INFRASTRUCTURE

RATE Summary

This document presents the findings of the Regional

Agricultural Trade Environment (RATE) assessment
conducted in the ASEAN region in 2012 by the Maximizing
Agricultural Revenue through Knowledge, Enterprise
Development, and Trade (MARKET) Project.

Infrastructure
Regional Agricultural Trade Environment (RATE)
Summary
USAID Maximizing Agricultural Revenue through Knowledge, Enterprise
Development and Trade (MARKET) Project
SUBMITTED TO

USAID Regional Development Mission for Asia

UNDER CONTRACT

486-I-01-07-00008-00
Task Order AID-486- T0-11-00009
SUBMITTED BY

Nathan Associates Inc.

www.nathaninc.com
December 2013
On the cover: Ships lined up at an ASEAN port.
Photo credits: Nathan Associates Inc.
DISCLAIMER
This document is made possible by the support of the American people through the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID). Its contents are the sole responsibility of the author or authors and do not necessarily reflect the
views of USAID or the United States government.

In Brief
INFRASTRUCTURE
Why Infrastructure? Soundly planned, well-executed, and inclusive infrastructure projects offer many potential
rewards, among them increased opportunities for domestic trade, better access to regional and international
markets, and, in the long run, greater food security and reduced poverty. In recent years, ASEAN Member States
have strengthened their domestic infrastructure significantly with large investments, including for improvements in
transport facilities, especially roads, highways, ports, and airports, as well as in dams and telecommunication
networks. Considerable demand remains, however, for infrastructure projects that more directly support
agricultural value chains, including improvements in rural roads, electricity, water, and storage facilities. Better
infrastructure can reduce both transport costs and spoilage of products, and allow for greater producer access to
extension services and other productivity-enhancing opportunities.
ASEANs Approach
The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) Blueprint
presents strategic visions and actions to be taken in
transport cooperation; land, maritime, and air transport;
information infrastructure; energy cooperation; mining
cooperation; and financing of infrastructure projects. In
terms of land transport, the blueprint names completion
of the Singapore-Kunming Rail Link, connecting
Southeast Asia with China, and ASEAN Highway
Network as top priorities. The Rail Link project,
providing an alternative mode of cross-border cargo
transportation, is expected to have a large impact on
efficiency. The AEC Blueprint also calls for the creation
of a regional infrastructure development fund. In
response, the ASEAN Infrastructure Fund, spearheaded
by the Asian Development Bank, was launched in 2012.

Regional Findings
Policymakers in the ASEAN region have strengthened
their commitment to long-term infrastructure planning,
which strengthens the confidence of investors and
businesses. A wide infrastructure gap remains between
rural and urban, however. Postharvest loss by small
agricultural producers is one of the most complex
problems facing the agricultural sector in Southeast
Asia, with as much as 30 percent of agricultural
production lost across the region each year. Cold
chains are not available to most producers, especially
for those operating at a small scale. Public confidence in
transparency of infrastructure projects is low, and
some suspect that infrastructure concession awards
and management are being compromised. But ASEAN
Member States increasingly engage in public-private
partnerships, and some countries report favorable
experiences.

Opportunities for ASEAN and Regional Entities

Explore opportunities in the ASEAN Infrastructure Fund and other sources for funding for infrastructure
activities that connect agricultural products to markets and Member States with one another
Encourage greater study and understanding of the links between infrastructure and postharvest loss
Formulate a regional transport policy, incorporating the establishment of transnational corridors passing through
locations that are centers of agricultural and industrial production
Encourage regional initiatives to strengthen cold storage opportunities
Establish a shared definition of PPPs in the region along with a network for sharing standards and guidelines for
protecting investors rights
Opportunities for Member States
Create Infrastructure Accountability Websites to track public expenditures on physical infrastructure projects
Incentivize infrastructure development for agricultural trade

INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

AT ISSUE: STRENGTHENING THE ENABLING ENVIRONMENT

FOR INFRASTRUCTURE IN SUPPORT OF TRADE IN
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS
Soundly planned, well-executed, and inclusive infrastructure projects offer many potential rewards,
among them increased opportunities for domestic trade, better access to regional and international
markets, and in the long run, greater food security and reduced poverty. In recent years, ASEAN Member
States have strengthened their domestic infrastructure with large investments, including many that are
financed by foreign governments and donor institutions. Across the region, improvements have been
made in transport facilities, especially roads, highways, ports, and airports, as well as in dams and
telecommunication networks. Some projects, such as those improving Mekong region transport, focus on
subregional connectivity. At the same time, vast opportunities remain to build transportation and
communication networks across ASEAN.
Among ASEAN Member States, the largest, most visible infrastructure projectsmany of which are
based in citiesdo not necessarily make the most impact on
agricultural value chains.1 Although dynamic infrastructure
RATE country assessments reviewed
construction across ASEAN Member States is promising,
the following kinds of infrastructure:
many immediate problems at the lower end of agricultural
Road networks (quality and coverage
value chains have yet to be addressed. As the Asian
of roads, extent of feeder roads)
Development Bank notes, On a per capita basis, ASEAN
Railway network coverage
nations have only a fraction of the roads and railways found
in [Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Inland waterway transport
Development] nations, with dramatically lower electricity
Public and private commodity
and clean water coverage. 2 Indeed, investment in roads,
storage facilities, including cold
particularly ones that connect rural areas with markets and
storage and drying facilities
other resources, represents an important means to increased
Access to and adequacy of irrigation
agricultural productivity. 3 Moreover, access to electricity
facilities and wastewater
makes a threshold difference for farmer and traders of
management
products that require preservation, chiefly through cold
Access to electricity for producers,
storage, on their way to markets.4 Proper management of
processors, and traders.
water resources not only is fundamental toward ensuring
public health, but also makes a critical difference in
productivity and in the ability for food products to meet
health and safety standards for trade.5
Infrastructure financing has evolved substantially around the world, including through public-private
partnerships (PPPs). PPP broadly refers to arrangements between the public and private sector
organizations, whereby part of the work that falls under the responsibility of the public sector is
conducted or paid for by the private sector, with clear agreement on shared objectives for delivery of
public infrastructure and/or public services.6 Although certain ASEAN Member States have developed
innovative new financing options, PPPs are still at nascent stages in most. To date, few PPPs in rural
infrastructure projects have been used. With commitment, capacity-building, and facilitation from
Member States, PPPs can be instrumental in accelerating infrastructure development for agriculture.

INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

Infrastructure projects are prone to corruption in many parts of the world and several ASEAN Member
States are vulnerable to this problem. Political favoritism in awarding public contracts compromises the
quality and expected benefits of infrastructure projects, which often cost more than objective sources
believe is reasonable. A factor feeding into the problem is the recurrent practice of closed, noncompetitive bidding for infrastructure projects. There have been favorable developments in several
ASEAN Member States in terms of fighting corruption;
however, opacity in awarding infrastructure contracts
Road infrastructure can reduce
remains endemic and the losses are still very large. Political
transport costs and make remote areas
integration across ASEAN, including the regional
more accessible through transit routes
commitment to anti-corruption initiatives, could be
in neighboring countries, while new
influential and a positive pressure on increasing
roads bring new economic activities,
transparency within countries. 7
helping development to spread. A rural
road, if complemented by other
Postharvest loss represents another infrastructure-related
investments, can boost agricultural
challenge for ASEAN Member States agricultural value
productivity and employment and
therefore rural income. And transport
chains. Slow roads, a lack of adequate storage facilities, and
corridors can reduce poverty by
similar problems can result in spoilage or abandonment of
opening up development opportunities,
significant portions of farm production, which threatens the
especially if feeder roads are developed.
livelihoods of farmers and small-scale traders. The problem
By contrast, a lack of adequate access
is multidimensional, caused by lack of financing to build
to transport facilities implies high
storage facilities; lack of resources for research and use of
transport costs, limited market access
technology; and inadequate training for workers and traders
for agricultural produce, and losses due
to handle vulnerable crops. The problem of postharvest loss
to spoilage, resulting in low incomes.
demands a wide range of solutions, including many that are
Inadequate road connections and
communication facilities imply poor
geographically specific or commodity specific.
agricultural extension services and low
awareness of modern cropping
This analysis summarizes selected issues pertaining to the
practices and technology, resulting in
infrastructure underlying trade in agricultural products in
low agricultural productivity.
ASEAN Member States. In addition to summarizing
P.V. Srinivasan, Regional Cooperation
ASEANs approach to regional infrastructure development,
and Integration through Cross-Border
this paper suggests opportunities for action, including
Infrastructure Development in South
policies that may link the benefits of large-scale
Asia: Impact on Poverty, Asian
infrastructure projects to agricultural value chains, so that
Development Bank (November 2012)
the infrastructure benefits farmers and small agribusiness
more tangibly.

ASEANS APPROACH TO INFRASTRUCTURE FOR AGRICULTURAL

TRADE
While many of the infrastructure issues affecting agricultural producers, processors, and traders are
centered at the Member State level, stakeholders also look to ASEAN to coordinate major infrastructure
initiatives that can strengthen regional connectivity. The ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) Blueprint
(2008) 8 sets forth a plan to make ASEAN more competitive by increasing the free flow of goods,
services, and investment. The AEC Blueprint presents strategic visions and actions to be taken in
transport cooperation, land transport, maritime and air transport, information infrastructure, energy
cooperation, and financing of infrastructure projects.

INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

In terms of land transport, the blueprint names the completion of the Singapore-Kunming Rail Link
(SKRL) connecting Southeast Asia with China and the ASEAN Highway Network as top priorities.
Because railway networks and operations are deficient in the region, the execution of the SKRL project is
expected to greatly improve the efficacy of this alternative mode of cross-border cargo transportation. The
railway line is 7,000 km long and will link major cities in Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Burma,
Malaysia, Singapore, and China.
The ASEAN Highway Network aims to construct and
upgrade roads connecting ASEAN countries and China.
Part of the ASEAN Highway Network overlaps with the
Trans-Asian Highway network. Time targets for the
completion of certain stages, including the upgrading of
roads to Class III international standards, have not been
met.
Since 1996, regional initiatives pertaining to transport
infrastructure have been overseen by the regular Meeting
of ASEAN Transport Ministers. The portfolio of this group
is broad, including transport by road, rail, river, air, and
other modes. The transport ministers monitor regional
initiatives arising from the Master Plan on ASEAN
Connectivity (MPAC), which seeks to improve physical
connectivity (infrastructure) and institutional connectivity.
The ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan (20112015) aims to
create an efficient, secure, and integrated transport network
to increase ASEAN regions attractiveness as a production
and investment destination.
The regular Meeting of ASEAN Energy Ministers, along
with its supporting activities and institutions, is also
relevant to infrastructure-related issues of agricultural
trade, with its work affecting the cost of fuel for transport
of goods and the availability of cold storage. The ASEAN
Plan of Action for Energy Cooperation (APAEC) 2010
2015 addresses many aspects of regional cooperation and
ASEANs overriding interest in sustainable,
environmentally friendly energy practices throughout the
region.

Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS): A

Powerful Regional Infrastructure
Initiative
The GMS includes four ASEAN member
countriesCambodia, Laos, Thailand, and
Vietnamplus the provinces of Yunnan and
Guangxi in [Peoples Republic of China]
PRC. Its major goal is integration, and its
main functional areas are trade and
infrastructure, with a focus on improving
connectivity in the subregion by improving
transport, energy, and telecommunications.
Cooperation in the energy and
telecommunications sector began in 1992
with power transmission lines linking Laos
and Thailand. In 2001, a 10-year strategic
framework was adopted to enhance
connectivity, competitiveness, and a sense
of community; eleven flagship programs
were identified, including three economic
corridors: East-West, North-South and
Southern (ADB 2005). In 2008, the GMS
cross-border transport agreement (CBTA)
was signed and ratified. The CBTA is a
compact and comprehensive multilateral
instrument that covers all the relevant
aspects of cross-border facilitation including
single-stop/single-window custom
inspections; cross-border movement of
people; transit traffic regimes; requirements
for vehicles making cross-border trips;
exchange of commercial traffic rights; and
issues related to road and bridge design
standards, road signs and signals.

The AEC Blueprint does not address directly certain

ADB Institute, Infrastructure
agriculture-specific infrastructure issues, such as irrigation
Development in ASEAN: An Overview
or cold storage facilities, because these resources do not
(2009)
lend themselves to cross-border usage. Still, on-farm
infrastructure issues such as irrigation and storage relate to
the overall agenda of the ASEAN Ministers on Agriculture
and Forestry (AMAF), which in recent years has embraced food security as a matter of permanent high

INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

priority. The ministers adopted the Statement on Food Security in the ASEAN Region, which commits to
the implementation of the ASEAN Integrated Food Security (AIFS) Framework and the Strategic Plan of
Action on Food Security in the ASEAN Region (SPA-FS) (20092013). 9 The AIFS Framework sets
goals and objectives and defines terminology and guiding references and principles, which are supported
by the Strategic Plan of Action on Food Security in the ASEAN Region. The strategic plan aims to
improve the livelihoods of farmers in the ASEAN region. One of six core thrusts of the plan is to
promote sustainable food production, including by improving agricultural infrastructure development to
secure production system[s], minimize postharvest losses, and reduce transaction cost[s].10
The AEC Blueprint also calls for the creation of a regional infrastructure development fund. In response,
the ASEAN Infrastructure Fund, spearheaded by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), was launched in
2012. The fund is an innovative financing mechanism for unlocking the regions own resources
(including foreign exchange reserves and private savings) through debt issuance. It is expected to serve
ASEAN by matching resources with needs. The fund will help structure viable infrastructure projects,
incorporating private-sector participation and public-private partnership modalities. It will leverage the
regions savings pool to finance up to 30 percent of infrastructure projects, with the amount available
estimated to be more than US$13 billion by 2020. The ADB and ASEAN Member State governments
have agreed to contribute the core equity, while institutional investors such as pension funds will be
invited to participate, and down the road, senior bonds will be sold. Framers of the fund envision
supporting a range of infrastructure projects, including rural development initiatives. (An ASEAN highlevel working group appears to have been established to provide guidance or support to the fund, but there
is little public information about the status of this group.)
In its 2012 midterm review of ASEANs progress in achieving the commitments in the AEC Blueprint,
the Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Africa (ERIA) reiterated An efficient, secure and
integrated transport network in the ASEAN is an important underpinning for AECs agenda toward a

For countries along the Mekong, the river remains the most important infrastructure for trade.

INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

single market and production base in the region. 11 In support of the way forward on transport and
other infrastructure initiatives, ERIA recommended redoubled commitment to the AEC Blueprint, noting
that the need for regional infrastructure improvements will continue well past the AEC establishment date
in 2015.

INFRASTRUCTURE IN ASEAN: RATE ASSESSMENT HIGHLIGHTS

The RATE assessment reviewed selected aspects of infrastructure in ASEAN using a four-part
methodology: legal framework, implementing institutions, supporting institutions, and social dynamics.
Questions covered legal and institutional frameworks for infrastructure in step with international best
practice, as well as other aspects of infrastructure affecting agricultural producers, processors, and traders.
The findings are set forth below.

Infrastructure is increasingly part of holistic, long-term planning for development

Policymakers in the ASEAN region have devoted a great deal of effort in recent years to long-term
domestic planning in infrastructure. The governments of ASEAN Member States have increased their
commitment to planning, strengthened their human resources, and created a more coherent vision
throughout the region of what the future holds. Although plans invariably change, planning itself is an
indispensable aspect of sound public policy. 12 Long-term infrastructure planning across the ASEAN
region strengthens the confidence of investors and allows businesses (large and small) to devise their own
strategies for growth.
The 20112016 Philippine Development Plan calls for a comprehensive long-term national transport plan
to guide the restructuring of the transport sector into a well-coordinated and integrated multimodal
transport system. The national transport plan is expected to establish the governments policies on
resource generation and allocation; criteria for the preparation of agency plans, programs, and projects;
cost recovery and subsidies; regulations for passenger transport services; urban transport and settlements;
transport logistics; and governance. In the interim, the national transport plan is operationalized through
an executive order, and in the medium term, through legislative enactment. National and local
coordination aims to provide the necessary transport infrastructure to link production and agricultural
areas to major roads leading to markets and population centers. The Philippine Development Plan calls
for separation of the operational and regulatory functions of transport agencies and the port, rail, and air
transport organizations.
The government of the Philippines recognizes that the institutional framework for transport is
characterized by weak coordination, regulation, and oversight for transport policies and plans. The
government has recommended studying the institutional structure of the transport sector to determine the
most efficient institutional setup (and corresponding reforms) to improve the quality of transport service
and to prevent conflict between different modes of transport that serve the same purpose. Execution of the
national transport plan is regarded as a threshold step toward improving the accountability of decision
makers in the transport sector and developing a multimodal approach to infrastructure investment
planning, programming, and prioritization.

INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

The 10th Malaysia Plan (20112015) calls for the country to establish world-class infrastructure to
support growth and enhance productivity in all sectors. The government plans to spend 2.7 billion RM
(about US$872 million) to build roads and rail to key ports and airports and an electrified double-track
rail to Johor Baru. It will spend 1 billion RM (US$32 million) to deepen port channels and 6 billion RM
(US$1.9 billion) for upgrading Westport, Port of Tanjung Pelepas, and Penang Port. The plan also calls
for improving rail service to rural areas in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah by
modernizing facilities and technologies. The plan further promotes the growth of cities. Because cities
need resources to grow, the government will improve the connectivity and linkages between them and
surrounding rural areas to facilitate movement of the resources, goods and services, and people that are
critical to the development of cities. Addressing a chronic unmet need throughout the region, the
government aims to promote IT infrastructure, with a target of 75 percent of households having
broadband Internet access by 2015. Finally, the 10th Malaysia Plan highlights the importance of
providing adequate and specific
Roads, paved (% of total roads)
infrastructure, facilities, and
logistics to support value addition
100
90
in agricultural industries based on
80
availability and proximity of
70
resources, particularly in
60
50
Permanent Food Production Parks
40
and Aquaculture Industrial Zones.
30
Thailand has framed much of its
long-term infrastructure planning
in terms of logistics for trade.

20
10
-

THA

IDN

MMR

VNM

MYS

PHL

Source: World Bank WDI, 2010

A lack of paved roads is a barrier to growth in rural areas throughout the ASEAN region.

LAO

INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

Thailands Logistics Development Strategy (20072011) was created to enhance trade facilitation with
the aim of increasing cost efficiency, customer responsiveness, reliability, and security, as well as creating
added value for the logistics and other supporting industries. The strategy emphasizes a multimodal
approach and promotes railway development and a national single window model for trade across
borders. The strategy has five areas of focus: business logistics improvement, transport and logistics
network optimization, logistics service internationalization, trade facilitation enhancement, and capacity
building. This strategy underscores the importance not only of physical infrastructure, but also of
oversight and management of its use. The strategy also emphasizes ports, supporting deep seaports on the
west coast and an economic corridor linking ports with the regions major transport bloodlines.
Since 2000, Indonesias legal framework for infrastructure, including transport, has been strengthened
significantly. Responsibility for national transport systems is split between the Ministry of Public Works
and the Ministry of Transport. Weak private sector investment in transport and storage infrastructure is
attributed to regulatory uncertainty at the national and local levels. Local institutions in particular are
considered lacking in capacity, especially with respect to project design and development. According to
the OECD, one survey found that 85 percent of local regulations are incomplete, inconsistent, or distort
local economic activities. 13 Since 2005, however, the Ministry of Public Works has been implementing a
plan for developing the national road network. The government has committed to national investment not
only in commercially profitable infrastructure initiatives, but also in resources that will assist lessprivileged communities that do business chiefly in the agriculture sector.
In Vietnams five-year strategic plan submitted in 2009, the Ministry of Transportation identified five
core transport sector problems: (1) incomplete and disintegrating institutional system and development
plans; (2) unsatisfactory quality and capacity of transport service; (3) poor quality and insufficient
quantity of transport infrastructure in both urban and rural areas; (4) insufficient state budget and other
financial sources; and (5) complications from the regional and global economy. There is wide consensus
that these problemsarising mainly from insufficient resources and inputs and policy, institutional, and
operational inefficienciescause environmental and social degradation and hamper socioeconomic
development. Vietnam therefore emphasizes separating the policy, regulatory, and operator roles with
respect to infrastructure. Private sector observers say that a multimodal orientation is still lacking,
resulting in imbalances and integration problems between subsectors.
Throughout the ASEAN region, public officials are aware that, in the absence of transparent planning,
confidence in the future diminishes, and that when plans are not realized, their own credibility suffers.
The increase in regular planning for infrastructure in the regionjust a sample of which is described
hereis an important step toward improving the accountability of institutions.

