humanly impossible to mugup all
data.

Random surfing, Net Ph.D

=useless.

Even Xeroxing them is a

waste money and paper.

And if luck by chance any question is asked in official UPSC exam,

they can still make marketing claim that it came from our
material!

So ^these are some of the books / sources for Indian culture. Design your own studyplan/ kung-fu style according to your requirements
for Culture section in Mains 2014.
The focus should be on memorizing points that can help you assemble a 100-150 words content in the exam.
If you have come across any other awesome resource/book, do mention it in the comments below.
Working professionals dont waste salary
In recent years, many working professionals have entered in the fray, but because of the job workload they cant spare much time. So
theyre always looking for some way to reduce the studyload + they also have salary money to spare (because most of them unmarried).
Nowadays, working professional= main target audience for coaching-correspondence business. And the new GS syllabus uncertainty
factor boomed the business like never before.
But in this article, youve seen that all questions could be solved directly from Standard reference books (except Tandav dance). So, avoid
falling into the readymade material / external dependency mindset- it doesnt help in UPSC exam. If youve big money to spend, better
spent it on some infrastructure that helps in study- like more tubelights in the studyroom, bigger desk, more comfortable studychair,
faster internet, bigger monitor, tablet, laptop, rental room near office to save travel time etc. Dont pour salary into drain for garbage
material.
No point in crying over the spilled milk
(Only meant for Players who wrote Mains-2013)

For the exam you should have done this, you should have done that Im not going to preach any of that, because if you had
known that UPSC was going to ask these type of lengthy detailed questions, then you would have definitely prepared in a
different fashion accordingly.

Based on your understanding of the previous trend, You had prepared in the best manner you could. So, If some random person
on internet claims he wrote 250 out 250 marks, then you dont have to become sleepless and restless over it.

Remember the wisdom given in the Geeta

(-)

The one who is not disturbed by miseries,

Or elated in happiness.
The one who is free from fear, anger and cutoffs,
Is called a sage of steady mind.

So, Now its the time to move on- prepare for the interviews, prepare your location-graduation related questions, prepare
opinion based current affairs, prepare your hobbies and so on.

173 History- Mrunal

And simultaneously, do work on whatever career backup/Post graduation/other competitive exams you have.

DO get a computer certificate. (CCC). http://www.nielit.in/student411ccc.htm

DO enroll to any decent PG course in IGNOUs distant education

program. http://www.ignou.ac.in/ignou/studentzone/programmelist

The next prelims is in late August 2014. Thats more than a half year away. Youve already have the experience of clearing one CSAT, you
dont need to focus on CSAT for 24/7 basis anymore.
My point being, dont be fixated in prelim-mains-interview-prelim-main-interview mindset, otherwise 3-5-7 years of youth life are
gone in no time and one day you realize you dont have PG, you dont have work-ex, your life and biodata file basically sucks.
This time, youve a long gap between Mains-2013 to Prelims-2014. Use those months wisely. If you dont want to execute any backplans,
no problem. But at least prepare the necessary groundwork. e.g
1.

If MBA is your backup, then get the idea: when do CAT/MAT/CMAT/XAT/GMAT/IRMA etc. application forms come every
year, when are the exams taken? What are the good colleges and courses to apply for? What type of questions are asked? And so
on.

2.

If State service is your backup, then prepare all the static / theory stuff related to state history/geography/schemes/economy.
Thatll also help in interviews.

It is one thing to have career backup in your head, but its an entirely different thing to actually set it in motion when you really want to
execute that backup.
Therefore, Groundwork must be prepared in advance. I say this, not to demotivate you but to caution you-Lightening doesnt strike on
everyone, but nor does the Cinderella story happen with everyone- so dont put all eggs in one basket.

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Freedom Struggle Indian History: Answerkey & Analysis of Mains-2013 Questions Dalhousie, Women, Foreigners & Studyplan, Booklist
for UPSC Mains-2014
Prologue
In the last article we saw the Indian Culture related questions in GS Mains paper 1- their answers, analysis and future strategy for Mains
2014. click me
Now lets move to next section: The freedom struggle / Indian history. Following questions came for 10 marks and 200 words each (In
Mains-2013):
1.

Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion, the Indian women became the torch bearer during the struggle for freedom
in India. Discuss.

2.

Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. Analyze their role in the Indian
struggle for freedom.

3.

In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of modern India. Elaborate.

4.

Discuss the contribution of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad to pre-and post-independent India.

