Frames Vector oa analysis 1 Learning outcomes When you have completed this Programme you will be able to: © Obtain the scalar and vector product of two vectors Reproduce the relationships between the scalar and vector products of the Cartesian coordinate unit vectors © Obtain the scalar and vector triple products and appreciate their geometric significance ‘* Differentiate a vector field and derive a unit vector tangential to the vector field at a point © Integrate a vector field ‘© Obtain the gradient of a scalar field, the directional derivative and a unit normal to a surface ‘* Obtain the divergence of a vector field and recognise a solenoidal vector field ‘© Obtain the curl of a vector field ‘© Obtain combinations of div, grad and curl acting on scalar and vector fields as appropriate Prerequisite: Engineering Mathematics (Fifth Edition) Programme 6 Vectors 697Programme 17 Introduction ‘The initial work on vectors was covered in detail in Programme 6 of Engineering Mathematics (Fifth Edition) and, if you are in any doubt, spend some time reviewing that section of the work before proceeding, further. The current Programmes on vector analysis build on these early foundations, so, for quick reference, the essential results of the previous work are summarised in the following list. Summary of prerequisites 1A scalar quantity has magnitude only; a vector quantity has both, magnitude and direction. 2 The axes of reference, OX, OY, OZ, form a right-handed set. The symbols i, j, k denote unit vectors in the directions OX, OY, OZ, respectively. It OP = r= asi + a,j +aek then OP = [r| is the modulus of r. 3. The direction cosines (I, m,n] are the cosines of the angles between the vector r and the axes OX, OY, OZ, respectively. For any vector, reaitaj+ak 12%, m—%, ee and 7? +n? +1? = 1. 4 Scalar product (‘dot product’) A-B= ABcos0 where 0s the angle between A and B and where A and B are the moduli of A and B. IA =a,i-+ ay) + ade and B = Dd + by) +-bek then A-B=aybs+dyby+a:b, and A-B=B-A 5 Vector product (‘cross product’) Ax B= ABsin9 in a direction perpendicular to A and B so that A, B, (A x B) form a right-handed set. Therefore |A x B| = ABsind ijk Also AxB=|a, ay a,| where Ax B be by be 6 Angle between two vectors 608 8 = Iyly + myrmy + mm where fm, m and I, mz, nz are the direction cosines of vectors 1 and rz respectively. For perpendicular vectors Iyls + mys + nim For parallel vectors hie-+mymz + mm = 1, = (E+E +2 where a -BKA ‘One or two examples will no doubt help to recall the main points. >»Vector analysis 1 699 Example 1 (Direction cosines) If i,j,k are unit vectors in the directions OX, OY, OZ, respectively, then any position vector OP (=) can be represented in the form OPar=ad+a) task. ‘Then [| = \ 2 @ a+ aR +a ‘The direction of OP is denoted by stating the direction cosines of the angles made by OP and the three coordinate axes. cm, m= cosa, cosf, cosy So, if Ps the point (3, 2, 6), then F SB 286; n= 0857 Because (7 =9+4+36=49 Inl=7 T=cosa m=cosp= n=cosy700 Programme 17 Example 2 (Angle between two vectors) If the direction cosines of A are 1, m:,m and those of B are |, mz, mz, then the angle between the vectors is given by (C05 = Ip + mya + mim. @ If A=24+3)+4k and B=1—2j+3k, we can find the direction cosines of each and hence # which is .. 0 = 66° 36" Because For A: [ry |= Vi49416 = v29 ee vas" ForB: [ry |= vit 449= vid 1 = 66° 36) Let us now look at the question of scalar and vector products. On to the next frame (TD cxampte 3 scalar product If A.and B are two vectors, the scalar product of A and B is defined as A-B=ABcos@ (2) where 0 Is the angle between the two vectors. If A-B = 0 then ALB. If we consider the scalar products of the unit vectors 4, j, i, which are ‘mutually perpendicular, then L-f=(I)eos90=0 0 AG k.i=0 and G4=(I)(1)ooso” <1 dd =j-j=k-k=1. In general, if A=ai+qj+ak and B=ba+dj+bk then A-B= ayhy + aby + azb, which is, of course, a scalar quantity So, fA = 24 3)-4 dk and B=1+2}+5k, then ABS Also, since A. B = ABcos8, we can determine the angle @ between the ‘vectors. In this case @Vector analysis 1 701 a w A=2-3)44k 2. A=|A|= VEF9FT6 = V29 B=i+2)+5k — . B=|Bl= VIF4425=V30 ‘We have already found that A-B = 16 and A-B=ABcos@ 16 = V29 V30cos8 °. cos#= 05425», 9=ST°9' So, the scalar product of A= aad +d,j-+d:k and B=byl+byj+beke is AB=ayby + ayby bab, and A.B =ABcos0 where 0/is the angle between the vectors. It can also be shown that @ A-B=B-A and) A-(B+)=A-B+A-C Make a note of these results Example 4 (vector product) (a) If A=ad+aj+adk and B=bA+Dj+bik the vector product ‘Ax B has magnitude |A x B] = ABsin@ in the direction perpendicular to A and B such that A, B and (A x B) form a right-handed set. We can write this as Ax B= (ABsind)m @) where m is defined as a unit vector in the positive normal direction to the plane of A and B, ie. forming a right-handed set ijk lax ay a bs by By If we consider