The impact of infrastructure projects: How far up the value chain?

Large-scale infrastructure projects, including ports, dams, highways and airports, have been implemented
throughout the ASEAN region in the last decade, but infrastructure for small agricultural producers,
processors, and traders is still lacking. The infrastructure needs of small-scale enterprisesfeeder roads,
irrigation facilities, inland waterway infrastructure, storage facilities, electricity for remote areas and
villages, and intermediate means of transportare often not met. A lack of adequate rural infrastructure
results in high transport costs, including high trucking tariffs due to the poor quality of roads; postharvest

INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

loss during transport or due to lack of storage facilities; and inability to connect producers at lower ends
of value chains to markets, which hampers value-chain development.
In many ASEAN countries, especially poorer ones, farms and villages are not connected by asphalt roads
to markets. There are considerable differences, however, across the region: Thailand is advanced in this
regard, emphasizing rural road construction since its third economic development plan (19721976).
Between 1977 and 2000, Thailands rural road density grew faster than local and national roads.
Consequently, the infrastructure needs of rural communities are mostly met.
Laos lies on the other end of the
Total area equipped for irrigation
scale, with rural feeder roads
Subregion
Area (ha)
% of
% of cultivated
connecting farms to markets
region
area
excluded from infrastructure
improvements. In fact, Lao
East Asia
65,362,926
36
48
agencies with authority over
South Asia
93,139,770
51
46
transport and roads are said to
Mainland Southeast
13,773,866
8
31
demonstrate little appreciation of
Asia
the needs of farmers and
distributors. The small fees,
Maritime Southeast
8,999,719
5
16
Asia
bribes, and other inconveniences
transport authorities routinely seek
Source: Irrigation in Southern and Eastern Asia in Figures- AQUASTAT Survey 2011, FAO
cause substantial costs to farmers,
Water Reports.
processors, and distributors. In
Indonesia, severe road congestion on the island of Java, especially in the greater Jakarta area, together
with poor road quality outside Java, make trucking costs higher in Indonesia than the average for Asia.
In Vietnam, rural road penetration has increased significantly in the last decade. Vietnams topography is
challenging and distances are long, so agricultural products typically go through many middlemen in
moving along the value chain. In 2009, sector assessments prepared in support of Vietnams Social
Economic Development Plan 20112015 recognized that rural areas need feeder roads. Vietnam aims to
spend US$7 billion on roads, highways, bridges, and general transport infrastructure between 2012 and
2014. The Asian Development Bank has supported additional infrastructure initiatives, including for
irrigation projects.
In Cambodia, because of years of internal conflict and weak investor confidence, the country lacks the
infrastructure it needs to support a thriving agricultural trade. Not only roads, but also irrigation facilities
are needed, and the cost of electricity is extremely high. Besides restoring reservoirs, the most costeffective irrigation projects reportedly involve the rehabilitation of long-abandoned canals. The presence
of operative irrigation canals can make an enormous difference in a farmers livelihood; farms in
Cambodia that have access to irrigation can grow at least two seasons worth of rice a year, producing a
surplus that can be used for commercial purposes.
In Indonesia, most irrigation systems are weak or even failing. They usually consist of small systems with
less than 1,000 hectares under district government authority. The law on regional autonomy, enacted in
1999, passed authority for irrigation and public agricultural storage facilities on to provincial and local
governments. At the national level, several ministries are involved in setting policy (National

INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

Development Planning, Public Works, Agriculture, Internal Affairs, and Finance), while local authorities
have primary authority over regulating and implementing new projects.
Beyond the farm, Indonesia also suffers from poor connectivitythat is, the ability to connect junctures
along agricultural value chains that ensure prompt delivery of products to markets and ports. For example,
as the World Bank notes, The high cost of transporting high-quality goods such as shrimp from eastern
Indonesia to processing centers in Java makes them too expensive to export, or similarly it is cheaper to
import oranges from China than ship them from Kalimantan to Java. 14 Examples of high intra-island
logistics costs include severe road congestion on Java, especially in the greater Jakarta area, together with
the poor road quality outside Java, both of which make trucking costs higher in Indonesia than the
average for Asia. During the RATE assessment, interviewees confirmed that intra-Indonesian shipping
costs are much higher than international shipping costs, due to
quality and size of ports, limited shipping schedules, a lack of
View from Cambodia:
A long-term vision for infrastructure
competition at the domestic level, and the need to pass some
commodities through the international ports.
The Ministry of Public Works and
Railways are in poor condition across ASEAN and are rarely
used for transporting agricultural products. Railroad feasibility
depends largely on the geographic landscape, but in many areas
in ASEAN, improvements in railroads could significantly
decrease the transport costs of agricultural products, such as
between Bangkok and northern Thailand. Notwithstanding the
high priority given to rail in the countrys Logistics
Development Strategy, Thailand lacks a well-functioning railway
network. Yet rail presents an opportunity for agricultural traders
to send products to Bangkok more efficiently than current
conditions permit. Moreover, railways would enhance trade with
Malaysia, and a rail network would be crucial to link with the
Dawei port in Myanmar, for which plans are underway.

