Cota v1) Pox AN INTRODUCTION TO EINSTEIN'S GENERAL RELATIVITY James B. Hartle“This is an excellent introction to general relativity witha hands-on appmoech tha is base on phsialsitvations of interes lik lack holes and the expanding universe. It fills ral gap inthe iterature foram undergraduate or graduate stent coursebook” Sopher Hang, University of Cambridge the best elementary introduction to general relay ever writen t brings reat fullywidhin the grasp of undergraduates and shou trigger cretion of general relativity courses at colle and universities sound the wold ‘Kip. Thorne, Caltech aulbor of “Black Holes and Time Wap: ‘Binsin’ Outrageous Legacy “vale rings the beau and excemen of eave gration tothe appt undergrad lv vit emarabiy ace drop He uses may more amar cone o proce x bod understanding af he base sre and sptions fhe thon The apy s emarkably effective.” abet Magoner, Sanford rivers aris an established master ofthe fil and his competence assures that this books authoritative. The book provides a striking combination ‘of elasical general relativity theory and the atest modem observational resus” abo F Tylor, Masachusots institute of Toco 2 tely novel approach, With Hat's presentation ray is mor than dy mathemati; ned, ts an ean, crn, an inl wran sujet that central to mary ofthe ast intriguing questions in physics and astrophysics today: Mar: Kanon, Caloris haste of Tcnalegy This book shoud appeal w ane generation of phys. Nines anevellent eve af pial clay and proves unified Someta ‘proach to th SR and GR." Hans jergen Weber, Unicesiy of Virginia Pleas vit us at wow aw.comy/physics for more information. Tp ont any of our prods, contact our enstomer service department at (800) 824-7 (201) 767-5021 cuts ofthe US, oF visit your campus bookstore A “physics first” approach to Einstein's general relativity Einstein's theory of general relativity is comerstone of modem physics It embraces a wealth of frontier scientific topics including curved spacetime, black holes, gravitational waves, and cosmology, General relativity is increasingly central to contemporary physics and astronomy and therefore to an undergraduate physics education, The aim ofthis ground-breaking new text isto ‘make this fundamental theory accesible to undergraduate students, Using a “physics frst” approach, a minimum of new mathematics, and a wealth of applications, renowned relaivst James Hartle provides fluent and accessible introduction for physicists and others interested in this central achievement of moder science, ‘very fine book by leading expert. By omoentrating on physical ideas and th very atest bseretonal eis, Hate achiews his admirable aim of making general eat acesle witout rdying on daunting ir ibesvetin 1 bck ety sri theta at erp: student should poses.” Jonathan altel, mperial College, London Profesor Hae tobe commend for wing such a fine and much ‘ede inroductory book on general relativity With the right balanoe of physical ideas and mathematical details delivered ina clears, his Wil be a weleome text.” Bei Lok Hu, Oniverty of Maryland “This book should make a major impact in undergraduate education Its far clearer and more physically motivating than other texts. The ‘epostion i at precisely the right lee. and clear worked examples and good problems make it especially useful” ‘Michael Hobson, University of Cambridge for decades general relativity as langely been the purview of raduate students. Hare's new book promises to change that. It provides an admirable overview of oe of psc’ most beutiful and increasingly relevant theories and canbe understood with only a fist mechanics clas asa prerequiste. should persuade many phys, ‘departments to ofer general eatiity aa routine part ofthe under graduate curiculum. Artur Koso, Rudge University “the ideal text for ....an introductory course, In no other single text fe Founda the up in date martha der phys sold knw abut git the same tines an excel ss for more advanced stu Die Bril, Crees of Marland ISBN 0-8053-8LL2-9 | | | oli7a0805! 386622IMPORTANT SPACETIMES (geometrized u Flat Spacetime Cartesion Coordinates dst ad i bs de gla ‘Spatial Spherical Polar Cordinates Mar pte Pao 4 Pat dg? (1 -20W de Hay? ede), Oy ~ See Roe wore yi th Earths vs) ogeter with comttions rm he Sn she te planes Noe the appearance ofthe rao GM/ Re. which scharaceisic ff weak relative elles a dacassed ia Cape. The distances beer the22. periments ia Geometry ‘mousse 69 kn, 5 kn, and 107 km. Using thse, hs works cu 10 be ‘iterenseof onder 10° rains). So sala discrepancy could netbe detected ‘ven with preset ecology, Pt meer experiment can dete he deviations ftom Euclidean geometry prooed by he Sen and measure geome o space ‘onthe very Ie seas of cosmology (See Box 22) BOX 2.2 Determining the Spatial Geometry of the Universe Modem mesurent—axt x diet in charter froma sage o Game tori he crane sc py lr serene of the bon ‘lacs and idaon ne bene upg ot 2 fe ponies for he ges owe of te iam Caper 1 The at emery oe pla ‘hepsi! caved tower feu ose arte apne caved seme) ly the pombe a, etn coe. "Tours eof om thal mae eB sory a geo be edt somo eB Sieny of cl ven ache a inc furer robo nom ie pee en eda tnoen one stony te omery a esi eagle y soe would tepid Becta ea ‘pre an oj male ues wou aed sae sale Auraey obj oa he sem ‘nce ny il bed ger angio psy ured sre ken pe than wl a Ba ae {Phobia sini eye age ended ina ‘eae cue pce le seal (Fa des soe Frobien 812) Te dase wl be coveted oi ‘Sethe exon nie Cpe 1a Sliver these crn angle oe tres of kw a tance one nf ‘mining miter perry f merci ace = a sly aed or eel ced The ene ‘Sekgroun alate ovis ch eae. "The comic icone tc romd raiaton (CMB) ie tp om the ht ag hg Sat tga the ene “Tetadanen sted am he omen eee ha DEAS Tie Se PS, Rare ‘thc fm te a ton pan ‘ocr ing No te Fests be ne ‘Citas te obese Tht ge ena st ‘ijn ane otagmc cn tetra st ese pea v6 Chapt? Gcomenry a Pyses BOX 22 (continued) sanded an cole eng forte mate ke as fara ofan. ths eee open ely over tenereing apps) 1 on eu. ‘Ne nr ect ie oul {leapt tins grea Te ter ‘eof th raat acted 0 293K an ery tent sae inal tons ut tg Ty te [riers of nly own a mils of ge overs Tet of te on of se Aictsoe pees a pcm oft arc ‘Eady soos nth se, T cats re hare fr swith ow spec of cs bw tc vy. feration tical en as Ina te sl ome of ewer Te ih fan are a th us gage sows ap of he ‘esr coe sa 35 po fe Sy tht wee eed bythe Boomerang experimen Bem er a 300), The tae pres oh Bo ‘tow saul wha he mp wun he sed be hth ec af nl sa be go thy wee pel cured Oh at ido ve me ‘hey cured (ogi. Quuate comparens of ‘Feet mln om eye foo ue es wl fe he ae) The oom spaces amen pylon, FIGURE23 A esl unl WAP whee a rte trang 20 ‘Thevraglecnm a be pars won of ong 50? apt en te North Pie tResgutartnece hen ‘Tew ae allepmens of Pests and. eer Siero gory sib sphere 2.3. Different Geometries “The des fiteen geometries easly irate in two dimensions. In Your stots of the Ecldean geety ofthe plan, you met the noone of pin. "eh line, sisnce angle, pall, sng, ile, chord, ee Farr theo. ‘ems include the one jst cs orange: 1. 2 Anes ats thatthe cafenncto thai ce: Giamiernes)_C crominaned a, ay ‘rdius) “The sarice of «shire provides an example of «dient wo-dimemsonl _sommiry in which sch esl of plane geomet ae replaced by diferent the ‘roms, Stig lines cn be dein om aspere te shortest distance Between to pin, ht ae segments of great ce. Tangles ae made up OF tee Interesting great cise. Arle the locos of ont equator messed ‘on the race) fom poi which it ene, Fora sphricleiangle of Z(t) -+8 hae asthe as ofthe sphere Egon 2 sows tat te sum ofthe ero angles fa spherical wing is anrays greater than x Am examples shown in Fgue 2.3, As the sz ofthe triangle becomes salle nd smaller compared With he a of curate, as23. ieee Geometries FIGURE 24. The lain ate cicumfoece othe ras ofa nse pomety Sherrie ofa mie he sf pois on he ste hal ae st {Gomer ont ras) om centr pln tr Hare Nor Pe as eh ‘Sosnowiec of ail ats ali con ad ley ‘Therdir i he dnc rom rh Plots ate sre along aye a ‘comes inretsingy ical to tel he dfrence tween a plane ae tbe uve surface ofthe sere: Fringes wih very sil ras (A/a? 1, tbe est (2.4) swell pyroximatd byte fat spe result 22) ‘Wi be ito yom bow a Pigue 2 4, tb rato of he ccumfeenceo thers of cicteon ape can Be eel obo (eicumteresce) _ € ‘adusy Asin. ir ate igh hand sie reduces othe Bat space res (23), tiene necoary to leave he sire ofthe earth to Serine KS gome tay Sureyors (sich st Gas) working onthe Sue a he ea ean measure [Sih things a the ror apes ofa ange andthe circumference was ‘feels: By iting wo formulas sucha (2) and (25), hey cul n pip, tellifthe gory ofthe suice was spi and determine the iis of wv {re Similar, by srveving in ee dieanions we ca, nicl, arming {he geometry of ace witht needing ny ex diennon. ‘Visualization of tre dimension cored peomtes nt ae 3 foro “ineasonal cured geometries, which can fen be represent a sarfaes Ia cian dee dinensional spice. However some simple ee iensonal3e- ‘omnes can be thought of as corved surfaces a a hypoeicl four dimensionl Bcidean space. Fer example, he thee dimensional geomet analogous othe ina) ia) 2s) 9Chapter 2 Geomeny as Pyses ‘wostinensional sphere disused beloe i he tre dimensional sure of @ spree four dinensions—a te sphere space haa ined three sphere ge- ‘metry, jours i a stig ine any rection would evenly big one tuck othe sting point However, te deed information about the geome: 1 of space can be determined lal For example it tus ot tha he volume ‘ne awo-dineasional spre of ras ria sich a spt geomet is given by vers [be()-EP-O]"] es eee) where as the character ads of curvature ofthe tee-sphere geometry. For {two-sphere whose rad mich sale hana, the lume aus tion “pproazes the Euclidean Bat space est as (2.6) shows, three dimensional ‘sce ha ich ate phere geome the cancers rad of curva ‘Shah be detemiged by caf ineasuremeats of he a and volume of two ‘eres, As we will dncover i Chapter 18 Elst’ theory predicts this tre sere geomery 3 one pity fore spl geometry a uniform universe ‘on vey lange distance sles, Bos 2209p. 7 desnbes on ello sve space fontbeue les. 24 Specifying Geometry In adion to the goomesy ofthe plane and the geomeny ofthe sphere, tere sean infinite number of eter two dimensional geomet, For example here iethe geometry on he surface of peo the ganar ofthe sua of a plane witha fe lon t-te densions tere ae asin inte mmbec of ‘psa. How ae these diflereatgeometies desi and compared mate ‘tially? (Ore bay w describe a geometry iso embed it sa sre in higher Aimensomal space whose geometry is Blea. We have made we ofthis Inehad in desenbing two-dimensional geometries as surfaces embed in tree-dimesioal Evciean geomet —plancs. spheres, eggs ct. Howevct, itecomesshmos imple thnk of ay atthe simplest tres-and four ‘inensoon geometries an resin four nd five dimensions rhs, he eta ‘inenson is physi supertoous. An Irn dexeption of peomety that ‘maker ue of st the pial dnensons hat cas be measured is wha ned Ae idea io spc a geometry ty ging small ume of aioms, of posites, from which tbe other raul of geometry can be dened as Beare Forthe geo of th Bt pine, for etample ter are Each’ fe axioms ‘Two pots deeonine