the vector products of the unit vectors, , j,k, then. 1)(1)sin 90° =k Also AXB @ =i, kxi-j ‘Note that jxi=-xj) kxje-, bk Also ixd=(1)(1)sino'n=0 jxi-kxk=0 It can also be shown that (@ Ax (B+O =AxB+axe and (b) Ax B=~(Bx A) Make a note of these results (3), (4) and (5). ‘Then, if A= 3i-2j+4k and B= 2i-3j-2k AxB702 Programme 17 & Ax B= 16i+14j- Sk We simply evaluate the determinant oak AxB=|3 -2 4 b -3 -2 =1(4-4 12) —j(-6 8) +k(-9 +4) = 161-4 14)— 5k Move om to the next frame Ww We have seen therefore that the scalar product of two vectors is a scalar but that the vector product of two vectors is a vector. We know also that |A x Bl = ABsing ‘Therefore, the angle between the vectors A and B given in Example 4 is Because A=31-2)+4k; B= 21—3)—2k; and Ax B=16i+14j—sk [Ax B| = V168 412 +? = V477 = 21.84 As|Al= VP 4224 # = V25 = 5:385 B=|Bl= V2? +3? +2? = V17 = 4-123 21-84 = (5385)(4:123) sind 9838», 6= 79° 40 sing So, to recapitulate: If A=aitaj+ak and B=bi+bj+bsk and 0 is the angle between them (@) Scalar product = A-B = aby + 4yby + abe = ABcosé ijk (©) Vector product=AxB=|a a, a be by be and |AxB|=ABsina Make a note of these fundamental results: we shall certainly need them. ‘Then, in the next frame, we can set off on some new workVector analysis 1 703 Triple products ‘We now deal with the various products that we form with three Gz vectors. Scalar triple product of three vectors If A,B, Care three vectors, the scalar formed by the product A -(B x ©) is called the scalar triple product. If A=aitajtak; B=bitbj+bk; C=cit+o)+ok ij k then Bx€=|b, by by) lea @ ijk A-(BxO)=(@d+ajpsark): \be by be eG Ge Multiplying the top row by the external bracket and remembering that, ij=jek=k-i=0 and i-isjj=k-k=1 lar ay a we have A-(BxC)=|b. by by © ex Gy Ge Example If A= 24-3) 44k; B=i-2)—3k; C= 244 542k; 2-3 4| then A-(Bx€)=|1 -2 -3 1 2| A. (Bx © = 42 (3) Because 3 4 A(BxO)=|1 -2 -3] 2 1 Ql = 2-443) +32 +6) +41 +4) = 42 As simple as that.704 — Programme 17 Properties of scalar triple products De by bel [ax ay a @ BCxA)=|a 4 al=-la g @ lar ay az] |by by B,| since interchanging two rows in a determinant reverses the sign. If ‘we now interchange rows 2 and 3 and again change the sign, we have lar ay ay lbs by be la Ge B.(CxA) A-(BxO) A. (Bx ©) =B-(Cx A) =C.(AxB) ” i.e. the scalar triple product is unchanged by a cyclic change of the ‘vectors involved. [bx by Del ae ay ©) BAxO)=|a; a a,|=-[b, By by ja Gl de Gy B.(Ax€)=-A- (Bx) ® i.e. a change of vectors not in cyclic order, changes the sign of the scalar triple product. lax ay a lb, by Jax ay a © ABxay= © since two rows are identical. ©. A(Bx A) =B.(CxB)=C.(Ax€)=0 ° Example If A=i4-2)43k; B= 2i-3j+k; C=34j-2k A (BxO)= - €.(BxA)Vector analysis 1 705 A. (BO) C- (Ax B) = 52 Gs) Because 1 2 3 A(Bx€)=|2 -3 1/=1(6-1)-2(-4-3) +3249) =52 301 C. (Bx A) Is not a cyclic change from the above. Therefore C.(Bx A) =A. (Bx ©) = -2 Coplanar vectors ‘The magnitude of the scalar triple product | A (B x €) | is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped with three adjacent sides defined by A, B and C. The scalar triple product A. (B x ©) = A.(BCsin 9m) = ABCsin# cos where m is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing B and isthe angle between B and C and ¢ is the angle between A and n. Therefore JA. (Bx © | =ABC | sind cosé | Notice that in the figure both @ and ¢ are drawn as acute but in the general case this may not be so. Now, BC||sind | is the area of the parallelogram defined by B and C. The altitude of the parallelepiped is ‘A cos¢ | and so ABC | sind cos¢ | is the volume of the parallelepiped with three adjacent sides defined by A, B and C. Consequently if A-(B x €) =0 then the volume of the parallele- piped is zero and the three vectors A, B and € are coplanar. Example 1 Show that A=i+2)—3k; B=2i—j 42k; and C=31+j—K are coplanar. We just evaluate A. (B x ©) and apply the test.706 Programme 17 Ge A-(Bx€)=0 Because 1 2-3 Ameo “1 2=10-2)-2(-2-6)-32+3) =0. ‘Therefore A, B, C are coplanar. Example 2 If A=24—j+3k; B=3i+2)+k; € the value of p. ‘The method is clear enough. We merely set up and evaluate the determinant and solve the equation A (B x €) = 0. + pj-+ 4k are coplanar, find p= Because 2-1 3 3 2 1/=0 hp al 2(8—p) +1012-1)+33p—2)=0 ». 