Any analysis/observation/commentary is shallow without solving the questions so lets do that first:
Sources/Books used

Typr

Book

DALHOUSIE

FOREIGNE
R

WOME
N

M.AZAD

School

New NCERT

No

No

No

No

174 History- Mrunal

old NCERT (10,12)

Yes

No

No

No

TN State Board Class12

Yes, Verbatim

No

No

No

TMH General Studies Manual

No

No

No

No

Spectrum Freedom Fighters

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Spectrum Brief history Modern India

Yes

No

Yes

No

Krishna Reddy: Indian History

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Bipin Chandra, India s struggle for

independence

No

No

Yes

No

Sumit Sarkar: Modern India

No

No

Yes

No

Textbooks

Competitive

Academic

Yes means at least 60% content available to write the answer. Yes doesnt automatically mean 100% content available.

No means any of the three things:

A.

Book has insufficient Content to write decent 200 words. Youve to re-phrase and rewrite the same sentence over and
over dragging the points with flowery English like a chewing gum to reach 200 words limit.

B.

Answer did not exist at all.

C.

I did not check the book carefully.

Q. Dalhousie the founder of Modern India

Q. In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of modern India. Elaborate. (10m | 200 words)
Can be solved using any one of these:
1.

(TNT) Tamilnadu Textbook History Class 12, Chapter 6.

2.

Spectrum: A brief history of Modern India, Rajiv Ahir. In the last part of the book under Ready reference data section.

3.

Krishna Reddy: Indian History. Chapter 15 British Expansion.

4.

Old NCERT Class 12 (Bipin Chandra, History of Modern India) chapter on The structure of government and economic policies.

First lets collect the points, then we compress:

Transformed the map of India
Annexed

Punjab, Lower Burma, Central Provinces and Oudh.

Applied Doctrine of Lapse

Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur

Dalhousie did it for following reasons:

175 History- Mrunal

Strategic: Imperial defense, ending the misrule of Princes to win goodwill of people.

Commercial: source of raw material, new market manufactured goods

Anyhow, Dalhousie increased the extent of British India. His territorial acquisition transformed the map of India. Had he not acquired
these territories then many more Hyderabad, Jamnagar and Kashmir like crisis would have happened in those areas, immediately after
freedom.
Administrative reforms @District and State level
Dalhousie was laying down the seeds of district administration / IAS under his Non-regulation system. Observe: After annexing
Punjab, Dalhousie did following
1.

Organized Punjab province into small districts.

2.

Each district under control of an Administrative officer called Deputy Commissioner.

3.

Combined Revenue and Judicial departments.

4.

The laws and procedure were simplified in accordance with the custom of the people.

5.

The overall administration of Punjab in the hands of a Chief Commissioner.

Thus, Dalhousie had started molding the provinces into a modern centralized states.
Railways
Dalhousie introduced railways in India, with three fold objectives:
1.

Commercial- exploitation of raw material from interior parts of India

2.

Administrative- maintaining connectivity with all regions.

3.

Defense- for quickly transporting troops from one location to another, during rebellions.

1853

Bombay to thane

1854

Calcutta to the Raniganj coal-fields

1856

Madras to Arakkonam
Communication

Dalhousie = father of Post + telegraph because:

Telegrap
h

1853: First telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra.

Overall, Dalhousie laid more than 4000 miles long telegraph line connecting Peshawar, Bombay, Madras,
Calcutta and many other parts of India.

Founded modern postal system in India.

Introduced postal stamps for the first time. Reduced the postal rates.

Postal

176 History- Mrunal

Uniform postal charge throughout India (half anna), irrespective of the distance between two places.

Education
1854: Charles Woods prepared a dispatch on educational system in India.
He recommended following
1.

government should assume responsibility of spreading education to masses

2.

hierarchy of educational institutes

a.

Primary schools @Villages (Vernacular medium)

b.

High schools and an affiliated college @district (English medium)

c.

Universities @presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. (English medium)

3.

Stress on female education, vocational education and teachers training.

4.

Education should be secular in nature.

5.

Grant-in-aids to private educational institutions.

Dalhousie fully accepted the views of Charles Wood and took steps to carry out the new scheme.
Public Works Department

Before Dalhousie, the job of the Public Works Department was done by the Military Board.

But Dalhousie created a separate Public Works Department and allotted more funds for cutting canals and roads- and thus, laid
foundation of the Engineering service in India.

Completed Upper Ganges Canal.

Constructed many bridges.

Others
1.

Passed the Widow remarriage act (1856)

2.

Dalhousie shifted the headquarters of Bengal Artillery from Calcutta to Meerut.

3.

Simla was made the permanent headquarters of the army.

but this is ~500 words. Have to compress

Answer Keypoints
Q. In many ways, Lord Dalhousie was the founder of modern India. Elaborate. (10m | 200 words)
During his term, Dalhousie increased the extent of British India to Punjab, Oudh, Satara, Jhansi and other parts of India. His territorial
acquisition transformed the map of India. He was not only a conqueror but also a great administrator.
1.