a uique ine, pr ines ever intersects2.5. Coote and Line ment simple geome can be cared inthis way with ferent asim. For ‘example, the geometry onthe surface of sper ca be summarized bya Set of Svom ike Eucla’ whch de pra postlat replaced by the alo that ‘worl ies alwayz meet into points: However, this method los imi, Whit axioms dese the geometry onthe suace of pot? We pet & more Ios and eld description "Te key toa genral description of geomet iso us feel nepal cls ted all gory toa seston ofthe distance bvera each pit ‘Sf nearby pots, From the dance been nearby pin the distances along ‘uves cane bil wp by npn. Salat ines ar the cares of he shorest ‘ance worn wo pois Aglare ais of helene of ast thea whe hoe rai are sal Areas, oles, et, canbe eonsrcted by malple Treas over area and volume elements henseves specie by the dstanees teoween nay pms. By specifying the distances between aay pois and ‘ing diferent nd imepral aclu, the most genera geometry maybe spec: fed Thisare of mathematics is cle dfernal geometry. We wl explo Us. 2 few ideas this subject in the ex section, 2.5. Coordinates and Line Element ‘he Euclidean Geometry ofa Plne ‘Asstematic way of Iabling points peequite to a specication ofthe “Grane bcween nerdy ones. A system of corns asin unique les ‘exch, hte are ary stems that doo, nwo dimension, forint, ‘ber are Caresian coordinates sy) pla cottnates 7) about some orn, ee gue 25) et dey tan SN FIGURE2S Canc a plots Cares pol conte oh ‘promt ys of belie pune plone, lhe stance ees ay Pans Goteexesol intra eier a2 Chapter 2 Gcomeey as Pyses Neath pias ave ney vals of heir contin, For example, the pis (x. y)and Grd, vt dy) re meaty when dean dy te ifintesmal, Salary, p)andtr 4dr. 9+ dpa pew i Canaan coordinates (x), he stance d between the pons, and Getdasy +9) lace Fgue 25) 4 foots] an “The same ule cat be expressed in polar coors where he distance heen theme pins rand (r+ de +d) 5 (se Figure 2.5) unt sear)” es Expesson (28) an other ike iar vainly if dead are all. How ‘ever large dstances cane al up ro hes ites relations hy ner Yim, Les, for expe sel the rato ofthe reference he dameter ‘ofa ce of rai R Choosing the origin tthe ene, the exuation for sich & ‘sein Canesian enointes Paster es) ‘The sitcumference Che inter f JS sound he cle. Using (27) isis fas~ f fue? sane] aim fof @y]t ; 10) of ange e106 Changing vale by wring = RE we be cate ain ten ew “Tis inthe crest answer: Te integral could even taken 1 eine by ding Foul one cui discover that = = 5.115926536. Deriving the relton twee adi nd circumference een easier in polar ‘as, where te qontion ofthe clef jos r= A. Evang 28) ‘heel and nepaing te resuking dS over it es c= fa [fF raonose en125. Cowrites an Line fement The ne ig pits ani (21) ss hf Hetenteet been apiny veya ae ie eens on pe scans tet mrs ne grt ed SDMomatara sc staep are onodea ensee mecca sieeees ana o=8 ako aw ‘th set e ol po at eam of eng mane sy eee pe ay Sheet acy ac ce ee Se Sao Sot st ence Sapa men omstainye cents ny gl hr ch 2 aun anmnscs at iss bts ey is ttemt eane prereset et as vith o rickets acd the diferent. The for ofthe ine element frag. ‘etry varies rm cori sytem to coor sem [e(27) and (28). he geometry romans the sume bet ay? aw ‘he Non-Eulidean Geometry ofa Sphere An example of «noo-Eliean geometry i pode bythe src of a t80- “isensonl phere oats We canes he apes 09) af ee dimensional par ecordinses to lbs points onthe spre. The distance between pins (0.6) nd (tg +g ot be sonal le Wark Fire 2.6) 1 Be aS! = (a0? + i249) eas) ‘This he ine element ofthe sure of asphee ‘ets the ine elemert (215) calle the rat ofthe cxumference to ste rus of a ele othe sper. By cle we mean the lcs of pins on the varlace hte cont tance head) along te sac rom aed et he center) one surface Siace no ae pnts distingised geometielly ftom any eer onthe spire, we may cmeniely crete polar coorite ‘stom sof the por ans bt the cone of he cle. A cle is ben uve conta Conte the cle dei the equation e 216) {orconstan ©. The ccunerence the distance around this curve Nesey poles long th carve are erated by but ave d# = 0. Ths, 2.15) es dS Une amen for a Soha(hagter 2 Caney 25 Pyles FIGURE 26. Desvig te ine clement nthe phew The drones of he ft hat two-dimen por ws src ede es ace ae ‘Toons spr pone tne, 9a @ 9+) ado. ‘Tascam sas te ans brent f8 gs of oct lms The Sancebtwen and longs of ant mp 0d cane the Cts es cern en of ge {ms dentin sth ure ft dance dS Btn he os he and 12 wenaesialy smal Th pies 215, ‘asin slong te circle, andthe ccumference is © fase ff asin@dp = 2nasin®. en | “The as is he distinc rom the emer othe ile log a curve for wich 2 | vsirbedg = Alm treane: 1S} dS =a anders | r= [fas= [Ueerme ow ‘Using (218) imiat in (2.17, the reation etcen he reference and rit of cise inthe nor Ecliden geometry of pare Becomes c=2rasin(£) ew In this expression a ica ied umber chartering he seomey It measures te salon wich te geomeuy is curve. When the ais ofthe eile sch2.5. Coors nd tine Cement 2s salle than the radios ofthe sper, r <4, heb we ave approsimaely cx ten ex) “which isthe familar resin Euan geomet The goomeuy of he surface ‘the Earth the same sphere toa p00 pproimation. "The many diferent projections usd to make ape of src ae just {erat connate ystems for expressing the peony of spheres described in Box 25 BOX 2.3 Map Projections “The vr retin od mike lant map be Es ce tame o'r poo ee pred nen ome of cordate The eon Fr th fe meson sie he per ‘anetceer soca nn flees {Buf te Ea O he ae of arte ale $e tm (sd in inser a Dei The tied 3/2 apes nemo ‘nse abate elem staat peaPigg. soit am, ned eno he fre ) and we 2 tng coadas in he ae 0 te ote fe center feo Eire tne ire flores or fc 9) and 0h 8) Oman kof ese | nc a poiing map emote mse ‘some spe te ple "Tee ae may prec hae diet wove Leth wd tbe ap. Tsu ant [Tiny on ean ten Ths ea sown nt compa etc a quieter then However re mae fl pjecon nich ete ue rp promo he phere Gn pane Not pipers canbe prs bse {he promt os re tet fom hat of Be arden wy, wie cso etl eet send ogi i= 4 Fe pti of hi, ee tans a en yin enone, eee[(Eoow)eos(2)] A single xem a pojsion of hihi i the Meret jection nena ©. Kes 130 od ‘hrm Rear a wa tht angle he pss ems tings te here Tat_ Seep nor ie no ‘Nac ning al ween Cao an bon Souk dee gh nan ep comeing he ro pth mg ton a and te at ule earn om dh at hen eons ‘Seine te sop ul ng the pf Canes26 Chapter 2 Cooma 25 Pyles Lon, Wh ce of fincton 90) 02) wea make sa ite mis? Aegean, We ain 213) ‘rangement on gee wil el the age betwen tbe oe Secs the Pie iene em mh ee porn {othe ine cement te at pie 55, dF ‘Ta implemen Kraehe Seok fenton 2) ct an ween aeeunidtee oO forse ene (9). Chit ne ed an Coming y= 01 sla wits =0 ges sone aio (and dete he Mec pyc. The cuter = Oirmaypesintiney = 0 The pes | ‘Sits? aemappe 9 = 0 repel The poet ewe ep me sian be tt ete te ple 9 a fred i Tine Matte fie opr ote Meco poet fal fom is tr Focal cen fe pe es ae pri lence og ‘ee See yc an een ts as 20a 0 tod depen ae. As 7» ct Nor Pls ber espe ler tan cette tans Ireane of eticer Pte hi ra A al cing A= faypaniaoar=27o)aray. a “Tn, sitowgh Grind seg the Meer rpcon incertae sn ged wih Sh es fr etn, aca was ch salle ‘The Geometry of Some More General Surices The ine moat ofthe plane and the spe were worked out before, sting froma lear ier of thee geometries a saracs in Evctean space Howeve, Ingeaera eat itis more sal be confoned with ip element and have {0 figure ot the properties of the geometry i epreeas. (Consider as an example the line element ean for various pore choices of the firtion f(8) The she J(@) = sind ves the geometry of he surface ofa sphere (2.18) But what sorte in thc216 Coordnate sr iene mensional Esclidean space have inasicgeometies represented bythe ine tement (221) for oe haces of (8)? There are several las, 1 Sine then elements the same forall omesponds oa src thst ieaxlsymmerc aout a xi 2. The circumference C() of ctl of estat 8s from (2211) cw) [rere 2raf@) 2 4. Thedlstance fom poet pos driers =f 40 By working atthe varios meri popes, plcure canbe bul op ofthe surface as Example 2. sw, 2 229) Example 21. Avant Geometry, Conse th surtce spel by 4(@) = sn ~ faint) am “Tae sree is symmeric unde refesin in the eur plane = ¥/2. tar ing at = 0, ctcomference ofthe Ines of estan #222) st increases, fn then decreases with /(@) thn increases nd decreases again. AL ay ene the ccmfeence is aller an the comespoding valve ona sphere AC the Geni a “The maimum crcumferece i (6r/9)a a = sin“'(3) = 73 rains. Since the distance rom pole to pole sa from (223), hs src has the elongate “pest shape shown in Pgs 2.6 Coordinates and Invariance nthe precoding calculation ofthe rato ofthe Cucuerenc to he radi fora ‘cle nthe pla the same answer wis okiained whather the calealons were ‘Sone in Castano polar scorites tx obvious hl the apes should be fhe same, The distance aon ace andthe distance fom it is coir a ‘ened and meaning quis independent ofthe choice of coors at Ee usd nel the point in plane. Present wth a physica disk we could ‘heck wheter ee fcc hy es tape measure fo see Whelies pons fnthe edge ae egedisnt from he cnt We cold then us the ape mess to find he ccamfrence and compat the ro of eteunfrece to radius. NO ‘ordinates ae involved la these operations. Cordes are js Convenient u FIGURE27 A suroin {a te diel pe ‘shi gory spcod bette ener 220) fO)= sit fan? ‘Heutoene of hoe ae Sind scsing B22, ‘The ver li ae ic of ‘end af seme ‘Teeample ot heheCoser 2 Geom 38 Pye. and systematic way of abn the pins na geomet: They have no meaning in thmeties, We could have abel the points by names Joe, Alice, red, (On ups we do this—New York, Bejing. ee. But such a system of libel is ‘ot very system nd not very somenient forthe application of the methods tralals to ples of goomcuy, Coordinates ara sytemate se of abel, tut thee are am infinite number of diferent cordate stems which ae all ‘ule Some may be me convenient fr ote computation o apo is the ‘elation ofthe circumference i polar corinne in (2.11 an (2.12) show, ‘Se more well Krone parse or ance, he maps inBox 23 om p25 show, fotemuivaent answers cat be cbained wing ay of tem. "The evens of Caesin and polar coordinates nthe plane can be seen ‘gsnelly Since the vo cordate stems are diferen ways of labels the Pts in plane there mist be a conection between hem. A pint can be lbed her by cordate x, >) or) The transation between hee dierent els isclled a condinaterangfonmarion In thicse 8 x=roud, —yersing. a2) ‘With the sdf the coordinate transformation (2.26, te equivalence beeen the tol elements (2.7) and (28), cach expressing he geomet ofthe lane, te demonstrated mechanical, Star lrom (27) and compute dx and dy fom G25) Gareosd —rsingie), en lysing + reos ad. 229) ‘Subsite hese ik (27) an imply to find the line clement (2.8) for dn polar coordinates The pot ere that he ste Between aby points dis {En morion quotiy dependent ofthe cortinates wed to comput “The cordate odin a compuain re abiay: he answers must De ee presen yal vit toms, West se muy moe examples of this he following chaps Problems [Bt ate apln, sh tata inet ry age nah angle cores ‘eles esa ae een frm whens eae (6) Show same ing tc dines wh cabal ere eee 2 (S} The coer of he Si 6 mich faker away fom 2 resi measurement of Ses anc ester te Ear Ba ee Sono mache mas te eat Using stint wichwnldbve the premet ceon a meme ‘ages chs tbe os, 2 C) (a iy the eatin 4c te am of eer sgl spt nl ane ren when to ee aes we a ages (Prove elton enerProbl 4 Dow examples tinge othe sre of sph for ih (a) The um often angles js phy eter a (0) Toewumcf gies ao 2. {@) Whats he mim hsm ales of np on pee an be ong {bie Cnyou ea stage shew he acess ae? Clee reno lle of rat (niece om eat ccc) inthe ‘woven! sme ft tess opr of abr Show hs ‘sheen when € (8) Contra pee of ass td on ita semen of eng ofan oF tse th nda fom the North Pl se on ape What she angle ewe ie Te har ts een pn Iie ger ose ‘hon te let een weld end same ds oa plane? 