7p=—21 3 One more Example 3 Determine whether the three vectors A = 31+ 2) —k; B= 21-4 +3 C= i — 2) +2k are coplanar. Work through it on your own. The result shows that (1g) [B,C are nor coplanar Because 302-1 in this case A-(Bx€)=|2 1 3|=13 1-2 2| A(BxO) 40 A,B, Care not coplanar, Now on to something differentVector analysis 1 707 If A, Band C are three vectors, then Ax (Bx©) ws AAO) ee cer ta Consider A x (Bx €) where A=add+4,j-+a,k; B= b+ bj + bik and C=ah+g)+ak. ‘Then (B x €) is a vector perpendicular to the plane of B and € and Ax (Bx ©) is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and (Bx ©), i.e. coplanar with B and C. Note that, similarly, (A x B) x Cis coplanar with A and B and so in general A x (B x ©) # (Ax B) x C. Now ij kj b, (BxO)= lb by bya ¢ eG Ge : i a a a Then Ax (Bx) = by bz| |by Be| |bx By| GG ‘lee el |e Gg i j k a ye ~ Yb be) be By) [bx By ey Gal Nee el [ee Gy In symbolic form, further expansion of the determinant becomes somewhat tedious. However a numerical example will clarify the method. So make a note ofthe definition (10) above and then go on to the next frame Example 1 (0) If A=21-3)+k; B=i+2j)—k; C=31+)+3k; determine the vector triple product A x (Bx €). We start off with B x € =708 — Programme 17 (24) Bre —6-Sk Recause weet b M-i6+-16+9)+40 6 OTs 1 3/=71- 1 -Sk Then Ax (Bx) =.... B Ax x6) =a ATOR Because ijk Ax(BxQ=|2 -3 1 7 -6 § = (15 +6) — j(—10- 7) +(-12 +21) = 2417) +9 ‘That is fundamental enough. There is, however, an even easier way of determining a vector triple product. It can be proved that Ax (Bx ©) =(A-OB-(A-B)C and (Ax B) x €=(C-A)B-(C-B)A ay ‘The proof of this is given in the Appendix. For the moment, make a careful note of the expressions: then we will apply the method to the example we have just completed. A=21-3)+k;, B=i+2j—k) C=314+j+3k and we have Ax (Bx ©) =(A-C)B-(A-B)C = (6-3 +3)(+2j—k) ~ (2-6 -1)3i+4+3k) = 6 (4 +2j—K) +5344 +3k) = 211+ 175+ 9k which is, of course, the result we achieved before. Here is another. Example 2 If A=314+2)—2k; B=41-j+3k; C=2i—3)+k determine (Ax B) x C using the relationship (A x B) x A)B- (C-B)A. (AxB) x=.Vector analysis 1 709 504 — 26) + 22k 4) Because (AxB) x C= (C-A)B-(C-B)A = (6-6 ~2)(44~j+ 3k) ~ (8 +3 +3)(34-+ 2) — 2k) = -2(44 — § + 3k) — 14084 4 25 2) = -S0i ~ 26) + 22K Now one more. Example 3 IfA=1+3)+2k; B=2i+5j—k C=i+2)+3k Ax (Bx©)= (AxB)xC= Finish them both. Ax (Bx ©) = 11i +35 — 58k ws) (Ax B) x C= 171+ 38j—31k Because Ax (Bx ©) =(A-OB-(A-B)C = (146+ 6)(24+ Sj —k) — (2+ 15 —2)1+ 2) +3) 13(21-+ 5} — Ke) — 15(4-+ 2) +3ke) = 111 +35) ~58k and (AxB) x€=(C-A)B-(C-BA = (146+ 6)(24-+5j—k) — (2+ 10-3)(4+ 3) +210) = 132i + Se) — 94 +3) +2k) = 174 +38) — 31K These two results clearly confirm that Ax (Bx O)4(AxB)xC so beware! Before we proceed, note the following concerning the unit vectors. @ (@x)=k ix (xf) stk Lax (xi) = ©) xi) xj) xG=0 *. xi) xj=0 and once again, we see that Bx QD) 4 Wd) x5710 Programme 17 a Finally, by way of revision: Example 4 A= Si-2)+3k; B= 3i+j—2k; C= (a) the scalar triple product A. (B x ©) (b) the vector triple products (1) A x (B x ©) (2) (AxB)xC. Finish all these and then check with the next frame ww (@) A-(Bx €)=-12 (b) (1) Ax (Bx ©) = 624 + 44 — 74K 2) (Ax B) x C= 109% 4-7) - 22k = 3)+ 4k; determine Here is the working, is -2 3 @A@xQ=s 1 4 1-3 4 (4 — 6) + 2(12 +2) +3(-9- 1 ©) (1) Ax (Bx ©) =(A-OB-(A-B)C +6 +12)(31+j- 2k) = (15 -2- 6)44 3) 4 4k) 23(34-+ J - 2k) ~ 704 3) + 4k) = 624 + 44) — 74K @ (AxB)xC=(C-A)B-(C-B)A 23(31-+§ ~ 2k) — (-8)(S4— 2) +3k) = 1091+ 7) - 22k Let us now move to the next topic (a) Differentiation of vectors In many practical problems, we often deal with vectors that change with time, eg. velocity, acceleration, etc. Ifa vector A depends on a scalar variable ¢, then A can be represented as A(t) and A is then said to be a function of t. If A= ai + ay) +drk then ay, dy, a, will also be dependent on the parameter t. he Alt) =a(fit+a,(0j+a(0k Differentiating with respect to t gives .Vector analysis 1 m1 ‘The independent scalar variable is not, of course, restricted to f. In general, if wis the parameter, then ga du dA _ das du tau 3 day Sta du 2 If a position vector OP moves to OO when u becomes u + 6u, then as 5u > 0, A(us Bu r the direction of the chord PQ becomes that of the tangent to the curve 7D i at P, Le. the direction or A IA i. along the at tangent to the lous of a Aw) Example 1 If A= (3u? +4)+ (2u—5)} + 4u*k, then aa, a. OA — 6x +24 +1206 PA I we differentiate this again, we get > ~ 61 + 24ukc When u=2, SA 121+2)+48K and TA t+ 46k du Ta712 Programme 17 (12? 4.22 + 48%)" — (2452}"? = 49.52 and {6? + 48°}? = {2340}? = 48.37 Example 2 IF = isin 2t + je +k(¢° — 41), then when ¢ ar ; oF ao ae BS © 2cos2i+3ej— Ik a o EF Lg sina 4964 46k a From these, we could if required find the magnitudes of SF and $F. (34) Because [B= (20s)? +966 +1)'? (0-6927 +3631 +1}" = 60-27 and ey (-4sin2)? + 816° +36)" 13-23 + 32678 +36)" = 1809 One more example. Example 3 IfA = (u+3)i— (2 +0?)j + 20k, determine 8h FA oo [28| @ [ea OG © Olfl OG ‘Work through all sections and then check with the next frame atu=3.Vector analysis 1 7 Here is the working. A=(u+3)t—(24+1)) + 2u5k: 12+ 6% Aw ~ 6 +54k : CA oy 30k Atu=3, {4+ 1296}"? = (1300)" = 3606 The next example is of a rather different kind, so move on Example 4 G6) ‘A particle moves in space so that at time f its position Is stated as x=2t+3, y=043t, z= +2", We are required to find the ‘components of its velocity and acceleration in the direction of the vector 2+ 3)-+4k when f= 1. First we can