He started molding the medieval provinces into modern centralized states- with his non-regulation system. Punjab was
divided into smaller district supervised by Deputy Commissioners, who were in turn supervised by a Chief Commissioner.

2.

Introduced railways in India for commercial, strategic and Administrative purpose.

177 History- Mrunal

3.

Introduced postal stamps, uniform charges and modern Postal System.

4.

Laid more than 4000 miles of telegraph line.

5.

Created separate Public Works department, allotted more funds for roads-canal construction.

6.

Implemented Woods Dispatch, assumed the responsibility of educating the masses, created hierarchy of educational institutes
from primary schools at villages, high schools and collages at district level and universities in presidency towns.

The Modern India stands on the pillars of state-district administration, Rail-Post-Telecom infrastructure and three tier education
system. Dalhousie directly involved in all of them, hence aptly called the founder of Modern India.
~180 words.
Q. Maulana Azad
Q. Discuss the contribution of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad to pre-and post-independent India. (10m | 200 words)
Can be easily assembled from any of the following sources:

Spectrums freedom fighter book: Page 251-252

PIB news release in November 2013 for his 125th Anniversary.

Lets directly frame the answer:

During freedom struggle:

Ran Al Hilal and Al Balagh weeklies.

Head of Khilafat Committee

Supported Gandhi during Non-cooperation movement

presided over congress sessions

Arrested during Quit India movement.

Negotiated with British Cabinet mission for Indias independence.

Opposed two-nation theory of Jinnah. Advocated Hindu-Muslim unity.

Wrote a book India Wins freedom, to give firsthand account of the events.

Post-independence:

Member of Constitution assembly

First Union minister of education, later held portfolios of Natural resources and scientific research.

Pivotal role in foundation of IIT, UGC, AICTE, CSIR, Sahitya Academy, Lalit Kala Academy, Sangeet Natak Academy and many
other educational and scientific research laboratories in India.

For his service to the nation, he was posthumously awarded countrys highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna.

~130 words, but when you elaborate the statements and expand the abbreviations, it automatically covers the remaining gap of 70 words.
Q. Foreigners in Freedom struggle
Q. Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. Analyze their role in the
Indian struggle for freedom. (10m | 200words)

178 History- Mrunal

In most of the books, this answer is not available directly. (Except Annie Besant part)
The Quickest reference source I can think of, is Spectrums freedom fighter book. (Gandhi Nehru Tagore and other eminent personalities
of Modern India.)
first lets gather the points:

AO Hume

Debatable because he did not make India his homeland. He had left India in 1894 and died in London (1912).

David Hare

Doesnt count because he is related to introduction of western education, rationalism and liberal thinking.
Besides he died in 1842, before the mutiny of 1857.

Henry Vivian
Derozio

Doesnt count, because hes not foreigner. He was an Anglo-Indian born in Calcutta.

William Jones

Doesnt count because he died in 1746, way before even the first struggle of independence (1857). Besides his
main interest was translation of Sanskrit scripts.

Anyways, lets check the foreigners who contributed in Freedom struggle:

Annie Besant

Irish woman, came to India as a part of Theosophical society.

Central Hindu School @Benaras, later became Benaras Hindu university

Surat Split had weakened the Congress, Gandhi was yet to come. During this time Besants political entry provided the much
needed momentum to freedom struggle.

Demanded self-rule for India, without waiting for the end of WW1.

Setup a Home rule league in 1915.

Spread her ideas through New India and Commonweal

Moved the congress resolution against Jaliawalla massacre.

Also served as President of Congress session

She and Gandhi had difference of opinion on Montague- chelmsford reforms, Non-cooperation movement and boycott of
foreign goods. In the last 10 years of her life, Ms. Beasant quit active politics and freedom struggle altogether.
Charles Freer Dinbandhu Andrews

English missionary philanthropist.

Extended his wholehearted support to the freedom struggle and criticized the British for their unjust and racial policies.

Took part in political and social movements launched by Indian leaders.

championed the rights of labourers, railway workers and cotton weavers

actively worked with BR Ambedkar for Harijan demands, campaigned against untouchability

Gandhi gave the title of Dinbandhu for his compassion for poor.

179 History- Mrunal

Advocated the rights of Indian settler in South Africa, East Africa, West Indies, Fiji and the English colonies in other parts of the
world.

used his influence in England to arouse public opinion against colonial exploitation.

Even negotiated with the government in England for Gandhis release from prison.

Miraben (Madelein Slade)

From aristocratic English family.

Influenced by Gandhian philosophy, joined Sabarmati Ashram, took part in Gandhis socio-political campaigns.

toured throughout India to promote Khadi and Satyagraha

Wrote many articles in Young India, Harijan, The Stateman, Times of India and Hindustan Times.