1 Comet lowing nts anfemaion oe ar eta ort {ayy neg pte inte pln ts nest ofc) 4(2-) (a) Shh he curve of cot adamant nthe lane (0) Terr te ne cleat = 42 a? (coeds (@) Dotsecars oeonstat acon vines aight anes? (@) hath quan of wild ceed a he in ner of ad (@) Cale he a of he init te meer af ee wl a») ‘rinses Do you eth come ae? 1 IAI Te sre of an ge aiyrnete gore 1 gon aon Tin em frtwosdinemoml snipes pert 221 oka 7) ‘Sct ne rio woud amie ofan ep Cale ea of he ‘Minster i asthe vance from pole tole 4 Theale ath is opt eT pola te Earth 857 i, {5 lghty es fon he mem cel tO Sop hee of he Eas mild yn tome uae wih alin cement fhe nd a (221) “st HO) = sind ei) ‘xsl Wt ie en tpi a cual 10, [B}EeuaAreaProjetins An gute map potion ofr wih {Notion evecare Ge and eas te fee (iis Gen = 9/2 wha fant 9) wel urea ap? i: TF stash he same comtat 0 ropa the eae ‘toning ines reac spre sever it ae, eget ser ‘hopper 1. {8} Conca! Prjctons Csi rotons map pinscmthe gobe ino perce Sic # the pe of te map. Neue tad cof whe conte ‘Semaesphre) Tha ager rag) aed = 8-6) Apt singe 2»Chapter 2 Geomevy as Pysics ‘us of oni poet es the Non Pl ot erg fhe par comdinaes Sdiuer=r0} andy (a) Fores epee inlet othe sie i tr a (8) Finds fen 0) ht make eo spect nich ete ma proprio betwen ech uso su dt covepoing aoe ‘espe ne See tt fr Problem 10) 12 (B.N) har Pomona Wold Map Te mapa Hos 2 wre ad hb Mate Init program orice Mike ou owe oto, center oe yu he {Saas aleve tore or vow ofthe impos he otSpace, Time, and Gravity in Newtonian Physics ‘Chater nadie he ie of gometry and how on i deseribed This chap fescue the pect of pace andthe noon of tine sed ia Newtonian fnechanics Ths sncasion wl ls serve fo review aipests of mechani an Secale tht wl Be iporta focater developments 3.1 Inertial Frames ‘Newtonian mectunics assumes geomet for space al aparicuar ie for ie ‘Nowhre hat lerer than in Newtons etl, specfing the tion of fee [poriclepariles on which no force are ting. According 10 Newons Gist {Bn fce parce moves on stsght ie at comtant speed. But wha come (eines asp in? Whit ao te sted to define conta pee”? "The sight line of Newson’ it lw (he shortest stance Between Wo point in te dimensional Eucliean space The ame of Space specified {i Caresian coordinates by the ine cee as tsa eat on ‘ing the tiance dS between points separate hy nites corn ine als dy, aml dz This geometry the niu extension vo tee dimensions (fhe geometry ofa ft pine I, thereto, called fla sce, Pa, Enelidean fromeity i asumel for spare in Nowonan mechanics. "To unesanlhow motion i Sexi inthe st Space of Newtonian me- chanics imagine a weld containing fee parcles moving this way snd at A ‘Sscrec ina abratory seks to describe a wert the motos of he pa ‘ces tht moe trophic igure 3.1. To desert the motions, the observer ‘a pick a comer fhe nbrsoy 3th eign of Cason ooeinates (2) Creed long the inrections ofthe walls and or tht meta is core. ‘Tose curds can be sed ols the ois in space tog whic a par {ie moves The stem of conde esi o prvi» referce frame. of fram for sb “rns mens ae fit ney CHAPTER 3 an2 Inert Fame ‘Chapter space, Tne, nd Gravity in Newtonian Physi = FIGURE.34_ bry dfs a feleenefe. An beret nm eed ab rae ict ne car stun ae Cann an (2) ht ‘Sissi te meses fhe nal cnt nat ore Tt ae ‘Srna ene lero fms tht tpetr wh te tine ese ty cc, Sete te te mint ps is we yd ‘Ther re many posible labersors, which canbe mong uniformly, as ring, rating with respect © cach oro Some combination of these ree {Gee Figure 3.2), Noll ese eleence fas re ely eu or expressing the ls of mechanics. prculrywseUl typeof reference fame can be co strced as follows Pika fe particle to serve the xpi a Cares cord tate ster se Figure 3.3 al mex AT one moment chose thes perpen: ‘lar Cartesian corse x.) with this eign posing alg the directions Sec y the ates of tres perpendicular gyroscopes. Aner mores contige to die (xy) bythe drectons of hese pyencopes. alent td moe ‘meray, pope the inal ake pn o themselves (ho ton) a the ‘gin moves long its sight ine path The ein cordate tem sell inertial frame "The laws of Newtonian mechanics tke thei stand an smplet forms in ‘neal ames. Ab observer tan pei ame can done a parame wth respect o whic he positions ofl fie parties ae changing 5 const ats. ‘This sme. Explicitly the mation ofan one parle canbe dsb by ing is cordites sa funtion of tie (x. 8} 3) ait cceleton a ere frig Hy & & 0 62 he nnn el ret mea go payment Can cone rfCanesian corte ystems ‘eid a opacment Seger FIGURES “140 (Coin cena tem ‘bed by san ough angie p out sae ‘loc y swam oy (Chapter 3 Space, Tine and Gavan Newtonian Pye Equation (3.2) is he expression of Newton's is av. Indeed, inn fames ould be dfned as Cats ference anes for which Newton's is aw holds inthe form (2) ‘Using he laws of mechanics an observer nap iol ame can constact & lock hat nase th ime Fr tac, the positon foe fe aril out te wed to measure snc its poston changes constant tein. Not every Caresan coordinate sytem san eta frame. For stance, he reference tame of nboratery on the sae ofthe Earth is not exact a t= ‘rial fame. The equations of mation of fee price ae not (3.2) but alae ‘cfg an Corl tras esl from the ration ofthe Ear st wel The Slow precession af «Foucault pedal i sre sign thats fame fed onthe Earth name rae, bat rather its oaing ith ees them, (See Box 3. for anther such messmo) "There ae tan inert fames, ot jst oe. In the construction ven, duce Wind larger than and mill coment with special telatn~“me Dilation Chaplet Principle of Speci Relatity timelike wold tine canbe compute rom the lin elemet (4.3) and (412) 98 tare fee bn [eof-s[a) yy] More compact. fleet sateeciie], nso [leh-Pava]” au ‘Te ror ime asso han mal gr eae IF ies nny hats tn plone ine lo secmel imps ‘be apn ov cs won Terie mel ent eh Sess tapos coma Genet il Paneer towed a armani Pye aaa) Figure 4.1 lusts the comteton, Tr shou be enphasized tht 14 or (4.5) hol even for asserting clocks, Le. when he velit dependent on tie” famoge est of his elt or a accelerating lok dese in Hox 40m p68. sample 42. AModel Cock. The preceding dsarson of ine dation i ot reer tothe working of any pric cock. Tine distin is consequence (ofthe geome of spactine anal one pee o know aboot lack that itis a device for menuring the distance along tite carves Neveeles, {is introtve © see how tine dition emerges fom the workings ofa clock, ‘andthe mode ilsuated in Figures 46 and 7 provides a simple example, The "Stock mechanism i the bouncing light pul. The rocesive rts ofthe hike pulse othe lover seo are th event dining the scenes long the flock’s wordline (et Figure 4.11. The proper ume eral At baween thee ‘ents the tme inl betwee het nthe es fame ofthe kek. which em Al =2Le[eC183)} The ine tral 8 inthe fame where tat hock oxo ne ene mp ht pel ay in ey ith sm ora vig ee Soh Thm ol oa ‘Sr ent iy smb ee ey “Sec pi nah soar sy um of tet414 Time Oiaon andthe Tin Faradox s —i AIGURE 411 Prope Line and onetime The eae in i ge ie word {Ee ors prc noving nth itn A ack cred wih te pri ese ie (pet in slong te ol li wich te gceime anesthe wien ai The propre Arto io pss in pein Aan spd by fees coin ir fade gen yh in leat ofa ct, 13) (Sis 13) Tene lege ban ate lon aely We Facslon (poet oe pun A appa srr nS, Bu peony a (#) ie of Spots mt ac, {s moving with sped V cam he Found by lining A beaween the fst 10 ‘laions int) The ests ara vie a1) "Ts just he tere eatin 4.18) fora clock with speed V. This model ‘eock ets ine ilaion xpi ‘he Tin Paradox Equation (4.14) shows tht the time eitered hy a elack moving between wo oss in space depen othe rot eed even tears to fhe same poi ‘sed fom. This the sure ofthe famous tin paradox. “feo twins Alice ant Bo, srt fom est tone ot space time in an Avert fame, ils a Figure 412. Alice moves say fom the starting ott bt ies ern to est th ste pin time > Bb emai test ‘Beturing point The time elapsed on Bob's clock sf =1)-The time lapsed on ‘Alcs clock way es than hn because (1 — 02/22) aay ess han Tin (14), The moving twin ages les than the stony wn stdeeo FIGURE? Theta penn fa ce (hin few. Ae and Bob ‘Bl we dere ee ‘Sissel poet re eged y chehe ‘Sedan echtChapler+ Principles of Speci Relay BOX 4.4 The CERN Muon Lifetime Experiment lene parle tt dca i the pl i sere aknd of ck The posh of sy 39 aly an exponent dea fw Te tine of Sey parila parclsirucein atv colectono ‘muy prea cton ep) wl ane dee ers ine fret tie cp py of ‘nd temple lena pre can ech vee sae ie ely fi in pice coseni, Spec eh {yes tr te etme o ply moving pes Sto bean ta ie in a by 2 aero Pe Pee (410) ty ee ie tin of parle moving with ped coining teva of hn a= rept, snr sp ithe tine ae brats a {Ble aeksin cleat can th oe ae son ‘ne ie 17 sings spc oe ering Ba ley etal 1972, Mao 2) ae Semen prices vigeterpostvecrneive cee. They ey — ‘erips and eles pions (pede ott hao wih etme of set 22 cul bs ihn mew a 29 coesposing fo Vje= 994. Te itn of tclng moos of fea hrges war ed y ding th esto penton decay pods incomes uring te ng Tiemamer of secon cr pote same ae funn eines to de aw pared by the ctines an mabe fe pats a fing te ec. most pty th mann mene moment The ous wee f= L419 OS ead fy = 613682 29x The inst a wold tee gf, Thebeateune me free (0) efervrigt = 229 x04 ‘Tisisineclent agreement ihe rt ye lle Ese an exit a te Noe ton forma V2 shows re cept cer ‘Non te moom ge 1! mpg god ‘viens ha tare pnd ie on ‘sla, "Example 43. Alc acclesesistomancowsy to «uniform peed fe, wave, ‘na stig ine away fom Boh ventlyinstaancousi revenes drston, ‘exums 0 Bob with he same sped a clea instantaneously te Bah Is aged 80 ye By how mach has Alive apd? "The ages ofeach are the proper tines sng their espactve word lines be tween depart ad yeu called wih 14). Ty understand te oat tin of at insunaneou acceleration, tt sigpose ack sur ener Smal tie interval of length 2 and take the inte vnishes, Then Eclat 1) Bewoom aimee efor the mpi mf ed ame a tervars, The cotton of his interval to heigl in (41) wl be ‘orto 10 abd neglie as « approsches Zero. The same Is te fr the ‘ater two of Alice's aceerations. Ths, he mving lock iy rani te [1 (4/5711 —3/S umes slower thane stationary clock foe 30 yr Alice wll, Inne aged by 30 ‘The American Heritage dinar eines pardo a6 scemingly conrad ‘ory tment tat may ones be te” We obtain paradox by deserting the sation from Abe's pont of view Bob motes aya form sped,45 Lowe Boos ‘ves rection, nd retusa niform sped, Tat sees to be exactly the sane {the station from Bes pint of view who ses Alice move avy at