write the position as a vector F B= (2+ 34 (P 4309+ (P +20) ‘Then, at f= 1 ar &r an (we Saris 2t+3)+ G0 +40K ar aeat & 1 i + 5+ The ar ana = 24+ (6t+ 4k Now, a unit vector parallel to 24 +3) + 4kis714 Programme 17 Ga) W43je4k 1 Seas pit sta) Denote this unit vector by I. Then the component o in he ection 873 Because 1 1 Jew AtS + 7k) (2A + 3} + Ale) = He (4 + 15 +28) a7 v29 =873 ar Similarly, the component of Sy in the direction of Lis 854 qrces0 = Ga 1 Tap PI+ 1K) (2k + 3} +44) 1 per) 46 v8 =854Vector analysis 1 715 Differentiation of sums and products of vectors If A= A(u) and B = B(u), then Sica) = cA » Sa+n-AS © ga m-a BAe © Bic) 0 Behn These are very much like the normal rules of differentiation. However, if A(u) -A(u) = a2 +4 +a? =|AP « is a constant then Haw-aw)=aw- Faw) +aw-Z aw) = 2a) -Z (ae) = ta} =0 Assuming that A(u) #0, then since A(u) «2 (A(u)} = 0 follows that Ao) ana (au) te papel vectors becuse aw) 2 (aw) =| a0 || L(awcoso =o cos =0 2 Now let us deal with unit tangent vectors. Unit tangent vectors ‘We have already established in Frame 30 of this Programme that if OP is a position vector A(#) im space, then the direction . of the vector denoting © (acu) is ° AW)716 Programme 17 parallel to the tangent to the curve at P ‘Then the unit tangent vector T at P can 7 be found from at) 7 if caco ow In simpler notation, this becomes: If r=a,l+a,j +a,k then the unit tangent vector T is given by __ de/du © Ye /du) Example 1 Determine the unit tangent vector at the point (2, 4, 7) for the curve with parametric equations x= 2u; y=u? +3; 2 = 2u +5, First we see that the point (2, 4, 7) corresponds to u = 1 ‘The vector equation of the curve is Hah +a + ak = Duk + (0? +3)) + (2? + 5) ee au 21-424) + uk ar Gynt tak tence [Mfc and iu 1 = yg +2m) Because |Gl= (444+ 16)1 = 240? = v6 de _ du _2+2)+48 ~ | 2v6 T {i+ j+2k}Vector analysis 1 n7 Let us do another. Example 2 Find the unit tangent vector at the point (2, 0, x) for the curve with parametric equations x = 2sind; y = 3.036; 2 ‘We see that the point (2, 0, x) corresponds to @ = /2. Writing the curve in vector form r=. 2sin di + 3.cos0j + 20k @ ar @ Then, at 0= %/2, tal Finish it off And now Example 3 Determine the unit tangent vector for the curve ts yaa zh ae at the point (6, 8, 6). On your own. T=. 1 @ Tae GL BY + 5K) The point (6, 8, 6) corresponds to t = 2 3420) 4 (2 4 Ok ar oi ath+ (2+ Yk peta, rots) sok and =a +8} 5K = (9 +64+25)!"* = VOR [es a . parla [de /de} 1 Jog 31+ 81+ 510)718 Programme 17 Partial differentiation of vectors If a vector Fis a function of two independent variables u and , then the rules of differentiation follow the usual pattern. If F= xi + yj + zk then x, y, z will also be functions of u and v. OF _ ax Then = 5, ay, a + i PE _ Ox, Oy, Fe Be a2 * Bal teak PR _ Ox, Py, Px aut ~ uaw' * auaw + aay and for small finite changes du and dv in w and v, we have OF 4, Rau + av Example IEF = uv + (u? 20) + (ut 2) oF ae Fl OF ae ; ‘This is straightforward enough. Integration of vector functions ‘The process is the reverse of that for differentiation. If a vector F=xi+ yj +-2k where F, x, y, 2 are expressed as functions of u, then frou savssf yas an Example 1 IEF = (3? +4t)i + (2t-5)j +40%, then raniffarsinarsifiar-sars ; ap dt =Vector analysis 1 719 424 — 2] + 80k (3) Because J Fat= [ie +212) +4(2 — St) + ke! 1b 1 = (454 6+ 81k) ~ (34 — 4) + by) = 424 — 25 + 80K Here is a slightly different one. Example 2 If and a af (ue 2) ik — uj + (uw — 2) evaluate fe xV)du. First we must determine F x V in terms of u. FxV= Bx V = (u! +0? + 6upt — (u — 10u)§ — (20° + 90" & Because ij ok su (u+2) au —3u (w—2) which gives the result above. Fxv then [es 1par~ $(14i + 13} - 24K} (3) Because Jesvien (Coit nae)e— (su) (Cae foe vau= (44412) (- 20) - (8 +24)k 4{14i + 13) 24%)720 Programme 17 Example 3 If F=A.x (Bx ©) where A= 3°44 (2t-3)) +40 B=21+44)+301-1k C= 2th — 30°) — 20k determine {Fat First we need to find A x (B x C). The simplest way to do this is to use the relationship Ax (Bx©)= SB Ax (BX ©) =(A-O)B—(A-B)C so A-C= and AB ) A-C=6t)— 68 49F sf = AVB= 60° +8? ~ 12t+ 12t— 12? = 20? ‘Then P= Ax (Bx©) =P (21+ 44) + 3(1 — ke} — 26° (244 — 34°} — 20H} [irae Finish off the simplification and complete the integration. S y{-201 + 132) + 75k} Because F=Ax (Bx 0) = (22-48 )1+ 40 +60) +P +P)K Integration with respect to f then gives the result stated above. Now let us move on to the next stage of our developmentVector analysis 1 721 Scalar and vector fields %(.y2) If every point P(x, y, 2) of a [3 Powy2) region R of space has associated with it a scalar quantity 4(x, y, 2), then 6(x, y, z) is a scalar function and a scalar field is said to exist in 7-7 _ the region R. Examples of scalar fields are temperature, potential, etc. F@,y.2) Similarly, if every point P (x, y, 2) of a region R has associated with it Poona) a vector quantity F(x, y, 2), then (x,y, 2) is a vector function