Postharvest loss: Undermining achievement in

agricultural production
Postharvest loss is the one of the most complex problems facing
the agricultural sector in Southeast Asia. Every year, as much as
30 percent of agricultural production is lost across the region
during various processes in the value chain.15 Postharvest loss
can occur in any stage of production, processing, and trade,
including threshing, harvesting, handling, drying, storage,
transport, processing, and crossing borders. Where the loss takes
place depends largely on the location and commodity, and
different aspects of the problem implicate different solutions. If
spoilage or deterioration occurs, for example, during the
harvesting stage, it may mean the farm needs other techniques,
such as newer technology, to reduce the loss. If it happens during
handling, the workers may need to be better trained. If it happens

Transport (MPWT) is responsible for

developing sector plans for major
infrastructure in the transport sector and in
public works in urban areas such as
wastewater management, drainage, and
flood control. The MPWTs responsibilities
encompass 11 international airports, 5,263
kilometers (km) of national roads, 6,441 km
of provincial roads, the railway, a deepwater
seaport at Sihanoukville, and various river
ports. The railway is being developed with
ADB assistance from its public sector
operations and will link Cambodia to
Thailand, and rehabilitate the line from
Phnom Penh to Sihanoukville. The PRC has
assisted the government in preparing a
feasibility study for constructing a new
railway line from Phnom Penh to Viet Nam,
which is currently under review for
financing options. If constructed, it would
complete the missing Phnom PenhHo Chi
Minh City link in the SingaporeKunming
Railway Line. The Sihanoukville port is being
assisted by the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) and it will
service the emerging oil industry, and
provide bulk cargo and container handling
services. The state-owned Phnom Penh
Port has been scaling up its operations and
has plans to expand, acting as a feeder port
to the Cai Mep deepwater port in southern
Viet Nam.
Asian Development Bank, Assessment of
Public-Private Partnerships in Cambodia (July
2012)

INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

during storage, this is usually an indication of insufficient

storage facilities. Solutions therefore can point to better
extension services, more financing for storage and
technology, or better infrastructure. Transfer of innovation
and best practices between regions, especially with similar
geographic and climactic conditions, could contribute to
addressing the problem.
Postharvest loss leads to market inefficiencies; faced with the
possibility of losing a major part of their harvest, farmers
often rush to sell their products before they go bad. Rice, the
most widely produced crop in Southeast Asia, is particularly
vulnerable to postharvest loss. In some countries such as
Thailand, the agriculture sector is able to acquire machinery
to harvest rice more quickly. Paradoxically, farmers often do
not end up reaping large benefits from this. Because of a lack
of storage facilities, a large portion of harvest goes to waste
or is sold at lower prices.
Thailand has farm-to-table quality management systems in
place, including Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), which
has helped decrease postharvest loss in warehousing and
distribution. A number of institutions, including the Ministry
of Agricultures Division of Plant Pathology and
Microbiology and the Thailand Institute of Scientific and
Technological Research, perform research on postharvest
loss. In fact, Thailand is a leader in postharvest research for
the region, having developed a comprehensive program in
postharvest manpower development, specifically for
research. Using a loan from the Asian Development Bank,
the program aims to train 150 postdoctoral researchers on
postharvest crop handling over the next few years.

View from Vietnam:

Seeking enterprise-based solutions
for postharvest loss
At nearly 14 percent, the postharvest
loss of rice in the Mekong Delta is high,
and other crops suffer from similar
rates of loss. The Institute of
Agriculture Engineering and Postharvest
Technology has endeavored to address
this problem, particularly through
storage and processing infrastructure,
as well as through the development of
cash crops. The government has
provided incentives for private
investment in postharvest loss
technology.
In July 2012, the State Bank of Vietnam
announced a revamped subsidy policy
to reduce farmers losses after
agricultural and aquatic harvesting.
Subsidies are offered to institutions,
households, and individuals who
borrow money to purchase machines
and equipment aimed at reducing their
losses after harvest. Similarly, entities
that invest in rice and maize storage,
storage for aquatic products (including
cold storage in fishing vessels),
vegetables, fruit, and coffee are eligible
for government support. Also eligible
are private enterprises that
manufacture agricultural machinery and
equipment to reduce losses following
their harvest. Five banks have
committed to providing loans with
subsidized and investment development
interest rates.

In Malaysia, recent upgrades of methods and mechanisms for

postharvest handling are credited with improving exports.
For example, in 2011, total exports of Malaysia's horticulture
crops (fresh fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals) were valued at US$418.6 million (RM 1.3 billion)a
69.8 percent increase over the 2006 exports of US$246.6 million (RM 764.5 million). The Malaysian
Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) examines scientific aspects of Malaysias rice
supply, including research on seed, productivity, and postharvest loss. Through technology transfer
MARDI supports the government objectives of strengthening the availability, accessibility, and
affordability of food.
Some stakeholders interviewed during the RATE assessment in Malaysia indicated, however, that
investment in agricultural infrastructure has actually declined in recent years. Government infrastructure
investment is targeted to industrial crops, while other crops are neglected. Some areas of the country are

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INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

not easily accessible for transporting products to market, which leads to slow transport and continued
problems with postharvest loss.

Cold chains: Continued disruption caused by lack of facilities, standards, and

compliance
The opportunity to make use of cold chains immediately opens markets for agricultural producers,
increasing incomes while decreasing postharvest loss and spoilage after processing. This option is not
available to most ASEAN producers, however, especially across long distances and for those operating at
a smaller scale. The private sector complains vehemently about the lack of cold chain facilities throughout
the region. For many traders, cold chain facilities are nonexistent, and logistics management is deficient.
Operators and users of cold chain networks lack attention to regulations or incentives to meet their
regulatory or contractual obligations. Poor storage facilities also impact the health of livestock. According
to an international consortium of swine producers, for example, storing vaccines in Vietnam is difficult
because power for refrigeration is not consistently available.
Of course, cold storage requires reliable, affordable electricity. Although conditions have improved
dramatically in the past generation, some ASEAN Member States continue to struggle with this
fundamental issue. For example, Cambodia does not yet have a reliable grid, and, as of 2012, only
about 25 percent of the population had access to electricity, which is generated by fewer than 25 small,
isolated power plants. Electricity prices in Cambodia are the highest in the region and probably among the
highest in the world. 16

Cargo moves efficiently by boat through the Mekong Delta in Vietnam.