iform Speed: reverse dete, and tuna ier ped. The eu a symmetric ‘Rice younger than Bok However, hr sats ae ot syne ce {nd Bob el diferent weld ines in spate with diferent itances be ‘ech heir arin ad ending point Tir clocks measure these sane amd sored difeealy ‘Staght Lines and Longest Distances “Te twin paradox example ilsrates an importa propery ofthe non Eldean eon of at spacetime, As (41 show, every dnt ele weed Tne ‘bat Alice could follow between points A and Bus a shore length than the Sight tne cre flowed by Boh. (Ober curves may lok longer a aur tke Fiore 4.12, but arin fc shorter became the geometry is aon Lucien, Recall Example 41.) The sagt ne pth the loner distance Derween any tho timelike septraed pots na four-dimensional spacetin To see ths, ck any two timelike sepraied pons 4 and The stig path between them fea word ine movin with sme eonsan velaciy V- Use at vleity to {arson to ante neil frame where the two eves car athe same place ‘hot rams ie B's dscsua above. Any observer ike Aloe movie oh 2 testa sth messes a shorter peste asance Between de events that Bob does Spastine diances don't depeomthe ner ame ws calle ‘temin inthe dimensional space stag ies the shores distance between ‘ny poi, bt in fa pacetne args ine the Longest distance Between rotimeie separated pois 45° Lorentz Boosts ‘The Connection Between Inertia Frames “Te dcesion ofthe consrction feta frames in bth Newtonian mechan {Er Seton 3, and special ela, Seton 43 show's a two inet ames ‘a lle from one ance by rotations, diplacemens and uniform mations {er combiztions href. tations and spleens work inthe sae Wy as fs Newtonian mechanic, bt lt's now nd the ansormation ssid With ‘worm motion tht generals the Callan transformation (3.6) special reli “Thelin lees (4.8) species the omy of special elatvisti pastime ines of four rectangular coordinates (x, 2) ding a neil rame— iti cd rin mee a tba66 Chapter Finciples of Speci Rettiy ‘one in which Newton's fst thes the simple frm (3.2). The principle of ‘elt mpi tht he Tine element us ake he sae oe in the ectangalar ovens ("y/o aye inertial ame The anor aes at ‘Connect liferent inertial cordnae fest therfore beavis the that reserve the form o (48, ad infact re deteined by Hs equa Tey ‘ne called Loven ransformatons. We sain Secon 3.2 tht he ln keen of Ec pace, dS eds? bay? ar an islet uncbaged by tunlations and rotations ofthe canta coordinates Ceu.2), Spt trnsltons and ations will lo preserve the lie element (48) of special elas spacetime became it coud fe witen (cd) + dS" Bur wat new watsormation presen the on-Esclkean Ine sles of ow slmensonl Bat actin? The mostra sane fae transformations te the analogs of rotons tetaen tne and space. These ae aed Lorn Boosts and comespond to the utifonm motion of one Fate with eget ter Tobe define, conse the analogs of rotaons in the (ct) plane. These are rusformations beeen 7,2) 9-2) tit ee apd 2 ‘hanged het mi tan. The wansermatons of he characer hat eae 8) unchanged athe ata of rations sch as (3.9) bt wih gone ane ‘ions replce by byperolefnctions because ofthe no. uelsean charter of Spucete, Specialy = (osho)er)— Gina. cts) = Csinhoyien) + Cosh. 4.1801 (er my where the are an yary fen 2:10 +0. fiat, 8. ypeboie ange inthe sense rey alloed to in Example 4.) Is riglorwar to vey by rt acuation ta vansfrmation (118) reserves ln clement (8) 4s? = Coa 4 (ae P 4 Cdy P+ dE feos ofedt) sinha) ® + [-sinhavedr) + coshacanyF + cdy)2-+ cds, ted)? 4 (da? ay 2? 9 ‘he coointes (sy dus pun ane ine fame Tigre 4.13 sows th ew ("courts plated om the old, x) ate. ‘Thesimilaiy a oudon spent fee are lo pont ferences. A Parle st rest he rig "= 0) in he coeds has thee ansIIGURE 413A Let ota chnge of confines on space grat. ‘Te fe swe the por 0) corded by (8) lel ce =) (ects dg The cones ae no roa ech te a te ‘Eicsn some othe pindupe Baty aero ink roma fp (Geral be malo tevce Sct daga and maps nce in xa 1) {Beto )aner hve te a crepe se (sae te sno SE (Sritn trwcon on Imi Ine a ater Te repay exp er Sai enn 2 the prc ange pen mn hla bream he fe {ts edn. In, 3) coordinates, hat atl moving with constant speed ‘Hong the as The speed v can be found by puting” = Oin (818), with he rk pects, 620) A patil aves at any other vale of «in he (t) coonates moves in ‘Ge iecton withthe time spot inthe (r=) coordinates. The ransormation fom (3.3) 1 ("2 ¥5 2) feet. rom one neal fame another moving erm with espcet along the ans wih sped Soh ast ‘Bsns ar called Loren oss “he dnc of 18) asa Lorentz boos sade explicit by aking (20) ‘elnino, Afra it alain whi the ent exh? 8 — flan? = I plays afl oe one ds "nny an oy i tL nai fesrote maar yin mst Se Lorentz ost o(Grn eee ey scirattheane ao They ot senlanon hee) ane ee cca eB Chspter§ Picpes of pellet Faye veie, 2m ayer), (216) Yes (219 218) ‘were we hve todd th stand abreviton reanwee (a9) ‘The mene ansormaion i ohtaine ost by changing vit: teve'ew/e, 4234) sare te, 423) yey. 4286 a0) ‘When ¥/e-& 1, (421) edues to he Galilean wasfomaton (3.6) at ms ‘The Relativity oF Simultancty A numberof pail lavinc fests canbe sen direc ro the spacetime Alagram of two eral ames shen Figue 413 Forexanple, conser to ents A and, which are smulaneus for an observer i he c=) frame ‘They wil leon alin of constant a show in Figure 14 However ee wl bea diference in tie. A, between the events na neil fame moving wil Spee vith espe tthe st inthe negative dn That she elt of simultane for which we argued in Seton 42. The quanitie vale of fo Timedireace At = fg~t canbe compa from he Lentz boost omneting The two frames in parla (423) Ix” = yx, fete dame twee the slaps (Ar = 0) eens in he frame hen r= yeas’ an As we arguc in Seton 42 event sae tan event A. Equation (428 shows by how mach Example 44. A Toy Model Suelite Location System. Rests tention or Simpy to wo space dimensions: a bodrantal ome (ro vere oe ‘You a aston he groand a= 0. Overead at eght h, consti stele moving by wih speed V separate ro each he yuo diAIGURE 445 toy mol alison yen, Sis ae moving vend {Sa Fm cinoma ested naka fom wo iets he oc Stevi a matin sou tance Lin heir es frame. (See Fgue 415) The seis carry clocks, which (seal syoctronized oval te same tie ser est fame. AL regular ner ‘the slits broadcast th time one clocks ad her osizot heaton IE Simatanecunty you recive sgn from wo negbhorng locks located ob these of You. ea report hesane tea boatzast. Does his mes that ou are midvay between the fo clocks? No, fr dt e the case the signals Thuulbave have been emited simultaneously it your est frame. Because of 1S ett f strane, the signal fom tbe lock the nit was ented Sine Ar = yiV/)L, [ee (4.2) le in your Fame han he sia om be dock onthe ff. You se, therfore ote closet at chock than the ober fea with his information ex ean igure out bow’ mach More gee. 00 fxn gue ot your neato tom he reported ime difleetce i emission af to sens recived simultieouly by taking acount of tine dito, Lorenz ‘Stn, nd the eta of simultane (Probl 1) "Fis example was ingited hy the Clea Posing System (GPS), which ‘wit he dst in Chapter 6, bat a simplification i number of espe tos impeany.the eet of ga sth relat of slay important fer GPS? To gt ania les pus it Some GPS pares inthis model even (Soughaiore sophisticated aalsn isrequred. There are 24 GPS sates each Bee > tronic This means tht hey we moving wit specs V ~ 4 kv ia an feral ramen wich tbe Fathi estima distance = 2.7 10 kn fon ts center, The distance Deteen te seis therefore of proximately Bees/2h 7 10! km and Ar = bo 10"? That ial erent, Berto achieve a lain acca of 10m, the GPS system must ave accrte {Sing tn worse tate ih al ime aeons th ance, whic is aout FeO“ s, Teel of simulans nporan forthe GS.70 Caper Pencipe of Speci Relty Lorentz Contraction ‘Consider aod whe length iL. when messed nto et frame, Whats As eng when ese nn perl fae in which i moving wih speed V2 The spacetime diagram in Figure 4.16 shows erpicly ny is iffece, Som L. The engi of ther is he distance between eo satoneou events sends. Bat the nto of smarty fre in ieret neal aes. ‘The measured eng ofthe oi therefor, dle (See Probl 17 for anteapst example of sch messaroment The length Line ane whee the rod is moving isthe spacetneasance ecwees teen ofthe ro tf” = O— ‘he poms aeled byw’ Figure 16 Tas stance can aoe computed rom (Shin the vest frames Bat —cean? 425) From (4210. the Hin =O he ine = (VJe2n, 50 AF» (VV Tus (426) “This is Lorem onto, FIGURE6 Loemzconnctinf net The gases Se ne ef hcl ‘faroderid lng th ncn eon es rend yc The ‘See Le Wee te wr ites eo gh fh ed Ao shown om ane pbtarh ates raf ase ame monn wiped V eect te et {re Tei mee oli ith ely “V ge x Te ent ‘Ser In is iranei Be sans ewe foetal mament of ie fT ‘Sens a he ens at i f= Dae ne byw inthe igure Alo he ‘ik ager han Lah rst uly rer bce of he wasAddition of Velocities Having staid the Lorenz boosts cones fre! etal ames, We can fw fn the elt law for adton of eoctes tat replaces the New man (42), Conier a parle whose maton is desbed By coontes foot) 0) i one frame apd (0). 9"). 210) na second fame m9 tne long tea of th fis with veleiy From (421) we ean compute te fran Between the velit of he puile V = din one frame and te eloity Wa /d sn he ther namely ye edt vided a a * jawed ? rsp and stom by one nds ve Mee (42%) simi (42) (62%) ‘hss the relat or the ton of veoctiseenraizng the New tian 2) an recing wit when fea 1 Example 43. “The Velo of Light the Same ia All Inert Frames. furs moving with poe along the eas nome neta rane What ve Eis doce it vein a neil ame moving with speed with respect othe Ee ame lag the -ais? “Tc answer o this question hs foe, bet one ca sete fom (4.288) ene a 46 Units “De attentive render cannot ave fllad 10 note the symmetry Ha has Been _Rbiccod nour formals by ung instead of "The reson can be seen in the clement 48) There fhe constant emerges a a commeson factor Between specs unit and time uni—approvimstely 3 » 10" camer in every Se Sa From the spaces pot of view th ala sa hisorclacient 1s nsinc Phage ear ors ab ange wh woe ‘ped with de es woh maaseeiae ay Chager&Pincpes of Spell Rely 1 hough in dealing with pail geometry it ad become rato o mesute the selection nines an the and =-decony centers The dvance een tomcat point in space woud then have Ben given By ast = Cay? sae tae (630) where © = 24 emfin. Sine space and time are bu diferent dcotins in 3 ‘Sngespaetine coninuun, i esable to messie thet in the sre i. iter cenumetrs or seconde The constant ¢ then gies the comer fcr terme hese ro unis. Today he velocity of ght tase dfs tobe eral he comerson factor 99 792458.000... m/s aan (en al be way ot!) ‘Measiring tie suns of length ean changing rm he mass engine LCT) sytem o us rational in mechanics oa maselength CL) ser, Appendie A gives sme discussion of deter ul stems and rls fr tae Forming Berween the ones sed nse Messing bth space ad ea length ans has he fet of puting ¢ = 1 vere i out fouls. For example, i unite whee mei messed in Ahad pa ast aaa d=? = —ds?, and velciies are dimensnless. Equation (4.2) for & Lorene ost becomes Pay -vo. (6380 a ye-a, 433 ae 438 where» = (1—12)-1, Foe heen the ME este of unit sina called © ook For many peat pues i is comeien to matin diferent units for space and time na give neta ae, Fr example ses ts etre ‘SO minlong tan way 1589 bilo eters long. Thee scan aways etre {oany expression y senting howe quanti that sold be messed eis ‘of time a thse that sould be mesued ia unis ef space A presension for ‘ing thi sven i Append Abt te fllewingenape sas how wks Tis Units with et wl Be us a alot the est hisProlene Example 46, Putting ack thee Expesions nuns where times mea ‘red in eninss ca be wien in nits whee tne messed ia secons by tmcting te conersion factor cia he it places, Consider by way of exanpe the po Lorentz ost (4.354) In MET uns ele bas dimensions £/ ‘he inersonen 0's in 4.330) rn therefore he replaced by o/'.nluing trate delimit. Togetal heros on heighten ideo (38) 10 ave tte une tht he ethan ideas, mas replaced by xc. Theres sla, Problems 1, {8} Toy «TV nin ein rnd vii) es Ps (Ge Lyon 500 nt et Lyon (a Deo 1008 (ing 42 ck). Asan ee “Fmstine gm opp. Sth sts btn Fe a Lyon 472 hoe Ark shipper nth mee Eth etal pod Aa sg ‘SS sce aer bh ares echt a1 = Osco to ah ‘ele an Etc, When docs he sna each ems of he ket ‘Seorking (eek lcs he Eth lcs 1 A20 mpule cai ot inthe dito feng at t pps oe aly To mina ints asc ae he rune oes the e egh e EoetSe bor 10 mn. inet th ba epee he ln rene Ih pte ah om hers ‘inna Ean anny mea pie Se ‘Seto sh ste slow spare ols ome arth (Comp a 7” Chapter+ Principles of pec Rlatvay 5. 