and a vector field is said to exist in the region R. Examples of vector fields are force, velocity, acceleration, etc. F(x, y, 2) can be defined in terms of its components parallel to the coordinate axes, OX, OY, OZ. ‘That is, F(x, y, 2)=FA+RI+ FR. Note these important definitions: we shall be making good use of them as we proceed Grad (gradient of a scalar function) 6 If a scalar function (x, y, 2) is continuously differentiable with respect to its variables x, y, z, throughout the region, then the gradient of 6, written grad ¢, is defined as the vector Fea 4 8 ek (a2) grad, Note that, while ¢ isa scalar function, grad ¢ isa vector function. For example, if ¢ depends upon the position of P and is defined by = 2x2, then grad ¢ = daz + 2x24 4 6x22722 Programme 17 Notation ‘The expression (12) above can be written ner (12,212,242) cated» ctr en opt as ‘Bz, denoted by the symbol V (pronounced ‘del’ or sometimes ‘nabla’) a2 aks) te va (Sung Beware! V cannot exist alone: it is an operator and must operate on a stated scalar function (x, y, 2). If Fis a vector function, VF has no meaning. So we have: a wo=mnde= (2 16 5 528 5 428 toy Nay Kon (13) ‘Make a note of this definition and then let us see how to use it (8) Example 1 If 6 = xyz! +-2y222, determine grad ¢ at the point P (1, 3, 2). By the definition, grad 6 = V6 All we have to do then is to find the partial derivatives at x = 1, 2=2 and insert their values. ve= SB 4(21i +8) + 18k) 36 +36 Because 6 =eytiatt 2 BoayA tye z = x22 + 2ayz? 98 ety + aay ag ob Then, at (1, 3, 2) a7 18 +36 . ax ag a6 9 gy Eg a8 % 06 0% oz grad) = Vo = 841 +32) + 72k = 4(214 + 8) + 18k)Vector analysis 1 723 Example 2 io As2dtoyi+ 2k and B=y244x7)+22k determine an expression for grad (AB). This we can soon do since we know that A.B is a scalar function of 2, yand z. Fist then, A-B= ABa ey +24 Pe (J ‘Then V(A Dayele? + 1+ ye)h-+ wae? +14 2y2)) + aye? +14 292) @ Because 1p A.B = (22h + 299 + Pak): 2" +a + 322k) = eye axes? $6 aaya? + Daye + Bay? = Dayal? +1492) YB 4824207 Pr(z? +1 + 2ye) ye? + ay + Ox2yPe = x2y(32? + 1+ 2y2) 2. V (AB) = 2aye(a? +14 yo)h-+x22(@2 +14 292)) +a y(32? +1 + 2yz)kk Now let us obtain another useful relationship. If OF is a position vector r where r=ai+yj+ak and dr is a small displacement corresponding to changes dx, dy, dz in x, y, z respectively, then dr =dxitdyj+dzk Then grad $-dr =724 Programme 17 BS 2 gy 4 28 radg-de = Fa + ay + 36 Sie Fok) «(ark + ay + dzk) ox Oy 56, 3o, a) Fae Peay + az = the total differential d¢ of ¢ That is dé =de- grad é (14) This will certainly be useful, so make a note of it Bw Directional derivatives We have just established that z aired, dg =dr-gradg P© FA a Ifds is the small element of arc between {97 ax a P(r) and Q (r+ dr) then ds = |dr| ned ds [de] and js thus a unit vector in the direction of dr. as dg _ ar o-G ende Itwe denote the unit vector $F by a then the result becomes, ag Soa a-gade ag ; ‘5 thus the projection of grad ¢ on the unit vector a ands called the directional derivative of ¢ in the direction of a. It gives the rate of change of @ with distance measured in the direction of and $8 — a grad will be a maximum when & and grad ¢ have the same direction, since then A grad $ =| |}grad ¢ | cos@ and 0 will be zero Thus the direction of grad ¢ gives the direction in which the ‘maximum rate of change of ¢ occurs.Vector analysis 1 725 Example 1 Find the directional derivative of the function ¢ = 22+ 2x)? +y2? at the point (1, 2, -1) in the direction of the vector A = 2i + 3j— 4k. 2+ Day? + ya Vem Vo = (2x2 + 2y7)h-+ (day + 2)) + (2? + 2y2)k (es) 9% a We start off with xy +23 x 42y2 Then, at (1, 2, ~ 1) Vo=(-2+8)+ (8+ + (1-4)k = 61+ 9) - 3k ‘Next we have to find the unit vector where A = 24+ 3) — 4k i &) 24+ 3) 4k) Because A=%43j—4k [Al V449416 = VO aA 1 =k is 3— ae Ta[= yap +t 80)726 Programme 17 @ ag _ SI as 47 ds” 29 al 1 vi oe 1 12427 412) Jap 12 +27 + 12) (24 + 3) — Ak) (64+ 99 ~ 3k) 51 v2 47 ‘That is all there is to it. (@) From the given scalar function 4, determine Vé. (©) Find the unit vector 4 in the direction of the given vector A. do as Example 2 Find the directional derivative of 6 =32y+)2z+2x at the point (1, ~1, 2) in the direction of the vector A = 4i +2) — Sk. Same as before. Work through it and check the result with the next frame (© Then Vo. Because b=xytyPerex * Vo = (2xy +2) + (x? + 2yz)f + (7 +220) © At(L, =1,2), Vé=2k-3)+5k A=4i42)—Sk 2. |A|=VI6F4425 = VB =3V5 1 = aig (44 25 Sk) 3yg (+ 4- Sk) 2) - Sk) - (21-3) + 5k) =-343 Example 3 \d the direction from the point (1, 1, 0) which gives the greatest rate of increase of the function ¢ = (x-+3y)? + (2y — 2)” This appears to be different, but it rests on the fact that the greatest rate of increase of ¢ with respect to distance is inVector analysis 1 77 the direction of Vé (ea) All we need then is to find the vector Vé, which Is Vb = 4(2i+ 8) -k) (3) Because = (+ By) + (yz) 26 20 +3y); Boa 8+ 37) +4129 — 2) % = 202-2) at(,10), 2 Fea 32, Ba , Vo=81+32)— 4k = 4(21 +8) —k) sreatest rate of increase occurs in direction 2i +8) —k So on we go Unit normal vectors (70) ‘The equation of (x, y, 2) = constant represents a surface in space. For example, 3x—4y+2z=1 is the equation of a plane and x2 +y?