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INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

Indonesia is reorienting its energy production away from exports to serve its growing domestic
consumption. 17 Aging infrastructure and oil fields suggest the country will struggle to meet production
targets in the short term, according to the U.S. Energy Information Administration. 18 As of 2013,
electricity resources for cold storage of such products as dairy, meat, fish, fruits, and vegetables are
inadequate at all junctures along the supply chain, including
ports and other transport hubs.
In Malaysia and Vietnam, the national
governments have committed to
Even where electricity is accessible and trade in food
supporting the work of agricultural
products is robust, most ASEAN countries have not
research and development institutions
in reducing postharvest loss, including
established national standards for cold chain management.
through improved plant varieties and
Singapore was the first ASEAN country to develop cold
farming techniques. These institutions
chain standards in 2007. In Thailand and the Philippines, the
work directly with farmers and have
standards for cold chains seem to be incorporated in food
been effective in fixing problems and
safety standards, but they are not widely understood by
increasing production. Their
smaller and midsized enterprises. In Vietnam, the European
experiences, and similar ones in other
Chamber of Commerce has challenged the government to
Member States, can be transferred
establish standards and enforce monitoring of temperatureacross the region.
controlled transportation for both truck loads and
containers. 19 Other representatives of the private sector have
similarly pressed the government to establish policies and practices that guard against breaks in cold
chains.
As the Philippines becomes increasingly engaged in food processingthe industry accounts for
40 percent of total manufacturing output, contributes 20 percent of GDP per annum, and is growing at 8
10 percent per annum 20the country operates many different warehouse regimes that serve different
types of traders, including by offering cold storage facilities. For example, common bonded warehouses
store imported goods, including meats, fish, dairy, fruit, and cereals, that are transferred to processors in
special economic zones who use the materials to produce a product for export. Goods placed in these
facilities are exempt from payment of duty and taxes. Three nonreimbursable customs officers, each with
a specific type and function, are assigned to common bonded warehouses to monitor activity. In addition
to serving as raw material for exports, most imported food moves into the food-processing sector before
making its way into the various domestic food retail and service outlets.21
Other warehouse facilities in the Philippines serve both large enterprises and SMEs that cannot afford to
manufacture in special economic zones. Domestic distribution of food products often entails excessive
spoilage, particularly for interisland distribution.22
Over the past generation, Malaysia has created a network of resources for commodity storage, mostly
supplied by the private sector. With respect to cold storage, Malaysia has managed to thrive where its
neighbors have struggled; the private sector provides the transport and storage facilities that Malaysian
companies need to both export and import goods requiring cold storage. Reliable, cost-effective cold
storage systems have facilitated Malaysias growing reputation throughout the world as a source of halalcertified products. At the beginning of value chains, most farms have access at least to small-scale
freezers and refrigerators, to an extent greater than in most farming communities in Cambodia, Laos, and
Vietnam.

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INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

PPPs: Evolving, but more understanding and confidence needed

Increasingly in the last decade, ASEAN Member States have engaged in PPP-type transactions. Some
countries, such as the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand, report favorable experiences with PPPs. As a
result, a body of knowledge and experience has developed in the region, which is important for ASEAN
and foreign enterprises to undertake PPP arrangements. As summarized by the World Bank:
PPPs combine the skills and resources of both the public and private sectors in new ways
through sharing of risks and responsibilities. This enables governments to benefit from
the expertise of the private sector, and allows them to focus instead on policy, planning
and regulation by delegating the day-to-day operations. 23
In examining infrastructure, trade facilitation, and access to finance, the RATE assessment did not look
precisely at financing opportunities for large-scale infrastructure projects, but nonetheless encountered
considerable enthusiasm for the potential of PPPs generally as a means of supporting agricultural trade.
To date, relatively little substantive information about this mechanism has been compiled, although the
Asian Development Bank has launched a platform for regional understanding, beginning with a PPP
Handbook (2008) designed for its own staff. 24 Financiers, academics, government officials, and traders
want to learn from the experience of others about the prospects for use in the future. A common definition
or framework for PPPs in the region does not yet appear to have been developed; indeed, the concept of
PPPs is perceived differently across countries.
The strongest reputation for PPPs is found in the Philippines, and representatives from other countries
express eagerness to know more. The Philippine Development Plan 20112016, asserts the countrys aim
to engage the private sector in financing construction, operation, maintenance, and rehabilitation of major
infrastructure in high-priority areas such as transportation, power, and water. To that end, the government
is revisiting its enabling legislation pertaining to joint venture agreements between government and
private entities and RA 9184 (the General
Procurement Reform Act).
For Thailand, foreign donor funds are an important
source of financing for infrastructure projects but
are not sufficient to meet the countrys needs.
Private sourcesfinancial institutions that are
complex enough to support these dealsare
available. Consequently, the Thai government has
encouraged the private sector to participate in
infrastructure investment through PPPs. In
February 2012, SEC Thailand introduced an
infrastructure fund to raise private funds and ease
the financing burden on the government. The
Ministry of Finance issues bonds regularly to
mobilize funds from investors and the general
public for infrastructure financing.
In anticipating the demand for more knowledge
about PPPs and for greater use of PPPs, ASEAN

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INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

Member States may consider taking steps to improve their reputations for protecting investors. As
detailed by the World Banks Doing Business index,25 investors seek opportunities where they can
succeed, and to determine those opportunities, they must be able to weigh risks and predict their chances
for success. The Asian Development Bank says,
A successful PPP is designed with careful attention to the context or the enabling
environment within which the partnership will be implemented. Where the operating
environment can be reformed to be more conducive to the goals of PPP, this should be
accomplished. Where elements of the operating context cannot be changed, the PPP design
must be tailored to accommodate existing conditions. 26

Perceptions of grand corruption taint infrastructure projects across the region

Public confidence in the transparency of infrastructure projects is low across ASEAN countries,
particularly in terms of procurement, finance, staffing, and safety. In nearly all Member States visited by
RATE (all but Singapore, Brunei, and Burma), there is suspicion that infrastructure concession awards
and management are regularly compromised. It is a common perception that contract awards often go to
parties favored by ruling parties and that concessions are granted without open tenders or competitive
bidding. Indeed, even the most transparently executed projects can hardly escape from entrenched public
skepticism about the extent to which public officials use their positions to facilitate private gain.
In Cambodia, nontransparent land concessions that benefit a small group of empowered people are
common and have resulted in significant economic displacement and disruption to rural communities.
Under Cambodias 2001 Land Law, the government is allowed to make use of all private state land and
to lease up to about 25,000 acres to a company for as long as 99 years. This allowance has led the
government to engage in a series of highly controversial, nontransparent land deals that ultimately
undermine its commitment to food security. As a prominent example, in 2007, the Cambodian
government leased the 133-hectare Boeng Kak Lake to local developer Shukaku Inc., in a US$79 million,
99-year deal. The deal was opaque and involved the eviction of many people from the land, including
those holding titles. As a result, at the end of 2010the World Bank halted funding for proposed projects
valued at approximately US$128 million. 27
According to a 2010 news report, Cambodia is halfway through a road-building spree with 10 projects
totaling 1,173 kilometers, or 730 miles, of pavement still under way, and 11 additional roads under
negotiation. Sources of finance for these roads vary, with donors such as the Asian Development Bank
employing more rigorousbut substantially slowerprocurement procedures than Chinese investors,
who have financed many new roads all over Cambodia. In fact, some donors refuse as a matter of policy
to become involved in Cambodias infrastructure projects, due to the governments resistance to engaging
in consistent public bidding processes. Another common concern is that, in exchange for allowing
Chinese investors to build Cambodian roads, the Chinese are extracting resources under terms that are not
widely understood by the public. 28 As summarized in 2012 by the European Union, Major road building
programmes are stimulating economic development but have been criticized for the inadequacy of their
social and environmental safeguards. 29
In Malaysia, notwithstanding the countrys great economic advances in recent years, deep, publicly
expressed suspicion over the implementation of major infrastructure projects remains. In December 2011,