18,4) Terao ore 33S pring inte expt of te tne nd "dance cathe stein fom the rit rn ff eta ety {asp cu were (Wer ren I Chur hen Sou ae Std’ ie common) Hower» gh es of he anc ane end ve ma. wie Hy * 72 (n/p the Hate cons La athe npg {ono ut eh he mepspanee Mpc) for C34 at. Use "hee cs tte the sn Bo 1 6 ay extra te vey 1 te hon C2 smi ema oe att mis ame te Siete ‘6 Buampe 42 sowed How tine aon 3 movie ck sll be ede! tem he wong adel ok const a mimo el hn he Sects a ou Show hat te ame et ee ne ug a ‘ented perpen he dno te IS.P] 4) we ddced etn fra putt tele een ‘tl wee mi ihn. Tin sr vel ee [Sethe ame hich he mire rt 3) a Newnan sce ih ‘Sure tine hess wou mesa are Cay lhe asta fe 6 ‘Yt ng he pee of Neon phys sh tai tee ‘Saigo amet he ose ee ame he ee 1 15) Cazaae he pro angle ewe te sis AC ad AB tng ABC iste nue 8 9 Cosine an Bogs fi sai ie vega pe of 3 {oe je aroun sch thm essa a sal spend ‘eras at ome Makes patie dara sowing he ee fa fm [fsa few Wen hey rer tthe rece nt ee oa ee 10. tn theo! Rm Sry. Lam. ich ie cocenel withthe pbs ‘mig wi wn praesent ace the he low pe ier yes wee sng nd ater wit te The expe soe usa plronthegeion Fata Ta mee ie easy. We ete nl ck as ane a wet) es sp time Fords go we ened The Promega) sap ‘ein Lame ae hay Tate" Acuna sl access ian tlhe vel fh Prose ‘scent ten ith wt pen te! on he thn ota IC) Aicean o are moving in epost econ an cl i fel fic es est non i fame. ath ve with ont pede Fa me ‘Ss ame, Eth cs hc, wth soci tne ‘oe when thy ae a same pion ne Bob ei hat whe ns they mec Aleck wl rea ethan hs Ness of ee ison sig cane she ening with esti, Ales ta Boch m tem fromthe Sr Has ae ih So Dg 99Problems ‘sido with sae ening. Thy bhi he ih. Wha ao ihe ‘Seomen? Wat wile kere ea! 1 Sow xh teri hy oa (0) Lei ri Hie pu nent satel separa ots in a gene ‘testo dice ease” 1 nan ial fame tno ees ec sma ata dae 3 apart In ame mong wi este bt ae eee is ean nor by 10" By wa sal dsc eB tees prada ti nevi tre oles rem twa sty ig Latest a coe thers rae an severly making teins ft une ane 14 Cl Ti rer coe the fy model sie Isto syst ac i ample 4 Spe you simutinens reso rats om to erg ‘elit. and Bal eet hr cata. el 2 Oe es Vee, 1 ans whch eg") ~The ines an postions eS tere a of lis o which he ct ae algae. ae ‘Sol th rine ye post na dye ein rom ined ecclesia Vice whee Pte ps ti 1, Show ht the kon sats (4.28) pes hat a) 0) ea eel a 1. Len perpen eae maton ae onchange Be Angina ihn es a a ing akg a perp ‘ate isan pensar to owen shor The ean ee ‘at Aree tthe me bot he pst Bath dsr wil ‘REthdt rte mot skecrow sacs an ht a bres barge ht ts eg cee een ot ing te pli ofl 7%76 Capt Paice of pci Rly " armoilcbck was const wi ase ion. Thi blo sis at swing ow {Uton contin conn with nye of mesrng enh peisalery e } ‘The length of a moving nh ged V can ede rm ies ‘emoreau V pasts ed ps ist and ewe) Te eho tena fo ‘ial be deine ese ie takes faedbje to move rom col ‘eendar seed et te Tang acon ote ie stn bcs the {oti sb ha eth he ig ra dtm hy Lave ‘Sorat emirate ent 1 (5) Show that orto sept cvens.hert smi ramen wih Sr #07 = 0 Show ht fortwo sel separ ve hoe a ea frame whee av =a #0. 19. (C] Wapeopaphis thnof snabjc movins fray wth eed preaching he ped ft ule he pan of tH gps od athe ao tnt ne phot Esp why. Ase he te san sl ah rma ac)CHAPTER Special Relativistic Mechanics 5 “Te lavs of Newtonian mechanics have lo he changed to be coset with the rocks of spell anit niece inthe previous chpter This cape EeSthes spo relate chanics fom a four-dimensional, spacetime pit ‘of view, Newtonian mechanic i a approximation wis evans oF special ‘ltt that capper moton sat speeds much less than he velsity ‘ish na pariular ner frame Wehepin with he eal sea of fou-vetor 5.1 Four-Vectors A fourecor ssid dest ine segment in for dimensional Bat space ‘ee inthe sume way ata thine voce oe ala te-ecor ip {Sr stupcn can be defined asa deta line pment sp iee-dineasioal te ‘hcan space. ofiace ltrs wl dente furvoton—e gato dsingish {Bem from re sete, eg, 2 The earl teonnology fow vector and thee ‘ecto kop forth chapter, bet saczseing chapter sully refer oy 0 ‘Sovrsand rely onthe ona to ising thst. AIGURE 1 The ain of ours an he mip fy mbes. To ad {Re tours as hamper them rl ees ul hy ke le cevgieTy tea the eed Ene semen rth a the ite wp ”fours aoe FIGURES A fous ‘cmp Chapter 5 Special elise Mechanics ee - { spite ( FIGURE:S2. Tani spe, and ol fours. Therein of oreo i leg Goes and mall etn putin. pene op Four vectors cn be mip by pumbers, aed nd subacted acconting tothe sual rls fr ves See Figure 81) The long of afore ite hoe aloof he spucetine stance heen ts tl an is tip. Fours whos tal an tp have» sacle spuaton re als pact: hoe whe tl and fp hae’ tine epson are called tlie an those who a td Up hae al spaation re elle nal, Nal foae stor ave 70 eth vamplosof te diferent types ae ila n Figure 52. Naterthe dion of four vectors sve, mth ls for thn, estoy narbers al aulting feng refer tn ay par neil fame ‘They areimaran—ie sme inal orl frames. Whe he sof mechanics ‘fooled in terms our estos they wil mses tke these fot ‘every iota frame at sr prediction wl be const wih he pri ofl. Then fos he tly and impctce of a ecto ‘Basis Four Vector and Components na particulier frame, Pass fowrvectors ca be inouced of unit eth pointing hong the 9 and coolio shawn in Figure 8.3. We cl these sis ourveeas and eof oan, 1€€5, whee sins fort Herre Take gti these ow-vectos ae cli bot for foursectors cause any forecto ca he peste nea? embintion ofthe a sated in Figure Sa The numbers (a. @",2".a!}—oF equivalents, 2) ae aed thSvein component ofthe four-ector? Components says ween with dhe cope ‘eo il spent There are some of fl ways of weg (5.1 sch aawertate) sere toes (2 x equiva De 63 yuo 2) canbe writen ven me compa we nthe atin ‘vont ated pe and lower nds andro te sme ‘Serimany eer ite ners summed a 1 3 Roman indes fron 03 Te oa sete same a5. Silly or thre vets, a oo teeth 1 = 1.2,3arethe same as (ey. €5€) Any seed nde ‘mation, oS.) cald alsobe writen dey =e, oo, Reps dies ace therefore ale dummy indices oe summation ede. We [Be or ty abou the us of fe summation convention in Seton 7.3 ‘Spelling the comnts freon an the bai fue setr ee sen speci the our ecto isl Iss eeu to havea number odie ‘Ss sosing the componens, mel, Hataa), PG, at ated. SN Example $1. Displacement Fourvectors A smple eample of fur eto the dlasement four-estr Ax eswseh Sao events A ahd Suh (See shown Pie ss Hiatt) ate coedinaes locating ees Ain a parcial ean nr.) ae the corte leaing eet B. then he compo fens ofthe dispacent fourvestr AX between hem Se Up —H4n 8 om yon my be weigh wit wesc ani ic ble is Sepa an a nr he pn a= decte,- oe, +ale, ” Componens of a fou Vecee ingle eset ‘vee to pas andLevee Boot Vector ati of Fat Spctine Chapter 5 Special elie Mechs veya. 30 ~ 20) This cane writen in amore compact frm av aap 6s ‘This expression sa Shona fer four eguitions en fr each vale of a. 0.1.2.8. The index ical a ree ider—"tee ake On any Wale fo to 3.eich val yong a iflerent equation, “The componens of four wectr ae teen liferen nerlaes e «aos the oortinate bs foursectrs are dfn. The components of a for ‘ector—a dete ite segment trai heen ner fame ost He he anponenis Oa dsplacementfoorsetor Fer example 0 ner anes ‘eat bya uiform mation vlog he an asi (431). the component a's fourstor aso a, af a ytal —0y, (sou af ya! we, om of a0! 690 . coy (you are wondering whee thefts oc ia (421) wen remember tthe nd lof previous chapter we sal at we would usr =I units om nom 0, Scalar Product ‘The scalar produc isan importante in he alls of four-vectrs, tor Theor The scale podst of 0 Toure aad eed by a:b [Rsatsesthe us! mathematica ls fr scala products = 6.100 bene, (6.106 (ea) b= a(a-b), 6.10 whee abe are any thc four-veeosad ay number ‘Caculaing sar products of four-etors snp the scalar prc of allparsoasis fou tecrs are hae, because fa = ey and = eg un (Tres doube sum inthis expression, oe sum oer th ther ever.) special motion use forth scalar pot yey eas four vet ta Dnt along the orthogonal scorn aes 1-9.) fa nel ame rus =e 6p, 2,‘ethan be writen _adouble sum over cand impli, The sar prt fal vests is ine once they te known “he oy ar determined by he eguernen that the carp ofthe placement our sector with ial give the gure of the dance heweea the 80 presi connects abe np os (an? = ax: ae uy) ‘The lng ofa four vcr defined by the Saar pat hus colneies with the {Eth define os the distance rm tl ip. Comparing ths with (4. For 80) ding gg = 8 omen of (8.12) 4nd 5.10). Wend wis, Here ug has boen displayed as a diagonal. symmetric mats. In view of (8.14), Ate mate uy cam Be ued th the sammation convention to eyes he line (eet of at pute 8) mam espesally com For a 16) i beso i cal the meric ft spacetine Tnserig 3.15) n (513) ge the follows all eguafet explicit oes foe steer ect of too functors a a bi ees tae component ina Ao bah aR 40th (5.7 att ab! ah adh 617% a 45. (5179 ‘sa somsequence of dfintion tht makes no refetence to paticul ame, see Salar proc i the tne in al ero fumes, neem etl ae ‘Shee th componente of ware (o"-a!-a “Te varitonal rnin of extremal proper ine can bested 5 elon Variational Principle fr Free Particle Motion ‘Te world ine of repartee between wo tele sepa pins ‘treme the ropertine Rete th Consider two ile sparse pons 4 and Bin spacetime, and al elie serine ging Retween ther Figure 8). Each cue will havea ale ofthe0 viene FIGURE SS Assit hen ‘omg thay cues {tafe comecng eto Chap scl ae Meche a ane fides [ere a)42!" ase ‘Suppose the word ine is describe parametric with pranter chosen so Uhattake the valoeo = Oat pin ade It pint fol cunes we wart to conse (Tis would ot be he eve forthe parame) The ward ln then spect by giving the eoorintes as. funtion oe, are,” = (0), Equnon (536) an tea he ween 1 ay? _(dx\?