-+22 =4 represents a sphere centred on the origin and of radius 2. If dr is a displacement in this sur- face, then dé = 0 since ¢ is constant lover the surface. Therefore our previous relationship dr grad ¢ = dé becomes dr- grad p =0 for all such small displacements de in the surface. But dr- grad =| dr || grad ¢ | cos =0. . O=5 . gtad¢ is perpendicular to dr, i.e. grad ¢ Is a vector perpendicular to the surface at P, in the direction of maximum rate of Change of ¢. The magnitude of that maximum rate of change is given by [grad 4.728 — Programme 17 ‘The unit vector N in the direction of grad ¢ is called the unit normal vector at P. Unit normal vector ve nae 15 Tvl 3) Example 1 Find the unit normal vector to the surface x3y + 4x2? +4y2z +2= Oat the point (1.3.1). Vector normal = Vs =... ww Vo (aly +422 + yP2)h + (P+ Dayz) + (Bx +97) ‘Then, at (1,3, -1), Ve=4i-SJ+k and the unit normal at (1, 3, ~1) is Because | vo |= Viet Ba = va ve 1 and =N=—=—_(4i— 5j+k) Tvei~ vag +) One more, Example 2 Determine the unit normal to the surface xyz +x°y ~ Syz—5 = Oat the point (3, 1, 2). All very straightforward. Complete it.Vector analysis 1 729 Unit normal = Jauth+ Sh 2k) Because = xyz 4x2y —Syz—5 Vb = (ye + ay) + (xz +2? — 52)) + xy — Sy At (3, 1,2), Vé=81+5j—2k; | V¢ |= VOEFDS 44 = VOR ve [v6] yes Collecting our results so far, we have, for #(x, y, 2) a scalar function Unit normal = N= (81+ 5j-2k) (© cons desvatve on nian vo vol Copy out this brief summary for future reference. It will help Grad of sums and products of scalars (74) (@) unit normal vector N= @ ase) =a{ Pasa) aif 51a say} sf 31a say} aA, | , (28, 8B aB, + oek} + (at el oe} . V(A+B) =VA+VB { cam} +4{ Scam} +aef 3 cam} eafat nD aft 28h a ll th “(5 LARIAT ax} + {oat a+ aint 24 2B) Ba) a nf 84 Sy Sha} (AB) = A(T) + B(VA) Remember that in these results A and B are scalars. The operator V acting on a vector (&) V(AB)730 Programme 17 Ss Example A @1, Pyztxz? and B=x°2~75, evaluate V(AB) at the point 3). We know that V(AB) = A(VB) +B(VA) At, 1,3), vB= 5 VAS s) VB=3i4+12)-25K; VA= 214 +12) + 16k vB vA ae. v 5+ Bie = Pas 2072) + Oy? —32)k =31412)-25k at (2, 1, 3) 2B. =Rit 1A, = yz +2) +327 + ey +2e2)k ox aA, aA. ASG = 2A +124+16k at (2, 1, 3) Now V(AB) = A(VB) +B(VA) =. Finish it w@ ‘V(AB) = 3(—117% + 36 — 362k) Because ‘V(AB) = A(VB) + B(VA) A= Pye +x woo A=1241 B=6-27 at (2, 1, 3), at 2, 1, 3), =30 -21 V(AB) = 30(34 + 12j - 25k) — 21(214 + 12) + 16k) = -351i +1084 — 1086K = 3(-117i + 36) — 362k) So add these to the list of results. V(A +B) =VA+VB ‘V(AB) = A(VB) + B(VA) where A and B are scalars. Now on to the next pageVector analysis 1 731 Div (divergence of a vector function) (73) The operator V : (notice the ‘dot’; it makes all the difference) can be applied to a vector function A(x, y, z) to give the divergence of A, written in short as div A. HAR adtaj hak waevan(i2st2en? divA=V a= (Sn S +42) (ad-+a4-+a0k) ae , Oty, Bay dW A= VA Bg Beg Be Note that (@) the grad operator V acts on a scalar and gives a vector (b) the div operation V- acts on a vector and gives a scalar. Example 1 If A= yA — aye} +22 then divA=V-A= div A=V-A=2xy—xz-+2y2] w&) ‘We simply take the appropriate partial derivatives of the coefficients of 4, j and k, It could hardly be easier. Example 2 If A =2xyh — 2039? + y52)}-+-3y?2%k, determine V-A, Le. dlv A Complete it. = V-A= ah — A= 2eyi— 20y? +2) 4 32K atone ae = day — 2(2ay + 3y?2) + 62 = 4xy — dry — 6y"2 + 6y*z =0. Such a vector A for which V-A =0 at all points, i.e. for all values of vA732 Programme 17 Curl (curl of a vector function) ‘The curl operator denoted by Vx, acts on a vector and gives another vector as a result If A=axi + ayj + azk, then curl A= Vx A. ) x (aA +a,) +4,k) oy Curl A is thus a vector function. It is best remembered in its determinant form, so make a note of it. If V x A=0 then A is said to be irotational, (84) exampte 1 WA= (4-224 (P+? ‘Then on for an example determine curl A at the point ik fay i on axe ary? —a2ye! Now we expand the determinant yn) Sot + vr} if Bim —Zor- xa} Kir +P)- Zo - va} All that now remains is to obtain the partial derivatives and substitute the values of x, y, Z. VA Vx A= () 24 — 8) — 106k Vx A =i{-222) — j{—2aye + 2122) + He{2x — 4y3}. AU(1,3, -2), Vx A=4(2)—j(12—4) +k(2— 108) = 24 8j— 106kVector analysis 1 733 Example 2 Determine curl F at the point (2, 0, 3) given that B= 204 4 2uzcosyj + (2+ 2y)k. In determinant form, curl F= Vx F= i i k (3) or fas wR 227 Dancosy x+2y ‘Now expand the determinant and substitute the values of x, y and z, finally obtaining curl F [aera vara a0| 4) Because