Major role in setting up Seva gram near Wardha.

Accompanied Gandhi to Round table conference in London.

180 History- Mrunal

During WW2, asked Orissa people to oppose Japanese invasion non-violently.

Placed under detention during Quit India movement.

Satyanand Stokes

Not given in any books but TheHindu ran a story on him (August 2013).

Samuel Evans Stokes Jr. was scion of a Wealthy American family. Came to India to work in a leaper home in Himachal.

fought relentlessly against labour exploitation in the Shimla hills

Only American to attend Congress session in Nagpur (1920)

Only foreigner to sign Congress manifesto in 1921 that called upon Indians to give up government service and join the freedom
movement.

Arrested on charges of Sedition, jailed for six months.

Died in 46 in Shimla.

Sarala Ben

-Originally Katherine Mary Heilaman, disciple of Gandhi.

Social worker, setup ashram in Uttarakhand, helped the families of political prisoners.

Margaret Elizabeth Noble (Sister Nivedita)

From Ireland. Joined Swami Vivekanandas Ramakrishna Mission.

Criticized the racial policies of the British, helped during Bengal famine and plague epidemics, worked for upliftment of
Women.

Mira Alphonse (Mother)

French woman, associated of Shri Aurobindo,

role in setting up Auroville town near Pondicherry.

Motivated Annie Beasant, Nalini Sengupta and many other women to fight for India.

Nalini Sengupta

Born in Cambridge to Fredrick and Edith Grey. Came to India after marrying Jatindra Mohan Sengupta.

Actively participated in boycott and non-cooperation movements, arrested several times.

President of Indian National Congress- notable achievement for a woman from Britain.

Elected unopposed to Bengal legislative assembly.

Verrier Elwin

British by birth, came to India in 27. associated with Seva Sangh of Puna.

On Gandhis advice, worked for tribal upliftment, setup Gond Seva Mandal.

181 History- Mrunal

More names can be dug through google, but in a real life scenario, an aspirant cannot afford to do Ph.D on every topic. So lets just
assemble the answer from the information available so far.
~650 words. Have to compress
Answer keypoints
Q. Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. Analyze their role in the
Indian struggle for freedom. (10m | 200words)
[Side note: since this is an analyse question, multiple answers and interpretations possible.]
While many Americans and Europeans empathized with Indias struggle for Independence, few of them came to India and actively
participated. Notable are: Annie Beasant, Katherine Heilaman (Sarala ben), Mira Alphonse (Mother), Madelin Slade (Miraben), Nalini
Sengupta CF, Dinbandhu Andrews, Satyanand Stokes and Verrier Alvin.
Overall their role can be summarized as following:

Most of them came to India with primary aim of social service. But their hearts were moved by the brutal exploitation of the
British-raj, hence joined Indias struggle for Independence.

None advocated revolutionary terrorism or violent methods.

Almost all associated with Congress. Annie Beasant and Nalini Sengupta even presided over the Congress sessions despite their
foreign nationality.

Most of them not imprisoned for long time, because they were white.

focused on different areas:

o

Religion: Sister Nivedita, Mother Mira Alphonse

Education and culture: Beasant

Social work: Nalini Sengupta, Miraben, Sarla ben

Labor rights: Dinbandhu, Satyananda Stoke

Tribal rights: V.Alvin

Some closely associated with Gandhi-Miraben, Sarlaben and Dinbandhu.

Some influenced by Gandhi V.Alvin, N.Sengupta, Satyanand Stokes.

Some even had differences with Gandhi- Annie Besant.

But all of them fought against the tyranny of British Imperialism and helped India attain her independence.
~200 words.
Q. Women in Freedom Struggle
Q. Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion, the Indian women became the torch bearer during the struggle for
freedom in India. Discuss. (10 marks | 200 words)
Answer can be assembled from any of the following sources:
1.

Spectrum Freedom fighters (Gandhi Nehru Tagore and Other personalities)

2.

Spectrum Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir

3.

Bipin Chandra: Indias struggle for Independence. Points scattered throughout the book.

182 History- Mrunal

4.

Krishna Reddy. Chapter Gandhi and his thoughts: subtopic Role of women in nationalist movement.

NCERT, TN Textbook, GS Manual= hardly useful because their content is too small/ too generic/ too scattered to serve the purpose.
Anyways, first lets make a table of notable women freedom fighters, to see a pattern / trend.
Abbreviations used in following table:

R=rich, M=middle class, P=poor, ?=not mentioned in book, and I did not bother googling (Because in real life preparation, a
candidate wouldnt have that much time to do Ph.D on everything.)

NV=non-violent. R=Revolutionary / violent methods.