_ dy)? _(az\*]"? w= [of (2) PARTY” 0 itn ac + [(i)-G)-@)-@)] bee” ‘osc what happen, es wit the Lagrange etion (5.58 fo a! = 4 [haat is | tae However, L = [~pndda/do)) i jst dd, so milying bs de (3.60 becomes (500 ae Teisexacly the same forthe other ornate AIL four Lagrange equations mpl 0 won ee a‘Tose comet eqution of motion fra fee pale S34. salut the aright wer ne conecing and, The word lite ofa fee price a tpoclin sa cure of extremal proper ne 5.5. Light Rays ero Rest Mas Particles “Tee discon sofa hs concemed prices with noazerorest mass, wb move ‘2 yous less han he spool of High. Las now consider pte that move a {Se Spent eV = aloe al word ine Examples are the ana of ight {Ss youl pctns ad praitons and possibly some kinds etn * We frwvalmos eicisiey on phatns, hich are ala al ht in tino ‘quam aspects, bt our rextment would covet any che parle tat moves Thre eed oleh Eide te pope inecan no longer be usedas parameter along the weld Aco aigt nyt popr tine tral beeen ay two ps on 210 ewcve, hv are ay ober parameter tha could Be wd. Fo example. the ree (565) lehichhas Y= I. could be writen prameticly a wh (60) ‘eters the prameterand ut = (1.1.0.0). The four yer wisa angen fou- Seve =a dung th parame as was sein (3.2) Howeve hee (Sram eter Therefore, in contat'0(52), weno (565) acentcoicesofprameszaton wil gv diferent angen fourectos, tat Brave rer eet, With hs choke of parameratin, 0 (560) ‘2 tthe equation of motion fa Tita he same as fr a price (5.38, ‘Piece are many oer choses of parametztion for which thls 6 nt tue. For seumpl, we clave replaced 590° (5.8). As varies Been 0 and TAT the same sight ine, r= r, woul have been desried Eton (565) ‘Seuidcertnuc to betrba 566) woukdne, Parameters for which he eatin ‘Secon ora ight a (3.66 has he same oa fo parcles te cle ane (Porontes. Thee sno uigue allie pata Fo example) san ane {Porsrseten aconstnt es is aso an afineparmcter, Aine pores ‘tye carn ios ht om mins sl ma in arate oo2 ‘ater Chapter 5 spacial Relic Mechanics sue the mos coneient ones to us for ligt ay Bess ofthe spe fxm of Go, nergy, Momentum, Frequency, and Wave Vector Photons and nein cary energy ad hemor. iets, ‘the energy ofa photon Eis oneted is uy by anther of Ese Famous elation, =e. (sar or the three momentum. ote fo (5.44) thatthe tee oc 6 given Vow pf, Sice VL this implies that |) Tar photo, 0 the ths. momentim an ewe 668 were pins in the dissin of propagation, has magitte |= «ad is fale ie wine ee sector. any neal frame the somponens of te fu ‘momentum of 3 photo pc thefore he wrt me, | so (6) = (bo “The our-vector ks cll the wave fourvectr. vide, CCompasing this with (5.3), we see that pons have eo est mas, kel Pareles moving atthe ped of ight, Bath pan kre tangent ote wat ine '¢ photon, The tngen eto w could be cise to cocce wih cher po by adjusting te noraiion ofthe afbie patter 2. The equation of matin (5.65 cn be ween aterm of or kas a Heo (570 » here ane parameter, Doppler Shift and Relativistic Beaming ‘The reais Doppler shi simple aplication of hese eas. Coser + source that emits pons of tequeney ws all ietons the source's rt ‘ame. Suppose another fame the source x moving sith sped V slong ie suis What egueney will beobsered fore photon tht kes a age wih‘te diction of motion? This qesion i mere by using Lorentz boost 10 ‘Senet the component ofthe wave four vector Kine et amet those inthe ‘Shscer' rane where the sure is moving. Lt? = (8) be components of ‘be mve ourvetor oh photon inte fame ofthe sure and "= ta.B) ‘he components the fae othe observer Fram (39) lo! =v, on {Bu = o! cose’ where a’ isthe angle between the x-axis andthe deston the phox Inthe observe’ rane. Ts. ee om Foose! -ehichs the fom or the reli Doppler si oe small tiss apo aly ebm o(t 4 Vem’) (7) Whena’ = the photon ented inthe same sitet ta te sures moving and tee is ble shi of a! = +l he Feeney ofthe photon. Whe = 7. the photons ovng opposite the source nd thre a el shit oF Even pons mite wanes othe deton of main of he source a” = Dy weredsie,shoaph he leans Onde of ths eet is V2. Tis cle the unsere Dopler shi nd formal (73) shows ts jst tine dain, “ihe hsomeaon of relive Reming (Pig $9 lows rm the ans feomation i he spi omer ofthe photon. Seppe» pn makes ab tale with he sais the source fae where cose = 4/0 Inthe by tener ue, te angle makes with th iss ie by cose’ = "0 The Lorentz transformation (3) beeen the wo res comsecting (4°) 1 (2A) he tha hese 0 angles ae elated conv cose = TS Veoee 625) “Toth aloe photons emia the foward hemispeein he source Frame (or #/2) ate oon by the observer tobe emit sh a saber cone = Ihe coc = V. For V cose o | this opening angle wl be sal. Pots Ie ths bated aloe te Seton ofthe source by ks moto. The Doppler Shiels tha he enerey ofthe photos inthe Fonvard iresion is geser ‘an tain the ack ection, meaning hat the nes the ation ‘ch re concerted along te dren of metion (Prablem 17) wna ‘ating body mavng toward yu ie righ han sowing aay. That ‘be phenomenon of relate Beaming Reais Baaring ao Chapter 5 Special Relais Mechanics, FIGURE £9 Reve being Th Hee el shows ay why aes ‘uly acon in tame, Wane vc of 2 payee ora ‘ethene stom The pet shoe he ie este ay na ae ‘tees mvingto eighth asped = 75 oper wi he eve vcs of ‘Se 2 phaons The tens yen ted sng Ut of poncho pdf gan tame vse ier cope nn ie thn acs he Dopplr tT ment hain ttle ‘Sonn lege eno in BOX5.1. Cosmic Background Cutoff on resting 27K Westy CMB ne Cosmic Ray Energies {thin Gupe baton afew itn Sierispacon oni a Terao ate “he es pes in wivene moving Below dhe asa spc ane cae he Os spec ie wih rpc te anaes ual ec re ad he CM ey cn pC in eel rh FY ego oe wth et ae. Ass ‘lene pre wn sti ads rene Pea of 210K Santee OB {roe nerelr nm Prune aso Peon 27) Ry uric of «CMB trample Comic ny ar dec tough oon EBT are {lpi they poe nes tee raion he here cnr pon Hew indcnmie stip 3x10 eV haeteen aie cB pon ite ea sng ‘Ee A catison mh» ao inh mower > Eaugh clastean hl a te Tihs copter ate mon Sena fmt sen th Fra a ae IDE an desing og vee vines ct ton yy ei ga en tery De ep {nte ml y waka ir tection wither euros Weel ‘home fe cme mina tckgrand aon Capen unc y pts shove ene {GiiH) Te eM hr agent Soy ce Soe ct ema in ey al se acy ‘nd o ih fm eDiets ced 0+ bne ahd wih MD ps be Ts56 Onsen an Observations 98 Tint cl he GZK ca afer he nal he a= ‘(Gees Zain Kami) who cle es ling he GZK ca nergy ea sue cect in pel Fr dees conser Utes ot he pees quoted eae The wa Keo omental bee, The esl egy ed steal in ene ‘ane (CM) mente et the ale ‘Sten en ene te js esghn ad ‘pea ihe CM ee he ee gt TE cme Teal tee mane ‘igolncinaon B's BEM 0 To arene fie ie cond te CMB re ne iors ve apices EEE = 63 17eV? ‘Fores pon ens te G2 ct “Te gust on be fey are by we int at th te eg a ose te ae ‘mata: lh p+ pt teal the Gitte genta)? Te coweraton oe (ante er me ge Ts eon does it depen onthe fe Yat an ented i wens of he components ho meni be COM fare. Suppor the eon soy ESI on mp wing ah ash ‘pponte direction, The CMB fee (12) components i | ' t 5.6 Observers and Observations (pny = EM (ost ag eg) aga ere teem ve een express ia ms of “res sing (Sande appimaton SM > tmp Te er rat) ca become ems (Higa ompons sie eg else aed or BOM The reat ios wig sppeoinsoe Int ip oor ha lean or pes PUSS) " a Thi the GZK ew ene. Tse pes ae fhe ge Vy a te Pe mean me pth cys. fo 19 eV poten tefre#aliin wah 2 CMB plan 5 Row = Tito) treo seco etn fore a> rredinpecs—aot 2 1" at Ny the mmr ony of CMB pensar 0) ‘se mamta phe hey = 105 cm = 10 lon phys ony ew ee thei of eae fe gs, res al aber of ea Farce pte grad bt rt a uy eon tee at Bae en ected et SST eva te pn sha eee umbs htwolde expected rm he CZ cu ‘Oneeplantin forthe het aces ita ey See pce tote “Te precitons of special elite chic ar tpialy most easy cle ‘edu mot esi understood in ner ames. Observations of obser at fev ina inci fame ae refered to the aes of ha rae. Fr example the (Sets of pile measur by an cheer a est nan inert fame the ‘Sevpenct othe patil’ oursmomentum along the ine as of tha Fame ‘Burn cveryoberer st st nan ol ame observer on the susace ofChapter 5 Speci Relic Mechanic FIGURE S10 Ante mig gh petioe my wp fs ie {ct ton showy 4h orig ue acs mele {eSlounw gh Tw oogenesis pe ee "Ene htm cams toes foureheyOenans aye the Ean fo instance. are not How ate the pedistins forthe observations accel observers aad? This questions especialy inporant fr general ela Thee ae general oneal anes nthe curved spacetimes of geal laity tha extend over, tll spcetie. At we wil sete ae love etal frames inthe neighbor ‘ofeach pnt ad the neigh othe wel nes of Hey fling eet ato global nes. Theor, ts rial hve systematic ny of exact Ihe pesicions for oheerers who are no asad th ll nr fe ‘Tis seton describes now to do at inthe context of spectre. The path ofan obserer tough spate atime wold line, An oh server maybe hough ofa caring a sbrstoy slong te wordline. Atleast or {stoptssical problems, ths ahora, even fs the Hobole Space Telescope ‘willbe ery smal cnpared the distices oer whch physical phenomena take lace We teefore ale as being rival smal Tie te shorty he fbserver makes easement hy means of locks and mr. (See Figue 8! Forexarpe an oherver might meteie he vel of particle pains tu {he Ibert by noing that he artic’ th made cen angle with one of the Laratr’s walls ths give the ection —and messing he ne ahe> to goth dance crs the Inert, whic geste see, ‘Mathematical thie ies of lca labrsory may be Meal as show In Figue 3.10. An observer eae along fou orthogonal wit fuser tyeycenty- wtih defines tine ditecon adie spatial direction, epee "he bck theese wil feral essen Indices with ak over ‘tem ae wed mphasie that wae dealing with an thor asics5.6 Gbseres and Obsenatons four vector with unt eth and al fouesectos mutually omhogoml The tine tks un four sector wil elangent wo the observer's Word ine since tis ‘be diction «clock st rest in the laborer ie rewng in spacetime Siae the hsv ou ely 2 wi anget ete (5.2) =a 676) ‘The observer fe to pick the tre pail bss esters lng as they ae ‘enhogoal oj and to each othe Only ithe ahaa is at est nan neta fame wiley point lng the sve ofa neil ame ‘Example $7. An Orhonormal Bass fora Simple Accelerating Observer CComiler the bseer moving slong the accelerated werd line desebed Eames and St, What ar he somponens of = wet of otal tis fourectr for this observe he eal ame! These fourvecers il ay ih he observer's prope tie, The fourier (2) The ahsener’s four etosy unt), whieh hs componets ft 831) (egfen” =ae1 = cosh. silar),0.0), (3:79) “Te only onions onthe ater tee four-vector ) ate hat they be or osama! to etr).onbogona to each oer, and of unt length. Thee ae many fpstliescoresponting to the observer feed o ore the spat axes of ‘S onthonoral rane. The eases way 10 sts the ematons iw pik (2) {Ss er) toe ait oe vectors in the and eaten, respectively. The ‘Bang foucvetor ef) then ashe for (fe. 00) forse fonctions Fant Oogonly wih () means e000) = chiar) fe) ehler)g(e)=0. G8) Uncles means (0-4) =F Fe 67) ‘Tee smo condions determine f and, The four vectonse() that together ‘bin (577) make wp orthonormal ass ourestrs forthe observer are (ej(0" = (inhtae,coshia. 