Vx F=A{2— 2x cosy} — {1 — 27} + {22 cosy ~ 23207} At (2,03) VxF=i(2~4)—j(1—1) +k(6-12) ~24— 6k = ~2(4-4 3k) Every one is done in the same way Summary of grad, div and curl (a) Grad operator V acts on a scalar field to give a vector field (b) Div operator V- acts on a vector field to give a scalar field. (© Curl operator Vx acts on a vector field to give a vector field. (@) With a scalar function d(x, y, 2) grad = V (©) With a vector fiction A= ad + ay) + ake Bay , Oty , Ba, (1) dv Aw 9A = MB fii aaa @ewr=vua= 3 oF Jaz ay a (Check through that list, just to make sure. We shall need them all734 Programme 17 &S By way of revision, here is one further example. Example 3 ie 9 =P aye? and F =x)" 2yz) +ay2k determine for the point P (1, —1, 2), (a) V¢, (b) unit normal, (c) V-F, (d) Vx Complete all four parts and then check the results with the next frame Here is the working in full. @ = 22? +.x3y2 — yo? @ Vo= O)N (9) F=27'i-2yzjpayzk 0 @ 86, x = (2ay? + 3x°ya)h + (22y + x82 — 2)) + (xy — 2y2) kc At(L, 1,2) Vo= 443k = [RS] Vole VST TOFS = VAT 2, 2, 1 ea Jali 4-310 1 VeRay-2ebay 2 At(, -1,2) VRS soak aa a vere So & ly? —2ye aya V x F=i(xz +2y) —j(yz— 0) +k(0— 2xy) (xe-+ 2y)h ye} ~ Daye At(L, -1,2) VxR=2j+2k 0 -. Vx B=2§+K) ‘Now let us combine some of these operations.Vector analysis 1 735 Multiple operations @ We can combine the operators grad, div and curl in multiple operations, as in the examples that follow. Example 1 IA = yi + yj eke 24.9;,8 then dvA=V A= (Zar Sirou) (2 ty2j 22k) =2y+o+8=6 say . 26, 86, | 0 Then grad (div) = V(V-A) = 224-428) 4 8 = y+ 3x?) + (200) + (327) Le. grad div A = V(V- A) = (2 +32) + 2x) +32k Move on for the next example Example 2 (83) If 6 = ay2—2)22-+222, determine div grad ¢ at the point (2, 4,1) Fist find grad ¢ and then the div of the result. At 2, 4, 1), div grad 6 = V- (V9) = div grad é=6 3) Because we have $= xyz ~2y22-+222? = v5 = 25 4 grad 6 = Vo = 24 + 2p = (yz-+ 2xz?)h + (xz — 4y2)h + (ay — 2? +202) div grad $= V (V9) = 22" — 42+ 2x2 AU, 4, 1), div grad ¢=V- (V9) =2-448=6 Example 3 Ie P= s2yah +.xy2) + yPzk determine curl curl Fat the point (2, 1, 1). Determine an expression for curl F in the usual way, which will be a vector, and then the curl of the result. Finally substitute values. curl curl Fi i ml a 9 a culP=| ye Lye aya? yal = (yz 2aye)h + xy) + (yz? — 322) i i k Oo 2 & Ry loye2xye x2 ye? — a22| ‘Then curl curl F | PL (~2ez — 2y + Day) + (Oxy — 22-4 22) k © AtQ1, 1), curl cul R= Vx (Vx) +2) +6 Remember that grad, div and curl are operators and that they must act, on a scalar or vector as appropriate. They cannot exist alone and must be followed by a function. One or two interesting general results appear. (@) Curl grad @ where ¢ is a scalar 2, grad 6 = 5 ‘. curl grad @ 5)-Aah- de) (S58) . curl grad = V x (V4) =0Vector analysis 1 737 (b) Div curl A where A is a vector. Then div eu A= 9-09 A) = (12 Bea) Pa, Pay Pay ‘Bay ~ G20x Bxby * aya2 * az0x oyaz =o *. div curl A=V-(VxA)=0 (©) Div grad ¢ where ¢ is a scalar 26, a ‘Then div grad $= V- (V6) -(aergont)( Fo Fo Fo Be” oo +, dv grad 6 = V-(¥6) =& gadonts rb Pb oe oo ‘V4, the Laplacian of ¢ ‘The operator V? is called the Laplacian, So these general results are (@) cu gad $= Vx (V6) =0 (b) div curl A=V-(V x A)=0 Ho 6 oF (© dW grad = V-(V0) = Faro 4 Ts. oe That brings us to the end of this particular Programme. We have covered quite a lot of new material, so check carefully through the Revision summary and Can You? checklist that follow: then you can deal with the Test exercise. The Further problems provide an opportunity for additional practice.iit ay) + ack; B= bab + Byh + bak; have the following relationships. 1. Scalar product (dot product) A-B A-B=B-A and A-(B+C) IfA-B=0and A, B40 then ALB, 2. Vector product (cross product) Ax B= (ABsind)n m= unit normal vector where A, B, m form a right-handed set. ijk las a ay bx By be Ax B= —(Bx A) and Ax (B+©)=AXxBHAxC 3 Unit vectors @iisjjokk ij-i-k . xjakxk=0 k, jxk=i, kxinj s+ Gi + cok; then we Bcos8 B+A-C AXB (b) ixi 4 Scalar ripe product -A-(Bx) las a ay le by be la As(Bx ©) =B-(CxA)=C.(AXB) Unchanged by cyclic change of vectors Sign reversed by non-cycllc change of vectors. Coplanar vectors A+ (B x €) =0. 6 Vector triple product Ax (Bx ©) and (Ax B) x € Ax (Bx €) = (A-OB~(A-B)C and (Ax B) x= (C-A)B~(C-B)A. A-(BxO) 7 Differentiation of vectors IFA, ay dy, a are functions of u aa 8 Unit tangent vector T an eeVector analysis 1 739 9 Integration of vectors flescussff oars eas [face 10 Grad (gradient of a scalar function 4) _ 86, 86, | 8d gad d=Vb= sat alt ae ro Ar a= opator = (12-442 +42) (0 Dito derive $2 = gad 9 whee is uit vector in a stated direction. Grad ¢ gives the direction for ‘maximum rate of change of ¢. (b) Unit normal vector N to surface 4x, y, 2) = constant. vo vel 11. Div (divergence of a vector function A) Oa, , Oty, Bay div A= VA = Thee If V-A=0 for all points, A is a solenoidal vector. 