Aruna Asaf Ali

Begum Safia
Abdul Wajid

Durgabai
Deshmukh

Jyotirmoyee
Ganguli

Kasturba

Madam Bhikaiji
Cama

Matangini Hajra

Breaking the social conventions, married to a Muslim Congressman Asaf Ali. Went to
prison during CDM and Individual Satyagraha. Hoisted tricolor @Gowalia tank after
Maulana Azads arrest.

Editor of Inquilab a monthly journal of Congress

Rich Muslim Family, Post graduate from Allahabad Univ. Lost government lecturer job
because of her participation in Quit India movement.

Middle class family, initially couldnt afford education but graduated from Andhra.

Studied law, practiced in Madras High court.

Jailed for salt satyagraha

Andhra Mahila sabha for welfare of women.

left Government job during civil disobedience movement.

took part in the British demonstrations

Demanded the release of jailed INA soldiers. Killed by the British during a procession.

Took part in all the programs of Gandhi, jailed during Quit India movement and died in
Poona jail two years later.

herself influenced by Dadabhai Naoroji, she Inspired Indian youth in UK, ran newsletter
Bande Mataram and organization free India society.

Unfurled first national flag of India in Germany.

born in a poor peasant family of Bengal- exploited by both Zamindars and the British.

Dandi March,

N
V

N
V

N
V

N
V

N
V

N
V

N
V

183 History- Mrunal

Nehru

Rajkumari
Amrita Kaur

Rehana Tyabjee

Sarojini Naidu

Cpt. Laxmi
Sahgal

N
V

N
V

N
V

N
V

campaigned for non-payment of Chowkidari tax- arrested.

During Quit India movement, planned an Attack on police station but killed while hoisting
the national flag.

Jawaharlals mom: Swarup Rani Nehru, provided moral support and fought for freedom
struggle.

His sister Vijay Laxmi Pandit: jailed thrice during CDM

Wife Kamala Nehru: participated in CDM and No-tax campaign.

Royal family from Punjab

Grad. from England, influenced by Gandhi

Jailed for quit India movement

Affluent family, her father was a Judge.

influenced by Gandhi, joined Sabarmati Ashram, NCM, opposed Untouchability + child

marriage

President of Youth congress

Jailed for QIM

First muslim lady to sing Vandemataram in Congress session

Graduated from London

one of the first women to participate in Freedom struggle

under mentorship of G.K.Gokhale

later participated in all programs of Gandhi, including Dandi March

served as President of Indian national congress.

Even her daughter Padmaja Naidu, 21, was arrested for Quit India movement.

young medical student

Became Captain of all-woman Rani of Jhansi regiment of the Indian National Army (INA)
under Subhash Chandra Bose.

184 History- Mrunal

Kalpana Dutt
Joshi

Nanibala devi

Preetilata
Waddedar

Rani Gaidinliu

Led the troops in Burma during WW2, but caught by the British army.

Revolutionary from Bengal.

part of Surya Sens Chittagong republication army. Caught and transported for life, later
released.

Brahmin family. Widowed @the tender age of 16

Joined Jugandhar party, associated with revolutionary movements.

Arrested for transporting weapons and ammunition

was the first and only woman to be tortured by the police under Regulation III of 1818

Calcutta jails first woman prisoner.

Part of Chittagaong revolutionaries of Surya Sen.

Organized attacks on British establishments in Bengal.

Consumed Postassium cyanide to evade detention and interrogation.

Naga Tribal, who organized rebellion to overthrow British from Manipur.

Jailed for 14 years, freed after independence. Given title Rani of Nagas

~1000 words. Even more can be gathered if we refer each book word by word and dig google. But in real life preparation, that is
impractical. So lets just try to assemble an answer from the data gathered so far.
Key points- Women in Freedom struggle
Q. Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion, the Indian women became the torch bearer during the struggle for
freedom in India. Discuss. (10 marks | 200 words)
[Side note: Since this is a Discuss question, multiple answers possible.]
For the first struggle in 1857 to the last struggle in 1942, Women have played an instrumental role in Indias struggle for independence.

Women were not mere foot-soldiers, they provided leadership and direction as well. Be it Sarojini Naidu in Salt March, Vijaya
Laxmi in CDM, Kasturba in QIM, Madam Bhikaiji Cama among Indians in UK, Rehana Tyabjee as President of Youth Congress,
Captain Laxmi Sahgal in INA or Rani Gidinliu during Manipur rebellion.

Kalpana Dutt, Nanibala Devi and Preetilata Waddedar even joined revolutionary movements, disregarding the threat of police
brutality, deportation and death. Many like Jyotirmoyee Ganguli even left government jobs to boycott the British oppression.

Matangini Hajra, Durgabai Deshmukh and many others from poor and middle class families participated. Begum Safia Wajid,
Rehana Tyabjee and Rajkumari Amrita Kaur and many other from affluent Muslim families and royal lineage came out.