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INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

when Malaysias score and ranking on Transparency Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index fell for
the third year in a row, the local office of the NGO said,
Elements of state capture which facilitate grand corruption are still prevalent. These include
the continuing and snowballing practice of awarding mega projects and contracts without
open tenders or competitive bidding, limited access to information which contributes to a
culture of secrecy and lack of transparency, allegations of inflated pricing in military
purchases and the continued close nexus between business and politics in Malaysia. 30

In reviewing the process for awarding infrastructure contracts in Malaysia, the Japanese Bank for
International Cooperation has said, More transparency in the tender process is required in order to boost
investor confidence to increase their participation in these Government-Linked infrastructure projects.
This uncertainty or level of imperfect information can pose challenges in raising finance. Thus, credible
concessionaires would be a good signal to the market of the viability of the project. 31
In 2010, to address perceptions of corruption in
infrastructure projects, Malaysias government launched a
new tender portal, MyProcurement, to provide procurementrelated information, including an hourly update on tender
advertisements and the names of successful bidders. The
new portal aims to reduce corrupt practices, enhance
transparency, and increase confidence in the procurement
process.
Concerns abound in other countries, as well. In Thailand,
the perception is common that the government allocates
higher budgets for infrastructure projects than their actual
costs require. The difference is reportedly collected by
government officials who are one way or another favored.
In Vietnam, public confidence in the transparency of major
infrastructure projects is similarly low. There is reportedly
considerable corruption in the procurement of infrastructure
projects, which are often sourced to people with personal
connections to ruling party members. Corruption is
considered especially pervasive at the local level. Although
they are required to declare their assets, local officials have
Warehouses are critical for efficient
been implicated in bribe-taking schemes pertaining to land
passage along agricultural value
administration and management as well as public
chains.
procurement. In early 2012, for example, a Party
investigation found a US$7.6 million shortfall in funds spent to support a water management project,
implemented by a state-owned enterprise, in the Mekong Delta.
The key distinction between petty and grand corruption is that the former usually reflects specific
weaknesses within systems, while grand corruption can involve the distortion and manipulation of entire
systems to serve private interests. 32 To the extent that grand corruption in infrastructure projects persists,
agricultural production, processing, and agricultural trade in several of ASEAN Member States
economies will remain far below potential.

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INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

OPPORTUNITIES FOR ACTION

Within ASEAN and its Member States, there are many pathways to change. Important reforms can be
moved forward by a single, visionary champion or a by groundswell of stakeholders. Some reforms may
take a number of years to take root, while others are a matter of empowered actors acting quickly and
decisively in a way that reflects both public demand and international best practice. In most cases, a big
ideaincluding the type that is often promoted by international organizations such as the World Bank
can be broken down into many smaller tasks, which, again, can be seized by a variety of public and
private actors. Accordingly, the opportunities for action set forth below are intended to be multifaceted.
They may be a foundation for regional or domestic policy development, a resource for private-sector
initiatives, a benchmark for tracking change, a reference for academic instruction, and most immediately,
as a jumping-off point for stakeholder discussion and consensus building.

Opportunities for ASEAN and Regional Entities

With the ASEAN Infrastructure Fund, as well as other funding sources, explore
opportunities for funding infrastructure activities that connect agricultural products to
markets, and Member States with one another
As ASEAN and the ADB continue to develop the Infrastructure Fund, there is an abundance of
opportunity, for this institution and others, to invest in infrastructure projects that will benefit agricultural
trade and may even result in a higher rate of intraregional trade of agricultural products over the long
term. Investments can focus on the following areas, which have been identified as bottlenecks in ASEAN
Member States, the removal of which could decrease costs for lower ends of the value chains significantly
and open the possibility for farmers to be integrated into modern supply chains:
Feeder roads linking farms to markets. There is demand for rural pathways, gravel roads (the first
mile) and similar passages to be upgraded to paved roads, or at least improved, in order to be
connected to feeder roads. The quality of feeder roads connecting to main roads can similarly be
improved to decrease high trucking tariffs and commodity load losses. Roads should be constructed
with the idea of eventually linking to the ASEAN Highway Network.
Irrigation. The RATE assessment in Cambodia found that small-scale, community-managed irrigation
projects offer benefits that can be equal to or better than those arising from large-scale, top-down
projects, in the perception of users. Small-scale water systems contribute to agricultural production in
many locations across ASEAN, but their number remains small because of financial constraints.
Existing projects have been financed largely through donor funding, but also through government and
private-sector funding.
Inland waterway infrastructure (river transport/ports). In the ASEAN region, especially in Vietnam,
Laos, and Burma, river transport is underutilized. If developed, it could offer important alternatives to
road transport for agricultural commodities. Credit from ASEAN Infrastructure Fund or other sources
could make private sector investment in inland waterway infrastructure appealing.
Power. Electricity for cold storage at the farm level and after processing and before domestic or foreign
trade is important for agriculture. It is also important for storing essential vaccinations for animal
husbandry. Large scale power projects such as dams and nationwide power grids may not reach remote
areas; rural markets would benefit from small-scale electricity and power projects, such as village

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hydro, pico-hydro, and solar PV panels to fill in the gaps created when large projects fall short. These
projects are particularly well suited for PPPs.
The arm of the ASEAN Infrastructure Fund focusing on rural projects would benefit from a mechanism
for including farmer and other stakeholder perspectives at the lenders due diligence stage, feeding into
the design of the project, as well as over the course of implementation. In addition, fund representatives
should review regularly whether projects are executed as planned. Education and training on the ADBs
strong anticorruption policies and other mechanisms of ensuring integrity should be woven into project
development and roll-out.

Encourage greater study and understanding of the links between infrastructure and
postharvest loss
The ASEAN region would benefit from greater sharing of learning on infrastructure and postharvest loss,
drawing on the resources of the many research institutes and university faculties across ASEAN that
study postharvest loss. In addition to greater research and data collection, a clearinghouse is needed for
information about findings, resources, and strategies pertaining to infrastructure and postharvest loss in
the region. An easily accessible, dynamic clearinghouse, institute or similar facility could greatly inform
regional postharvest loss policies. It could perform targeted research to improve understanding of certain
problems, conduct pilot projects that test remedies, and transfer best practices across ASEAN. The
establishment of such a clearinghouse could be facilitated by partnering with an international
organization, such as UNIDO, that has already worked extensively on postharvest loss in ASEAN and has
a history of conducting studies and workshops in the region.