0.0), ny) (efor = 0.0.1.0, (5806) Gefen" = 0.0.0.0, 3800) ‘As dscused bos serves refer observations tthe aes of the labor ‘wes andthe clock within then This meus tht hy meses the compat ‘Sours slong the bai ou eos (,] associated with haba {Gre room {meanest oF") Forint the energy of patil measured {ae acslortng observers the componeat ofthe parce fourmameaum p isos the isis foue secre, The teesomeatsh measured 1 dection. 6 ”praklemesues be Recchenagy st {rset nthe ‘ecru. fer Mesure by an Obsener Chapter 5 Special Relais Mechs the component of palong ee. These componcas ate defined bythe davon stone. paste, oa “They ex be computed asses dt wih the onan bss fourvectr. of the observer, nd by temporal suspending th ul fo asain indies pape. plea papes plape. 83 ‘To verify these elton, jst comput the vighthand ides asng (581, taking io account thatthe bas fousvetors re onan pact eae: ofthe particle E measured by an observer wih fourslocts asthe Gt how. BaP ox ‘The following examples ila how this works Example $8. Energy of Stationary Particle Measured by an Observer Moving with Speed ¥- "Consider pares atest cern inci ne (igure 5.1}, An observers ming wih vlocty Vin thi ame so th the ‘bserers woe ia tects the patil, Frm the aberer's poi of ies the parole moves though the obser abray. Wht eng Othe patie ‘woul be measured bythe observer? WE aes Know the anew The patie will move oust teatry wih speed V a a the manuel ety all Eom, san whore isthe pail’ est mas. ‘rset coms about by scalar peut wth the observers onto smal basis Inthe inl frame where he pre ete puicl’s maeh= tum fouveetor bas components P= 0.0.0.0) 1538) Inthe sume rare the Four velocity ofthe observer ft 28) gm ton = 7 ¥7.0.0) (536) ‘Te ergy measured by he observer accom (5.828 B= P= Pha my x lobich is the same a6 (S88), Te energy messed hy the observe i just he component ofthe parc’ energy-momentum Fur vetr slong the observer time dreton ke ey eats sob wie ins nbs =ePrbiems Fo this simple example the computation (3.87) 6 excesinely complicated ‘The points, however, th eession (8.87) writen nan marian form and ‘ste computed non reference me, Tp ee he avatage ots conse te following exam Example 59. Froqency Measured hy an Accelerating Observe An 0 fener lowing the wor ine of Examples 53 at serves he gh fom {Sr tht romans stationary at he oii ofthe iter fae, eiting igh “cally Assume for simpiciy tha the pts emied a ingle opel te {gc nin the est ame the tar Wht eqns) ws) wl the bserer {Derr av anton of proper ime long his oer word ie? nhc inci fae in which he sir stato. the wate four estor kof ton reaching the oerer has components k= (ot 00) Te observe Frsocosyw() conde worked out by tonforming these componeats toe snvontaneous res une ofthe server a proper te ¥- Tha mo 9 sry {Eric (Problem 18) ht tis ever to ote hat E = Fes for photons ad we w(t) = kan a8) ‘here ms sth fourelacy (831. Explicitly his gives ott) =a! Ke = onfeosler)~siebiaey] = aeypt—arl. (589) At cly proper tines the obser is moving pil toward he source and the beh oe shite te properties the observers moving apy avy fom se utc andthe phe observer on the ridge of starship following the word ine 31) hats Aeshng at ld of stars wl ce hem or only ied pened of prope tie of sxe a. Can you explain why? Problems 1. SI Comer no fousesona nb tes cnpeent ae hen #22000, (9) Conpuca—5 (©) Compe a100 ‘Chager 5 Speck Relais Mechanics area athe gts of an spc ey i ts ane eee "em Stow tn aon orale froin or wade acon ara = (a7, = (1. ste pie dfn in 8 tat desees he Lt ob been ane heen abner ne wal beg bisa . IS] fe parce moving lng th as of an ntl ee with sped ‘ifr = V'psing oh Be nin t= 0. Expr te priser wo ine Work or he component of he farses west a= aye in ot levee scot) andthe econ d= tw sheen eee: ‘ogo (528) Ung ergresion nS 28sec hat w= Mat coy og doth aston four taal ca ‘Nese ct ogi ou Come parce ming song hea whe alo a fon ie {0 Deere pati per cede sgt i? © cau cannes oe lst (0 tape ac act pe sg Be (0 wr on a ec te ag IC pre ing Sg ea 1 wml aed ee Fads ta pope a mig ops teh ranted on swore Is A= aso sme 1M oi ih pel mn fe Shay ar ken Peat hae (2 rn cmp efoto pe 1) rts rt oma 1) ne so doiscn Sofd Lie Cle, cs an psa ‘remota cues apna at sap ag ony ate senna Seats tng og Sony iene nes es cd a bod iia secant ores tases some shn tir em! itso scene pinay a moProblens (a) Howls se thee parties 0 moving athe ves ht (0) Bleston an oes a betel er How ny ns wlan ectow tepton ie tu engi me ages thee of astion of ae vlc in erm te parame # we 0 ‘ee ovo Can yu ge geome eto our “oe 2blong Sud besa acsearle eons 1 a ce of {M Ge a mene he fame ot he seer eae the seen ‘Sao of motos we 7 the patil parto te eve oun 9 (a) Asuming hath lemon ss oa es spose oe te cles {SStoncton fie ie tome of seaman nnd Fei (a ae wou te ces cea parce is le [9.5] One reson potas ons is Find he minima eee he hol ney) ton wel ve hve a rods spon sway ne fen ch poo atest Tes ent 18 oer ee i keene rh ecm ck IG] Ase ersten gape ig ‘Whar tebe Sa Min Lie faraton shen is prolemtecrse ess necked. Aran Cone asta ich aprons te dc) aera the ih) a ‘Sih co sine pn the Ea. To bere ar Shouts tescope, he leon ut id Wi pet even ‘cy sane ne ction Eamon ns tt Espa {cath ogi Toss hesitation ma ste th he aso ‘Sisaponima cara sean hte ei si perpen ‘oie tl ne 1) ie Reig ct ag ata a a ‘Goma o he re oft oye pts pr ai oi angle (Gdns) a rare fect il ae (ree) muha an ober estes ba Saving Wh ed Y sod (a) Desi 5.75 rein ns eo of option thee ame othe ‘ect pops vere’ 101Chapter 5 Speci elise Mechanics (0) Find he to whish pots sine er ai st ange dad Tage dsine aay the ers ame ncn ae fn (cd lumi er ans anle ees age ste tay atineon of eagle the aeer ame (a) Dc te beaming of mmr ad ener be omen ane athe el iy ofthe sce paces evel Hk 1 Work oth gens tie pe ine en by the ober 2 Example $9 by aang te spe th wae ss ep 1. (s)Anobsenermone ha costs V alte axis ani fae Fd hcp ntl a of nol is ares fg ‘eoteser a cena 28. Come prse with omen pad a bere th our ely Siow tfc se sortase omer ray, gis thee ery mew Fi=[e-e? +@-pi!® 21 AT Ase tin al iri ames theism shared pars sen by Bigesixa, vee 9th tre om he pre, a a cee, ad Ed [ache eer ad magnet elds mee be Lave are Conca tes ne me moving ih ed ame ns (a) Find he coments he oe inet E a and compe ‘fe poles owe (0) Use Re testo aw fore oman of Fad ws ad he eas tr re at pe he lean snd mage ld he oe fore loin Set ets he oa serial ae (i) Anh eld ne esto. (Agent ld i he dies, (iy Andee ld ihe con () Arapncie eld th ren. IC) Te Rei kt rok ack y eng pa fs se ‘ethatThe sdf he exh cman ve nine tse ‘esi mas fra vk ht cea Ft 0 sped Yin Res me ‘Soviet sre rb Nota mec 28 IC) Taco (a) Az th nd fic ta nyse fe ta vel ‘fait he iio wh Lr mana im he ses ht He spreste an iin one, Me reer at nal aes Sah peat paris caled cons) (0) Show rn Unger ves the aecey af a ckyon cee sd can tevin detonate tele rans he eget (6) Bate he components of chon eure wi em fhe ee (@) Define fours yp {e) Show tht here a nets rae where ihe energy of my achyoo inept {0 Sho at yon with coral pres arma pare ue {ache wi) lee an ee memento bg ose common Toe eat (gee hat ner ening cs Hous be sf te lao tee ent ant 103PART Il The Curved Spacetimes of General Relativity The idea that gravity isthe geometry of curved spacetine is introduced. The tools for describing curved spacetimes and the ‘motion of test particles ad light rays that probe these curved feometries are developed, The geomettes ofthe exterior of spherical star, spherical black holes, gravitational waves, and cosmology are explored, The basic tests of general relativity are eseribed.Gravity as Geometry ‘With he soso of psi lati, it eee apparent the Newtonian the- ‘on of gravity. whic had Been so Sucesfuly applied 1 the mechani ofthe ‘Sharsgse fr alt 309 years, adn longer te excl comet. The New Sian gttaond maton i isuatancas The gravitational force Fi 8 tsa atime dor toa second ase my given ia magnitude by (ef 310] Fa = Oe, wD nner ‘here () and 70) at the postions ofthe massa the sane instant ote ‘Buin special relat the nton of une lee in dierent nei fares Toe Nevtnian I (61) soul be rae oly one Fame, a it woul (Ger sngle outa ane fom al eters The Neston nw ogy is has tesiossent with the principle of reaivi ‘We wil ace om some pans ofthe pth that ed Einstein wo 9 ew teary ‘of gravy thats cose with the principle of rely. The res ll be teow eli theory tat ultivey differen fom Newtonian gray Insceral envy tv itonal phenomena ase ptr aces an es, tat tho the crvtire of Fae smensonal spcetine. Te aring pot fr these ‘Senierton the eal of rational nd ier mas. 6.1 Testing the Equality of Gravitational and Inertial Mass A dcusa iy in Chapter 2 the egy oF eatin nd ine mass {Sy been ese o exrnndinary accuracy. Becase of he cena ipetance of fh nity fo gener rea worl desrbe something more of fc tents even only inascheratie Experiments esting the equality of gravitons and inal mass sek to comps the acceletatons of Boies of dffeent composite alin ely i 2 {ontntonal field, The seers of the anh and he Moon fling ithe Eston fle of he Son wete compre in the Tana laser ranging exper ‘ent dese in Box 2.0m p. 14 The acess apree to an accuray of TS 10 she mos acca cet test Uo date Experts dane on the ‘sac of the Eat with trim pendulum atin sna accuracy. Such ex priments ae called Eats experiments alter R, von Eve (846-1919) ho indo theirs modern version. We dscns dhe as ete ee, CHAPTER 6Chapter Geet 8 Geometry Imagine two muss of diferent mari a thc fo hat suspends fom a her na ebortry on he sare of the Eat as hecho in Figur ‘That ca schematic pte of oon pond. Bocuse ihe labrtny tang withthe Ean ts anging fers ot exact lined with cal fe ff vit. Rae the Ror angst ml angle otha dston so ata sal component ofthe gration force cat balaee te cept asst ing trom the Earth's rotation, 5 shown in the rigtand mcinbe f Figure 6 “The muses ree to move inthe deton perpen othe fbr nd ‘het. Gravity i the only force ating i ths ising ction along whic® the mases at effectively ely Ting Any ference between thease ‘of he two mases Would case the penal to tw Ths, ference inthe ‘sui of hei pation and neal mares could e deste, "To understand ow ths kil of experiment warks moe quutitthly, dente the two bodies by and their gravitstonal ast By mq and ec ah len imple A wih wo mses offen composon orc syed [joa pp wt sled tan The om tn on ‘eats race pater th che he tonne aes ng Iheceof the shown The ove gsm fe foe ap ‘oy Tara inst The te line ting ee’ pede ‘he prolamin he am of Lath Tat can apn nym(6:1 Tet the equality of Graton a neal Mass therein masses ym. any respectively Assume thatthe gravitational ‘eld hick ses the praiaona force meg ona mas oF (3.31) cost ‘rhe gimennon ofthe peal Seurts such asthe Eat, Sun. ané Mi ‘Sis wil sty thea, Pt smile ours cloner to the exponent ae a “nian pron. Dstt the component off nth ising destion By 3! Sndthe component ofthe accelerates in ths ection by and, The, mare, (20 mney (62) If the too gravitational o ine mas is the Same oral odes the pe utuncan be at ox with oth odes havin the sume centepeta acceleration due {theron ofthe Earth Any eilerence of thera of svt 1 neta trowbetcen bots of ditferet composition would wow up a ifn a ‘ir accelerations and a wistan the penta. Pom (62) the ilerence nthe [ssclentons facto of heir avere (et) ‘An uper limit on he ews othe pending an upper mit on nd ‘pp init on Svitione fron ey of