185 History- Mrunal

From liberal homes to conservative families, urban centers to rural hamlets, Hindu and Muslim, single and married, young and old,
mothers and daughters, wives and sisters- all women came forward to help India attain its independence.
~210 words.
Question-Answer finished. Now time for analysis/observation/commentary/ramblings.
Difficulty level and BackbreakingTM
From mid 90s to mid-2000, the GS Mains (History) trend was as following:

7,10 or 15 freedom fighters for two marks each = 20-30 marks.

Two to three long questions on freedom struggle for around 15-20-25 marks each. and within this:
o

they Provided alternatives e.g. write any one of two or any two among given three.

sometimes the focus would be on the initial phase (from 1857 to Gandhi Irwin)

Sometimes the focus would be on the end phase (from Gandhi Irwin to various offers and missions for Indias
partition.)

In that era, you could easily sail through the questions by relying on just two books (Spectrums freedom Fighter + Rajiv Ahir), and at
most Bipin Chandra.
But in the recent years, UPSC chairman has been running a campaign to break the backs of coaching classes, rot learners (and senior
players). Hence the complexity of GS history has kept increasing with each year. Observe:

200
9

quotes based questions. You were given some random statements and you had to comment on them.

2010

Only two freedom fighters (4 marks) and a tough question on Dalhousie.

2011

RIN munity (a topic that almost nobody prepares) + womens org. + a few random terms that were hard to recall.

2012

Drastically reduced the history portion. More focus on Culture. No freedom fighters. Even the 25 marker required you to
make significant brainstorming for ideas before attempting the answer.

Same type of complexity-unpredictability has prevailed in 2013 as well.

Players had hoped that just like in 2012, UPSC will ask more from culture and less from freedom struggle in 2013. But UPSC did the
reverse: more questions from Freedom struggle (12%) and less questions from Culture (8%).
Evenly Spread Questions
In the past exams, the question focus would be on a particular block of freedom struggle only:

2010: Dalhousie

Before freedom struggle.

2011: RIN Mutiny

last part of Freedom struggle

Compared to that, 2012s had a more even / balance coverage of entire freedom struggle. Observe the question:
Q. The Indian independence movement was a massbased movement that encompassed various sections of society. It also underwent
the process of constant ideological evolution? Critically examine.
2013 continued on that pattern of testing you understanding entire freedom struggle period. Observe:

186 History- Mrunal

Dalhousie

Before freedom struggle

Tested your memory/recalling power. (you just had to reproduce the points from your
brain to the piece of paper)

role of women

During freedom struggle

Tested your understanding. You had to brainstorm for ideas, arrange them in an order
to frame the analysis/discussion.

role of
foreigners

During freedom struggle

Same as above.

Maulana Azad

During and after freedom

struggle.

Same as Dalhousie question.

Thus for 40 marks, you had to cover almost entire struggle for Indias independence- with both your memory power and your
understanding/analysis power.
The Nature of History questions
Dalhousie:
Dalhousie is not a totally new guy for Mains. In past, UPSC has asked about him but in a different context:
1.

Dalhousies predecessors had acted on the general principles of avoiding annexations, if these could be avoided. Dalhousie
acted on the principles of annexation, if he could do so legitimately. His annexations were both of war and peace. Analyze.
(12 marks | GS1 Mains-2010)

2.

Dalhousie changed the map of India with speed and thoroughness no campaign could equal. (20 marks | History optional
2001)

But difficult to solve in actual exam hall of 2013 because:

In the recent times, for most aspirants, freedom struggle syllabus meant = 1857 and afterwards. So, no one has ever paid
much attention to Dalhousie for mains because he left in 1856.

Bipin Chandra and NCERT dont talk about him much.

Besides, there are 50 dozen other names, places and events to be memorized so who has time for things before 1856?

Even in CSAT Prelims, UPSC has ceased asking Governor-General/Viceroy related GK MCQs. So most people couldnt recall
anything except a few basic points about Dalhousie=railways, telegraph, Satara and Jhansi= high quality answer difficult.
Maulana Azad

Ive counted Maulana Azad question for Post-Independence India topic. Because in the original 2013 question paper, this question was
asked after Bhoodan and Jai-Jawan,Jai Kisan questions. (Meaning whoever arranged the questions, he was in the mood for postindependence.)

187 History- Mrunal

Anyways, Azad cannot be counted as a BackbreakingTM question because:

1.

2013= 125th anniversary of Azad. and if someone / somebodys birth or death anniversary is in the multiple of 25 then it is
automatically important for UPSC for both GS as well as literature.

2.

in November 2013, he was in news because :

a.