Formulate a regional transport policy, incorporating the establishment of transnational

corridors passing through locations that are centers of agricultural and industrial
production
The Greater Mekong Cross-Border Transport Agreement is an important step toward regional transport
coordination at the subregional level. Regional infrastructure experts should be invited to contribute to a
discussion of the development of transnational corridors, ultimately for implementation at the ASEAN
level. Pursuant to international best practice, proposed corridors should aim to increase trade flows and
attract investment to their surrounding areas. Ultimately, a regional transport policy would need to be
coupled with gradually reduced regulatory, legal, and institutional barriers between nations, as the
Blueprint for the ASEAN Economic Community anticipates. As a means of increasing trade, corridors
generally are intended to integrate shared quality standards. The ASEAN Strategic Transport Plan 2011
2015 is an important step toward such an approach to regional integration.

Encourage regional initiatives to strengthen cold storage opportunities

Traders across ASEAN know that cold chains are as strong as their weakest link. Unlike other possible
supply chain disruptions, an interruption in a cold chain cannot be compensated for by paying higher
costs. When a cold chain is disrupted, the cold goods are lost for good, even if the cold chain was
impeccable up to the point of disruption. Various institutions within ASEAN, within the private sector,
and among universities and think tanks can contribute to an effort to harmonize cold chain standards and
procedures across the region, opening up new possibilities for agricultural traders.

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INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

Establish a shared definition of PPPs in the region along with a network for sharing
standards and guidelines for protecting investors rights
Any number of regional institutionsuniversities, policy institutes, a business association, or even
ASEAN itselfcan contribute to better understanding of PPPs. This might begin with the building of a
regional consensus on a definition of PPPs, including of PPP types and subcategories. A network for
shared information and statistics about protection of investors, one that is easily accessible to outsiders
looking to learn more about their opportunities, could also support use of PPPs as an infrastructure
financing mechanism.

Opportunities for Member States

Create infrastructure accountability websites to track public expenditure on physical
infrastructure projects
The status of the development, award, and implementation of public infrastructure projects should be
publicly available on websites and other information platforms (such as cell phones). After being
established at the country level, the information platforms should be carried to the ASEAN level to
increase visibility and discourage corrupt acts. Such websites have been a great success in many
countries, such as Kenya, where information on the allocation of funds to infrastructure projects are
publicly available and citizens flag incidents of corruption when funded projects either do not exist or are
not receiving their allocated share of budget.

Incentivize infrastructure development for agricultural trade

Member State governments can incentivize infrastructure development through the following approaches:
Remove taxes and duties for facilitating rural infrastructure development projects in areas where
markets do not create the necessary resources, such as for storage facilities, small-scale irrigation
projects, and upgrading remote linkage roads to farms
Clarify and articulate the process for obtaining funding from the ASEAN Infrastructure Fund to
stakeholders in both the public and private sectors
Partner with international expert organizations to implement pilot projects on infrastructure, obtaining
essential advisory services for facilitating concessions to increase private sector participation, as well as
developing supply chains.

Create a domestic network for shared information and statistics about protection of private
investors, one that is easily accessible to outsiders looking to learn more about their opportunities.

1 A global value-chain refers to the process of production, exchange, and consumption of a given product or
service within or beyond national borders. In contrast to a supply chain, the concept finds its focus in value, or
more appropriately, value-added. Adding value at each step of the production chain remains a defining feature,
critical for efficient governance. Dennis McNamara, Georgetown University, APEC Study Centers Consortium
2011 conference, Directions for Sustainable Development: Public-Private Partnerships for Infrastructure Investment
(September 2223, 2011).
2 Asian Development Bank, Fast Facts: ASEAN Infrastructure Funds (May 3, 2012).
3 Niklas Sieber, Freight Transport for Development Toolkit: Rural Freight, (World Bank/DFID, 2009).

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INFRASTRUCTURE: RATE SUMMARY

4 Charles Kirubi et al., Community-Based Electric Micro-Grids Can Contribute to Rural Development: Evidence
from Kenya (2005).
5 For a general discussion of domestic and regional food standards in ASEAN, see the RATE topical analysis
addressing nontariff barriers to trade.
6 World Bank, PPP in Infrastructure Resource Center, http://ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-partnership.
7 For a general discussion of anticorruption initiatives in ASEAN, see the RATE topical analysis addressing
transparency and accountability.
8 ASEAN, ASEAN Economic Community Blueprint (2008).
9 ASEAN Integrated Food Security (AIFS) Framework and Strategic Plan of Action on Food Security in the
ASEAN Region (SPA-FS) 20092013,
http://cil.nus.edu.sg/rp/pdf/2009%20AIFS%20Framework%20and%20Strategic%20Plan%20of%20Action%20on%
20Food%20Security%20in%20the%20ASEAN%20Region-pdf.pdf.
10 Id., Strategic Thrust 4, Action Program 4.1.
11 Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA), Midterm Review of the Implementation of AEC
Blueprint (October 2012) at 28.
12 I have always found that plans are useless but planning is indispensable. Dwight D. Eisenhower (1962).
13 OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Indonesia (2010).
14 World Bank portal for Trade Development in Indonesia (2012).
15 Workshop on Postharvest Losses (PHL) of Main Commodities in ASEAN Countries, ASEAN Secretariat,
Jakarta (July 1617, 2012).
16 European Union Delegation to Cambodia, Country Environment Profile (2012).
17 U.S. Energy Information Administration, Country Analysis Brief (Indonesia).
18 Id.
19 EuroCham/Vietnam, Trade and Investment Recommendations (2012).
20 Victoria Department of Primary Industries, Analysis of the Food Sector in Philippines: Opportunities for
Victorian Exporters (2009) at 4.
21 Id. at 8.
22 Id.
23 World Bank, PPP in Infrastructure Resource Center, http://ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-partnership.
24 http://www.adb.org/documents/public-private-partnership-ppp-handbook.
25 World Bank, Doing Business 2013 (2012) (Protecting Investors), www.DoingBusiness.org.
26 Asian Development Bank, PPP Handbook (2008) at 11.
27 BBC News Asia-Pacific, World Bank blocks Cambodia Loans amid Boeung Kak row, (August 9, 2011).
28 N.Y. Times, Cambodia Takes to the Roads in Building Spree (January 18, 2010).
29 European Union Delegation to Cambodia, Country Environment Profile (2012).

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30 Transparency International, Malaysia (2012).

31 Japan Bank for International Cooperation, Report on Infrastructure Financing and Bond Issuance in Malaysia
(2007).
32 USAID Anticorruption Strategy (2004) at 8.

20