rvitnal nd otal mas. "i coin dues ile more than cara alization ofthe a tus modern expeinent tha have Been cared ot by Roll Krotkor. ad Dice "968, Brainy and Pago (1971), and Su etal (1994)- The pendula used tt later experiment shown s Fgre 62. few features ca Be enone Fn four asics raher than two edd. Thi 0 mnie he eft of {lets i the pravaonl pen —ciffecnces a F—acros the pondlane {Gor would ead to ators om the ponds even if gravitational a neat ‘nas were eq Clever ep nee to eld tpn fo sac ae ‘Sens an ro gnc thermal an ter sources of wose However. the key {athieing eet experimental airy torte the pend kwh 2 own pei Inte ame a he pel de magne and gn ofa ews ‘song arising oma diference im gravitational and teal mas won ry aroma wah precnl ths eri By fcwnng oa the Forse component at the angular poston ofthe endl eth thi peri he ial asain ay “Evitons rom fe equity of gravtstonal an nei mass can Be spate irom nse with igh accuracy: The rel, Frese ofthe expoiment of So {a (108 using mses of bey lom a copper othe any nde in = 602428 x 10% a The quai of gravitational and neti as oof he ost asc tested espesin al physics, 109no 6.2 The Equivalence Principle1(63 Clack in. Gotan Feld se isa in Figure 6. An experiment aside who dops 2 canoooall {eva feather wil obsie that hey fall t the Hoo oF the Ibo wih geal [Ssslntions—the same fouls forthe abate at esta raitaton Ae Bs tis orany oer mectnnicl experimen wh parle the expeamea In ‘ele cancel whether the abort fe tmacclat a unfm pas {Eis oracceeted i emey space. The to laboatevis ae equal fata sSeccaperimens ae conered. “Te acne of local expenments ta dtinguish tween oniform acs 09 and ior eration els follow medtely fos dhe equa of {Pevitinal and neil re 8 ng as hon experiments eanser the re rhodes sch as canals and fester But what aboot experiments ath fPscos or nets? What boat ctramapaeie elds ote Hes of quam ‘Gromodynaice? Could the tuo iboats be dstingushe by these effects? Emin’s equnslence penne ith ies tht sheen experiment ha ea (Giorgia a uniform acclenation from a uniform eravtaional ld The (Be foly"guvalen ‘Tpoerof the oqialence pnp derives fois set that i apis twas of physics Ae an example, we sexo the calene pil, we {bes ao acto ht igh Els ina pavatnal eld with be sme ele: (Son ss tral is es ds trie how occult he eet of [Fosiy on pt There iene Newtonian equation of ion F = mya Hee ‘Show te equivalence pci Foes et the conlson tha Hp fal 8 ‘pessoa ek In empty spac, en ay wil we om ihe Hiei a neil fame ‘Senpose seh ay sobre from a aborts accelerating answers) 61 Section of propagation Figure 68) In the forty Frame, he Hight wil ‘Sursta poston Below where entero esau the rstony fs ace (epson ih he Gime th Hp ray ctsss. Ths. nthe lorry ame he ght {Breil asclete dowtvar ih the acceleration ofthe abort. From the ‘Sule pinipl, oe can dee that he sree aces sb a norm [Petal eld, he ght ry asserts dowtvan with he oa cele Bevo ari 63 Clocks in a Gravitational Field ‘Consider ths though experienc in Figure 6.6. Observer Alc isl {eed eight above observer ob in wnform grins eld whete bose fll wt acceleration Two observers at te fp and Bato oF toe on {Be surface ofthe Eat te ths station to god approximation (See or “euple, Box 6.1 on p.118) Or forthe purposes othe following dscusion. we ‘Eounagine Alice to ein the noe and Bot ef he ail oa oekat sbi of fees at sexton the surface of he Eat, shown in Fagre 64 Alice eras (pt sams at oqual tents as mewsured a a cock oct at the same 13Chapter Gay 2 Georty aot essential bt seal simply the analysis wie oting the centre ‘li? When (Vee nepligtbe, Newtonian ectoncs ante ws and Lorenz Contato and tie lation neglected. As. since we wil ist be comparing tine neva sues of nutty canbe opted. Asuming that (eh fc {step means the ockt doe ot acceler orate velo in theme i takes fr to tel from nove ta With ese assumptions the [Newioian mechanics ado forthe sly athe x forthe eilleence ‘nates of th socks wl be comet o easing ode gh Suppose the echt sacs along the =a. Bob's poston a the al sao = fe 63) {the expt of = is chowen to coin with Bobs poston at ¢ = 0, Alice's postion i throw ofthe cet gen by sun shee ber 6 (Comider the emission af wo success ht pss by Alcan th ep ‘io hy Bo Sapp tht =O athe ne he it pe emi, ste ie ‘tered. a thet the secon use seid abd =e eee the second poe is rece. The sequence of even sisted in gue 67 The tee waved by the Bs pune (0) zal) =e (6 “Te distance tml by the second ples shcrand gt by WiBey)~ =a + Ae) =cln + Ata Aeah os Insring (6.5 and (6.6 and asuing Asal tht only Harts ‘Sev and Ary psdbe ketone ids hen? ma osm Aen? eae sett + Ate ate (591 subunct (9) m (6.)a s (6 90) azn Acta the rund amund th of aetna hfe can [eagleted and ony afi appeosintion trade mame =e The resis sigma (1-8) 10116 Chapters Gay 3s Geonary BOX 6.1 Gravitational Redshift rage wihens rest mea oval nl ety Pend so Rta (9H) and Pod wae hls. Te day of acl Ss ot So Side CI wee sez of he sh ex-ante a8 exaly MLV gar Ths Ferme niet which Ace and Sob cope hej he snroge se fu of epee he ne ‘ace cision and esgon of sig ea rm wth, Paes hn tcl ert amy. [Potion ld The teste 22 mtigh ower yowalh ming wih some slr nse he sage ‘te eer Physval aks a Hrd Unc ania he dy thre cs fc ao Si) nl te 4 oo Si ay Rol tt es gues fhe uma ll ery yeu, weak ae iny Nast Eby £toncintethagh ofthe ofeminna sh Hower by liing he eh cen Seed tower een sample of "aed an acer he emmy fle atm Ae fh rk cul frnely kd Wagar eqcny wel to eee sac tts evn 4 ee wih bat TOD ie ‘ould be dace eg b se of e rencten peter Han the peed gional ear ht hyahch nu ened) pete attr By Singh aan oan he ny ten sleigh tyson rato mec ofan eg ‘pions By vaning hve sty of com epson (1) 0 sy soa Tretouveaiheopetietver Oeegerineres call 1% A mote cate eaeent > deed Cp FrocucaDopler tsi tar walicormensie etter 0 tothe /<2 asaya (6.10 wali I this om the elaton hols what the etive sizes of andy, When the ocewer aa higher savin Pete fun he nie the ina wl be ese me slowly thn they wee he received more quickly An experiment confirming this preicionsdseib inBow Example 61. ‘Theorists Age More Qulekly at UCSB, “These est ae ox ‘eal slim edi oratory cicumstances, At the sthor' th tion te hens occa the top flr oF te pis Fn, The ber of « theorist sa Kind of clock. As measured bya closk on he ground Noo heat ‘teat moe mes one op Noor inate rv fie athe ear Similar ses onthe round Hoary actoro 1+ gh) here = 3 “B8aysti0m) et mia ws63. Cocks na Gravis Field sich fers fom unity only by few parts in 10 The theorists whos offices fre sth op of the bing ar older ow microseconds 10 92 all, rss py fora view 1 sem natural to sppose hat elt (6.12) altho drive for uniform rst lds, bos for nonuniform acs 8 wel. This extension would tmean hat (6 121hols when B= (Fy ad @y = (Tg) The test of this ex tenn ike he equaence pcp ut ulimately ests a expeneat Tis tenon leads fo the gravitational redshift derived in Example 62 below: an ‘espace aplication tthe Global Posoning Syem dest nthe ext Example 62. ‘The Gravitational Reds. The ews ofa ph wave of del fave feqdeny can be RovEN oa scr of signals emit a rate Rha fe Hoque ofthe wave Relation (613) otween theres of enon an ‘expo ean therefore be applied olight For example, ight emit rom the fae of sir wihfoquney wiv tact far rom he ar wth regency on, which ess ano, Tat ste gaitiona resi. The ra we (i 24) a ‘This expen is curate fr sal values of GAH/ Res he general eatin Is ered Section 9.2. The pasate has heen detente spect ‘othe dar stare hire = Ms and R ~ 10 km andthe facil che tn trequency only ~10-% When tegration eds nonuniform he egance rnin olson foc eserment in aborts tat re small eal al hat take plsce one ‘or enon peso o time that no nonunorestie sn canbe detected” Equivalence Principle Esper in sin ml fel fling ahora. over say shot ine, ss at a ining Fen | thos a hese cxpsimens inane me mens ops. | “venue rc sn merely ge oy le ke selina ar yaa 19Chapt Gay 8 Geometry Inthis frm the equiatnce rnin wl sls ave a mesningin genera elt Sty. a¢ wel sem Seton 7 Exarpl 63 shows more leat any asia ‘ygument how stall e abraory has to be and oot & ton of th expense 'As mentioned m Seton 62. he cgualene peti hs form des’ he tool fora consisten hoy of pavaon. Bui does ol or iy phe omena and isa weal ude for goss ow to generize kaon spacetime lems ced spacetime. We'l sc examples ater Example 6 Detecting the Earth's Gravitational Fel tie the Space Stl Een nse he ely ali loratry ofthe space sb thee noughroom to dete the rio el of the Eh witness ais fut onrasuicemly log ine, Sepose the ssrnaite late wo ft one bulls est in he instanton rex fame ofthe pace ble an obveve the subsequent separaon the wo al Were the pce sheep spc ar Som any source of gation traction, he dvansehetwcn th als woul not change asanitie el vmmtonces nel i estan, cleat ‘ors mat viata atation, ec) However, in the Lath gravis fick theball eae the Ea wil ave a hy preter scseraion toward the Ears cetera the one farir aa. The distance beeen hem wil tle change, an by measuring ths ching the asin an dest the savitons felvot he Ean ‘Toeimate the tine fora significa change in separtion, analyze the ball ion nan nei ramen obi he center of arth tres (esting i mio round the San) For svn oft relative me, te tion ‘he safe sets etvan—the lls eel ling and we re concemed ‘aly wih the separation betwen them. For slags suppose tha nll ths balls area diate» apa aang a alia line tom te enter the Eat, showin Figure && and ht the nearer ball elesed with height vce fy V wo exes a outro sound the Ean of raise R The fat bl, released withthe same vlcty Vill execute sigh lpi eit (ro lem), The acceleration of the aearr bl ward the Eats eres V2) = Gia = The late bal accelerations GMy/(R +4) Te dierence— thereatne aceeraton yi ital 2¢/R) for & Retainer hed tance between the lls wil ange By an MCU 81 ~ (1/2). This 0 be expressed in terms ofthe pio of In abl P = 2=R/V, where V2/R =p ond the rough esa Gyn) ~ exo PP ws ‘Thus. very quickly onthe time set of one oi he ast wl i se rutcant eh in the distance between the bal dtc tht they ae hse {o.asourceof gration, However for te aecuracy 8 with which poston eam be reasued the fet Becomes hae a arr to ett the salle te Inorsoy (an ence sad the shh mes over ch experiments an BoFIGUREA Aso inte cee os Ho ine po ll spay Aisin son al ine ough he as emer Th aly lee witha ‘isy ate oneal stant ll wil fl ily stan he Ears Hover, ccc orc alby meeting hoe he at pao He id on Chapter 21 6 wl se he ie ofthis xpsient oi ca ‘peu othe cate of spacetime 6.4 The Global Positioning System “The ifrnse (612) between res a wich signal ar emit and eelved at tho locas wth diferent savtaonal pote minate i aboratoy Smstaneen (6.15) sbowe. Yet taking ese difeences ito acount rial ior the opraton of he Global Posioning Systems (GPS) sed ever) da. The ‘eit ffs of tine dilaton daca in Secton 4a he asatinst ‘ics the preset chapler mere not prope aken int acount the Sm ‘uid ai after onl eto fan hou “The GPS coms ofa comtallstin of 24 sacle. eah na 12- ott hoat the Earth in al of orbital planes sce Figure 6. Each site cares ‘Scurlock tha keep pop time on slit accuracies a To pur in 10! over few weeks Corections uploaded

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