Government launched a new webportal maulanaazadheritage.org

b.

Modi blogging that Rahulbabas family has erased all heroes from public memory including Maulana Azad and
Kriplani.

All this was in news during second week of November 2013. Some candidates may not be aware of this development because in
November they would have stopped reading newspaper because Mains-2013 was just a few days away in the first week of December.
Lesson: A player must not stop following newspapers when exam is near.
Role of women in Freedom struggle:
UPSC has asked Women and Freedom struggle questions in past, but in a little different context:
1.

How did the movement for liberation of women receive a great stimulus from the rise and growth of nationalist movement in
India? 15 marks 2001 GS Mains

2.

Evaluate the influence of three important womens organizations of early 20 th Century in India on the countrys society and
politics. 10 marks 2011 GS Mains

As such this 2013 question has not fell from sky. In various books, essays, and columns, youve read about the role of women during
freedom struggle. But in the real life exam it becomes difficult because:

Question Paper started with culture questions and theyre tough because you had to 100-200 words. No alternatives were
given= Mind already filled with fear and stress.

So, even for this women role answer, Candidate cannot immediately recall all the points. Have to brainstorm for ideas, what to
write, what to skip= takes more time and energy (compared to something direct non-analytical like role of Maulana Azad.)

188 History- Mrunal

Role of Foreigners in Freedom struggle:

I did not find this question in any of the previous GS mains paper, except Annie Besant/Home rule specific questions. (or maybe
I did not look carefully)

As such, the standard books for history preparation (Bipin, Rajiv Ahir or GS Manual) dont have much on foreigners, except
Annie Besant. Even Miraben and Dinbandhu get only passing mention= difficult to recollect points for analysis type question.

Although in August 2013, TheHindu did run a story on Satyanand Stokes.

But then one couldnt have anticipated that a full blown question on all foreign freedom fighters could be asked. Besides even if
you could anticipate it- there were dozens of other things to be prepared for four papers of new GS syllabus= hardly much time
left to cover all freedom fighters.

Observe this MCQ from CSAT-2013:

The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) who visited India recorded the general conditions and culture of
India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1.

The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery.

2.

As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for determining the innocence or
guilt of a person.

3.

The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

a.

1 only

b.

2 and 3 only

c.

1 and 3 only

d.

1, 2 and 3

Now the user comments posted on its answerkey article:

User
1

The Question on Huan Tsang was current affairs related. A Report came on Hindu that a temple related to Huan Tsang was
being demolished in China.UPSC rocks!!

User
2

(responds) And a candidate is expected to dig out the archives and frame points about what Huan Tsang said and what he
left unsaid. UPSC rocks with you sir.

Lesson: sometimes it is not humanly possible to cover everything even if the topic is hinted in TheHindu.
Anyways, what should be the
Studyplan/Approach/Strategy for Mains-2014 (GS History)
GS preparation is like Kung-fu, every master develops his own style. you dont have to read all of these following books, just mixmatch-tweak as per your requirements.

Source

(new) NCERT

for GS (Mains)
History?

details

Quite good for geography and science theory based MCQs.

Useless for
freedom struggle.

189 History- Mrunal

(old) NCERT

Tamil Nadu
Textbooks (TNT)

But freedom struggle related coverage is not given in a detailed way that
would help in MCQs/Descriptive.

(class 10 and 12).

Help in only three (women, Dalhousie, Azad). But content scattered.

Useful but TNT better alternative (in terms of eye candy fonts, bullets, bold
effects on important terms).

besides, Bipin Chandra wrote Class 12s old NCERT, so many ideas repeat
when you read his other book on Indias struggle for independence

The History coverage is both useful in MCQ and descriptive coverage for
competitive exams.

Detailing is Similar to Old NCERT but with eye candy fonts and pictures.

available for free: Click ME

for freedom struggle: use Class 12 textbook.

useful

useful

GS Manual

Has its utilities in static MCQs in prelims (CSAT) but insufficient content to tackle
these 100-200 word descriptive questions on History.

not much

NIOS

History course not uploaded

IGNOU

Site stopped working.

Bipin Chandra: Indias struggle for independence (Penguin Publication)

It still has utilities in prelims (CSAT) MCQs, particularly the 2 statement true/false type questions.

In Mains-2013 as such did not help much directly, but Bipins fodder material has indirect uses in Essay and interviews,
including the Mains-2013 essay on Gandhi.

For Mains 2014? Useful, should be read. Itll be a mistake to throw it off too quicky just because UPSC did not ask direct
questions in one mains exams.

Spectrums Freedom fighter book

After observing the last two mains, I had given up hope on this book.