12 Curl (curl of a vector function A) i k a a culA=vxa=|2 2 2 x By de lay ty ay If Vx A=0 then A is an irrotational vector. 13 Operators grad (V) acts on a scalar and gives a vector div (V-) acts on a vector and gives a scalar curl (Vx) acts on a vector and gives a vector. 14. Multiple operations (@) curl grad 6 = V x (V6 ©) aw curl A=V-(V x A) =0 26 Po, Oy © div grad. 6= 9. (08) = E+ 5S +5 = V%4, the Laplacian of 4.740° Programme 17 &% Can You? (GB chectaist 17 (Check this list before and after you try the end of Programme test. On a scale of 1 to 5 how confident are you that Frames you can: Obtain the scalar and vector product of two vectors? Gl ys OF OF O O ODO No ‘¢ Reproduce the relationships between the scalar and vector products of the Cartesian coordinate unit vectors? ww vs O O GO O DO Wo ¢ Obtain the scalar and vector triple products and appreciate their geometric significance? vy O O GO O OD Nn ¢ Differentiate a vector field and derive a unit vector tangential to the vector field at a point? vs O O O O D Wo «Integrate a vector field? vy OF 0 GO O ODO Ne © Obtain the gradient of a scalar field, the directional derivative and a unit normal to a surface? vs O O O UO DO Wo Obtain the divergence of a vector field and recognise a solenoidal vector field? vy O O O O DO Nw # Obtain the curl of a vector field? vy OF GO GO O DO No Obtain combinations of div, grad and curl acting on scalar and vector fields as appropriate? Yes go Oo 0 0 WwWVector analysis 1 744 (& Test exercise 17 1. Find (a) the scalar product and (b) the vector product of the vectors A ij 4k and B=i+5j-2k. 2 A=214+3)-Sk; B=3i4j+2k; C= (@) the scalar triple product A. (B x C) (@) ‘the vector triple product A x (B x ©) 3 Determine whether the three vectors A = 2443) +k B= 4 2)-+2k; C= 38+ 1 3k are coplanar, 4 A= (2+ 5)k- (2 +3))+ 20%, determine dA, PA, dal o% of off} Determine the unit tangent vector at the point (2, 4, 3) for the curve with parametric equations x2; y=u43; z= 40 -u 6 IF =2444u) 12k and @ = 174 ~ 2x) + 4k, determine [oe x G)du, 5 7 Find the directional derivative ofthe function ¢ = 22y — 2x22 + y2z at the point (1, 3, 2) in the direction of the vector A~ 31-+2}— K. 8 Find the unit normal to the surface § = 23°2 + xy? + ayz—4= Oat the point (2, 1, 0). IEA = yi + (xy+y2)j +222; B= yzk— 322) + 2xyk; and = xy +372 — 4y22 — 3; determine, at the point (I, 2, 1) (a) Ve; (b) VA; (Cc) Vx B; (a) grad div A; (e) curl curl A. ~{+3k; determine all at u=2. o © ( Further problems 17 1 A=244-3)—4k; B=3145}4 2k; C=1-25+3K; determine (95) A-(Bx). A= 214 )-3k; B=i-2)+2k; C=31+2)—& find Ax (BO). 3 A=4-2)+3k; B=21+j—2k; C=31+2)+; find @ Ax(BxO; b) (AxB)xC 4 P= + x+2))+sinxk, find lak © a Sx742 Programme 17 5 if P=ui+ (1 —u)j +3uk and G = 24— (1 +u)j— wk, determine @ GF: © TEx); © FF+E) 6 Find the unit normal to the surface 4x*y* ~ 3x2 ~ 2y2z +4 =O at the point (2, —1, ~2). 7 Find the unit normal to the surface 2xy* + )2z-+x%z—11=0 at the point (~2, 1, 3) & Determine the unit vector normal to the surface az? + 3xy — 2yz? +1 =0 at the point (1, —2, — 1). 9 Find the unit normal to the surface x*y ~ 2)2* + yz=3 at the point (2, —3, 1). 10 Determine the directional derivative of $ = xe" + yz* + xyz at the point (2, 0, 3) in the direction of A = 3i— 2j+k. 11 Find the directional derivative of ¢ = (x +2y +2)? —(x—y—z)* at the point (2, 1, -1) in the direction of A =i - 4j + 2k. 12 Find the scalar triple product of (@) A=1+2)-3k; B=2i-j44k; C=3i+j-2k. (0) A=2i-3)+k; B4j+2k; C-i+4j—2k (©) A=-2+3)-2k; B=3i-j4+3k; C=21-Sj+ke 13 Find the vector triple product A x (B x ©) of the following. @ A=3i+j)-2k; Ws 4je3k; C=1-24k. ©) A=24-j+3k; B=i+4j—Sk; C=31-2 +k, (© A=4i4+2j-3k; B=2i-3j+2k, C=31-3)+k. 14 fF R= 401 20%) + 4th, determine when t dF GF da OF OG OGFH. 15 If ¢=x?sinz+ ze’ find, at the point (1, 3, 2), the values of (@ gad d and (0) | grad 4). 16 Given that 4 = xy? + yz — x, find the derivative of ¢ with respect to distance at the point (1,2, —1), measured parallel to the vector 24 — 3) + 4k. 17 Find unit vectors normal to the surfaces x°+)?—2+3=0 and ay yz+2x—10=0 at the point (3, 2, 4) and hence find the angle between the two surfaces at that point. 1B ify = (02 4-3 2sin 34) +3e%k, determine ia’ lar? @r od att @ = (b) (© the value of|Vector analysis 7 743 19 (@) Show that curl (yi + a4) is a constant vector. (©) Show that the vector field (yzi + zxj + aykk) has zero divergence and zero curl. 20. If A= 2xz%i — x2) + (y+ 2)k, find curl curl A. 21 Determine grad ¢ where @ = x cos(2yz — 0'5) and obtain its value at the point (1, 3, 1) 22 Determine the value of p such that the three vectors A, B, C are coplanar when A= 2i+j+4k; B=3i+2j+pk; C=i+4)+2k 23 WA=pl—6j—3k; B=4i+3j-k; C=i-3j+2k (@ find the values of p for which (2) A and B are perpendicular to each other (@) A, Band C are coplanar. (b) determine a unit vector perpendicular to both A and B when,