But Luck by chance three questions in Mains-2013 could be solved from this book (Azad, women, foreigners)

So, will it be helpful in Mains-2014? Well that depends on the question: will UPSC continue ask similar group/category based
questions in 2014? e.g. analyse the role of Parsi/South Indian poets/xyz group in freedom struggle.

As such a good tool because if you know the contribution of a few dozen freedom fighters from various area/religion/ideology,
you can pretty much cover up the remaining gap in a 100-200 words question on most freedom fighting question by citing them
as examples.

Rajiv Ahir: A brief history of Modern India (Spectrum Publication)

190 History- Mrunal

He has written the book like a note similar to Laxmikanths Polity. Only difference is Laxmikanth helps very much in MCQs,
Rajiv not that much.

After last two mains, I had given up hope on this book as well. But Helped in two questions (Dalhousie, women).

Will it help in Mains-2014? well that Depends

1.

If youre appearing in some State service exam then yes because Rajivs good for those generic static direct question because of
its ready revision note type of coverage.

2.

Otherwise, youre better off with other combos involving (TNT/Old NCERT) + (Bipin/Sumit). etc.

Sumit Sarkar: Modern India (1885-1947)

As such this book is meant for History optional, but some senior players even use it for General studies.

Directly it did not help much in Mains-2013 but has its utilities in essay, interview (even MCQs).

If youre already a senior player with already good grip over Bipin, then you may use it to gain additional fodder points, wisdom
and enlightenment about freedom struggle. otherwise, not recommended for new players.

Krishna Reddy, Indian History (TMH Publication)

Directly helped in three questions (Except foreigners) but its a very bulky book solely written for history optional subject (for
prelims in pre-CSAT era).

Not recommended for players without history optional.

Coaching/Postal/Correspondence material

Usually assembled by copy pasting passages from standard reference books and making fancy bullets, numbering, tables,
bold/italic effects and a very dark watermark to prevent xeroxing.

It doesnt help beyond GK and very easy static type questions.

For the analyse/discuss/evaluate/examine/comment/essay-ish type questions, they dont help much.

In short, too expensive for what it is worth. So dont bother even Xeroxing such readymade material. Better stick to standard
reference books.

Jholacchap NGOs Publication houses

2014: Election year = many state service vacancies will come, before the model code of conduct comes into effect.

So this also means Diwali year for Jholacchap publication houses, theyll flood market with lot of new books on history, polity,
geography everything.

Atmost just use them for getting terminologies of polity/geography/economics in your mother tongue. or at most some specific
topics like GK/geography of your state.

Otherwise, always rely on standard reference books. Avoid jholachhap publishers like hell.
Overall

Table only for illustration, multiple combos possible otherwise:

LEVEL

combo #1

combo #2

191 History- Mrunal

Only TNT until he clears prelims. (Use all the remaining time
and energy to master other static areas of prelims- i.e. polity,
science, economy, geography and aptitude.) if he has mastered
all of them, then he should bother with Bipin etc.

TNT + Bipin Chandra. Bipin should be read

with highlighters and make keyword notes on its
margins. (that way after prelims, it doesnt take much time in
second-third revision.)

Until prelim is over, he should not bother with Mains answer

writing- instead pour all that energy in the aptitude (Paper II)
preparation- comprehension, Maths and reasoning + all the
static areas of GS prelims where he faulted last time +
maintaining current notes from newspapers.

NEW GUY

INTERN*

SENIOR
PLAYER

Anyone Class 12 textbook: Old NCERT or TNT

Anyone academic book: Bipin Chandra / Sumit Sarkar. (or

both) Use highlighters and make keyword notes on its
margins.

Ignore Rajiv Ahir, because it has nothing new that you dont
know already for UPSC level questions. (especially after going
through one textbook and one academic book)

Answer writing of maximum number of static history

questions from previous papers- particularly those similar to
2012 and 2013 (i.e. questions demanding your knowledge of
entire struggle).

TNT + Rajiv Ahir (if hes planning for state

service in 2014)

If you are taking a break in 2014, to focus

on state services preparation:
1.

Religiously Mug up Rajiv Ahir +

whatever book goes for your state
related history.

2.

Spectrums freedom fighters + dig

net to get list of all freedom
fighters from your state.

3.

Write answer to all staticdescriptive mains Qs. of StatePSC

by yourself. If you cant find them
online/in market, then file RTI.

In a movie called Snake in the Eagles shadow, Jackie Chan first learns Eagle style kungfu. But the main villain easily defeats him with
Snake style. Then Jackie observes how a cat kills the snake. So, He develops a new style: EagleCAT kungfu and wins the last fight. Point
being, if you want to defeat the main villain (UPSC) youve to develop your own combos.

New guy= complete rookie player. Never appeared in any prelims.

*Intern: someone who has appeared in one or more prelims but failed by a small margin.

Senior player: Has cleared one or more prelims.